text:
\section{Introduction}
Modern cosmology aims to describe the expansion dynamics of the Universe on large scales and the formation and evolution of cosmic structures with physical models. In this endeavour cosmology links fundamental laws of physics, most importantly general relativity as the theory of gravity, with (fluid) mechanics for the formation of structures and statistics to provide a framework for interpreting cosmological observations.

Experimental results from the last decades have established the $\Lambda$CDM as the standard model for cosmology and have measured the set of cosmological parameters at percent precision. Measurements of the distance redshift relation of cosmological objects from Cepheids on small distances \citep{freedman_hubble_2010, freedman_final_2001} to supernovae on large distances \cite{Perlmutter1998, Riess1998} have established a value of the Hubble constant and the presence of accelerated expansion on large scales \citep[for a review, see][]{weinberg_observational_2013}, while at the same time observations of the cosmic microwave background \citep{1990ApJ...354L..37M, 1991AdSpR..11..181M, 1991AdSpR..11..193S} constrained the spatial curvature to be very small and allowed a precision determination of cosmological parameters, in particular those related to inflation from the statistics of cosmic structures as a function of scale. Even more importantly, the adiabaticity of perturbations ruled out structure generation models based on cosmic defects. Almost in passing the Friedmann-Lema{\^i}tre-Robertson-Walker-class of cosmologies \citep{friedmann_uber_1924, lemaitre_expansion_1931, robertson_kinematics_1935} was able to provide a framework of thermal evolution with the epochs of element formation and atom formation in the early universe. Converging on the current value of the Hubble constant and adopting a nonzero value of $\Lambda$ \citep{carroll_cosmological_1992, carroll_cosmological_2001} it was possible to accommodate old astrophysical objects such as white dwarfs and slowly decaying atomic nuclei within the age of the Universe suggested by the cosmological model.

It is important to realise, however, that cosmology differs substantially from other branches of physics: This concerns in particular the passive role of observers, the process of inference from data and the importance of assumptions on the cosmological model which are difficult to test or which can not be tested at all. Furthermore, gravity as the fundamental interaction in cosmology is peculiar because its formulation is unique if certain physical concepts are accepted, so any observed deviation from the prediction of relativity will not shed doubt on a particular formulation of the gravitational model but directly on these fundamental physical concepts. Given these perspectives, cosmology brings together deductive reasoning (concerning the construction of gravitational theories) with statistical inference for selecting the true model, meaning the most economic model compatible with the data.

In this article I will discuss the relation between cosmology and fundamental physics on one side and the process of statistical inference on the other. Specifically, I intend to discuss the concepts of general relativity in Sect.~\ref{sect_gravity}, their application to cosmology in Sect.~\ref{sect_cosmology} and the construction of $\Lambda$CDM as the standard model of cosmology in Sect.~\ref{sect_lambdacdm}. The peculiar role of statistics in cosmology and the process of statistical inference are treated in Sects.~\ref{sect_statistics} and~\ref{sect_inference}. Cosmic structure formation with its relations to relativity and statistics are the topic of Sect.~\ref{sect_structure}, and I conclude in Sect.~\ref{sect_summary} with an overview over future developments, caveats and a summary of the implications of cosmology for fundamental physics. The article summarises my contribution to the workshop "Why trust a theory?" taking place from the 07.Dec.2015 to the 09.Dec.2015 at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit{\"a}t M{\"u}nchen.

\section{gravity and general relativity}\label{sect_gravity}
Adopting the principle of extremised proper time as a generalisation of the principle of least action from classical mechanics to the relativistic motion in gravitational fields leads to the construction of metric theories of gravity \citep{einstein_feldgleichungen_1915, einstein_grundlage_1916}: The equivalence principle stipulates that all objects fall at the same rate in gravitational fields irrespective of their mass, which suggests that the proper time is affected through the metric as the expression of the gravitational field. In the absence of gravitational fields (or in an infinitesimally small freely falling and non-rotating laboratory without the possibility of observing distant charges) the metric assumes the Minkowskian shape, while the first derivative of the metric vanishes, reducing the covariant derivative to a partial one, such the dynamics of all systems is determined locally by the laws of special relativity. The vanishing first derivatives of the metric is the reason, from a relativistic point of view, why pendulum clocks stop ticking in free fall.

The clearest physical setup in which one can experience gravitational fields is that of geodesic deviation, i.e. the relative motion of two test particles which fall in a gravitational field: The second derivative of the distance between two test particles with respect to proper time is proportional to the Riemann-curvature. In particular, if the curvature is zero, the test particles increase or decrease their distance at most linearly, but if the curvature is non-vanishing, one can see more complicated forms of relative motion, for instance the acceleration or deceleration of distant galaxies in cosmology or the oscillatory motion of two objects in the field of a gravitational wave.

The metric as a generalisation to the gravitational potential is sourced by the energy-momentum density in a field equation, and the gravitational field has a relativistic dynamic on its own which is described by the (contracted) Bianchi-identity. It is very impressive that the shape of the field equation is completely determined by fundamental principles and that "God did not have any choice in the creation of the world" as Einstein put it -- although it was only rigorously proved by Cartan \citep{cartan_sur_1922}, Vermeil \citep{vermeil_notiz_1917} and Lovelock \citep{lovelock_uniqueness_1969} that the general relativity is the only possible metric theory of gravity based on Riemannian differential geometry in four dimensions which is based on a single dynamical field, which is locally energy-momentum conserving, with a local field equation, and which is based on derivatives up to second order \citep{lovelock_einstein_1971, navarro_lovelocks_2011}.

It is worth to discuss these five requirements in detail because they reflect fundamental principles of physical laws, which makes gravity so interesting: Because there is no alternative theory of gravity under these assumptions, any deviation from general relativity will directly call these fundamental principles into question. Cosmology plays an important role in this context because it is the most simple gravitational system which, in contrast to the Schwarzschild-solution or gravitational waves in vacuum, involves the field equation where the local Ricci-curvature is directly coupled to the cosmological fluids.

A relation between the second derivatives of the metric and and the source of the gravitational field is necessary because of a number of reasons. Apart from analogies to other relativistic field theories like electrodynamics, which feature identical constructions, second-order field equations are a very natural way to incorporate parity and time-reversal symmetry in a field theory, and in fact general relativity is perfectly $\mathcal{PT}$-symmetric, in particular in the weak field limit, where this symmetry is not already provided by general covariance. Secondly, the definition of curvature is based (in the simplest constructions of parallel transport) on the non-commutativity of the second covariant derivatives, which ensures that the Bianchi-identity applies to the description of the propagation dynamics of the gravitational field and enforces local energy momentum conservation. Lastly, the inclusion of higher-order derivatives would lead to the Ostrogradsky-instability \citep{woodard_theorem_2015} because systems are not necessarily bounded energetically from below, although there might be constructions which lead to stable theories despite the inclusion of higher derivatives. And from a fundamental point of view it is natural to base a gravitational theory on second derivatives of the metric because of their invariant nature, as tidal fields cannot be set to zero by transforming into freely falling frames.

Arguing from fundamental physics adds a very interesting thought: The dynamics of fields is modelled on the dynamics of (relativistic) particles, for instance one uses concepts like the action as a generalisation of the principle of extremised proper time in analogy for the causal transition from one field configuration to another. Lagrange-functions for point particles are convex due to causality and yield again convex Hamilton-functions which are bounded from below, resulting in stability. The construction of a convex Lagrange-function involving squares of first derivatives is naturally suggested by special relativity. This construction principle applies equally to the gravitational field, where the formulation by Einstein and Palatini involving squares of Christoffel-symbols is  natural from this point of view \citep{palatini_deduzione_1919}, and yields in addition to the field equation the metric connection. Assuming this relationship as an axiom allows the Einstein-Hilbert-action as the second formulation in which general covariance and the locality of the field equation are apparent.

The four dimensions of spacetime are peculiar: While classical, Newtonian gravity can be formulated in any number of dimensions, general relativity requires at least four dimensions, which can be seen from a number of arguments, the most elegant perhaps being the fact that the Weyl-tensor, which contains the non-local contributions to the Riemann-curvature and which describes the propagation of the gravitational field away from its sources, is only nonzero in four or more dimensions. If one assumes a larger number of dimensions one needs immediately to provide an explanation why there are differences between the basic four dimensions and the additional ones, in particular in invoking the equivalence principle which locally provides a reduction to flat Minkowski-space which has four dimensions. Conversely, there are empirical requirements which limit the number of dimensions: For instance, there are no stable Kepler-orbits in more than four dimensions and the Huygens-principle is only exactly valid in spaces with an odd number of spatial dimensions.

Locality of the field equation is realised in general relativity because only the Ricci-curvature is related to its source, the energy-momentum-tensor, while the Weyl-tensor is unconstrained. The fact, that the Riemann-curvature is only partially determined by the field equation and that the Bianchi-identity as a second ingredient for the field dynamics is the construction that allows the field to propagate away from its sources, realising Newton's definition of a field as "an action at a distance".

The origin of energy-momentum conservation are symmetries of the Lagrange-density which determine the internal dynamics of the gravitating substance. If the dynamics of the substance is universal and does not depend on the coordinates, the Lagrange-density defines together with the metric a conserved energy-momentum-tensor: In this sense, general relativity is the gravitational theory for locally energy-momentum-conserving systems in the same way as electrodynamics is a field theory for charge-conserving systems, and one notices a remarkable consistency between the dynamics of the fields and the dynamics of the field-generating charges. This is realised in both gravity and electrodynamics in the antisymmetry of the curvature form.

Finally, general relativity uses the metric as the only dynamical degree of freedom of the gravitational field. While a larger number of gravitational degrees of freedom are conceivable \citep{de_rham_massive_2014} and form the basis of the Horndeski-class of gravitational theories \citep{horndeski_second-order_1974}, one must include an explanation why the gravitational interaction of all particles is exclusively determined by the metric and not by any other of the gravitational degrees of freedom, because of the unique interpretation of the metric in the principle of extremised proper time. Apart from the uniqueness of the metric, this point seems the easiest assumption to overcome in comparison to the four others. Personally, I would be interested to know whether the introduction of new gravitational degrees of freedom has implications in relation to Mach's principle, which was the primary motivation for Brans and Dicke to introduce a scalar degree of freedom in their gravitational theory \citep{brans_machs_1961}.

It is remarkable that general relativity is the only consistent expression of a gravitational theory based on these five principles, and that they equally apply to other field theories, for instance to electrodynamics, which is likewise unique as a $\mathcal{PT}$-symmetric, charge-conserving, local field theory with a single, vectorial field in four dimensions, for exactly the same reasons, with the only difference being the replacement of general coordinate covariance by Lorentz covariance. It is difficult to overstate the implications of this uniqueness, because any deviation from the predicted behaviour of the theories questions the fundamental assumptions for their construction. And in addition, the cosmological constant $\Lambda$ is, under these assumption, a necessary feature of the field equation, although the metric exhibits a different Weyl-scaling than the Einstein-tensor - from this point of view the cosmic coincidence is more remarkable, because the transition between the two scaling-regimes takes place in the current epoch.

The Universe is a unique testbed for strong, geometric gravity with the involvement of the field equation in a very symmetric setup with pure Ricci-curvature, and a system which is large enough to display order-unity effects in relation to $\Lambda$. Currently, most of the research focuses on additional dynamical degrees of freedom of gravity as well as a possible non-locality of the interaction with the gravitational field source, where the influence of gravity on cosmic structure formation constitutes the physical system \citep{clifton_modified_2012-1, koyama_cosmological_2016, joyce_dark_2016}.

\section{cosmology as an application of gravity}\label{sect_cosmology}
Cosmology provides a natural example of strong-field, geometric gravity in a very symmetric setup. Under the Copernican principle, which assumes spatial homogeneity and isotropy, the Friedmann-Lema{\^i}tre-Robertson-Walker-class of cosmologies exhibit the same degree of symmetry as the exterior Schwarzschild-solution or the gravitational waves - these three cases are discussed in every textbook, because they allow exact solutions to the gravitational field equations due to their high degree of symmetry. In fact, if the degree of symmetry were any higher, there could not be curvature, and consequently no effects of gravity.

There is, however, one very important difference between these three solutions: Whereas the Schwarzschild-solution and gravitational waves are vacuum solutions and exhibit curvature in the Weyl-part of the Riemann-tensor, the curvature in FLRW-cosmologies is contained in the local Ricci-part. As an immediate consequence one needs the full field equation for linking the geometry and the expansion dynamics of the FLRW-cosmologies to the properties of cosmological fluids, which is in contrast to the Schwarzschild-solution or the gravitational waves, where the Bianchi-identity is sufficient in its property of describing the dynamics of curvature. To put this in a very poignant way, cosmology investigates gravity in matter, and because the curvature is in the Ricci-part of the Riemann-tensor due to the symmetry assumptions of the metric, one does not have to deal with propagation effects of gravity unlike in the case of the vacuum solutions.

Equating the Einstein-tensor with the energy-momentum-tensor of a homogeneous, ideal relativistic fluid leads to the Friedmann-equations, which describe acceleration or deceleration of the cosmic expansion in its dependence on the density and the pressure-density relation (i.e. the equation of state) of the cosmic fluids. Under the symmetry assumptions of the Copernican principle only the density and the equation of state can characterise a cosmic fluid as a source of the field equation. As a consequence of the field equation, which relates geometry to energy-momentum density, it is possible to assign these two properties as well to geometric quantities like spatial curvature or to the cosmological constant, although they do not correspond to actual physical substances: For instance, the density parameter associated with curvature can in principle be negative, and the density associated with $\Lambda$ does not decrease with increasing scale-factor. In these cases the assigned density parameter and the equation of state only characterise the influence on the expansion dynamics in contrast to an actual substance as a classical source of the gravitational field, where the equation of state is related to the relativistic dispersion relation of the particles that make up the fluid.

The cosmological constant is a natural term in the gravitational field equation under the conditions discussed in the last section, but it only influences the expansion dynamics of the Universe on scales in excess of $10^{25}$ meters, i.e. on today's Hubble scale $c/H_0$, due to its numerical value. The numerical similarity of the density parameters $\Omega_m$ and $\Omega_\Lambda$ constitutes the coincidence problem because spatial flatness only requires their sum to be close to one, $\Omega_m+\Omega_\Lambda=1$, but there is no argument on the basis of which one can make statements on the individual values, in particular because they show a very different evolution with time.

Spatial curvature, i.e. the curvature of spatial hypersurfaces at fixed time, is a degree of freedom which is allowed by the Copernican principle, but which is not realised in Nature at the current epoch. While there is no symmetry which fixes curvature to be zero, cosmological observations constrain the associated density parameter to be at most a percent, or put a lower limit of the curvature scale to be at least $\simeq 10c/H_0$ \citep{planck_collaboration_planck_2015-5}. The problem of small spatial curvature is exacerbated by the fact that curvature grows if the cosmic expansion is decelerated, and it was in fact decelerating for most of the cosmic history under the dominating gravitational effect of radiation at early and of matter at later times. A widely accepted mechanism which explains the smallness of spatial curvature is cosmic inflation, where spatial curvature is made to decrease by assuming an early phase of accelerated expansion.

Likewise, it is possible to assign density and pressure to the energy-momentum tensor of fields with self-interactions which form the basis of quintessence models of dark energy \citep{mortonson_dark_2013-1}: In those models one obtains a conserved energy-momentum density from the coordinate independence of the Lagrange-density. Identification of terms leads to relations between the fluid properties density and pressure to the kinetic and potential terms of the field, and constrains the equation of state to a physically sensible range which in particular leads to finite ages of the cosmological models. If the dark energy density is chosen to be comparable to that of matter and if the equation of state is negative enough one observes as the most important effect accelerated expansion at late times \citep{huterer_probing_2001,frieman_dark_2008}.

Geodesic deviation is again a very illustrative example of how gravity affects the motion of galaxies in cosmology: Each galaxy is considered to be a freely falling test particle whose relative acceleration depends on the spacetime curvature, which in turn is linked through the field equation to the density of all cosmological fluids and their equations of state. On distances in excess of $c/H_0$ one can see that galaxies increase their distance relative to the Milky Way in an accelerated way under the action of the cosmological constant, the presence of dark energy or through a modification of the gravitational field equation. Naturally, light from these distant galaxies reaches us on our past light cone as photons move along null-geodesics, and therefore the measurement in this case consists in relating the distance measured on the past light cone to the redshift of the galaxies. It is essential that measurements in cosmology involve the relative motion of macroscopically separated objects: Any local, freely-falling and non-rotating experiment will experience the metric as being locally Minkowskian, and would conclude from the absence of curvature that there are no gravitational field generated.

One issue, which defies a definitive formal solution and which is still a matter of current debate is the problem of backreaction \citep{buchert_is_2015, bolejko_inhomogeneous_2016, adamek_general_2013, green_examples_2013, wiltshire_cosmic_2007}: Due to the nonlinearity of the gravitational field equations it matters how the gravitational field on large scales, where statistical homogeneity and isotropy should apply, arises from the structured matter distribution on small scales, in other words, how the Weyl-curvature due to structures on small scales transitions to the Ricci-curvature of the homogeneous FLRW-universe. There are analytical arguments as well as simulations of the spacetime geometry, but a definitive answer is still not reached.

\section{$\Lambda$CDM as the standard model}\label{sect_lambdacdm}
Modern cosmology has established $\Lambda$CDM as its standard model \citep{silk_challenges_2016-1}: In this model, the expansion dynamics of the Universe is described by general relativity with the assumption of the Copernican principle, leading to the FLRW-class of homogeneous and isotropic cosmologies with very small spatial curvature and with radiation, (dark) matter and the cosmological constant $\Lambda$ as dominating, ideal fluids at early, intermediate and late times, respectively. The confirmation of spatial flatness and accelerated expansion was achieved by combining supernova data with observations of the cosmic microwave background, which determine to leading order the sum and difference of the matter density parameter and the density parameter associated with $\Lambda$, while there are indications for isotropy from the Elhlers-Geren-Sachs-theorem applied to the cosmic microwave background, even in the case of small perturbations \citep{ehlers_isotropic_1968, stoeger_proving_1995, clarkson_inhomogeneity_2010, planck_collaboration_planck_2016}

While the density parameters are well determined by observations and even the equation of state parameters have been constrained to values suggesting that the cosmological constant is the driving term behind accelerated expansion, the fundamental symmetries of the FLRW-cosmologies are only partially tested: While tests of isotropy provide support for the Copernican principle, homogeneity is difficult to test and there are weak indications that it is in fact realised in Nature, for instance from the magnitude of the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect in Lema{\^i}tre-Tolman-Bondi-models. In a certain sense, deviations from homogeneity does not lead to a less complex cosmological model: After all, we as observers need to be positioned close to the centre of a large, horizon-sized void.

The bulk of gravitating matter is required to be non-interacting with photons (from the amplitude of structures seen in the CMB and their growth rate in comparison to the amplitude of large structures today), to have a very small cross-section for elastic collisions (leading to be pressureless and inviscid "fluid" which is responsible for the typical core structure of dark matter haloes), to have very little thermal motion, i.e. to be dynamically cold (from the power-law behaviour of the halo mass function at small masses and lately from the abundance of substructure in dark matter haloes).
\citep{}\citep{}
Fluctuations in the distribution of matter and in the velocity field at early times are thought to be generated by cosmic inflation \citep{martin_encyclopaedia_2013-1, tsujikawa_introductory_2003, baumann_cosmological_2009}, which at the same time remedies the flatness problems discussed earlier, and provides in addition an explanation of the horizon-problem, i.e. the uniformity of the CMB on large scales. Cosmic inflation generates fluctuations whose fluctuation spectrum follows a near scale-free law known as the Harrison-Zel'dovich spectrum, and generated mostly adiabatic perturbations, i.e. identical fractional perturbation in every cosmological fluid, with near-Gaussian statistical properties, which has been tested most importantly with observations of the cosmic microwave background.

In summary, $\Lambda$CDM as the standard model for cosmology is a model with low complexity but makes extreme assumptions at the same time, most importantly the Copernican principle and the properties of dark matter, and it features with cosmic inflation a construction in order to explain the origin of fluctuations as well as the absence of spatial curvature.

Adopting the view that general relativity including the cosmological constant is the only possible metric theory of gravity under certain concepts, allows to estimate scales by which the Universe should be correctly characterised. Constructing a length scale $l_H=1/\sqrt{\Lambda}$, a time scale $t_H=1/(c\sqrt{\Lambda})$ and a density scale $\rho_H=c^3/(G\sqrt{\Lambda})$ from the speed of light $c$, the gravitational constant $G$ and the cosmological constant $\Lambda$ leads to values which to a very good approximation correspond to the Hubble length $c/H_0$, the Hubble time $1/H_0$ and the critical density $\rho_\mathrm{crit} = 3H_0^2/(8\pi G)$, if the curvature scale becomes infinitely large, or equivalently, the associated density parameter $\Omega_K$ approaches zero.

Comparing these scales to the Planck-system of units with $l_P=\sqrt{G\hbar/c^3}$, $t_P=\sqrt{G\hbar/c^5}$ and $\rho_P=c^5/(G^2\hbar)$ constructed from the speed of light $c$, the gravitational constant $G$ and the Planck constant $\hbar$, shows large discrepancies, most notably the estimate $\rho_P = 10^{120}\rho_H$, which is usually stated as a motivation for dark energy models: If one associates the effects of the cosmological constant to the expectation value of the field theoretical vacuum, one obtains values which are much too large in comparison to $\rho_H$, but the problem seems to be constructed because it would apply to matter in exactly the same way: The matter density $\Omega_m\rho_\mathrm{crit}$ is close to $\rho_H$ instead of $\rho_P$. Personally, I am lost at the fact that with the inclusion of the cosmological constant $\Lambda$ as a natural constant to general relativity (required by Lovelock, Cartan and Vermeil) the definition of a natural system of units is not unique, and that furthermore the early universe is described by one choice of constants (namely $c$, $G$ and $\hbar$) and the late, current universe by the other possible choice ($c$, $G$ and $\Lambda$). Adding the Boltzmann-constant $k_B$ to this argument one can show that the number $10^{120}$ is the smallest non-trivial number that can be constructed from all fundamental constants of Nature.

In a certain sense, $\Lambda$CDM suffers from being a successful standard model, because it is difficult to find evidence for its failing, which is of course very motivating and fascinating. But in this respect it is necessary to report all statistical tests irrespective of whether they provide evidence for or against $\Lambda$CDM, in the light of all available data. And perhaps one would make clearer whether a certain model construction is part of the theoretical discussion or thought as a viable alternative. From what was discussed in the previous section, it might as well be that progress comes from conceptual work on gravity, in analogy to the construction of general relativity in the first place over a century ago.

\section{statistics in cosmology}\label{sect_statistics}
As an astronomical discipline, observational cosmology restricts the observer to a purely passive role, because it is impossible to have an active influence on the dynamics of the cosmological expansion or the formation of cosmic structures. Because of this impossibility of carrying out experiments one is forced to require that only questions can be answered for which experiments have been carried out by Nature. Concerning the expansion dynamics this does not seem like a large restriction because we can observe the behaviour of FLRW-cosmologies over a wide range of values for the density parameters and for dominating fluids with different equation of state parameters. Certain models, for instance phantom dark energy models where a very negative equation of state parameter leads to a infinite scale factor after a finite time, do not seem to be realised in Nature even though the gravitational dynamics of such a model would be very interesting to investigate. Similarly, the investigation of small values of curvature is difficult because the finite horizon size does not permit to access large enough scales.

The passive role of cosmological observers is a central issue in the observations of cosmic structures \citep{coles_statistical_2003}. There, one assumes that the random process of which the actual distribution of matter in our Universe is one realisation, is ergodic, meaning that we can determine ensemble-averaged quantities which characterise the random process, by performing spatial averages over data taken from inside our horizon. Ergodicity can not be experimentally verified, but there are strong theoretical indications that it is a good assumption. On theoretical grounds, a theorem by R.J. Adler stipulates that ergodicity is ensured in Gaussian random fields with continuous spectra. Ergodicity is an important assumption when investigating objects such as clusters of galaxies, because only sufficiently large volumes yield statistically unbiased samples because of a large enough set of initial conditions from which the objects have formed. On smaller scales, there are theoretical investigations that relativistic effects in surveys related to the light propagation cause a violation of ergodicity on a small level.

While the statistical properties of the cosmic large-scale structure are in fact very close to Gaussian in the early universe or today on large scales, nonlinear structure formation generates large deviations from Gaussianity, which are usually quantified in terms of $n$-point correlation functions or polyspectra of order $n$ in the case of homogeneous random processes. It is unknown if there is an efficient description of non-Gaussianity introduced by nonlinear structure formation. Up to now one can predict all higher-order correlators in perturbation theory where they are sourced due to the nonlinearities in the continuity- and Euler-equations. Although many alternatives have been explored, for instance extreme value statistics or Minkowski functionals, which might in principle provide an efficient quantification of non-Gaussianity, their relationship to the fundamental dynamical equations is less clear than in the case of correlation functions.

All estimates of statistical quantities suffer from cosmic variance, i.e. they are limited in their precision by the law of large numbers: Any moment of a random variable can only be estimated with a finite variance which scales inversely proportional to the number of samples. In cosmology, this limits the detectability of correlation functions or spectra on large scales in a statistical way, even if the estimate itself is unbiased: In the measurement of angular spectra of the galaxy density, of the weak lensing signal or of the temperature of the cosmic microwave background there are only a finite number of modes available at a given angular scale, such that spectra can only be determined at an uncertainty inversely proportional to the angular scale. This limits cosmology in a fundamental way in particular on the largest scales.

The cosmic large-scale structure is to a very good approximation described by classical fluid mechanics on an expanding background on scales smaller than the Hubble-scale $c/H_0$ and in the linear regime of structure formation. The dynamical variables are the density and velocity field, if a fluid mechanical approach is adopted - which is conceptually not correct because of the collisionlessness of dark matter, which is required to have a very small, possibly vanishing cross-section for elastic collisions. The phase-space information contained in the density and velocity field are accessible at different degrees of precision into the directions parallel and perpendicular to the line of sight. A grand result which should be mentioned in this context is the detection of baryon acoustic oscillations in the distribution of galaxies, which links the large-scale structure at a very early point in cosmic history to the present time and shows that the statistics of the cosmic matter distribution is conserved in linear structure formation.

Counting the cosmological parameters associated with the FLRW-dynamics (the matter density $\Omega_m$, the dark energy density $\Omega_w$, which is replaced by $\Omega_\Lambda$ in the case of the equation of state being $w=-1$, the curvature $\Omega_K$, which assumes very small values due to cosmic inflation, and the Hubble-parameter $h$ itself) and those describing structures, i.e. fluctuations in the distribution of matter (the fluctuation amplitude $\sigma_8$ and the slope $n_s$ of the spectrum) results in six parameters, seven if a time evolution of the dark energy equation of state is admitted. The spectral slope $n_s$ and the amplitude $f_\mathrm{NL}$ of non-Gaussianities have to result consistently from the inflationary slow-roll parameters. As cosmological probes usually combine information from the homogeneous expansion dynamics with cosmic structures, measurements depend on a large set of at least seven physical parameters \citep{np_standard_2001}.

\section{inference in cosmology}\label{sect_inference}
The process of inference, i.e. the estimation of model parameters (or at least of bounds on model parameters) from cosmological data differs substantially from other parts of physics: It is close to impossible to investigate certain aspects of the cosmological model independently from others. Contrarily, in elementary particle physics direct detection experiments measure e.g. mass, charge or spin of particles and their couplings independently from other aspects of the standard model of particle physics, and only in indirect detection experiments for probing physics above the provided energy one needs to deal with simultaneous contributions from many physical processes and particles.

Any large-scale structure observable and its statistical properties depend in the most straightforward case on the density parameters of all cosmic fluids and their respective equations of state as well as on parameters which characterise the distribution of matter. Cosmological observations combine statistical properties of the fluctuations with their growth rates and the relation between observable redshift and distance. The investigation of models as complex as those in cosmology require very strong signals, for instance the spectrum of CMB temperature fluctuations or the weak lensing signal of galaxies constitute signals with a statistical significance of the order of $10^3\sigma$. There is a natural progression in cosmology from the observation of the homogeneous and isotropic expansion dynamics on large scales (e.g. with supernova-measurements) to the statistics of linear fluctuations (in the cosmic microwave background) and finally to the evolved, nonlinear cosmic structure on small scales and at late times.

In addition to that, one needs to deal in most cases (with the possible exception of weak lensing) with a model which relates the observable to the underlying dark matter objects, for instance biasing relation for the density of galaxies in relation to the dark matter densities or mass-temperature-relations for the luminosity of clusters or their Sunyaev-Zel'dovich or $X$-ray signal. If the set of cosmological parameters along with effective models for the observables is to be constrained by data, large degeneracies are natural and many algorithmic sampling techniques have been developed to treat likelihoods in high-dimensional parameter spaces. Sampling algorithms based on Monte-Carlo Markov-chains are optimised to deal with strong degeneracies and can sample at high efficiency from strongly non-Gaussian likelihoods with an implicit assumption about uni-modality of the likelihood.

A further complication is hidden in the hierarchy in sensitivity towards cosmological parameters which is inherent to cosmology: Certain parameters are more difficult to measure than others, which means that a measurement needs to provide exquisite precision on easy parameters in order to provide interesting statements about parameters which are difficult to measure. Examples might include weak lensing, which is strongly dependent on the matter density $\Omega_m$ and the fluctuation amplitude $\sigma_8$, and weakly dependent on the dark energy equation of state parameters $w_0$ or its time evolution $w_a$, such that one needs to achieve relative accuracies of $10^{-4}$ on $\Omega_m$ and $\sigma_8$ in order to answer questions in relation to dark energy, for instance the equation of state-parameters $w_0$ and $w_a$. A similar situation is found in the interpretation of data of the cosmic microwave background, where one central parameter is the optical depth $\tau$, which needs to be constrained for fundamental parameters to be accessible.

It is breathtaking that the future generation of surveys will constrain parameters of a $\Lambda$CDM-type cosmology or of a basis dark energy-cosmology to a level of $10^{-4}$, in particular because Newton's gravitational constant is known at similar levels of precision from laboratory experiments. At this level, the difficulty will lie in a detailed understanding of the relationship between the observable quantity and the fundamental cosmological model. On small scales, this involves an understanding of astrophysical processes governing the properties of observed objects and their relation to the ambient large-scale structure as well as nonlinear corrections to observables and a treatment of their covariances. For instance, gravitational lensing, recognised as a very clean probe with a straightforward functioning principle which is entirely determined by relativity, requires a precise prediction of second-order corrections to lensing, a modelling of intrinsic alignments of galaxies and an accurate description of the statistical distribution of estimates of the spectrum. Quite generally one can expect that cosmology in the next generation of experiments will not be limited by statistical but rather by systematical errors.

If one is in the situation of deciding between two viable theoretical models one would like to set up a decisive experiment which is designed in a way to favour one of the models strongly over the other \citep{trotta_bayesian_2017}. It is difficult to pursue this idea in cosmology, because one can at most $(i)$ use an observational technique in which the difference between two models ist most pronounced, or $(ii)$ optimise an experiment in such a way that the two models in question show a large difference in their generated signal, or $(iii)$ use degeneracy-breaking combinations of probes.

These optimisations can only show quantitative differences due to the degeneracies involved, such that the likelihoods of models differ not very strongly in parameter space and typically show tensions at the level below $3\sigma$, making a decision between models difficult. Because of this many methods for model comparison have been developed, which quantify the trade-off between models of different complexity in their ability to fit data and in their simplicity. In this sense, methods of Bayesian model comparison are a quantification of Occam's razor, preferring simpler models over more complex ones if both models fit data similarly well, but decide in favour of more complex models only if the data requires a higher complexity. Specifically, Bayesian evidence measures the probability that a model is able to explain the data integrated over the model's parameter space weighted with distribution which quantifies the knowledge on the parameters prior to the experiment. Two competing models are compared by the ratio of their Bayesian evidences, which in turn can be quantified by e.g. the Jeffrey's scale for a quantitative interpretation of the Bayesian evidence ratio, although the scale for the degree of confidence in a model is, like in all applications of statistical testing, arbitrary. But on the other hand it might be worth realising that complexity of models is a human concept and we commonly assume that the laws of Nature are conceptually simple (but technically complicated at times!).

Although it might be a weird thought at first, it is worth noticing that the future generation of experiments will survey such large volumes that they harvest a significant part of the cosmologically available information, and that there is a natural limit in the complexity of cosmological models which can at best be investigated. Therefore, it is imperative to develop new techniques and new probes to open up new windows, for instance to structures in the high-redshift universe in 21cm-observations, or the observation of recombination lines from the epoch of atom formation. Alternatively, there is the fascinating possibility of real-time cosmology, where one directly observes changes in the recession velocity of distant quasars in cosmologies with an effective equation of state unequal to $w=-1/3$, or at least in principle, small changes in the fluctuation pattern of the cosmic microwave background on the time scale of 100 years. An alternative route to accessing scales much smaller than typical galaxy separations or the scales responsible for the substructure in haloes is the search for primordial black holes, whose abundance is determined by the inflationary model.

\section{structure formation}\label{sect_structure}
One of the goals of cosmology is a theory for the formation and evolution of cosmic structures, with the ultimate aim of providing a quantitative theory of galaxy formation, including a physical picture of galaxy properties, their evolution and their relation to the cosmic large-scale structure \citep{frenk_dark_2012}. Due to nonlinearities in the underlying system of equations structure formation is a difficult and not yet fully understood problem even for dark matter alone, which obeys comparatively straightforward physical laws: For predicting the scale-dependence and time-evolution of statistical quantifiers one carries numerical simulations, where algorithmic progress has allowed to run simulations with $8192^3$ particles \citep{alimi_deus_2012}, or uses perturbative methods \citep{bernardeau_large-scale_2002}, where recent developments have made fully analytic treatments possible \citep{bartelmann_microscopic_2014}. The inclusion of baryonic matter into structure formation is realistically restricted to numerical simulations, where, depending on the physical processes considered, one deals with a multi-scale and multi-physics problem whose results are still influenced by the choice of algorithms for solving the coupled system of differential equations, the discretisation scheme and the details of the implementation of physics on small scales \citep{genel_introducing_2014, springel_e_2010}.

In the process of increasing the data volume it is obvious that much of the signal collected by future large-scale structure surveys is generated by nonlinearly evolving structures. For instance, the weak lensing signal measured by the future Euclid-mission will amount to $>10^3\sigma$ of statistical significance, of which about three quarters are generated by nonlinear structures. Clearly, this requires a detailed understanding of phenomena related to nonlinear structure formation, in particular the inter-dependence of statistical quantifiers. While structure formation in the linear regime, i.e. for small perturbations, is easily shown to preserve all statistical properties of the initial conditions, which is the reason why it is possible to investigate inflationary theories with observations of the cosmic microwave background or of the cosmic structure on large scales, nonlinear structure formation generates an entire hierarchy of higher-order cumulants in a coupled system. Perturbative approaches are in principle possible, but technically very difficult, and it is only lately that progresses in effective field theory and statistical field theory provide a theory of statistical evolution of the large-scale structure agreeing with numerical simulations on small scales.

The internal properties of haloes, in particular their rotation curves and their virial equilibria, provide support for dark matter to be gravitationally dominating, and from the core structure of haloes and from the abundance of substructure one places constraints on the collisionlessness and its thermal motion, respectively \citep{colafrancesco_dark_2010-1}. Additionally, structure growth in the early universe clearly requires dark matter to be non-baryonic. Haloes have been found in numerical simulations to have a certain profile shape, which is universal, scales weakly with halo mass and naturally accommodates the constant rotation velocity at large distances from the halo centre. In addition, observations from weak gravitational lensing show that the profile shapes of haloes correspond well to those found in numerical simulations although there is not yet a complete physical understanding of their stability and of the origin of their universal shape from first principles. Although there are very strong arguments for the existence of dark matter from cosmology and from astrophysics, the relation to elementary particle physics is still unclear: Many particle candidates are being discussed, from very light particles like axions with a mass of $\simeq 10^{-22}~\mathrm{eV}$ to WIMPs close to the supersymmetric scale at a few $\mathrm{TeV}$ \citep{bergstrom_dark_2009, fornengo_dark_2016, queiroz_dark_2016}.

Cosmic inflation is a construction which provides a natural framework for the generation of cosmic structures, which in the course of cosmic history grow by gravitational instability. Despite all the successes of inflation it must be emphasised that it is a construction involving non-gravitational physics to explain the symmetries of the FLRW-cosmology as an entirely gravitational system, and that its predictions follow from the construction of the particular inflationary model and not generically from fundamental physics. Apart from the scale-dependence of the fluctuation amplitude cosmic inflation generates small non-Gaussianities which are dwarfed by nonlinear evolution on small scales and are measurable on very large, quasi-linearly evolving scales at high redshift. These small amounts of non-Gaussianity reflect derivatives of the inflationary potential and should be consistent with the slow-roll parameters which determine the scale dependence of the inflationary fluctuations \citep{planck_collaboration_planck_2016-1}. It seems to be difficult, but not fundamentally excluded, to construct models with large non-Gaussianity. An independent measurement of the two slow-roll parameters and the corresponding non-Gaussianity parameters is yet to be carried out.

It is difficult to overstate the importance of computer simulations of cosmic structure formation for modern cosmology: Due to the nonlinearity of the structure formation equations, with many different active physical processes and the difficulty of separating physical scales. The sophistication of numerical simulations has led to a framework for dark matter driven structure formation from small to large scales, the thermal evolution of the baryonic component, leading to galaxy formation and star formation on small scales and is able to predict many properties of galaxies with the dependence on time, statistics, scaling behaviour and morphology. The development of analytical methods was not quite commensurate with this evolution, because analytical methods are mostly constrained to the dark matter component and focus on predicting the evolution of non-Gaussianities in a perturbative way, and a detailed theoretical understanding of many numerical results is still missing, for instance concerning the stability of dark matter haloes. The worry that in cosmology one is accepting to be strongly dependent on numerical simulations is justified, both for high-precision predictions of linear perturbations, in particular with more involved particle models, as well as predictions for nonlinear structures. But this is not very different compared to elementary particle physics, where the search for particles outside the standard model or at high energies involve field-theoretical computations with similar complexity. Finally, there is always the question of interpreting simulations, isolating individual structure formation processes and quantifying degeneracies in model parameter choices.

\section{Conclusion}\label{sect_summary}
Modern cosmology relies on three building blocks: general relativity as a theory of gravity, (fluid) mechanics as a theory of motions in the distribution of matter and statistics for their description. It offers views on gravity as one of the fundamental forces, both for the dynamics of the Universe on large-scales as well as the driving force for the formation of cosmic structures. The universe is a system for testing the gravitational interaction on large scales in a fully-relativistic, yet reasonably symmetric system, with new gravitational effects in relation to the cosmological constant $\Lambda$. The dark matter distribution in the universe does not form a continuum, and for that reason the usage of fluid mechanics is conceptually inadequate, in contrast to the baryonic component.

General relativity as a theory of gravity follows from a number of fundamental physical principles and is unique as a metric theory under certain assumptions. It includes naturally the cosmological constant $\Lambda$ as a term in the field equation and any measured deviation of the behaviour of gravity would question these fundamental principles. A consequence of assuming general relativity as the theory of gravity is the need for the existence of dark matter, which is substantiated by its role in structure formation and by its influence on the internal properties of dark matter structure, but whose relationship to particle physics is still unclear.

There are many interesting directions in which cosmology is currently evolving: Large-scale surveys cover significant fractions of the observable cosmic volume, and it is imperative to develop new probes, for instance observations of the large-scale structure with the hyperfine transition of neutral hydrogen, which makes the high-redshift universe accessible \citep{bull_measuring_2015, kitching_euclid_2015, maartens_cosmology_2015} and shows structures in a close to linear stage of evolution . Another frontier are $B$-modes of the polarisation of the cosmic microwave background, which are directly related to the energy-scale of inflation. As a completely different approach, changes in cosmological signals with time can be investigated. Many current cosmological probes are limited by astrophysical processes on small scales which are difficult to model and require simulations with a correct implementation of all relevant physical processes. If these limitations can not be controlled, cosmology will be limited by systematical rather than statistical errors. On the other hand, Nature provides very clean standard signals in the form of the gravitational wave signals of coalescing black hole binaries, which have the potential of surpassing supernovae in precision. Finally, one could dream of independent measurements of the slow-roll parameters and of finding consistency between the predictions of inflation in the shape of the spectrum, the amounts of non-Gaussianity and the level of primordial gravitational waves.

At the stage of interpreting cosmological data it should be kept in mind that according to the principle of Bayesian evidence simpler models should be preferred over more complex ones, and one should accept more complex models only if they provide substantially better fits to data. While conceptually clear, it might be very difficult to apply this as one has to deal in the next generation of experiments with very large data volumes and models which not only include physical parameters but need to be sufficiently flexible to cope for astrophysical peculiarities of the probes employed.

On the theoretical side it would be important to have an effective (and computationally efficient) theory of nonlinear structure formation with a prediction and an efficient description of non-Gaussianity, and possibly incorporating relativity into the prediction of structure growth. These analytical methods compete with very evolved and sophisticated numerical simulations for structure formation, which move in their aim away from fundamental cosmology to a quantitative model for galaxy formation and evolution.

I hope that this article could summarise some of the fundamental questions currently being investigated in cosmology and illustrate their relationship to the principles how the laws of Nature are formulated. Many aspects of cosmology rely on arguments from simplicity and can never be rigorously tested. Keeping in mind that physical cosmology is only 99 years old, counting from the discovery of redshifts of galaxies by Slipher soon after the formulation of general relativity, it has come very far in linking physical processes at the Hubble-scale to those close to the Planck-scale, and I am confident that many surprises wait for their discovery.

\section*{Acknowledgements}
I would like to thank Matthias Bartelmann, Richard Dawid, Yves Gaspar, Frank K{\"o}nnig, Karl-Heinz Lotze, Sven Meyer, Robert Reischke and Norman Sieroka for very constructive and valuable comments on the draft.

\bibliographystyle{mnras}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
Solidarity: Operation Hope >
Portraits of Some Projects
At the Wellspring of Faith
Coming to Taizé
Search all Search this section
Some Recent News
Visit of Patriarch Bartholomew to Taizé
Two video clips of common prayer
Visit of Patriarch Bartholomew to Taizé: Words of Welcome by Brother Alois
Speech during the Common Prayer
The Key Moments in Photos
Vocation and History
A bit of history: The Beginnings
A lifelong commitment
About Taizé: The Community Today
Brother François (1929-2018)
Brother Thomas (1939-2019)
Ascertaining the Truth
A pilgrimage of trust on earth
Brother Alois, Prior of Taizé
Brother Roger, Founder of Taizé
12 May 1915 – 16 August 2005: Homage to Brother Roger
Why Brother Roger died
A way of reconciliation
Benedict XVI speaks of Brother Roger: "An ecumenism lived spiritually"
Interview with Brother Alois: Something that was without precedent
Mgr Daucourt, Bishop of Nanterre: Ecumenism is first of all an exchange of gifts
Déclaration by the French Protestant Federation: Let us respect the memory of Brother Roger
Photos of Brother Roger
Video: Brother Roger: A key word from my youth
Other people on Taizé
John Paul II: One passes through Taizé as one passes close to a spring of water
Paul Ricœur: "Liberating the core of goodness"
Olivier Clément: "Trust will have the last word"
Celebration of Taizé's 70th Anniversary
Celebration of the 70th anniversary of Taizé - Messages received
Brothers living in other places
The brothers in Kenya
Back in Nairobi
Meetings and retreats in Nairobi
Meetings and retreats in Nairobi: program for 2017
August 2012 : "Looking by ourselves and sharing"
April 2012: Three international retreats
Meetings in Nairobi : December 2011
Meetings in Nairobi: August 2011
Meetings in Nairobi: April 2011
Meetings at Nairobi: December 2010
Meetings at Nairobi: August 2010
Retreat at Nairobi: April 2010
The brothers in Senegal
A fraternité in Dakar
Sénégal: Young people from the villages around Taizé visiting Dakar
Lets go and see ak benn!
"Ak benn"
Voluntary drains clean-up in Grand-Yoff!
Griots at the Taizé house in Dakar
Refugees in Dakar
Locked and barred?
The children in Dakar are also accompanying COP21
The brothers in Bangladesh
Estema, the "assembly" at Tongi
The station children's club
Rajshahi – following the meeting in Kolkata
Learning for life: The stipend program schools in Mymensingh
"Singing as we go"
Islam in Bangladesh
As Christmas draws near
Sing to the tune of a new life
Floods in August 2007
Visits in Nepal
On Christmas Day: a great gust of joy
Bangladesh: Festival for street children in Dhaka
Meeting in Mymensingh, June 2012
October 2012 : News of the brothers in Bangladesh
Bangladesh: A clown in Dhaka's main railway station
The brothers in Korea
A Life of waiting
A visit to the North
In Seoul: some hours of prayer and silence
The brothers in Brazil
A week of prayer for Christian Unity at Alagoinhas
Apprenticeships: Thirsting for a future: journeys on paths unknown
Brazil, October 2015: Pilgrimage of Trust in Salvador
The "brincadeira"
The brincadeira: "It is never too late to learn!"
The seeing and talking hands club
The "Emmaus" children
"Jornada da Confiança" at Vitoria da Conquista
An evening in the neighbourhood
Three months in Haiti
The Brothers' Work
Books, CDs, DVDs
Download recordings and printable music
The ceramic adventure
"Circle Colours"
Acts of the two colloquia held at Taizé in 2015
A new film: Moments in the Life of Brother Roger
New CD: «LAUDAMUS TE»
Solidarity: Operation Hope
An action of solidarity in North Korea
Anniversaries 2015: Towards a new solidarity
Prayers and Acts of Solidarity across the world
Many Church Leaders and Representatives of Other Religions at Taizé
Gathering for a New Solidarity: Workshops in Taizé
16 August 2015: Messages Received from Religious Leaders
Meditations on Joy, Simplicity and Mercy
Gathering for a New Solidarity: Photos
Taizé: 10 May: Festive and collected atmosphere for the centenary of Brother Roger's birth
Summer 2015: ARTtogether : Exhibition and Hands-On Workshops at Taizé
The icon of mercy
Gathering for a New Solidarity: Echoes from the week
Gathering for a New Solidarity: Workshops at Taizé
The brothers of the Taizé Community live entirely by their work. They do not accept any donations. Similarly, if a brother inherits something from his family, the community makes a gift of it for the very poor.
The community brings support to people in difficulty on the different continents, especially to children who are destitute or sick.
In addition, it helps certain young people coming either to Taizé or to the European, Latino-American, African or Asian meetings: many of them cannot cover the entire cost of their stay or their travel because they come from so far away…
By means of Operation Hope, those who wish may participate in this mutual assistance.
To send a donation to Operation Hope, please click here.
Help for the Middle East
Operation Hope has recently supported several initiatives in this region:
In Northern Lebanon the NGO Relief and Reconciliation for Syria is inspired by the work of Father Paolo dall'Oglio, who worked in Syria for the knowledge and esteem of Islam and founded the monastic community of Mar Moussa. This small NGO combines humanitarian aid with Syrian refugees in the Akkar region of northern Lebanon with peace education work for children and youth from the various communities in the region. It was through Relief and Reconciliation that the Syrian Muslim family currently staying in Taizé were able to reach France.
In Syria, in Aleppo, the Franciscan community distributes food parcels and emergency aid to displaced persons. It also works to set up drinking water networks and to distribute fuel oil for generators and heating. This community also assists people with their health needs, taking care of part of the costs. Finally, the brothers ensure the education of children and young people, trying to offer spaces for activities and studies.
In Iraq, at Erbil, aid is given to the Syriac Orthodox Jacobite community, from which one of the Iraqi families settled at Taizé comes. When the Christian villages on the Nineveh plain were liberated by the Iraqi army, the Christians found that their churches had been devastated by ISIS. The money collected is used to support those displaced in Erbil who cannot return to the destroyed villages and to the cleaning and reconstruction of places of worship.
Holidays for Ukrainian children
Thanks to Operation Hope, during the summers of 2015 and 2016 a group of children from eastern Ukraine was welcomed in Taizé for a few weeks. Their families fled the Donbass at war and have since been living in Kiev. For these children, aged 7 to 14 years, the time spent in Taizé was a moment of joy and peace after the difficult months of the war. Their joyful presence on the hill also helped to express solidarity with those who suffer from war at the gates of Europe.
Supporting Disadvantaged Children in Haiti
In October 2014, Brother Alois and other brothers led stages of the pilgrimage of trust in four Caribbean countries in Central America. In Haiti, they visited a community of sisters from Cité-Soleil in Port-au-Prince and since then, Operation Hope regularly sends financial assistance to support their work with disadvantaged children.
2015: Assistance to refugees in Europe
From the beginning, the Taizé Community has always been attentive to refugees. During the Second World War, Brother Roger had hidden a number of them in his house at Taizé. Later on families were welcomed, from places like Vietnam, Laos, Bosnia and Rwanda. In recent years, the community has welcomed families from Iraq and Syria, as well as groups of young migrants from Calais.
In 2016, young asylum-seekers from Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Syria and Afghanistan stayed in Taizé. This welcome was made possible thanks to the collaboration of many volunteers from the region and financial support from Operation Hope. The community seeks to help these young people become self-reliant once they have been granted refugee status.
Operation Hope also supports initiatives to assist refugees, led by associations working in the region around Taizé.
IN 2015, following the news given by Ferenc and by young volunteers who went to Hungary to be with the refugees, Operation Hope has received donations to support their work. These donations helped take care of children and young people in central Fót. They also helped to assist refugees who are crossing borders.
2015: Support for an eye clinic in Congo
Dr. Richard Hardi has been living and working in the Democratic Republic of Congo for twenty years as an ophthalmologist. He is a committed member of the Community of the Beatitudes. He practices in Mbuji Mayi, the capital of East Kasai province, but he makes regular medical missions in remote areas.
In much of the country, he is virtually the only ophthalmologist who operates on children and difficult cases. He performs over 2,500 operations each year.
Since 2015, Operation Hope supports the construction of an eye clinic undertaken by Dr. Hardi for which the region has a great need.
Some examples of other Operation Hope commitments
Schools in Bangladesh
Operation Hope has been supporting schools for several years in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. In all, more than 1500 children study in these schools. These are also places where young Muslim, Hindu and Christian teachers learn to work together. All are students who have to pay for their studies. They understand that if they wish to receive help for themselves, they must also give something: some of their time to run schools for poor children. Being at the service of the poor reinforces the feeling of being part of a single human family.
The stipend program schools in Mymensingh
A place for the sick in Cambodia
Since 2008, Operation Espérance has supported a hospital for the sick created by the parish of the Infant Jesus in Boeng Tumpun, Cambodia. To meet the needs of poor villagers from the different provinces of the country, the parish launched this project which promotes the dignity of the sick and provides them with the necessary care. Proximity to the capital, Phnom Penh, facilitates access to hospitals if necessary. The donations make it possible to contribute to the costs of hospitalization and also to finance the center itself, the remuneration of the staff, the maintenance of the premises, hospitality expenses, and medication.
Cambodia: Visits of Brothers
2015: Support for people after the earthquakes in Nepal
After successive earthquakes in Nepal in April and May 2015, Operation Hope has supported the work of a German NGO, Freundeskreis Nepalhilfe e.V. (FNH). All the money sent was used to purchase corrugated roofs for the construction of temporary housing. It was very urgent, since the "monsun" was expected shortly after the tremors. These roofs can be integrated in the future construction of more durable homes. Operation Hope has helped 200 families to relocate.
Someone who returned from a visit to this country writes: "There are still a lot of mountains of debris, and you sometimes see people sitting on the debris. As often, the quake mainly affected the poor, who lived in very simple shacks. Currently some were able to find a place in emergency housing, which sometimes turn out better than their former homes and could become a long-term solution."
2015: Collection of medicines for Cuba
In October 2014, Brother Alois went to Cuba, with a few brothers during a stage of the "Pilgrimage of Trust" in the Caribbean. Prayers were held at Havana and Matanzas. On returning , Brother Alois told young people gathered in Taizé: "Cubans, especially the young, are desperate to leave their isolation, they need to feel close to young people in other countries, and they urged us to greet you all from them. For them, becoming salt of the earth means taking an option of hope." In March 2015, a brother went back to this country to deepen ties. He saw that there was a defiency of many goods, especially medicines. A group of Christians runs a medical support network for disadvantaged populations, with small health centres in different parts of the country. Through Operation Hope, the Community decided to organise a collection of medicines which were sent to this group in Cuba: diclofenac (anti-inflammatory), doxycycline (antibiotic), aspirins, vitamins, glucosamine, amoxycilline, furosemide, cephalexin, dexchlorpheniramine (antihistamine), ibuprofene.
Humanitarian aid to North Korea
In 2016, the Community invited two doctors from the Hospital of the Red Cross of North Korea to do a refresher course in France. These doctors spent three months in Paris and the costs of their stay were borne entirely by Operation Hope. Between 2007 and 2011, six other doctors had also done a one-year internship in France.
The first humanitarian deliveries to this country were made in 1998 and 1999. More than one thousand tons of maize flour were sent for the population who were suffering after several years of drought and flooding.
Since then, every year it has been possible to make a gesture of solidarity. Milk and feeding bottles for newborn babies, medical equipment and basic medication, were collected during the European meeting in Berlin at the end of 2011. Dozens of packs of medication, hundreds of stethoscopes, thermometers, bandages, gauze, syringes and different medical supplies as well as several large boxes of surgical devices and two sterilisers were sent. Operation Hope added two new oxygen concentrators. This support continued the following years with the sending of medical devices and medication. The North Korean Red Cross takes care of the distribution to hospitals and rural clinics.
A brother of the Community, originally from South Korea, has visited North Korea several times. He has sometimes accompanied the delivery of foodstuffs.
In South Sudan
In a village 25 km. south of Rumbek, some fifty families of lepers live; they have come from the entire Great Lakes region. Although medical treatment heals the disease and removes all danger of contagion, the loss of limbs sometimes remains a great handicap. The social stigma continues to affect them. The lepers cannot stay in their place of origin. Their children, even if they themselves have not been touched by the disease, are not welcome in school. The courage and hope of these families who have started a new life from scratch in great isolation and precariousness are remarkable. Operation Hope is helping build a building for the primary classes, so that the children can continue to study even during the rainy season.
The civil war, the fees demanded and the lack of schools have kept many young people from continuing their schooling; helping them to develop their full potential is a priority. Setting up the Youth Opportunity Center wants to give a strong signal in favor of this commitment. On land occupied by the resources of an NGO during the civil war, the Church wants to develop a place of welcome, activities and formation open to young people of all backgrounds. Operation Hope is contributing to building a multipurpose room to replace the leaking tent.
In South Sudan, summer 2013
Humanitarian supplies sent to North Korea
The medicine and medical devices collected at the European meeting in Berlin end 2011 were sent on 11 February 2012, in order to arrive in North Korea in late March - early April. Many responded to the call of the community for solidarity with the people of North Korea. Dozens of packages of basic medicines, were picked up hundreds of stethoscopes, thermometers, boxes of bandages, gauze, syringes and various medical supplies. Also several large boxes of surgical devices and two sterilizers were given. Operation Hope has added two new oxygen concentrators. Everything was packed onto four pallets. In North Korea the Red Cross will undertake the distribution of the supplies to hospitals and rural clinics.
This aid in collaboration with the North Korean Red Cross continued in 2012 and 2013 by sending medical equipment (including an electrocardiogram, microscopes and emergency kits for doctors) and medicine for hospitals.
In 2011, through Operation Hope, the Community made humanitarian shipments for those who lacked food in North Korea: 260 tons of wheat flour and 120 tons of noodles. In 2007 the Community had sent a thousand tons of wheat flour. The first humanitarian shipments into this country were made by the Community in 1998 and 1999: more than a thousand tons of corn were sent to the people who suffered after several years of drought and floods. Since then, every year it was possible to make a sign of solidarity by sending humanitarian aid: milk and feeding bottles for infants, medical equipment and medicines. A brother of the community, himself a native of South Korea, was several times in North Korea and he sometimes accompanied the distribution of food aid. Between 2007 and 2011, the community also invited six doctors from the Red Cross Hospital of North Korea to spend a one-year internship in France.
In 2009, Taizé had one million Bibles printed in China
At the European meeting which brought together 40,000 young people in Brussels at the end of 2008, Brother Alois announced that, to respond to the needs of the Christians of China, the Taizé Community was going to have printed one million Bibles in China—200,000 complete Bibles and 800,000 New Testaments with Psalms. The printing was done in Nanjing, and from there the books were delivered across the country in successive stages throughout 2009.
In 2009, the Taizé Community is also supporting the biblical work of the Protestant Church in China. This support was continued throughout 2010 and 2011.
In Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso is situated in the Sahel where the dry season lasts nine months without interruption. The population uses open wells that often dry up and the women are forced to use unhealthy water collected in artificial ponds during the rainy season. Sometimes they have to go as far as ten kilometres in order to find water and the rare wells that do exist become a source of conflict because of the scarcity of water and the long time they have to wait. Operation Hope supports the drilling of wells and the installation of pumps. These wells are an essential source of water supply for the people and for the prevention of sickness.
In 2010, Operation Hope also supported a project to provide milk for children at the hospital of Nanoro, also in Burkina-Faso.
Jesus said: Unless a person is born from above, they cannot see the kingdom of God.
For the Diary
Meditations and Reflections
Youth Meetings
Specific information for 2019
Travel to Taizé
UK School & College Weeks
UK University Weeks
Testimonies by young adults
Small Provisional Communities
[ top | Sitemap | Home]
Times of prayers at Taizé

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Captain ChristianBlogR here! While setting sail after a nice summers rain, I began to see this colorful ray of light, this color bow of colors coming from the sky. I knew this must be the rainbow that God talked about in the Bible. So set sail with me as I share about the rainbow in this Bible Stories of the Sea on Rainbows.
When we see the rainbow we can always remember the covenant that God gave us to never flood the Earth again. This came after God destroyed the Earth by flooding it. God had Noah build an ark and had animals and his family get on it. Then it rains for 40 days and 40 nights. Several times in Genesis 9, does it mention the rainbow being a sign unto us, we also can see this rainbow in the clouds. A covenant is promise that will never be broken.
We can be assured that God never changes. God will not go back on His promises. Once God sets something, it is so. It won't change. So this covenant not to flood the whole earth will never happen again. Note: The WHOLE EARTH!
Ezekiel 1:28 tells us that the appearance of a rainbow on a rainy day is just like the appearance of God to us. So it also shows us the likeliness of the appearance of God to us. Since we see rainbows a lot all over the world. That shows us that God is all over the world and always with us. God is everywhere.
There was even mention of rainbows in the Book of Revelation. If you look at Revelation 4:3 we see that a rainbow is like an emerald. It surrounded the throne. Also in Revelation 10:1 it shows the angel appeared to a person. A Rainbow appeared on his head with his face like the sun.
A rainbow is a reflection sun (or light) in water (or rain). It gives off a spectrum of color. So you can say that a rainbow is the reflection of God. You can say the color is the people of the world. God loves us all.
God does love us all. He offers his Son Jesus Christ to save us. We must repent or turn away from sin. It is not a license to sin! We are told we cannot live in open sin. Sin separates us from God.
In a Double rainbow the colors inverted in one of them.
Indigo and Violet are about shades of colors, close to being near reddish, blueish, purplish in color. Often, you may hear about a rainbow during St. Patrick's Day.
I was thinking along of my daughter, she said the Jelly Bean Prayer but I was thinking more of how the Power Band Witnessing Tool. Both of these show how colors show a certain aspect of God.
Also check out the all things Color blog post where I take different colors and share what the Bible says about that color.
Life is like a rainbow. You need both sun and the rain to make its colors appear.
The above quote is a good quote. Just like the colors need both the rain and sun to make them appear, we almost must have the rain and sun to survive. They both go hand and hand.
I also like the above quote because it shows you yet again how the rainbow is a promise from God.
Check out this blog entry of mine entitled Means of Grace. This is one of the walks that you do on the Walk to the Emmaus. It talks about God's Love & God's Grace.
According to J. Sidlow Baxter in his book Awake, My Heart he talks about the rainbow on two of his devotional pages (May 1 & May 2). He says The rainbow is every cloud that is permitted to overhang on the people of God. He also says the rainbow is in every cloud of trouble, sorrow and the dark cloud of death.
Baxter also talks about how the rainbow is a token. It betokens on kindness, severity, goodness and the faithfulness of God. He adds it is a seal of the great covenant. He adds the Cross is a perfect light-prism, with those light colors showing as righteousness, omnipotence, truth, immutability, holiness, wisdom, and love of God. It is also a sign of the mercy of God after his judgement.
Awake, My Heart by J. Sidlow Baxter was recommended by my Pastor, Bob Neal. I enjoyed reading that book. Not to mention, I also recommend that you read Awake, My Heart too. I am looking forward to the rest of the years daily devotions within this book. If you want to know more about what J. Sidlow Baxter says about the rainbow, then I would advise to get the book and read it.
Sorry to disappoint you but there is no pot of gold on the other side nor any leprechauns.
I asked several of my friends what the rainbow means to them and this is some of the responses I got.
Amber (my daughter): Jelly Bean Prayer and meadow full of flowers.
Paula (my mom): God's promise there will be no more flooding.
Sheri: It gives me a sense of peace and well being when I see one.
Sheri: God is always there and loves us along with being a reminder of the promise He made to us.
Shawn: Peace … Calmness after a storm!
Andrea: A rainbow is God's way of showing us that everything is gonna be okay.
Michelle: Rainbow is God's promise. Gives us hope.
Dana: Rainbow means God's promise to always take care of me… I always feel peace when I see it.
Bekah: Also reminds me of a time we were in Taiwan and we tried to "chase" a rainbow and find the end of it! Didn't work. LoL!
Bekah: Reminds me of my Mom actually! It's always been he symbol from God that everything's gonna be alright. When we moved to a new city in Taiwan and they were unloading the crate, one appeared and it confirmed everything Mom needed to know. (Usually my "thing"/symbol is a beautiful sunset) But also, it's always been an encouragement to me. It's something that's so beautiful and colorful that can only be seen at the right time. Usually after a storm. The rain stops/slows, the sun comes out, and there's this beautiful rainbow in the sky. A reminder that yes, you'll go through storms (some harder than others) but after you endure and persevere, there's a beautiful image waiting to beheld but it will only shine through AFTER one has struggled through the rain.
In September 2016, I learned another usage, called a rainbow baby. I saw it on Facebook with a woman that said she was carrying a rainbow baby. My thought and the thoughts of others is, she is already declaring that baby to be gay. But that is not what a rainbow baby is.
Another thing that came to my mind is part of the Mason Lodge, the Order of Rainbows.
What does the it mean to me?
It was only fair for me to share what the rainbow means to me. I did after all ask my friends the same question and used their responses as well.
I see the rainbow as God's promise to us. Not to mention, I know that when I see it God gave us a promise that he won't break. It reminds me of promises I have made to God. Those promises I make to God, I shouldn't break just like the covenant he made with us on Earth. It also reminds me of the beauty he created.
Let us rejoice and thank God for the wonderful promise to never flood the Earth with water again. It is also said the rainbow is God's glowing covenant. God Keeps His Promises! If you look close enough we can see the rainbows in our own lives of the promises that God has given us. Too often we take advantage of it and don't see it or thank God for it or show appreciation.
Judgement Day is coming! Sooner than we may think too! God did promise not to flood the earth, but the next judgement will come by fire. God will destroy the whole earth by fire. Just think fire refines items like metals such as gold. He will refine the Earth with fire, total destruction.
First published May May, 14, 2013. Last updated or republished March 15, 2019.
a good post. Once when we were traveling it had been stormy all morning… about 2 pm the sun broke through in just one little spot with the rest of the sky still covered in clouds. The hole looked just like the cookie cutter angel in shape and it was all rainbow. It was so pretty. Lifted my spirits and made me wish I had a camera. Probably a good thing I didn't since we were on an interstate, lol. The trip hadn't been very pleasant , but that rainbow was definitely a gift from God to my soul at that moment.
Nice thanks Henry 🙂 I like that.
Thanks for sharing that's a good quote.
The rainbow is the symbol of covenant to me. God calls a people out for His name by covenant. So the rainbow is a symbol of adoption into God's family. It is a sign of belonging.


Humpback Whale Calf Vavau, Tonga. Photo by Amanda Cotton.
This is quite an old picture, taken over 15 years ago. It shows how film was used, which had far less low-light sensitivity than the sensors in present-day digital cameras. It was shot handheld on a night dive with the full moon illuminating the surface and dive lamps light-painting the corals from behind. I picked it as an example of how an image can be envisaged and planned. I sat on the beach of the Red Sea one fine moonlit evening and came to wonder whether it was possible to push the envelope and do night photography underwater without a strobe. This was in the days when ISO 100 color slide film was the norm for serious underwater photography, and I happened to also have some rolls of a rather unique slide film: the Agfa Scala, which was an ISO 160 black-and-white slide film that could be "pushed" to ISO 1600 or 3200 with decent results. But even at these high ISO settings the required shutter speed would be counted in seconds, resulting in blurry images as I had no tripod or support for the camera. The solution: I used a rebreather and swam out about five minutes ahead of my buddies and laid down flat on the sand, supporting the camera with my elbows, resting directly on the seabed facing the beach. I got my breathing calm and steady. Since I was on a rebreather, my buoyancy did not fluctuate, and I was able to lie very still. I composed the image and steadied myself, waiting for my buddies to appear to light-paint the corals. I then squeezed the trigger VERY gently. I believe the indicated shutter speed was about two seconds, but it came out decently sharp. Nowadays, it is nothing special, and modern technology can produce much better results. But back then, it required thinking out of the box to get the desired results—and that is what this image now represents. This image was captured on a Minolta 700si with a 16mm fisheye in a Seacam housing.


text:
Plebgate libel trial begins as Andrew Mitchell seeks damages from The Sun over 'grossly offensive' front page
Chief sub made redundant by Johnston Press doubles his earnings by launching Home Handbook booklet series
News digest: Vice website relaunch, Society of Editors fellowships for David Meara and Peter Cole, Derby Telegraph office move
By William Turvill Twitter
Vice relaunched its website last week on the day it published an editorial project on Guantanamo Bay.
Visit Behind The Bars: Guantanamo Bay featured the work of Jeremy Paxman, Melvyn Bragg, Frederick Forsyth and John le Carre among others.
Alex Miller, Vice's global head of content, said: "These prisoners have loomed large over America, its allies and its enemies since the day the prison was built.
"To human rights campaigners, they are an exemplar of contemporary cruelty; to the brutal forces of Al Qaeda and the Islamic State, they are an excuse for crimes aimed at the West.
"As a collection of work, Behind The Bars is meant to serve as a testament to the existence of Guantanamo Bay, both from outside its walls and within them."
Cavendish Press managing director Jon Harris has been elected as chairman of the National Association of Press Agencies, replacing Ferrari's Matthew Bell.
In a statement Harris, 49, said: ''It is my firm view press agencies are the most important supplier of news, features and pictures to media outlets both now, and in the years ahead.
''But we as an organisation must heavily promote that message to the press both here and abroad to help us achieve that other very important aim – to ensure the press agencies get a fair day's pay for their work.''
The Prince of Wales has written an opinion piece about the importance of preserving the countryside to commemorate his 66th birthday in Country Life.
Prince Charles last year guest edited the title for his 65th.
Six former editors of the Derby Telegraph gathered to commemorate the newspaper moving offices after 30 years last week.
The Telegraph is expected to complete its move, from Meadow Road to Siddals Road, today.
David Meara, the former rector of St Bride's on Fleet Street, and Peter Cole, emeritus professor of journalism at Sheffield University, have been awarded fellowships of the Society of Editors.
Meara has been a Church of England priest for 40 years and was rector at St Bride's for 14 years before retiring this year.
Cole previously worked for The Guardian as deputy editor and news editor, The Sunday Times, Evening Standard and Evening News.
Fraudster loses 'right to be forgotten' bid against local newspaper, national press and BBC stories
37 times local newspapers made a difference over the last year
Derby Telegraph in breach of three clauses of Editors' Code over picture of injured girl, IPSO rules
Derby Telegraph editor 'mortified' that family and friends of young mum were distressed by inquest coverage
Explore these topics
Derby Telegraph


text:
Stenodryas albovittata is een keversoort uit de familie van de boktorren (Cerambycidae). De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort werd voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 2010 door Holzschuh.

albovittata

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Sybil & Louis at Tunitas Creek: (Short Version) Conclusion
Not only was the artisit Sybil Easterday's home at Tunitas Creek, the end of the Ocean Shore Railroad's line– but her husband Louis ran the rustic saloon there. Louis, whose drinking was anything but recreational, often barricaded himself in his office at the back of the saloon. During these serious drinking bouts, he surrounded himself with "firearms from a complete arsenal," making it clear he wanted to be left alone.
Until her marriage, Sybil's life seemed to have been orderly. The house, landscaped with pretty flowers and shrubs, had been built with money from her commissions. It stood in a secluded spot beneath a bridge. Valuable antiques, handcarved furniture, as well as statuettes and paintings, examples of her work, filled the rooms.
But suddenly her life took a dark turn.
Just before Valentine's Day in 1916, Sybil, now 40, faced a horrible domestic crisis. She later recounted that the 33-year-old Louis had been drinking heavily as usual and had shut himself up in his office–but this time he did not respond to her pleas to open the door.
Some locals thought it unusual that instead of calling the police, she summoned Dr. Clarence V. Thompson. A county supervisor, Dr. Thompson resided with his wife in a big two-story house in Pescadero. He had set up a "hospital" in his home but few if any patients were admitted there.
When Dr. Thompson arrived at Tunitas Creek, he found the doors of the saloon broken in and rushed to the back office.
Before him, Sybil's husband Louis was slumped over, a gaping wound in his chest. A double-barreled shotgun lay on the floor.
The official inquest called it a suicide.
After Louis's death, Sybil and Flora, her invalid mother, pursued a reclusive life. Sybil, who died in 1961, was seldom seen but there were those who remember the vision of a lonely figure wandering around her property at Tunitas Creek, a rifle in her hands.
[Examples of Sybil Easterday's sculpture can be viewed at the San Mateo County History Museum in Redwood City–but the artist's eccentricity has provided her most enduring legacy.]
Photo: Sybil Easterday, courtesy San Mateo County History Museum
CategoriesCoastside Characters, Sybil Easterday, Tunitas Creek
Previous PostPrevious Back From Reno
Next PostNext Speaking of "The Departed"…


text:
McFly announce Gloucester gig this summer - how to buy tickets
I'm A Celebrity contestant, Roman Kemp, will be supporting the pop legends
Emma Grimshaw
McFly are coming to Gloucester (Image: UGC)
McFly will be coming to Gloucester this summer as one of only a few exclusive outdoor concerts across the UK.
The pop kings will descend on Gloucester Park on July 23 when they will be touring with their sixth studio album 'Young Dumb Thrills'.
They will be supported by Capital FM DJ and I'm A Celebrity contestant Roman Kemp, son of Martin Kemp formerly of EastEnders and Spandau Ballet.
James Penny, from M&B who is promoting the show, said: "We are more ready than ever to unleash the ultimate summer party.
"With live music officially back on what could be better than sizzling performances from the feel-good masters of pop McFly plus a warm up DJ set from the one and only Roman Kemp.
"Attendees can expect a full on festival atmosphere with one of the best live bands around."
To get breaking news like this straight to your inbox, click here
McFly was originally meant to be touring in April 2020, but this was moved to October 2020 due to the pandemic.
When England's second lockdown was confirmed the band made the decision to push back the tour to May 2021. The full UK has now been postponed, and instead a handful of open-air concerts will take place in the coming months.
Tickets will go on sale at 10am on March 24 via www.easyticketing.co.uk
Today's top Gloucestershire stories
Another Gloucester school hit by coronavirus
Cheltenham Festival 2020 and the Covid impact in Gloucestershire
Gloucester Park
IYA Alert County


Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Coloring Book Pages For Kids was posted December 2, 2018 at 2:14 pm by Kidguru Coloring . More over Coloring Book Pages For Kids has viewed by 307 visitor.
Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Catholic Coloring Pages For Kids was posted November 30, 2018 at 5:45 am by Kidguru Coloring . More over Catholic Coloring Pages For Kids has viewed by 547 visitor.
Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Valentines Day Coloring Pages For Kids was posted November 30, 2018 at 10:34 am by Kidguru Coloring . More over Valentines Day Coloring Pages For Kids has viewed by 852 visitor.
Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Kid Coloring Pages Online was posted November 30, 2018 at 3:37 am by Kidguru Coloring . More over Kid Coloring Pages Online has viewed by 239 visitor.
Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Kids Coloring Page was posted December 2, 2018 at 10:09 am by Kidguru Coloring . More over Kids Coloring Page has viewed by 112 visitor.
Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Free Christian Coloring Pages For Kids was posted December 2, 2018 at 10:20 am by Kidguru Coloring . More over Free Christian Coloring Pages For Kids has viewed by 783 visitor.
Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Kid Coloring Pages was posted November 30, 2018 at 9:00 am by Kidguru Coloring . More over Kid Coloring Pages has viewed by 148 visitor.
Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Coloring Pages To Print For Kids was posted December 3, 2018 at 1:18 am by Kidguru Coloring . More over Coloring Pages To Print For Kids has viewed by 255 visitor.
Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Bible Coloring Pages For Kids With Verses was posted December 3, 2018 at 2:22 am by Kidguru Coloring . More over Bible Coloring Pages For Kids With Verses has viewed by 486 visitor.
Coloring Books And Coloring Pages, Wedding Coloring Books For Kids was posted December 2, 2018 at 11:00 pm by Kidguru Coloring . More over Wedding Coloring Books For Kids has viewed by 761 visitor.


Take I-680 south. Stay to your right at the junction for I-580 East. Take the Dublin boulevard off-ramp. Turn right at the end of the off-ramp. Turn right on Dublin boulevard. The first left is Village Parkway. Proceed to the next light and make a u-turn. The turn into the driveway next to Caspers. 6990 is the two story building to the left.
Take I-580 east. Exit Foothill/ San Ramon Boulevard. At the top of the ramp, turn left. Cross the freeway. Turn right on Dublin Boulevard. Proceed about 1 mile and turn left on Village Parkway. Proceed to the next light and make a u-turn. The turn into the driveway next to Caspers. 6990 is the two story building to the left.
Take I-580 west. Take the last Dublin exit, turn right into Dublin. Turn right on Dublin Boulevard. Proceed about 1 mile and turn left on Village Parkway. Proceed to the next light and make a u-turn. The turn into the driveway next to Caspers. 6990 is the two story building to the left.
Take I-680 north. Take the transition to I-580 west. Take the Dublin exit, turn right into Dublin. Turn right on Dublin Boulevard. Proceed about 1 mile and turn left on Village Parkway. Proceed to the next light and make a u-turn. The turn into the driveway next to Caspers. 6990 is the two story building to the left.


text:
Opinion: Bill 148 offers hope to contract faculty at Ontario universities
Canadian law school students band together to help refugees banned by Trump
Sarnia Mayor Mike Bradley slammed in consultant's report on harassment
Women still struggle to make it to the top leadership posts in academe
Brescia faculty reach agreement to close gender-based wage gap
Policy Grievance Archive
Connect with us on FacebookFollow us on Twitter
Windsor Prof Tears Down Ads for 'Custom Essay Writing' Services
Article and pictures taken from CBC News Windsor website
'These suggest that plagiarism is normal behaviour,' says English prof André Narbonne
CBC News Posted: Oct 21, 2015 7:35 PM ET
André Narbonne says he was appalled by posters he saw advertising so-called 'custom essay writing' services, which were left on telephone poles near the University of Windsor. Some of the ads were on the campus itself. (CBC)
University students in Windsor might be tempted to follow up on an offer to buy custom essays so they won't have to do the work themselves, but a local professor says they are unlikely to get what is being advertised.
When walking to his office on the University of Windsor campus recently, André Narbonne noticed a series of posters offering "custom essay writing" to students.
The English professor tore them down as soon as he saw them. Narbonne said he knew his reaction wouldn't stop plagiarism, but he was disgusted by what the posters had to say.
The posters promise to deliver papers that would get students grades of at least 80 per cent or higher. (CBC)
"These suggest that plagiarism is normal behaviour and I find that difficult, to say the least," Narbonne told CBC News in an interview.
The posters claim that all papers purchased will be written "in a scholarly manner with careful attention paid to spelling and grammar," with the recipients getting an average grade of 80 per cent or higher. A graphic showing an "A+" appears on the posters as well.
Narbonne said there is no way the people buying these products will get what they want.
"I don't believe that people who go to these services get A-pluses in classrooms," Narbonne said.
"For one thing, they are not learning how to write and if they are not doing the work, they are probably not going to do well on the exams, they are not going to do well especially in [the] class participation component — I consider that to be the real equalizer. You can't plagiarize what you think."
Student advocate worries about long-term impact
Matthew Dunlop, the vice-president of student advocacy for the University of Windsor Students' Alliance, said he knows students who have used these types of services before and he believes that stress has motivated many of them to use them.
That said, Dunlop said he worries about the long-term impact of people who are choosing to find ways around doing the work they are required to do, and what that implies about their personal integrity as well as their level of knowledge when they graduate.
When Narbonne heard about the suggestion that stress might be a factor that's motivating students to pursue these types of services, he said, "I don't think you should get into something that you don't have an aptitude for, necessarily.
"I mean, if you can't do the work — if you can't write English papers — maybe you should not be in an English class. If you can't do math, perhaps you shouldn't be taking math."
Narbonne also said students pursuing this approach are not recognizing that tuition is not a payment that guarantees a degree or a particular outcome.
"You're not paying for a grade when you pay your tuition. You're paying for an opportunity to learn," he said. "The university provides that. And this is a way of not learning, a way of sort of getting around that."
With a report from the CBC's Aadel Haleem
Printer FriendlyBack to Media
KERR HOUSE
366 Sunset Ave.
Windsor, Ontario Canada
N9B 3P4
Telephone: 519-253-3000, extension #3366
Office Hours: 9:00 am to 4:30 pm, Monday to Friday.
Please feel free to stop into the office for additional information relating to the Association's activities.
Council Page


Great location with exceptional visibility on Rt 9 across the street from the Cape May Court House post office. This 1184 s.f. office building was coveted from a single family home. It has 3 private offices a conference room , bathroom and kitchen. The Seller's disclosure and operating expenses available in associated docs and the Plot Plan is available in office upon request. Easy to show lock box on property .