Figure 1.-- The U.S. Congress chose to finance the war primarily by borrowing from financial institutins and individuals. The Federal Government launched well publicized drives to sell war bonds on a voluntary basis. The drives were supported by Hollywood celberties and decorated service men. Even children participated in these drives. They could buy Defense Saving Stamps and when they filled up their book a bond would be issued. This process began even before the Japanese Pearl Harbor attack brought America into the War (1941). Here Scouts in 1941 are helping to sell National Defense Stamps in 1941. The press photo caption read, "Peacetime Blitz: This flying squad of Boy Scouts, shown with F. H. Church of the chamber of commerce on the truck servicing the downtown area, are just leaving headquarters on an invasion of retail stores to sell defense saving stamps durng Retailers for Defense Week, Scouts shown above are, left to right, Richard Kelly, Sammy Danos, Marvin Braunstein, Fred Peterson, Ernie McClelland, Oleg, Obuhoff, Earl Lowart, Victor Fortakoff, and Elmer Soderquist. More than 300 Scouts are participating.
Economics played a central role in World War II. Hitler's rearament program was bankrupting NAZI Germany. It is questionable how long Hitler could have continued his rearament program if he had not taken Germany to war in September 1939. Germany proceeded to loot the national banks of the conquered nations. The persecuution of the Jews and the Holcaust was also used in part to finance the War. The NAZIs very effectively integrated the economiy of Czecheslovakia into the German arms industry. Germany did not go to a full war footing until late in the War. Not did Germany effectively cooperate in war prodyction with its Axis allies. Germany also did not effectively used the economies and industries of the captive nations, especially the countries occupied in Western Europe. The Germans did use te conquered countries as a source of slave labor. German ineffiency in coordinating with Allies stands in sharp contrast to the close copperation between Britain and America. President Roosevelt began mobilizing the Arsenal of democracy, the vast American economy well before America went to war. Very extensive cooperation in weapons development and production also began between Britain and American before American ntered the War. Hitler avoided putting Germany on a full war footing, because he thought the War had been won and he did not want shortages and rationing to deminish domestic support for the War. Only after the setbacks in Russia, especially Stalingrad, did Hitler turn to Speer and give him the authority to fully convert the German economy for war. Fortunally for the world, by then it was to late to stop the expanding force of the Soviet Union in the East and the Western allies in the West.
Germany began World War I as the dominant industrial power in the Continent. The Versailles Treaty transferred simecterritiry in the wesst (Alsace-Loraine) and east along vthe border with the new Polish srate. None of these trasfers affcted the industrial hearland of Germany. The countryvremained the dominanht vindustrial power on the Continent. The Treaty of Versailles had significantly limited the German military. The Weimar Republic Government had publically accepted the limitations. While lmiting the size of the armed forces and weapons like planes, battleships, and submarines, the Treaty did not limit training programs. The military was also allowed to persue inovative reserch programs. There were also secret military arrangements with the Soviet Union. Aircraft development was persued with a Dutch company. Hitler had made the Versailles Treaty a major political issue in his rise to power. As a result, of previous evasive policies, Germany was not as weak as the rest of Europe assumed when Hitler seized power.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain (mid-18th century) and after the Napoleonic Wars gradually spread to the Continent, especially France and Germany. And by the turn-of the 20th century was beginningvto transform other countries such as Russia. Industrialization and the advance of science which accompnied it transformed warfare. The major industrial powers became the most important Military powers. Russia and Austria declined as great powers while Prussia was able to unite Germanhy around it and emerged as the dominant power in continental Europe. And the highly militarized Prussian state becanme a diminant force in the German Empire. Industry also developed in Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland but were too small to develop important bmilitary forces. Partialy because of this they sought refuge in neutrality, despite the Belgian experience in World War I. America emerged as a great industrial power, but lagged behinf Europe in Scientific expertise although the science establishment was growing. America except for the Civil War and World war I declined to devote important resources to the military. America after the turn-of-the 20th vcentury thanks to Henry Ford developed the industrial assemby line which transfornmed the country into the preminent world industrial power. Industries in Europe such as automobile companies continued ti be more craft ships. Producing often high-quality products, but on a smaller scale and at higher prices. The Soviet Union emerged in Russia and continued the country's industrializatiion which had begun during the Tsarist period and devoted great resources to the military. Stalin speed up the developmentb of heavy industry by starving the countryside. There was also impotant induistrial development in northern Italy and Czechoslovakia which emerged from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Japan emerged as the only indudrtrial power in Asia. While Japn modrnized economically, it had a relatively small scientific establishment. In contrasr to the economic advances, the country retained a very traditional political outlook with mikitary built around a medieval code of honor nd conduct--Bushido. These industrial and scientific developments played an important role in World War I and would play an even more important role in World War II.
World War II histories often give considerable attention to industry and the arms including planes, ships, and tanks produced by each country's industry. While perhaps not as dramatic, agriculture was also a vital component of World War II war economies. It is no accident that the Axis was dominated by countries (Germany and Japan) dependent on importing large quantities of food. These countries were intent on acquiring colonial possessions that could provide them the food resources they coveted. It was why Hitler discussed the East at great length in Mein Kampf and that conquering the East (meaning the Soviet Union) was a primary German war goal. The bountiful wheat fields of the Ukraine ererted a magnet-like attractgion for Hitler--an obsession that would result in the most massive military campaign in history, the NAZI invasion of the Soviet Union. Japan seized Manchuria with its agricultural potential, a decade before launching the Pacific war. And the resourcs of the Southern Resourze Zone, including agriculture, would lead Japan to attack the United States. The Axis interest in agriculture was primary a concern over food production. Food shortages wre a weakness of the German World War I war economy. Hitler was acutely aware of this and determined that it not impaair the NAZI war economy. In sharp contrast, the Allies had very strong agricultural sectors. France was a very fertile country. Britain like Germany was dependant on food imports, but had access to the sizeable agricultural sectors of the Dominions and exporting countrieslike Argentina. The Soviet Union had vast agricultural potential, but its agricultural sector was damaged by Stalin and his brutal collectivization campaign. China had a vast agricultural sector, but almost all of its production was consumed domestically. The country with the world largest agricultural section was the United States and not only was America's food production huge, the Government had policies aimed at limiting production to increase prices. This meant that the potential existed to sizeably increase food production. American and Canadian agriculture would prove especially important as they were relatively close to Britain and play a critical role in feeding Britian during the War--as long as the Atlantic life lones could be kept open. Thus a discussion of World War II agriculture has to concentrate on food production. But there were other commodities that have to be considered, including rubber, fibers, tobacco, opium, and other products.
Hitler had to at first proceeed in secret and with cautious diplomacy. The allies if they acted decisively could have destroyed his regime.
Hitler ordered Germany to withdraw from the Geneva Disarmament Conference. He desguised this with by demanding that France should disarm to the level of the Germans or that the Germans should be allowed to re-arm to the level of the French. Hitler knew that the French could be expected to reject his proposal. As the proposal sounded reasonable, the NAZIs could claim that the French had forced Germany to withdraw from the Conference. The French decided on a defensive policy against the NAZI threat. The center-piece of French defenfense policy was the Maginot Line, named after a French efefense Minister. Enormous sums were spent on a series of underground forts on the French and German frontier.
The NAZIs as other European governments in the early 1930s were confronted with the enormous difficulties of the Great Depression, the same Depression that had helped bring them to power. The NAZIs immediately began rearmament. This was was a central NAZI epolicy, more important than fighing unemployment. Hitler seized power in January 1933. Arms expendictures were only 10 percent of government spending in 1933. The NAZIs increased this to 25 percent by 1935, a massive increase, but on a fairly small base and still small in comparison to future spending. The Government projects that would have the greaest impact pn production and employment was spending related to motor vehicles, transportation infrastructure, and construction. The construction of the Autobahns was the largest single project. Here the NAZI German Labor Service, Reichsarbietsdienst (RAD), played an important role in providing employment. This was a uniformed labor service, some what similar to the American Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). NAZI economic policy was to combine increases in government investment with increases in private investment, and to manage the ecoonomy to maximize investment and resulting employment increases.
The NAZIs gained substantial control over the German economy. Important were brought undr effectiuve NAZI control by being offered lucrative government contracts. Individuals who refused to cooperate were dealt with by the regime coersive instruments like the Gestapol. The NAZI government's economic role was primarily supervisory. The NAZIs did not for the most part seize and directly operate German industries. The NAZIs expected cooperating industrialists. NAZI officials occassionaly intervened to ensure compliance with state objectives. Even during the War, slave labor was often contracted out to German corporatiins rather then used in SS operated production facilities.
NAZI propagand proclaimed that it had developed effective policies for dealing with the Depression. They in fact managed to convince many Germans of this. One economist points out that in the 1930s, German productivity only grew 1.3% per year from 1929 to 1938, roughly half the growth rate of Britain in the same years leading up to the War. The NAZI policies did help Germany recover from the sharp collapse of the German economy during the early years of the Great Depression. The NAZIs did not, however stimulate any real economic growth. There were investsments in new plants and equipment in the 1920s, but under the NAZIs in the 1930s, there was little economic expansion, only existing plants were brought back into production. There were two important consequences of the NAZI led recovery. First, as a result of a massive expansion of the Soviet industrial base in the 1930s, the economic gap between Germany and the Soviets was significantly narowed. Second, the NAZI policy of economic self sufficency had the affect of insulating German industry from competition. As a result, many innovative production techniques developed in countries that had to compete, were not adopted by German industry. As a result, NAZI Germany began World War with an industrial base that was mno longer as dominant over Russia as had been the case in World War I and with industrial production methods that were not as ifficent as those of the Western Allies. Both of these developments were largely unknown to the NAZIs, but were to have a major impact on the War.
Hitler and the NAZIs planned from the beginning a massive rearmament program. NAZI propaganda promoted the idea that Germany must rearm. [Riegler] The NAZIs did not, however, begin a massive rearmament program immediately upon seizing power in 1933. The Weimar Republic Goverment itself has spomsored secret armanents programs in violation of the Versailles Treaty. The NAZIs did sharply expand weapon reseearch. The German military expanded in secret during 1933-34. Hitler by March 1935, felt suffucently secure to publicize his military. The NAZIs announced that they expansion - which broke the terms of the Versailles Treaty. Europe learned that the Nazis had a modern 2,500 plane Luftwaffe and a Wehrmacht with 300,000 men. Hitler publicly announced that he was insituting a compulsory military conscription and planned to expand the Wehrmacht to 550,000 men. Actual araments production began in earnest in 1936. The NAZIs in 1936 doubled armamets spending over 1935 levels. It was in 1936 that NAZI arms spending first exceeeded the combined total for transportation and construction spending. The nature of arms spending also increased. NAZI arms spending initially focused on research, development, and capital investment. The NAZIs in 1936 began concentrating on producing actual military equipment. This is one of the least economically beneficial types of government spending. .
The NAZIs sustained aapidly expanding deficits as the regime progressed. These defitis began when the Weimar Governmnt expanded spending to deal with the Depression. Expanded deficits began in the 1928-29 fiscal year. The NZIs continued the deficit spending policy, but greatly expanded the actual amount of the deficits. The NAZIs from the 1933-34 to 1935-36 fiscal years were sustaining government expenditures which exceeded income by about 50 ercent and this was before massive arms producrtion began. The German defecit spending sounds like classic Keynsian economic policies designed to stimulate a depressed economy. The idea was to stimulate consumer spending. Through the multiplier effect, government spending can theoretically have a major impact on stimulating consumer spending. The NAZIs were, however, not at all interested in stimulating consumer demand and spending. They in fact did not want increased consumer conumption. They wanted to increase investment and savings. As a result the multiplier effct of NAZI spending averaged only about 1.5 rather than the 2.5 estimated as likely by Keysian economists in western capitalist countries. The NAZI rearament program by the 1938-39 fiscal year was consuming 46 percent of total German government spending. This level of spending caused a substantial debt load. The NAZIs significantly increased government spending without any comparable increase in revenue. The NAZI government was spending almost twice as much as its revenue nd in the years leading up to the war that was primarily on the military. As NAZI government spending was a third of the economy, the government debt was very rapidly increasing. This enabled the NAZIs to create and arm the Whermacht and to establish a poweful military capable of attacking Britain and France. (It should be srssed, however, that the defeat of France was not entirely sue to NAZI military spending, but a failure in French tactics and will to wage war.) The German defecits enable the Germans to buoild a military advantage, but they also forced Hitler'd hand and the decesion to launch the war. Not only were the British and French rapidly rearming, but Germany could not continue massve defecit spending indefinitely. NAZI expendictures in the 1938-39 fiscal year which was the last fiscal year before World War II, government expenditure exceeded revenue by 86 percent. The total German debt load exceeded annual revenue by 136 percent. NAZI Government spending totaled 33.5 percent of GNP, up from only 19 in 1933. The NAZIs had managed to increase production by 25 percent over 1928 levels and 100 over Depression lows in 1932. The increases resulted from the expanded output of capital goods (infrastructure, heavy industry, etc.) rather than consumer goods.
The growing NAZI defecit was primarily financed through domestic rather than foreign borrowing. NAZI Germany did not have substantial freign creditors. This was largely because of both te Deporession and the fact that foreign creditoirs declined to lend moey to Germsny. The government could not continue to borrow such large amounts domestically. The NAZIs were increasing the national debt about 15 percent annually and this was not sustaniable.
The Axis allied with the Soviet Union at the time of World War II had succeeded in gaining the balance of military power in the world. Asfter the fall of France, if the NAZIs and Soviets had been able to coexist, the Allies would have not had the military power to reenter the Continent. This is in sharp contrat to the economies of the the Axis countries. The two largesteconomies of the world were the United States ($66 billion annual output) and Britain ($21 billion). Britain and France ($12 billion) had a national output nearly double that of Germany ($18 billion). The Soviet Union ($15 billion) has a national output roughly comparble to Germany. Italy had an especially weak economy for a country preparing for war. [Clark and Maddison] Data on Japan was not included in the studies we consulted, but would be a fraction of the major world powers. The German numbers are somewhat misleading. Germany had some of the eading world corporations with cutting edge technology. The Germans had not, however, developed American mass production techniques especially in the autimotive indusyry, in part because of the relatively small size of the domestic market. The most productive German automobile manufacturer was Opel, asubsiduary of General Motors. And whole the Germans had many advanced corporations, a sizeable part of the manufactured output was produced by small or medium-sized companies operationg what might be called workshops. Germany also had a relatively inefficent agricultural sector. Despite its vaunted reputation, the average America had an income and life-style beyond the imagination of the average German. And that economic difference affected the military power that the two ecomnomies were capable of generating. The same economic situation also described Britain and France to varying degrees, but both had more efficent agricultural sectors as well as empires with access to raw materials. The Soviet Union was much less economically developed than Western Europe, but as aresult of Stalin's policies had expnded heavy industry. American companies had helped expand Soviet production of cars and trucks. And the Soviet Union like the Germans had concentrated on military production. Unlike the Germans, the Soviets had vast deposits of natural resources, especially oil. The German military successes before (especially the occupation of Czechoslovakia) and in the early phase of the War (especially the Low Countries and France) significantly expanded Germany's economic power base.
Strategic materials played a critical role in World War II, in both the desire to launch the War and in the ability to wage an extended conflict. Only one country at the outbreak of World War II had the industrial and agricultural capacity as well as the resource base to wage world war and that was the United States which had no desire to wage another world war. The Soviet Union had significantly expanded the Russian industrial base, but weakened the country's agricultural base through enducung the Ukranian famine and collectivzing agriculture. Like the United States, the Soviets posessed enormous natural resources and like Germany, they has desisns on neigboring countries. Britain was less well situated. It had a substantial industrial and scientific base, but except for coal and iron, limited domestic resources. And it had to import large quantities of food. Those resources, however, existed in the Empire and overseas trading partners like America. The Royal Navy existed to ensure access to those resources in time of War, but had been allowed to decline in strength during the inter-War period. France was better situated in terms of Britain as to food production and as a result of its navy and alliance with Britain was guaranteed access to needed raw materials in its colonies and trading partners. The Axis powers were less favorably positioned for War in ters of raw materials. Germany was an important industrial and scientific power, but could neither feed itself nor possessed the strategic resources needed for industrial world war. The one critical resource Germany possessed in abundance was coal. Other important strategic materials would have to be imported. This made Germany vulnerable to blockade and as in World War I, Germany did not have the naval power to contest a Royal Navy blockade. Germany was particularly defecient in access to petroleum, a necesity for the modern mechnized war in planned to wage. Germany's answer to this was a sunthetic petroleum industry, but this did not even meet the country's need in peace time. The limited resource base was why Hitler in his strategic thinking from a very early stage looked east to the copious resources of the Soviet Union--resources that were not subject to a Royal Navy blockade. Italy was the least prepared country of all the major beligerants. Italy had neither the industrial base nor the raw materials to wage a protracted war. Japan was the most industrialized country in Asia, but its industrial base was small in comparison to America. The Home Islands had almost no natural resources, but Japan had acquired some in Korea and Manchuria. Like Germany, Japan had virtually no petroleum and imported most of its needs from the United States, making it even more vulnerable than Germany.
Short wars are resolved by the standing militaries and decisive battles. It looked like this was goinging to be the case for what we now know as World War II. The NAZIs achieved a string of military victories in the first year of the War (1939-40) until the Panzers reached the English Channel and were stopped by the valiant stand of the out-gunned Royal Air Force (1940). Once this occurred and the conflict morphed into another war of attrition funancing and just not the military became an important factor. Finncing was a serious problem for NAZI Germany. The NAZIs after 6 years of unrestrained rearmament spending, the NAZI Government was bankup but deceotive financial tricks had prevented this from becoming known. This was a factor in Hitler launching the War in 1939 so that that he could finance the War economy by pillaging the economies of occupied countries and and forcing the defeated people into slave labor. He planned to do this by seizing the East, but as the Red Army held, it would be Vichy France and the rest of the occupied West that would finance a good portion of the German war effort. Britain began the War in a far weaker financial situation than was the case of World War I. And in a little more than a year, Primeminister Churchill had to inform President Roosevelt that his country was bankrupt and might not be able to continue the War. The President' response was Lend Lease, eseentially writing Britain a blank check. And America at the time was officially neutral. The United States despite the Depression was the world's preminent financial and industrial power. American support for Britain meant that it was impossible for the Germans to defeat the British, causing Hitler to invaade the Soviet Union. The NAZI invasion of the Soviet Union after it failed created enornous stresses on the German war economy (1941). At the same time, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor married the enormous Soviet military with the financial and industrial strenhth pf the United States (1941). The NAZI Grossraum, was unable to mobilize the economic and finacial resorces of occupied Europe in the same way that America and the British Empire were able to mobilize its respurces.
The NAZIs obtained the Sudetenland at Munich (September 1939). They then invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and converted it into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (March 1939). At the same time, Slovakia seceeded from Czechoslovakia and became alavisly obedient NAZI puppet state. Slovakia and the Sudetenland were largely agricultural. The Czech labds, however. important industrial centers. The most important was the Skoda works. The NAZIs very effectively integrated the economiy of Czechoslovakia into the German arms industry. The Skoda Works in particular made a major contribution to German war production.
A major question that has not been asequately addressed in the copius scholarship in World War II is how effectively the NAZIs exploited the resources and economic potential of the occupied nations. Germany proceeded to loot the national banks of the conquered nations. Obtaining the gold from the treasuries was critical for the NAZI war effort. The NAZIs oriented the economy toward war production and meeting domestic demand, not internation commerce. Thus critical raw materials from countries they did not conquer (Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey) had to be purchased with gold. The NAZI success in exploiting the economies is a complicated question. Of course the policies they pursued wee morally reperhensible. This virtually goes without saying. But a very different question is the effectiueness of NAZI policies. Here the record is mixed and the comclusioin dependent on what indices the reader estanlishes. It is undeniable that the NAZIs finncecHitler's War on the backs of the peoples of the occupied countries. They managed to keep the privations felt in other countries until the last full year of the wsar, 1944. It was in that year that the Germsan people began to experience the consequences of the War their leadership launched pn their behalf. By this time the stratehic bobing campign reached its intensitiy and the advancing Allied armies meant that the despoiling of the wealth of the occupied countries was no longer possible. For the NAZIs, their whole plan of conquest backfired on them. Hitler's war plan was to seize the resources of the East (essetially the Soviet Union) and use those resources to turn Germany into an unassailable continental power. But this did not occur. Stalin was shipping greater quantities of oil and other critical msaterials to Germany before the NAZI invasion than the Germans were able to obtain after the invasion. The Germans were never able to bring Soviet mine and factory production back on line to any great extent. And most of the agricultural resources of the East were used to feed the Whermacht rather than returned to feed Germany. Germany did nore effectively utilize the resources of occupied Western Europe--especially France. But here too the picture is mixed. While the Germns did exploit the wealth of the capotive nations in the West, what they exploited was the existing wealth and producive csapacity at the samne time that America, Britain, and the Soviet Union were massvely expanding arms production. Germany also did not effectively used the economies and industries of the captive nations, especially the countries occupied in Western Europe. Germany did use the captive nations as a source of raw materials. Romania in particular was a critical source of petroleum. (Romania was a NAZI ally, but coersion was an important factor in forming alliances with coutries like Romania.) Germany did not, however, prove very effective in fully utilizing the indutries of captive nations. France in particular had a large, sophisticated armaments industry. This industry was not converted to support the German armed forces. The economies of France and the Low Countries could have made a major contribution to the NAZI-war effort. The NAZIs in 1940 seemed more concerned in making sure that France would never again be a threat in the West. As a result, therwas not effort to gear up French armaments production. By the time the NAZIs realized that the War was not already won, it was to late to take full advantage of French industrial capacity. Thus planes, tanks, artillery, and other key weapons were not constructed in France for the Germans. Given the industrial forces being marshalled against Germany in America, Britain, and the Soviet Union, the Germans needed tofully utilize the industrial capoacity of the conquered nations. They failed to do so. In part this was because a goal of the NAZIs was to turn neighboiring countries into subservient agricultural countries that would feed agricultural harvests and raw materials to Germany. In the end the criminality of the NAZI world view sewed the seeds of its own production.
Hitler was a gambler whoi willing to stake everying. Taking Germany to war with its limited resources and industrial capacity was an enormous gamble. As Briton and France failed to call his bluff before it was too late, Hitler was able to achieve enormous successes in the early phase of the War. But another oart of Hitler's ganble was tha he could defeat Britain and the Soviet Union before America cold mobilze its huge industrial capacity to bear on Germany. Here he lost and lost big.
The NAZI Blitz on London, reportedly nightly by radio by Edward R. Murrow had a profound impact on American public opinion. Public opinion polls by December, 1940, indicated that 60 of Americans favored helping Britain, the only country still resisting the NAZIs, even if it meant war. This and the President's overwealming reelection, strengthened his hand in Congress. The U.S. Congress's in March, 1941, passed the Lend-Lease Act proposed by theAdministration. It proverd to be one of the most important pieces of legislation in history. . The Lend-Lease Act empowered the president to "lend, lease, or exchange" war materials with nations whose struggle against aggression was considered necessary to American security. It made the United States the "arsenal of democracy," not only for the United States, but for a vast coalition of allied nations forming around Britain and the United States.
The destruction of the Jews was a major NAZI war aim. As the War turned against the NAZIs, it became the only war goal that Hitler was able to achieve. The Holocaust is usally approached understandably on moral grounds. But there are other dimensions to the Holocaust. And one of those dimensions is economics. What were the economics of the Holocaust to the NAZI war effort? There wre some economic benefits to the NAZIs. One step in the Holocaust was to enpoverish Jews. This was not only a lucrative undetaking, but once destitute the Jews were made even more vulnerable. Confiscating the property of Jews provided valuables that could be used to reward the party faithful or German soldiers and officials during the War. The money and valuables sttollen from the Jews was suposed to go to the Government. Golden and other valuables collected by the SS was deposited in the Reich Bank. Often SA, SS, and other NAZis kept valuables for their own personal use. Some SS men were wen proceuted for this during the war. We have never seen an accounting as to how much loot taken from the Jews was actually used to finance the NAZI war effort. We are not sure if such a calcilation has ever been made. It is clear that the NAZIs desperately needed gold and hard currency. This was not necessary countries they occupied, even austensible allies like Romania where they simply seized the oil and other resouces. This was not possible for unoccupied countries (Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland). Critical materials like wolfram and iron ore had to be purchased from those countries. And as German industry was fully committed to the war, goods were not available for export. The NAZIs needed gold or cash. There was, however, a major economic downside to killing Jews. The Germans needed labor for the war effort. As the War went against Germany, every resoinably healthy German male of military age was conscripted. This and the exoansion of production required labor. The NAZIs killed about 6 million Jews. This meant roughly about 4 million productie workers (discounting children and the elderly), many with skills that could have been productively utilized. This was an enormously valuable resource and some NAZI officials wanted to utilize it. The Jews trapped in NAZI ghettos were hopeful that the usefulness of their labor would save them. Only Hitler could have resolved the competing proposals among his subordinates and made the decesion for murder. The murder of 4 million productive workers was a major detriment to the NAZI war effort. Germany began the War with an industrial capacity far below that of its adversaris. The murder of 6 million Jews, in addition to the barbarity of the act, is one of the ways in which the NAZIs failed to capitalize on the polential industrial strength of the occupied countries.
German financial officials before Hitler and Stalin launched World War II managed to obscure the level of the German Government's massive and growing debt. This allowed Hitler to pursue a massive rearmament program without causing a financial melt-down. Once Hitler took over Austria (April 1938) and Czechoslovakia (March 1939) he had access to new financial resources. Austria was annexed to the Reich. Czechoslovakia could be exploited ruthlessly. One of the first actions taken in both countries was to seize the Government's gold stocks. The same rutless policies were followed with the invasion of Poland and the outbreak of the war (September 1939). Exploiting the economies of occupied countries was critical to the NAZI war economy. Seizing foreign gold stocks was an important part of the NAZI effort. This was because Hitler began the war with an economy that lacked many vital resources. And the War mean thst few neutral countries wanted to accept Reich Marks to pay for imports of critical ntural resources. Hitler got oil from his allies, first the Soviet Union and then Romania, neither of which required Germany to use its gold supplies. Other resources could be looted from occupied countries. But other resources such as iron ore, cobalt, tin, tuhgsten and other metals as well as manufsctured goods had to be imported from neutral nations (Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey). And for this the NAZIs needed gold. Thus the Germans as they overan country after country, immediately went after each country's gold reserves. Yhe Poles managed to get most of their gold to France, but France itself was also endangered. As a result, massive gold shipments began arriving in the United States (Spring 1940). The gold came from Belgium, Britain, France (including the Polish gold), the Netherlands, and Norway. The story of NAZI efforts to gets their hands on the goild of occupied countries is a fascinating World War II story. The NAZIs also wnt after gold in individual hands. Here the major tarket was the Jews in Germany and the occupied countries. The Japanese in Asia also needed gold, but there was less gold to be had in China and the European colonies they occupied. There the most important World War II story is Yamashita's gold.
Germany did not go to a full war footing until late in the War. Hitler avoided putting Germany on a full war footing, because he thought the War had been won and he did not want shortages and rationing to deminish domestic support for the War.
Nor did Germany effectively cooperate in war production with its Axis allies. The failure of Axis arms meant that the European and Asian Axis powers never made physical connection. For a whilw when the Germans advanced in the Soviet Union there was air connections, but this was severed after Stalingrad. The more important sea routes were severed by the Royal Navy and the U.S. Navy. But the Axis failed to effectively share technology. By the final months of the war, the NAZIs were sending high tech weaponery to the Japanese, but by this time it was too late.
Hitler's concept of World War II involved short campaigns in which targeted counties would be knocked out individually or in small groups before they could adequately prepare. This was historically the way Prussia waged war. Prussia was a small, relatively poor country that did not have the resources to wage protracted wars against larger, richer countries. Thus a well trained standing army gave Prussia an advantage at the onset of wars. This was the approsch that Hitler adopted as Germany was surrounded by countries with far greater resources. Once countries were occupied, they could be looted to finance abd supply the German war effort. Hitler wanted to mimimize the demands on the German civilians because many did not want another war and privations on the home front had undermined the World war I war effort. Hitler stressed the importance of the 'gigantic all destroying blow'. This was a central concept in Prussian war planning. The competence of the Wehrmacht brought huge victories in the early phase of the War, but his plan began to fail when the British refused to buckle under in the Battle of Britain (1940). This led to Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union (1941). The Soviet winter offensive before Moscow meant that the Wehrmacht had failed to smash the Red Army and that there would be no German victory in a short war. Hitler planned for a short war because Germany did not have the manpower or resources for a protracted war. As a result, the German people and the German economy were not prepared for a long war. The Germany economy was not put on a total war footing. Women were not brouht into the work force and German companies continued to produce consumer goods. Promising arms projects like jet aircraft were on hold. Hitler wanted to maintain the civilian standard of living. Even after the disaster before Moscow, Hitler resisted massive changes in economic policy. This changed after the disasters in Stalingrad and North Africa. As the War turned against Germany, Hitler no longer desired to appear in public. It was thus Propaganda Minister Goebbels that announced "Total War". He delivered a long speeces in Berlin (February 1943). The German people were required to make real sacrifices for the first time at the same time that the Allied Strategic Bombing campaign became increasingly effective. By this time, however, it was too late. German war production could be raised and Speer accomplished a great deal. But productions increased were only marginal and paled in comparison to Allied production. The Germans faced the massive armies and war production that the Americans, British, Soviets were able to muster.
The NAZIs during World War II implemented a slave and forced labor program to supply needed labor to the German war industry. This program was approved by Hitler months before the 1939 invasion of Poland. The German program as it evolved during the War had two purposes, The primary purpose was two provide workers for German factories and farms as German manpower was to be directed into the armed forces. This was especially important as NAZI idelopgy resisted imploying married women in factories. Allied countries dealt with this problem by bring women into the work force, the proverable Rosie the Rivetor in America. (British and Soviet women were even more significantly brought into the workforce.) NAZI idelogy was involved here. The German Housefrau, however, was to stay home amd produce Aryan babies for future German armies. The other factor was the phenomenal German success at the beginning of the War which left the impression that there was no needed for women to enter the workforce. The secondary purpose was mass deportation and mass enslavement combined with underfeeding and overworking foreign laborers could be used to reduce populations of countries which posed a threat to NAZI Germany, Not only could the labors of these workers be used against their country, but the mistreatment could help reduce both the population of other countries and other ethnic groups, especially the slavs of Eastern Europe.
The Soviets incredibly after 1941 tore up arms plants in westrn Russia and shipped them to sites in or beyond the Urals. It was a mamouth undertaking. The plants were rapidly set up in new sites. Production was limited in 1942, but by 1943 huge quanytities of high quality weapons were flowing from Soviet plants. The Germans, lacking long-range bombers, could not target the Soviet plants.
German ineffiency in coordinating with Allies stands in sharp contrast to the close copperation between Britain and America. President Roosevelt began mobilizing the Arsenal of Democracy, the vast American economy well before America went to war. Very extensive cooperation in weapons development and production also began btween Britain and American before American entered the War. Lend Lease not only helped keep Britain in the War, but equipped the Allies with weapons and equipment that amazed the Allies as well as the Axis. The production of Liberty Ships meant that the Allies ended the war with more merchant tonnage than they began the War. Production methods were to developed for mass producung radars and other equipment that once required involved production techniques. Major weapons like the P-51 Mustangs werethe result of a combined Anglo-American effort. The Manhattan Project to build the atomic Bomb was a joint Anglo-American project.
Incredibly the Japanese do not appear to have made any kind of assessment of the industrial potential of the United States and the resulting capacity to wage war. They appear to have assumed that their naval superiority, especually their substantial superority in carriers, would allow them to seize a vast empire in Southeast asiand the South Pacific. They appear to have believed that America with its fleet bloodied would not have the national will needed to dislodge the Japan from its empire. From the point of view ofthe Japanese, American industrial and economic superiority was less important than the marshal spirit of the Japanese armed forces.
Only after the setbacks in Russia, especially Stalingrad, did Hitler turn to Speer and give him the authority to fully convert the German economy for war. Fortunally for the world, by then it was to late to stop the expanding force of the Soviet Union in the East and the Western allies in the West.
Clark, Colin. Clark's economic work in 1930s was reassessed by Angus Madison. The date he compiled had differences, but essential made the same point. Germany launched World War II will a relatively small economy not prepared for global war. Madison, A. "Quantifying and interpreting world development: Macromeasurement before and after Colin Clark," Australian Economic History Review Vol. 44 (2004). Another good source on World WAr II economics is Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris, 2001).
Hanby, Alonzo. For the Survival of Democracy.
Montgomerie, Ian. "The Nazi economy," undated internet posting.
Murray, Williamson. Srategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe, 1933-1945 (Diane Publishing co, 1983).
Overy, R.J. The Nazi Economic Recovery 1932-1938 (Economic History Society).
Sayers, R.S. "Financial Policy, 1939-45" in Sir Keith Hancock, ed. History of the Second World War: United Kingdom Civil Series (London: H.M. Stationary Office, 1956).


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It's time for the annual Kristkindl Markt in Brookside this weekend! If you aren't in the holiday spirit due to this unusually warm weather...this event will help you out!
Hosted by the Country Club Congregational Church, this German themed celebration is fun for all ages. There's a tented Biergarten with plenty of beer, live music and German food, plus homemade cookies for sale, the always popular Gingerbread House making area for kids and several vendors selling crafts and gifts.
Hours are Friday 5-9, Saturday 10-7 at 205 W 65th St in Armour Hills. The narrow neighborhood streets will be crowded with vehicles, pedestrians and traffic...please park several blocks away and walk to the church. Everyone is welcome!


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« Review: Alien Boys
Consequences »
Review: False Confession
False Confession, Out of the Basement Demo CD Queer Pills
Sometime in the Spring of 1985 I was in Seattle. This was always a big thing. Seattle was six hours away from my home town, Walla Walla, at the opposite corner of the state, and I wasn't likely to get there more than once or twice a year.
As a result, I remember clearly going down to Time Travellers near the market and I recall quite clearly what I got there. Among other things, these included Articles of Faith's blazing Give Thanks LP, the Misfits' Earth A.D./Wolfs Blood 12", and the Condemned to Death 7".
The pick of the litter (so to speak) was a six-song 7" by False Confession. I have to admit that I bought it because of the cover. I'd never heard of them, but the cover featured a skeleton with charged hair stabbing a dagger into a cross. This kind of thing is always a gamble. I've bought plenty of records with cool covers that turned out to be garbage. But this wasn't one of them.
As was so often the case, I listened to the B-side first and was treated to "Our Savior," dark and metallic and urgent. That set the tone for most of the other five songs, although there were a couple of slower cuts that sounded a bit more like 45 Grave. This record was my jam for months. Unlike the AoF LP, which was also great, False Confession didn't require a lot of thought to get into.
I sometimes think that Oxnard must have been really a shit town to grow up in, since there were a lot of great bands that came out of that town in the 1980s (Aggression, Ill Repute, Dr. Know, etc., etc.). Then again, Walla Walla was a pretty boring, hyper-Christian desert and we only produced two bands in my era, Blah (who I think opened for Riistytet at one point) and Roadkill (only around for a short time and half of that band was from Milton-Freewater anyway). Tri-Cities, about an hour's drive away, produced Diddly Squat, who were fucking awesome. But generally speaking, there wasn't much going on. But Oxnard, yeah, there were definitely some things happening there.
The False Confession 7", which is sometimes called Left to Burn after the opening cut, came out on Doug Moody's Mystic label. There was talk that there was something hinky about the terms under which Moody put things out. I don't know enough to render a judgment on it. I do know that he produced a lot of good records from bands that might not have seen the light of day otherwise. About anything else, one would need to ask the people involved.
False Confession don't seem to have been around for very long in their original incarnation, although I get this impression from this short interview with guitarist Fred Matatquin that they've been around on and off ever since. Matatquin went on to play in Dr. Know, and there's a song on the demo ("Social Puppet") that he clearly repurposed into a Dr. Know song under another title. Anyway, Dr. Know were a great band. I saw them a couple of times back in the day and they were awesome live, although I kind of got the impression they'd gotten rather tired of playing "Fist Fuck" every night. Also, one of the original members went on to be in Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, about which probably the less said the better.
Anyway, I was nosing around on the web, as one does, the other day and I noticed that Queer Pills put out False Confession's demo. This is the kind of thing that happens a lot these days, and often I'm a little torn about it. There were a lot of bands in the 1980s who made a lot of cool stuff and didn't get paid. To an extent, that wasn't the point anyway. But having eaten a lot of raw Top Ramen back in the day, I can understand how one might look at the current landscape and think that it might be nice to generate a little interest.
To be clear, I don't for a second think that this particular project was done for pecuniary motives. It also doesn't seem like a matter of antiquarian interest (it does look like False Confession have played some shows in the last few years). This is not one of those (extremely disappointing) moments when a band digs out some cassette that blew in the 80's. Half the time that stuff was recorded on a boom box on a cassette that used to have something else on it. I still remember getting the Accüsed's demo back in the day and it came on a cassette stamped something like "Mariner High School Language Arts Department." I've heard a lot of stuff released that really should never have seen the light of day (and here I will do people the courtesy of not naming names).
False Confession's Out of the Basement Demo is decidedly not in this category. In fact, it is exactly what I want. Four of the six cuts from the 7" are represented here (the exceptions being "Left to Burn" and "Feline"), as well as fourteen other cuts. It should come as no surprise that the recordings are rawer and less polished than those found on the 7". But in this case, the rawness adds to the quality, rather than the opposite. There is a kind of 1-2-3-4 fury to these cuts coupled with a dark atmosphere that lifts this above the general run of demos.
Out of the Basement opens with "Our Savior," arguably their best cut and one of the most ripping USHC tunes ever. The opening is a little more uncertain, but then they absolutely rip the lid off and head off with blistering aggression. This disc barely lets you come up for breath. There is a kind of dark swirl to their music that results from the lower quality recording values, but ends up giving one the feeling of looking into a nightmare world of rage and speed.
This disc has been my jam for the week or so ever since I discovered it. It takes me back to the era of punk when hardcore was…what…a lot simpler? Maybe it didn't seem that way at the time. There was a thrill of discovery back in those days which is hard to recreate, that feeling of owning a secret when you opened a box in the mail for the first time and pulled out a record that neither you nor your friends had ever heard. Finding False Confession's Out of the Basement Demo was something like that. This record is a treat for fans of stripped-down, uncompromising USHC and a real treasure that I never expected to find.
This entry was posted on August 7, 2019 at 10:37 pm and is filed under Reviews with tags aggression, dr. know, false confession, hardcore punk, ill repute, mystic records, nardcore, punk, queer pills, the accused.	You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a response, or trackback from your own site.
8 Responses to "Review: False Confession"
Sal Dodd Says:
I played guitar in Roadkill. Three of us went to Mac-Hi in M-F, but the bassist Jon lived in Walla Walla. Carl, the drummer, went on to play in Thrombus, Agent 86, The Detonators, The Fartz (etc) and still plays in The Glaring in the Seattle scene.
I honestly don't know what the other two guys did or are up to. I continued on to sing in Starved & Delirious, Piss Christ, played bass in Vegas Beat (a queer, all-girl trio) and the Klingon band Stovokor until 2003.
Thanks for thinking of and mentioning Roadkill!
Magadh Says:
Sally Dodd, legend of the Inland Empire. 😉
Dude!? Why did I not guess it was you?!
Ha. Ya old Marxist. Cool to see you're still kicking it. The best old school punk tapes I have came from you. I still have them. You turned me on to such great stuff. I've looked for that damn Fatal Rage LP for years! It's still one of my favorites.
What are you up to? Professor? CEO?😂
Brian olson Says:
Anyone know where a brother can get his hands on a Roadkill demo tape? Word on the street is that it's 22 minutes of the world's finest hardcore.
Yeah, I heard they were great, but the bass player was a complete asshole.
Poor li'l animals!
I still have man in a shoebox in the closet.
Fucking phones.
I do still have mine in a shoebox in the closet. I could get my friend Ward to digitize it, I bet.
Lol, I think your first answer was just as good. :p

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Propofol, a short-acting, non-barbiturate hypnotic for intravenous use, was developed in the United Kingdom in 1970s but was withdrawn from the market due to solubility issues and anaphylactic reactions. An improved emulsion formulation of propofol was introduced under the brand name Diprivan (diisopropyl intravenous anesthetic) in 1986. A water-soluble prodrug formulation, fospropofol, is rapidly broken down in the body to form propofol and was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 2008. Long-term use has been reported to result in addiction, and recreational misuse has been reported. Attention to the risks of non-medical use of propofol came to public attention in 2009 when the Los Angeles County coroner concluded that pop singer Michael Jackson died from a combination of propofol and lorazepam administered at home. However, propofol has not yet been scheduled by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration.
As an anesthetic, propofol is approved for use by anesthetists, but it is being used by nonanesthetists as a hypnotic-sedative during endoscopic procedures. A study has reviewed trends of propofol use by nonanesthetists in different countries (Heuss et al 2012). Swiss gastroenterologists use it without the assistance of an anesthesiologist in the setting of private practice.


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Matter & Energy
Science Bulletin
Home Science & Society Textbook story of how humans populated America is 'biologically unviable,' study finds
Textbook story of how humans populated America is 'biologically unviable,' study finds
Map outlining the opening of the human migration routes in North America revealed by the results presented in this study.Credit: Courtesy of Mikkel Winther Pedersen, Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen
The established theory about how Ice Age peoples first reached the present-day United States has been challenged by an unprecedented study which concludes that their supposed entry route was "biologically unviable."
The first people to reach the Americas crossed via an ancient land bridge between Siberia and Alaska but then, according to conventional wisdom, had to wait until two huge ice sheets that covered what is now Canada started to recede, creating the so-called "ice-free corridor" which enabled them to move south.
In a new study published in the journal Nature, however, an international team of researchers used ancient DNA extracted from a crucial pinch-point within this corridor to investigate how its ecosystem evolved as the glaciers began to retreat. They created a comprehensive picture showing how and when different flora and fauna emerged and the once ice-covered landscape became a viable passageway. No prehistoric reconstruction project like it has ever been attempted before.
The researchers conclude that while people may well have travelled this corridor after about 12,600 years ago, it would have been impassable earlier than that, as the corridor lacked crucial resources, such as wood for fuel and tools, and game animals which were essential to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.
If this is true, then it means that the first Americans, who were present south of the ice sheets long before 12,600 years ago, must have made the journey south by another route. The study's authors suggest that they probably migrated along the Pacific coast.
Who these people were is still widely disputed. Archaeologists agree, however, that early inhabitants of the modern-day contiguous United States included the so-called "Clovis" culture, which first appear in the archaeological record over 13,000 years ago. And the new study argues that the ice-free corridor would have been completely impassable at that time.
The research was led by Professor Eske Willerslev, an evolutionary geneticist and Fellow of St John's College, University of Cambridge, who also holds posts at the Centre for GeoGenetics, University of Copenhagen, and the Wellcome Sanger Institute in Cambridge.
"The bottom line is that even though the physical corridor was open by 13,000 years ago, it was several hundred years before it was possible to use it," Willerslev said.
"That means that the first people entering what is now the US, Central and South America must have taken a different route. Whether you believe these people were Clovis, or someone else, they simply could not have come through the corridor, as long claimed."
Mikkel Winther Pedersen, a PhD student at the Centre for GeoGenetics, University of Copenhagen, who conducted the molecular analysis, added: "The ice-free corridor was long considered the principal entry route for the first Americans. Our results reveal that it simply opened up too late for that to have been possible."
The corridor is thought to have been about 1,500 kilometres long, and emerged east of the Rocky Mountains 13,000 years ago in present-day western Canada, as two great ice sheets — the Cordilleran and Laurentide, retreated.
On paper, this fits well with the argument that Clovis people were the first to disperse across the Americas. The first evidence for this culture, which is named after distinctive stone tools found near Clovis, New Mexico, also dates from roughly the same time, although many archaeologists now believe that other people arrived earlier.
"What nobody has looked at is when the corridor became biologically viable," Willerslev said. "When could they actually have survived the long and difficult journey through it?"
The conclusion reached by Willerslev and his colleagues is that the journey would have been impossible until about 12,600 years ago. Their research focused on a "bottleneck," one of the last parts of the corridor to become ice-free, and now partly covered by Charlie Lake in British Columbia, and Spring Lake, Alberta — both part of Canada's Peace River drainage basin.
The team gathered evidence including radiocarbon dates, pollen, macrofossils and DNA taken from lake sediment cores, which they obtained standing on the frozen lake surface during the winter season. Willerslev's own PhD, 13 years ago, demonstrated that it is possible to extract ancient plant and mammalian DNA from sediments, as it contains preserved molecular fossils from substances such as tissue, urine, and faeces.
Having acquired the DNA, the group then applied a technique termed "shotgun sequencing." "Instead of looking for specific pieces of DNA from individual species, we basically sequenced everything in there, from bacteria to animals," Willerslev said. "It's amazing what you can get out of this. We found evidence of fish, eagles, mammals and plants. It shows how effective this approach can be to reconstruct past environments."
This approach allowed the team to see, with remarkable precision, how the bottleneck's ecosystem developed. Crucially, it showed that before about 12,600 years ago, there were no plants, nor animals, in the corridor, meaning that humans passing through it would not have had resources vital to survive.
Around 12,600 years ago, steppe vegetation started to appear, followed quickly by animals such as bison, woolly mammoth, jackrabbits and voles. Importantly 11,500 years ago, the researchers identified a transition to a "parkland ecosystem" — a landscape densely populated by trees, as well as moose, elk and bald-headed eagles, which would have offered crucial resources for migrating humans.
Somewhere in between, the lakes in the area were populated by fish, including several identifiable species such as pike and perch. Finally, about 10,000 years ago, the area transitioned again, this time into boreal forest, characterised by spruce and pine.
The fact that Clovis was clearly present south of the corridor before 12,600 years ago means that they could not have travelled through it. David Meltzer, an archaeologist at Southern Methodist University and a co-author on the study, said: "There is compelling evidence that Clovis was preceded by an earlier and possibly separate population, but either way, the first people to reach the Americas in Ice Age times would have found the corridor itself impassable."
"Most likely, you would say that the evidence points to their having travelled down the Pacific Coast," Willerslev added. "That now seems the most likely scenario."
Source: University of Cambridge
Research Reference:
Mikkel W. Pedersen, Anthony Ruter, Charles Schweger, Harvey Friebe, Richard A. Staff, Kristian K. Kjeldsen, Marie L. Z. Mendoza, Alwynne B. Beaudoin, Cynthia Zutter, Nicolaj K. Larsen, Ben A. Potter, Rasmus Nielsen, Rebecca A. Rainville, Ludovic Orlando, David J. Meltzer, Kurt H. Kjær, Eske Willerslev. Postglacial viability and colonization in North America's ice-free corridor. Nature, 2016; DOI: 10.1038/nature19085
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Featured in "Traditional Home" with Interior Design by Bonesteel Trout Hall, and Architectural Design by Otis Bradley, this home was originally designed by Gerard Colcord. Colcord was a sought after Architect in Los Angeles known for his simple elegance in capturing homes with historical relevance. This particular home was owned by Harrison Ford for 30 years before the new owners put their own style on the home.
The master bath – previously dark and very masculine, was opened up with a new light pallet.


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Q: Java TCP Socket receiving bytes with specified length I am trying to first read 4 bytes(int) specifying the size of the message and then read the remaining bytes based on the byte count. I am using the following code to accomplish this:
DataInputStream dis = new DataInputStream(
                        mClientSocket.getInputStream());

// read the message length
int len = dis.readInt();

Log.i(TAG, "Reading bytes of length:" + len);

// read the message data
byte[] data = new byte[len];
if (len > 0) {
    dis.readFully(data);
} else {
    return "";
}
return new String(data);

Is there a better/efficient way of doing this?

A: From JavaDocs of readUTF:

First, two bytes are read and used to construct an unsigned 16-bit
  *integer* in exactly the manner of the readUnsignedShort method . This
  integer value is called the UTF length and specifies the number of
  additional bytes to be read. These bytes are then converted to
  characters by considering them in groups. The length of each group is
  computed from the value of the first byte of the group. The byte
  following a group, if any, is the first byte of the next group.

The only problem with this is that your protocol seems to only send 4 bytes for the payload length. Perhaps you can do a similar method but increase the size of length sentinel read to 4 bytes/32-bits.
Also, I see that you are just doing new String(bytes) which works fine as long as the encoding of the data is the same as "the platform's default charset." See javadoc So it would be much safer to just ensure that you are encoding it correctly(e.g. if you know that the sender sends it as UTF-8 then do new String(bytes,"UTF-8") instead).

A: How about
DataInputStream dis = new DataInputStream(new BufferedInputStream(
                     mClientSocket.getInputStream()));

return dis.readUTF();

A: You can use read(byte[] b, int off, int len) like this
byte[] data = new byte[len];
dis.read(data,0,len);

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Cyanocobalamin is a well-studied, reliable, inexpensive form of vitamin B12. Nonetheless, many alternative health practitioners and supplement companies promote the co-enzyme forms of B12, methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin. Requirements for these forms have not been fully elucidated and common recommendations are for 1,000 µg/day.
MeCbl and AdoCbl are the two forms of vitamin B12 that are co-enzymes: the body requires each of them for different reactions.
CNCbl is the form most commonly found in supplements and fortified foods. It is the most stable because the side group, cyanide, has the strongest attraction to the cobalamin molecule.
HOCbl is the form usually contained in B12 shots and the hydroxyl side group has the least attraction to the cobalamin molecule.
AdoCbl is technically 5′-deoxy-5′-adenosylcobalamin, and also known as dibencozide, cobamamide, and cobinamide.
CNCbl contains a molecule of cyanide.
The body must convert CNCbl into AdoCbl and MeCbl before using it.
Others suggest that CNCbl is the best choice for most people because it is the most stable form, it has been well studied and proven to increase vitamin B12 status, it is the most common, and least expensive.
Let's examine the claims in favor of the co-enzyme forms.
The safety of CNCbl has raised concerns due to the fact that cyanide is a component of CNCbl, and the cyanide molecule is removed from CNCbl when used by the body's cells. Cyanide is also found in many fruits and vegetables and so humans are always ingesting small amounts of cyanide, and like in most fruits and vegetables, the amount of cyanide in CNCbl is considered to be physiologically insignificant.
For an analysis of the amount of cyanide in vitamin B12 supplements, see the table in Side Effects of B12 Supplements.
A 2015 paper by Obeid et al. suggests that people do not benefit more from the co-enzyme forms because all forms, except injected HOCbl, must have their side groups stripped by the target cell before the necessary side group is added for the co-enzyme form needed. People with genetic defects of vitamin B12 metabolism may benefit from HOCbl injections.
Currently, we do not have sufficient evidence to suggest that the benefits of using MeCbl or AdoCbl override that of using CNCbl or HOCbl in terms of bioavailability, biochemical effects, or clinical efficacy. There is uncertainty regarding the claimed superior role of [B12] coenzyme forms for prevention and treatment of [B12] deficiency. However, HOCbl may be an advantageous precursor of the cofactors, particularly in the inherited disorders of metabolic Cbl processing. CNCbl is a more stable and inexpensive form that appears to be best suited for oral supplementation and parenteral [intravenous] treatment as well.
Some researchers question whether the co-enzyme supplements are stable in their oral form and usually recommend much higher doses of MeCBl—typically 1,000 µg/day.
A 1971 study found that at doses of 1 µg, 5 µg, and 25 µg, CNCbl, HOCbl, MeCbl, and AdoCbl were all absorbed at about the same rate (6). However, the researchers suggested, based on other research, that at higher doses, CNCbl is better absorbed. They theorized that this could be because absorption of MeCbl by way of intrinsic factor is efficient while CNCbl is better absorbed through passive diffusion.
A 1973 study suggests that once absorbed, MeCbl may be retained in the body better than CNCbl (1).
A 2011 clinical trial from Korea found that 1,500 µg/day of MeCbl was effective at raising vitamin B12 levels, reducing or eliminating neurological symptoms of B12 deficiency, and lowering homocysteine levels (5). This trial was done on people who had a gastrectomy and, therefore, had vitamin B12 malabsorption, indicating that for most people 1,500 µg/day would be more than enough. There was no comparison group receiving CNCbl.
I am unaware of any clinical trials testing the various forms of vitamin B12 against each other among the general population and most people seem to do well using CNCbl.
Some people with chronic fatigue report getting more relief from AdoCbl than either MeCbl or CNCbl (more info), while other people report feeling better only when taking both AdoCbl and MeCbl. It's possible this could be a real effect, but could also be due to a placebo effect or taking more B12 and inadvertently counteracting malabsorption.
Donaldson (2) (2000, USA) studied 3 vegans with elevated urinary MMA levels who were treated with 1/2 to 1 sublingual MeCbl tablet, 2 times/day for 3 weeks. Correspondence with the author (March 21, 2002) verified that these tablets contained 1,000 µg MeCbl each.
Two of the subjects' urinary MMA normalized while the remaining subject's stayed slightly elevated at 4.1 µg/mg creatinine (normal is < 4.0 µg/mg creatinine). Thus, at a rate of 1,000-2,000 µg/day, MeCbl appears to be absorbed at a high enough rate to improve B12 status in some vegans. Additionally, this indicates that the MeCbl was converted to AdoCbl for use in the MMA pathway.
I'd been taking 500 µg of methylcobalamin for years, not knowing that the B12 dosages so often cited (daily 25 – 100 µg) are just for CNCbl. So, about a week ago I started taking 1000-2000 µg of methylcobalamin instead of just 500 µg, and I feel a difference!
It should be noted that this person might suffer from B12 malabsorption of any form of B12, and might have had the same experience with CNCbl.
HOCbl is the form of B12 typically found in food. There are not many oral forms for people to take; it is normally injected. One study suggests that after injections, HOCbl is retained in the body better than CNCbl (4).
3. Obeid R, Fedosov SN, Nexo E. Cobalamin coenzyme forms are not likely to be superior to cyano- and hydroxyl-cobalamin in prevention or treatment of cobalamin deficiency. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2015 Jul;59(7):1364-72.
6. Adams JF, Ross SK, Mervyn L, Boddy K, King P. Absorption of cyanocobalamin, coenzyme B 12 , methylcobalamin, and hydroxocobalamin at different dose levels. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1971;6(3):249-52.


Disposable Nappies for a baby or a sick child can make all the difference to a family struggling with the cost of living. A donation of just £10 will buy two month's supply of disposable nappies.
A winter coat for a child can be bought with a donation of £20.
A pair of leather fur lined boots to cope with a Belarusian winter for a child can be bought with a donation of £15.
We have a large selection of genuine Russian and Belarusian "Matrioshka" wooden dolls for sale, from £5 to £30, all colours and types, just give us a call and we will arrange to show you a selection, as well as other crafts, and some small items, key rings and fridge magnets for a £1.


I saw Raw for the first time in 2 years this week and I was pleasantly surprised that the WWE had actually upped their game and effort for a change.
It was somewhat annoying that Raw had begun as as it has done for so many years with a talking segment that featured the unmatched moutpiece skills of Paul Heyman and the enigma that is Brock Lesnar citing that Undertaker will not walk out of Hell in a Cell whereas Super Lesnar will be the victor.
Enter a man who has about as much talking presence as Brock, in the Big Show. After a brief period of Show trying to be gracious in his defeat, Lesnar walks and gets goaded by Show whom then returns to take him back to Suples City and then F5's him.
13 years later and I'm still amazed at the physical strength of the former Undisputed Champion.
for the little amount of time that this was on, it was decent. Not sure where Barrett stands between these two as I got the impression that he showed concern for his fellow countryman.
I don't know whose decision it was to make Kane go this way, creatively, but it's working. For so many years (and through the various heel turns that kept pace with Big Show's) can had been somewhat 2 dimensional and here he shows levels of depth in his character and that he can have range.
And with Seth 'Cartman' Rollins who pretty much tells everyone "screw you guys I'm going home" if he doesn't get his way not letting up on Kane's Bruce Banner gimmick just works well as they have great chemistry.
Steph, like everyone else cuts through all the BS and says it what was Cartman that made that "annoymous" report on Kane and decides to put an end to it once for all.
At Hell in A Cell it will be Demon Kane challenging Rollins for the WWE Undisputed Championship and should Rollins retain then Corporate Kane will be releaved of his services.
These 2 competing against each other is like Trish Vs Lita, Rock Vs Austin or Punk Vs Bryan.
I make those comparisons because all those competitors brought out the very best in each other. If these 2 were to ever face other for the Divas Championship at a PPV, that would be legendary.
Owens is proving his worth as a Champion. Personally, I don't like him. But he's doing his job as a heel, if he can get you to hate him - job done!
It was a decent performance by Sin Cara who I think could have done with a win. But considering the run Owens is on that won't happen any time soon. And it doesn't look Ryback is done with him yet.
Really uplifting segment that just shows how well the WWE can lift Peoples' spirits in the name of a good cause.
cue some trash talking from some wannabe Barbie dolls and the very talented Alicia Fox who really should be doing better things than associating herself with 2 women who have only furthered their careers because of their men, which Naomi pointed out that Nikki knows "how to go all the way!"..............no comment.
A decent performance with Team BAD getting some much needed exposure and matchtime that they have been sorely lacking.
This was unwarranted, unmerrited and unnecessary.
And we come to the main event and surprising no one; Cena is headlining Raw once more.
On a serious note I am amazed of the great shape Cena is in since he debuted in 2002. And after the injuries he comes back seemingly stronger than before and the man seems to be ageless to some degree.
the match itself was good.
I don't think it needed it needed the pier 6 brawl at the end, but this is Monday Night Raw. Why change what they know?
So, to some things up; after seeing my first Raw since October 2013 when CM Punk was feuding with Heyman & Ryback, to when the Los Matatdores debuted and when Bryan was chasing his 3rd WWE Championship, I will say that Raw has gotten better.
Not as good as 2002's Raw Roulette nor the night Stone Cold returned after Unforgiven 2000 but I can safely saw that Raw is at least 'watchable' again.


The time has come to celebrate famous movie pairings of yesteryear for the Dynamic Duos in Classic Film blogathon. I am thrilled to host the second of two days of entries, preceded by the fabulous Aurora at Once Upon a Screen (@CitizenScreen) who posted on Day One yesterday.
If you need a refresher on the nuts and bolts of the blogathon visit the announcement post here. Otherwise I will waste no time getting to the heart of the matter, the entries that will entertain, enthrall and enchant. On behalf of Aurora and myself, I want to thank all of the bloggers who have submitted entires to this event. Learning from you is the best part of hosting and we're excited to have 8 dynamic duo-themed DVDs to raffle off at the end of the weekend to entrants chosen at random. Many thanks to Turner Classic Movies and Kino Lorber for graciously offering these DVDs.
Fairly fantastic, right? Well, if you like what you read so far, be sure to visit Once Upon a Screen to read entries from Day One of the Dynamic Duos in Classic Film Blogathon.
By the way, there are many more classic film events planned this summer. For details visit the the CMH Events Calendar. You can add your own events and blogathons there too!
Stan and Ollie arrived for party – you know, they were moving a piano up some stairs, that's why they were late!


text:
Grupa – kategoria pomocnicza w systematyce organizmów, niższa od gromady, a wyższa od rzędu. Na przykład gromadę ssaki (Mammalia) dzielono dawniej na grupy prassaki (Prototheria), Allotheria i ssaki właściwe (Theria).

Przypisy

Taksonomia

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Why Chimpanzees Can't Learn Language and Only Humans Can
Herbert S. Terrace
Format: E-book
Get the E-Book
In the 1970s, the behavioral psychologist Herbert S. Terrace led a remarkable experiment to see if a chimpanzee could be taught to use language. A young ape, named "Nim Chimpsky" in a nod to the linguist whose theories Terrace challenged, was raised by a family in New York and instructed in American Sign Language. Initially, Terrace thought that Nim could create sentences but later discovered that Nim's teachers inadvertently cued his signing. Terrace concluded that Project Nim failed—not because Nim couldn't create sentences but because he couldn't even learn words. Language is a uniquely human quality, and attempting to find it in animals is wishful thinking at best. The failure of Project Nim meant we were no closer to understanding where language comes from.
In this book, Terrace revisits Project Nim to offer a novel view of the origins of human language. In contrast to both Noam Chomsky and his critics, Terrace contends that words, as much as grammar, are the cornerstones of language. Retracing human evolution and developmental psychology, he shows that nonverbal interaction is the foundation of infant language acquisition, leading up to a child's first words. By placing words and conversation before grammar, we can, for the first time, account for the evolutionary basis of language. Terrace argues that this theory explains Nim's inability to acquire words and, more broadly, the differences between human and animal communication. Why Chimpanzees Can't Learn Language and Only Humans Can is a masterful statement of the nature of language and what it means to be human.
Herbert S. Terrace, known for his breakthrough work on the ape, Nim Chimpsky, now shines light on language acquisition in human children. In this masterful work, Terrace provides extraordinarily novel ideas about the evolution and development of the human mind and brain. This book will change how you think about human uniqueness. Terrace fills in one of the most important missing links in cognitive science—what it means to be a talking human being, and how we got that way. Andrew N. Meltzoff, coauthor of The Scientist in the Crib: What Early Learning Tells Us About the Mind
In this work, the distinguished psychologist Herbert S. Terrace illustrates a unique comparative perspective on the nature and evolution of language. Charles Yang, author of The Infinite Gift: How Children Learn and Unlearn the Languages of the World
Language seems to be a miracle; even our closest relatives, the great apes, lack any capacity for the grammatical structures that make human language unique. Herbert Terrace goes further and shows that chimpanzees can't even learn words. With characteristic clarity, he gives a convincing account of language evolution in Darwinian terms, without appeal to miracles. This is an important new approach to an old and vexed problem. Michael Corballis, author of The Truth About Language: What It Is and Where It Came From
Terrace played a very significant role in ape language research. His personal reflections and the conclusions he has drawn about language remain both controversial and relevant. Terrence W. Deacon, author of The Symbolic Species: The Coevolution of Language and the Brain
The idea that animals can be taught language is perennially appealing, driven by a longing to get into their heads, a desire to challenge human pride, and the misconception that Darwinism predicts that all organisms are the same. But humans are outliers among the primates, with cognitive, social, and linguistic talents that are as outsize as other flamboyant adaptations in the animal kingdom. Herb Terrace, who knows a thing or two about what animals can be taught, restores perspective to this issue in this insightful and wide-ranging reminiscence and analysis. Steven Pinker, Johnstone Professor of Psychology, Harvard University, and the author of The Language Instinct and How the Mind Works
A provocative and comprehensible book about an important and complex topic. David P. Barash, Wall Street Journal
1. Numberless Gradations
2. Ape Language
3. Recent Human Ancestors and the Possible Origin of Words
4. Before an Infant Learns to Speak
5. The Origin of Language, Words in Particular
Read Herbert S. Terrace's column at Psychology Today, The Origin of Words
Read an interview with the author on Rorotoko
Read a Q&A on the Columbia University webpage with Herbert Terrace about the lasting legacy of Project Nim
Herbert S. Terrace is professor of psychology at Columbia University, where he is the director of the Primate Cognition Lab. His books include Nim: A Chimpanzee Who Learned Sign Language (Columbia, 1987).
Neuroscience and Biopsychology
Leonard Hastings Schoff Lectures


In this video, dimension styles are created for the project. The Dimension Styles dialog box is used to create and update the dimension style for the project. Custom line styles are imported into the drawing. Center marks are added.


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strange house designs - California might be many well-known for its film celebrities and brilliant lights, however there're many various other fascinating and uncommon elements from California well worth having a look at. Right here are 10 distinct locations well worth going to.
Catalina Island is a beautiful bit getaway heaven that flaunts a herd from over 200 buffalo. The pets variety totally free in the center from the island, where they can be gone to by taking a trip bus right into the wild. Remarkably, the buffalo were imported to Catalina Island in the 1920s, when they were a component from a movie called " The Disappearing American ".
At 5912 feet deep, the Kennedy Mine was among the deepest gold mines on the planet. Its down payments were mined from 1860-1942 and created over 34 million bucks well worth from gold. Site visitors are welcomed to sign up with a 1 ½ hr trip from the surface area frameworks from the mine.
California Everyone have a bit youngster lurking under the grown-up masks that we existing. Legoland is the ideal location to allow that internal youngster bent on check out. What might be much more enjoyable compared to delighting in the 15, 000 Lego constructs, 50 wild trips, and seeing your youth plaything in its complete elegance?
With a size from 36. 5', the Basic Sherman Tree is the biggest tree on the planet (by quantity). It's just among a number of huge sequoia trees discovered in Sequoia Nationwide Park. These big trees are believed to be 1000-2000 years of ages.
Passionate to avoid additional disaster after viewing an awful equine and cart mishap on San Francisco's high city roads, Andrew Smith Hallidie develop a collection from cable television vehicles to securely transportation people and products with the city. The 3 cable television vehicle paths are still in procedure and site visitors rate to find out more regarding them at the Cable television Vehicle Barn and Giant.
This well known resort is stated to be haunted by a number of from Hollywood's many fascinating stars. Records from bugle having fun in space 928 are credited to the music designing from Montgomery Clift. Marilyn Monroe, that once lived at the resort, obviously haunts a mirror in the resort entrance hall and has been seen dance in the hotel's ballroom.
Developed by Grandma Prisbrey, the Container Town began as a solitary home, developed to screen her comprehensive pencil collection. Not having actually the cash to purchase conventional structure materials, Grandma Prisbrey mosted likely to the dispose and gathered the containers that currently type the wall surfaces from the frameworks in the town. While the town was seriously harmed by the 1994 earthquake, site visitors can still make visits to trip the town.
From the initial Austrian innovation from pepper mint flavored sweet, to the commonly understood fruit-flavored sweet in vibrant dispensers, the Burlingame Gallery from Pez Souvenirs showcases the background and advancement from Pez sweet. Along with showcasing Pez from all sizes and shapes, the gallery opened up a Traditional Plaything Gallery in 2004.
Integrated in 1947, a 30' lengthy, 20' high footwear stands happy on Chester Opportunity, where this plainly proclaims its company as a footwear service center. Total with 50' lengthy shoelaces, this uncommon shop deserves taking a minute to pick up a picture.
A fantastic mix from every shade and form increases in a hilly stack from innovative people art by Leonard Knight. Redemption Hill began as easy homage to God, however has quickly grown up. Currently 18 years right into the production from his development, Knight lives at the website in his little cabin, improved the rear of a 1930s classic pickup. Site visitors rate to climb up the staircases developed right into the build to obtain a much better take a look at Knight's development.
There're many various other distinct and fascinating points to see in California. Make sure to use the many web websites offered to assist you prepare a journey with the specify to find the many marvels from California.
If you've ever before gone to Bull Valley, Illinois you might have discovered an unusual looking framework with a distinct style. That structure is the previous home from spiritualist George Stickney. From the outdoors the framework is relatively typical looking, however on the within it's one more tale.
George had the house integrated in 1836 for him and his spouse Sylvia. At his ask for the house was to be developed with spherical edges. George Stickney complied with a type from spiritualism that held to the idea that wicked spirits might be drawn in to edges or get caught in them. George and Sylvia held many seances in the house.
Inning accordance with one tale the house wound up with one edge from a space that had a 90-degree dimension. Strangely sufficient, George satisfied his death in the house and apparently was discovered dead in among the edges with a terrified search his skin. He's stated to have passed away from obvious heart failing. Sylvia Stickney remained to reside in your home and acquired popularity as a spiritual tool. She held big seances in the house in the upstairs ballroom.
After his fatality reports from the supernatural started to surface area regarding the house. A few of the stories consist of creepy tales from people that have remained in the estate and have reported seeing numbers removaling regarding and listening to steps. Among the previous proprietors from your home Rodrick Smith likewise declares to have listened to unusual sounds in the house. He likewise reported that his canines never ever really felt comfy there.
In 1985 the estate ended up being an authorities precinct to the Town from Bull Valley. Authorities Principal Norbert Sauers is reported as having actually listened to steps in the structure, unusual sounds, lights switching on and off, door handles transforming, and listening to bathrooms purge when alone in your home. One more authorities policeman declares to have come in person with an phantom. The main word from the authorities however, is that your home is not neither has this ever before been haunted. Hmmm I marvel which it's?


text:
Play. Jean Anouilh. Translated by Lewis Galantière
M8 (20s, middle-age, 60s) F4 (19, 20s, 60s). An open space.
This play was first performed in German-occupied France and its theme is resistance to oppression. It is based on the Greek tragedy of Antigone, who tried to bury her brother's corpse against the diktat of her uncle, Creon. Creon is a dictator, but defends his position on practical grounds. In spite of her love for Creon's son, she chooses her part: to bury her brother and die.
Antigone. Play. Jean Anouilh. Translated by Barbara Bray
For cast, synopsis and setting details see synopsis above.
Antigone. Play. Bertolt Brecht
Translations: K. I. Porter, Robert Cannon
A prologue set in 1945 Berlin shows two sisters whose brother has deserted from the German army and is found hanged: should they risk being seen by the SS cutting his body down? In the play itself Creon becomes a brutal aggressor, who has attacked Argos for the sake of its iron ore. Tiresias, instead of prophesying the future, becomes a pessimistic analyst of the present; while the chorus of elders, always reserved in its attitude, eventually turns against Creon too.


Businesses and organizations spend billions to protect data from cyber attacks across the Internet. Another thing that you should consider are threats coming from the inside. Staff-related security breaches such as that of Morgan Stanley investment firm and Ashley Madison site where the CEO tells the possibility of the hack done by an insider tells us to always keep our guards on – even from our own staff.