This article is about the Fleischmann–Pons claims of nuclear fusion at room temperature, and subsequent research. For the original use of the term 'cold fusion', see Muon-catalyzed fusion. For all other definitions, see Cold fusion (disambiguation).
Cold fusion is a hypothetical type of nuclear reaction that would occur at, or near, room temperature, compared with temperatures in the millions of degrees that are required for "hot" fusion. It was proposed to explain reports of anomalously high energy generation under certain specific laboratory conditions. It has been rejected by the mainstream scientific community because the original experimental results could not be replicated consistently and reliably, and because there is no accepted theoretical model of cold fusion.
Cold fusion gained attention after reports in 1989 by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann, then one of the world's leading electrochemists, that their apparatus had produced anomalous heat ("excess heat"), of a magnitude they asserted would defy explanation except in terms of nuclear processes. They further reported measuring small amounts of nuclear reaction byproducts, including neutrons and tritium. The small tabletop experiment involved electrolysis of heavy water on the surface of a palladium (Pd) electrode.
The reported results received wide media attention, and raised hopes of a cheap and abundant source of energy. Many scientists tried to replicate the experiment with the few details available. Hopes fell with the large number of negative replications, the withdrawal of many positive replications, the discovery of flaws and sources of experimental error in the original experiment, and finally the discovery that Fleischmann and Pons had not actually detected nuclear reaction byproducts.
By late 1989, most scientists considered cold fusion claims dead, and cold fusion subsequently gained a reputation as pathological science. In 1989, a review panel organized by the United States Department of Energy (DOE) found that the evidence for the discovery of a new nuclear process was not persuasive enough to start a special program, but was "sympathetic toward modest support" for experiments "within the present funding system." A second DOE review, convened in 2004 to look at new research, reached conclusions similar to the first. Support within the then-present funding system did not occur.
A small community of researchers continues to investigate cold fusion, now often preferring the designation low-energy nuclear reactions (LENR). Some have reported that under certain conditions they observe excess heat effects by interaction of hydrogen or deuterium with palladium, nickel or platinum. Since cold fusion articles are rarely published in peer-reviewed scientific journals, the results do not receive as much scrutiny as more mainstream topics.
Nuclear fusion occurs at temperatures in the tens of millions of degrees. For over 100 years there has been speculation that nuclear fusion might happen at much lower temperatures by fusing hydrogen absorbed in a metal catalyst. In 1989, a claim by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann (then one of the world's leading electrochemists) that such cold fusion had been observed caused a brief media sensation before other scientists began heavily criticizing their claim as being incorrect after many failed to replicate the excess heat. Since the initial announcement, cold fusion research has continued by a small community of committed researchers convinced that such reactions do happen and hoping to gain wider recognition for their experimental evidence.
The ability of palladium to absorb hydrogen was recognized as early as the nineteenth century by Thomas Graham. In the late 1920s, two Austrian born scientists, Friedrich Paneth and Kurt Peters, originally reported the transformation of hydrogen into helium by spontaneous nuclear catalysis when hydrogen was absorbed by finely divided palladium at room temperature. However, the authors later retracted that report, acknowledging that the helium they measured was due to background from the air.
In 1927, Swedish scientist J. Tandberg stated that he had fused hydrogen into helium in an electrolytic cell with palladium electrodes. On the basis of his work, he applied for a Swedish patent for "a method to produce helium and useful reaction energy". After deuterium was discovered in 1932, Tandberg continued his experiments with heavy water. Due to Paneth and Peters's retraction, Tandberg's patent application was eventually denied. His application for a patent in 1927 was denied as he could not explain the physical process.
The term "cold fusion" was used as early as 1956 in a New York Times article about Luis W. Alvarez's work on muon-catalyzed fusion. E. Paul Palmer of Brigham Young University also used the term "cold fusion" in 1986 in an investigation of "geo-fusion", the possible existence of fusion in a planetary core. However, Palmer and Jones used the term "piezonuclear fusion", coined by Jones.
Martin Fleischmann of the University of Southampton and Stanley Pons of the University of Utah hypothesized that the high compression ratio and mobility of deuterium that could be achieved within palladium metal using electrolysis might result in nuclear fusion. To investigate, they conducted electrolysis experiments using a palladium cathode and heavy water within a calorimeter, an insulated vessel designed to measure process heat. Current was applied continuously for many weeks, with the heavy water being renewed at intervals. Some deuterium was thought to be accumulating within the cathode, but most was allowed to bubble out of the cell, joining oxygen produced at the anode. For most of the time, the power input to the cell was equal to the calculated power leaving the cell within measurement accuracy, and the cell temperature was stable at around 30°C. But then, at some point (in some of the experiments), the temperature rose suddenly to about 50°C without changes in the input power. These high temperature phases would last for two days or more and would repeat several times in any given experiment once they had occurred. The calculated power leaving the cell was significantly higher than the input power during these high temperature phases. Eventually the high temperature phases would no longer occur within a particular cell.
In 1988, Fleischmann and Pons applied to the United States Department of Energy for funding towards a larger series of experiments. Up to this point they had been funding their experiments using a small device built with $100,000 out-of-pocket. The grant proposal was turned over for peer review, and one of the reviewers was Steven E. Jones of Brigham Young University. Jones had worked for some time on muon-catalyzed fusion, a known method of inducing nuclear fusion without high temperatures, and had written an article on the topic entitled "Cold nuclear fusion" that had been published in Scientific American in July 1987. Fleischmann and Pons and co-workers met with Jones and co-workers on occasion in Utah to share research and techniques. During this time, Fleischmann and Pons described their experiments as generating considerable "excess energy", in the sense that it could not be explained by chemical reactions alone. They felt that such a discovery could bear significant commercial value and would be entitled to patent protection. Jones, however, was measuring neutron flux, which was not of commercial interest. To avoid future problems, the teams appeared to agree to simultaneously publish their results, though their accounts of their March 6 meeting differ.
In mid-March 1989, both research teams were ready to publish their findings, and Fleischmann and Jones had agreed to meet at an airport on March 24 to send their papers to Nature via FedEx. Fleischmann and Pons, however, pressured by the University of Utah, which wanted to establish priority on the discovery, broke their apparent agreement, submitting their paper to the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry on March 11, and disclosing their work via a press release and press conference on March 23. Jones, upset, faxed in his paper to Nature after the press conference.
Fleischmann and Pons' announcement drew wide media attention. Cold fusion was proposing the counterintuitive idea that a nuclear reaction could be caused to occur inside a chemically bound crystal structure. But the 1986 discovery of high-temperature superconductivity had made the scientific community more open to revelations of unexpected scientific results that could have huge economic repercussions and that could be replicated reliably even if they had not been predicted by established conjecture. And many scientists were also reminded of the Mössbauer effect, a process involving nuclear transitions in a solid. Its discovery 30 years earlier had also been unexpected, though it was quickly replicated and explained within the existing physics framework.
Although the experimental protocol had not been published, physicists in several countries attempted, and failed, to replicate the excess heat phenomenon. The first paper submitted to Nature reproducing excess heat, although it passed peer-review, was rejected because most similar experiments were negative and there were no theories that could explain a positive result; this paper was later accepted for publication by the journal Fusion Technology. Nathan Lewis, professor of chemistry at the California Institute of Technology, led one of the most ambitious validation efforts, trying many variations on the experiment without success, while CERN physicist Douglas R. O. Morrison said that "essentially all" attempts in Western Europe had failed. Even those reporting success had difficulty reproducing Fleischmann and Pons' results. On April 10, 1989, a group at Texas A&M University published results of excess heat and later that day a group at the Georgia Institute of Technology announced neutron production—the strongest replication announced up to that point due to the detection of neutrons and the reputation of the lab. In 12 April Pons was acclaimed at an ACS meeting. But Georgia Tech retracted their announcement in 13 April, explaining that their neutron detectors gave false positives when exposed to heat. Another attempt at independent replication, headed by Robert Huggins at Stanford University, which also reported early success with a light water control, became the only scientific support for cold fusion in the 26 April US Congress hearings.[text 3] But when he finally presented his results he reported an excess heat of only one degree celsius, a result that could be explained by chemical differences between heavy and light water in the presence of lithium.[notes 1] He had not tried to measure any radiation and his research was derided by scientists who saw it later. For the next six weeks, competing claims, counterclaims, and suggested explanations kept what was referred to as "cold fusion" or "fusion confusion" in the news.
In April 1989, Fleischmann and Pons published a "preliminary note" in the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. This paper notably showed a gamma peak without its corresponding Compton edge, which indicated they had made a mistake in claiming evidence of fusion byproducts. Fleischmann and Pons replied to this critique, but the only thing left clear was that no gamma ray had been registered and that Fleischmann refused to recognize any mistakes in the data. A much longer paper published a year later went into details of calorimetry but did not include any nuclear measurements.
On April 30, 1989, cold fusion was declared dead by the New York Times. The Times called it a circus the same day, and the Boston Herald attacked cold fusion the following day.
On May 1, 1989, the American Physical Society held a session on cold fusion in Baltimore, including many reports of experiments that failed to produce evidence of cold fusion. At the end of the session, eight of the nine leading speakers stated that they considered the initial Fleischmann and Pons claim dead, with the ninth, Johann Rafelski, abstaining. Steven E. Koonin of Caltech called the Utah report a result of "the incompetence and delusion of Pons and Fleischmann," which was met with a standing ovation. Douglas R. O. Morrison, a physicist representing CERN, was the first to call the episode an example of pathological science.
On May 4, due to all this new criticism, the meetings with various representatives from Washington were cancelled.
From May 8 only the A&M tritium results kept cold fusion afloat.
The United States Department of Energy organized a special panel to review cold fusion theory and research. The panel issued its report in November 1989, concluding that results as of that date did not present convincing evidence that useful sources of energy would result from the phenomena attributed to cold fusion. The panel noted the large number of failures to replicate excess heat and the greater inconsistency of reports of nuclear reaction byproducts expected by established conjecture. Nuclear fusion of the type postulated would be inconsistent with current understanding and, if verified, would require established conjecture, perhaps even theory itself, to be extended in an unexpected way. The panel was against special funding for cold fusion research, but supported modest funding of "focused experiments within the general funding system." Cold fusion supporters continued to argue that the evidence for excess heat was strong, and in September 1990 the National Cold Fusion Institute listed 92 groups of researchers from 10 different countries that had reported corroborating evidence of excess heat, but they refused to provide any evidence of their own arguing that it could endanger their patents. However, no further DOE nor NSF funding resulted from the panel's recommendation. By this point, however, academic consensus had moved decidedly toward labeling cold fusion as a kind of "pathological science".
In March 1990 Dr. Michael H. Salamon, a Utah physicist, and nine co-authors reported negative results. University faculty were then "stunned" when a lawyer representing Pons and Fleischmann demanded the Salamon paper be retracted under threat of a lawsuit. The lawyer later apologized; Fleischmann defended the threat as a legitimate reaction to alleged bias displayed by cold-fusion critics.
In early May 1990 one of the two A&M researchers, Kevin Wolf, acknowledged the possibility of spiking, but said that the most likely explanation was tritium contamination in the palladium electrodes or simply contamination due to sloppy work. In June 1990 an article in Science by science writer Gary Taubes destroyed the public credibility of the A&M tritium results when it accused its group leader John Bockris and one of his graduate students of spiking the cells with tritium. In October 1990 Wolf finally said that the results were explained by tritium contamination in the rods. An A&M cold fusion review panel found that the tritium evidence was not convincing and that, while they couldn't rule out spiking, contamination and measurements problems were more likely explanations,[text 4] and Bockris never got support from his faculty to resume his research.
On 1 January 1991, Pons left his tenure, and both he and Fleischmann quietly left the United States. In 1992 they resumed research with Toyota Motor Corporation's IMRA lab in France. Fleischmann left for England in 1995, and the contract with Pons was not renewed in 1998 after spending $40 million with no tangible results. The IMRA laboratory was closed in 1998 after spending £12 million on cold fusion work. Pons has made no public declarations since, and only Fleischmann continued giving talks and publishing papers.
Mostly in the 1990s several books were published that were critical of cold fusion research methods and the conduct of cold fusion researchers. Over the years several books have appeared that defended them.
After 1991, cold fusion research continued in relative obscurity, conducted by groups that had increasing difficulty securing public funding and keeping programs open. Research continues today in a few specific venues, but the wider scientific community has generally marginalized the research being done and researchers have had difficulty publishing in mainstream journals. The Boston Globe estimated in 2004 that there were only 100 to 200 researchers working in the field, most suffering damage to their reputation and career. Back in 1991 a review by a cold fusion proponent had calculated "about 600 scientists".
Small but committed groups of cold fusion researchers have continued to conduct experiments using Fleischmann and Pons electrolysis set-ups in spite of the rejection by the mainstream community. Often they prefer to name their field Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) or Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions (CANR), also Lattice Assisted Nuclear Reactions (LANR), Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (CMNS) and Lattice Enabled Nuclear Reactions; one of the reasons being to avoid the negative connotations associated with "cold fusion". The new names avoid making bold implications, like implying that fusion is happening on them. Proponents see them as a more accurate description of the theories they put forward.
Also in the 1990s, India stopped its research in cold fusion at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre because of the lack of consensus among mainstream scientists and the US denunciation of the research. Yet, in 2008, the National Institute of Advanced Studies recommended the Indian government to revive this research. Projects were commenced at the Chennai's Indian Institute of Technology, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research. However, there is still skepticism among scientists and, for all practical purposes, research is still stopped.
In 2006–2007 the Italian Ministry of Economic Development founded a research program, which claimed to have found excess power up to 500%.
Since the Fleischmann and Pons announcement, the Italian National agency for new technologies, Energy and sustainable economic development (ENEA) has funded Franco Scaramuzzi's research into whether excess heat can be measured from metals loaded with deuterium gas. Such research is distributed across ENEA departments, CNR Laboratories, INFN, universities and industrial laboratories in Italy, where the group continues to try to achieve reliable reproducibility (i.e. getting the phenomena to happen in every cell, and inside a certain frame of time). In 2009 ENEA hosted the 15th cold fusion conference.
In 1999 the Japan C-F Research Society was established to promote the independent research into cold fusion that continued in Japan. The society holds annual meetings; the 12th meeting took place on December 17–18, 2011 at Kobe University. In May 2008 Japanese researcher Yoshiaki Arata (Osaka University) demonstrated an experiment that produced heat when deuterium gas was introduced into a cell containing a mixture of palladium and zirconium oxide.[text 5] In an August 2009 peer-reviewed paper Akira Kitamura (Kobe University) et al. reported replication of this experiment. Replication of earlier work by Arata had been claimed by McKubre at SRI.
U.S. Navy researchers at the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) in San Diego have been studying cold fusion since 1989. In 2002, they released a two-volume report, "Thermal and nuclear aspects of the Pd/D2O system," with a plea for funding. This and other published papers prompted the 2004 DOE review.
A grant of $5.5 million given by Sidney Kimmel in February 2012 to the University of Missouri was used to establish the Sidney Kimmel Institute for Nuclear Renaissance (SKINR). The grant is intended to support research into the interactions of hydrogen with palladium, nickel or platinum at extreme conditions. In March 2013 Graham K. Hubler, a nuclear physicist who worked for the Naval Research Laboratory for 40 years, was named director. One of the SKINR projects is to replicate a 1991 experiment in which Prelas says bursts of millions of neutrons a second were recorded, which was stopped because "his research account had been frozen". He claims that the new experiment has already seen "neutron emissions at similar levels to the 1991 observation".
In January 2011 inventor Andrea Rossi together with researcher Sergio Focardi from the University of Bologna claimed to have successfully demonstrated commercially viable cold fusion in a device called an Energy Catalyzer. Other inventors and start-up companies have made similar claims in the past, but no commercial devices have ever appeared on the market.
The decline of publications in cold fusion has been described as a "failed information epidemic".[text 7] The sudden surge of supporters until roughly 50% of scientists support the theory, followed by a decline until there is only a very small number of supporters, has been described as a characteristic of pathological science.[text 8][notes 3] The lack of a shared set of unifying concepts and techniques has prevented the creation of a dense network of collaboration in the field; researchers perform efforts in their own and in disparate directions, making the transition to "normal" science more difficult.
Cold fusion reports continued to be published in a small cluster of specialized journals like Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Il Nuovo Cimento. Some papers also appeared in Journal of Physical Chemistry, Physics Letters A, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, and a number of Japanese and Russian journals of physics, chemistry, and engineering. Since 2005, Naturwissenschaften has published cold fusion papers; in 2009, the journal named a cold fusion researcher to its editorial board.
The Nobel Laureate Julian Schwinger declared himself a supporter of cold fusion in the fall of 1989, after much of the response to the initial reports had turned negative. He tried to publish his theoretical paper "Cold Fusion: A Hypothesis" in Physical Review Letters, but the peer reviewers rejected it so harshly that he felt deeply insulted, and he resigned from the American Physical Society (publisher of PRL) in protest.
Cold fusion researchers were for many years unable to get papers accepted at scientific meetings, prompting the creation of their own conferences. The first International Conference on Cold Fusion (ICCF) was held in 1990, and has met every 12 to 18 months since. Attendees at some of the early conferences were described as offering no criticism to papers and presentations for fear of giving ammunition to external critics; thus allowing the proliferation of crackpots and hampering the conduct of serious science. Critics and skeptics stopped attending these conferences, with the notable exception of Douglas Morrison, who died in 2001. With the founding in 2004 of the International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (ISCMNS), the conference was renamed the International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (the reasons are explained in the "ongoing" section), but reverted to the old name in 2008. Cold fusion research is often referenced by proponents as "low-energy nuclear reactions", or LENR, but according to sociologist Bart Simon the "cold fusion" label continues to serve a social function in creating a collective identity for the field.
On 22–25 March 2009, the American Chemical Society meeting included a four-day symposium in conjunction with the 20th anniversary of the announcement of cold fusion. Researchers working at the U.S. Navy's Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) reported detection of energetic neutrons using a heavy water electrolysis set-up and a CR-39 detector, a result previously published in Die Naturwissenschaften. The authors claim that these neutrons are indicative of nuclear reactions; without quantitative analysis of the number, energy, and timing of the neutrons and exclusion of other potential sources, this interpretation is unlikely to find acceptance by the wider scientific community.
Around 1998 the University of Utah had already dropped its research after spending over $1 million, and in the summer of 1997 Japan cut off research and closed its own lab after spending $20 million.
a pariah field, cast out by the scientific establishment. Between cold fusion and respectable science there is virtually no communication at all. Cold fusion papers are almost never published in refereed scientific journals, with the result that those works don't receive the normal critical scrutiny that science requires. On the other hand, because the Cold-Fusioners see themselves as a community under siege, there is little internal criticism. Experiments and theories tend to be accepted at face value, for fear of providing even more fuel for external critics, if anyone outside the group was bothering to listen. In these circumstances, crackpots flourish, making matters worse for those who believe that there is serious science going on here.
While significant progress has been made in the sophistication of calorimeters since the review of this subject in 1989, the conclusions reached by the reviewers today are similar to those found in the 1989 review.
The current reviewers identified a number of basic science research areas that could be helpful in resolving some of the controversies in the field, two of which were: 1) material science aspects of deuterated metals using modern characterization techniques, and 2) the study of particles reportedly emitted from deuterated foils using state-of-the-art apparatus and methods. The reviewers believed that this field would benefit from the peer-review processes associated with proposal submission to agencies and paper submission to archival journals.
In a 2009 BBC article on an American Chemical Society's meeting on cold fusion, particle physicist Frank Close was quoted stating that the problems that plagued the original cold fusion announcement are still happening (as of 2009): results from studies are still not being independently verified and inexplicable phenomena encountered are being labelled as "cold fusion" even if they are not, in order to attract the attention of journalists.
A small number of old and new researchers have remained interested in investigating cold fusion. In 2007, one such researcher concluded that: "nuclear reactions not predicted by current theories occur in solids, during electrolysis, gas loading and gas discharge [experiments]".
Well nuclear fusion… most of the experts who I trust think that's at least fifty years away. There are some very intriguing explorations of what used to be called cold fusion – they don't like that term any more. It's still speculative. We can always hope for a breakthrough, but it's probably not smart to bet on fusion in the near term.
Electrolysis cells can be either open cell or closed cell. In open cell systems, the electrolysis products, which are gaseous, are allowed to leave the cell. In closed cell experiments, the products are captured, for example by catalytically recombining the products in a separate part of the experimental system. These experiments generally strive for a steady state condition, with the electrolyte being replaced periodically. There are also "heat after death" experiments, where the evolution of heat is monitored after the electric current is turned off.
The most basic setup of a cold fusion cell consists of two electrodes submerged in a solution containing palladium and heavy water. The electrodes are then connected to a power source to transmit electricity from one electrode to the other through the solution. Even when anomalous heat is reported, it can take weeks for it to begin to appear – this is known as the "loading time," the time required to saturate the palladium electrode with hydrogen (see "Loading ratio" section).
An excess heat observation is based on an energy balance. Various sources of energy input and output are continuously measured. Under normal conditions, the energy input can be matched to the energy output to within experimental error. In experiments such as those run by Fleischmann and Pons, a cell operating steadily at one temperature transitions to operating at a higher temperature with no increase in applied current. If higher temperatures were real, and not experimental artifact, the energy balance would show an unaccounted term. In the Fleischmann and Pons experiments, the rate of inferred excess heat generation was in the range of 10–20% of total input, though this could not be reliably replicated by most researchers. Researcher Nathan Lewis discovered that the excess heat in Fleischmann and Pons's original paper was not measured, but estimated from measurements that didn't have any excess heat.
Unable to produce excess heat or neutrons, and with positive experiments being plagued by errors and giving disparate results, most researchers declared that heat production was not a real effect and ceased working on the experiments.
In 1993, after the initial discrediting, Fleischmann reported "heat-after-death" experiments: where excess heat was measured after the electric current supplied to the electrolytic cell was turned off. This type of report also became part of subsequent cold fusion claims.
"Triple tracks" in a CR-39 plastic radiation detector claimed as evidence for neutron emission from palladium deuteride.
Known instances of nuclear reactions, aside from producing energy, also produce nucleons and particles on readily observable ballistic trajectories. In support of their claim that nuclear reactions took place in their electrolytic cells, Fleischmann and Pons reported a neutron flux of 4,000 neutrons per second, as well as detections of tritium. The classical branching ratio for previously known fusion reactions that produce tritium would predict, with 1 watt of power, the production of 1012 neutrons per second, levels that would have been fatal to the researchers. In 2009, Mosier-Boss et al. reported what they called the first scientific report of highly energetic neutrons, using CR-39 plastic radiation detectors, but the claims cannot be validated without a quantitative analysis of neutrons.
Several medium and heavy elements like calcium, titanium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper and zinc have been reported as detected by several researchers, like Tadahiko Mizuno or George Miley. The report presented to the DOE in 2004 indicated that deuterium-loaded foils could be used to detect fusion reaction products and, although the reviewers found the evidence presented to them as inconclusive, they indicated that those experiments did not use state-of-the-art techniques.
In response to skepticism about the lack of nuclear products, cold fusion researchers have tried to capture and measure nuclear products correlated with excess heat. Considerable attention has been given to measuring 4He production. However, the reported levels are very near to background, so contamination by trace amounts of helium normally present in the air cannot be ruled out. In the report presented to the DOE in 2004, the reviewers' opinion was divided on the evidence for 4He; with the most negative reviews concluding that although the amounts detected were above background levels, they were very close to them and therefore could be caused by contamination from air.
One of the main criticisms of cold fusion was that deuteron-deuteron fusion into helium was expected to result in the production of gamma rays—which were not observed and were not observed in subsequent cold fusion experiments. Cold fusion researchers have since claimed to find X-rays, helium, neutrons and even nuclear transmutations. Some of them even claim to have found them using only light water and nickel cathodes. The 2004 DOE panel expressed concerns about the poor quality of the theoretical framework cold fusion proponents presented to account for the lack of gamma rays.
Many years after the 1989 experiment, cold fusion researchers still haven't agreed on a single theoretical explanation or on a single experimental method that can produce replicable results  and continue to offer new proposals, which haven't convinced mainstream scientists.
Hydrogen and its isotopes can be absorbed in certain solids, including palladium hydride, at high densities. This creates a high partial pressure, reducing the average separation of hydrogen isotopes, but nowhere near enough to create the fusion rates claimed in the original experiment. It was proposed that a higher density of hydrogen inside the palladium and a lower potential barrier could raise the possibility of fusion at lower temperatures than expected from a simple application of Coulomb's law. Electron screening of the positive hydrogen nuclei by the negative electrons in the palladium lattice was suggested to the 2004 DOE commission, but the panel found the theoretical explanations (Charge Element 2) to be the weakest part of cold fusion claims.
Researchers started proposing alternative explanations for Fleischmann and Pons' results even before various other labs reported null results.
Skeptics have called cold fusion explanations ad hoc and lacking rigor, and state that they are used by proponents simply to disregard the negative experiments—a symptom of pathological science.
Because nuclei are all positively charged, they strongly repel one another. Normally, in the absence of a catalyst such as a muon, very high kinetic energies are required to overcome this repulsion. Extrapolating from known fusion rates, the rate for uncatalyzed fusion at room-temperature energy would be 50 orders of magnitude lower than needed to account for the reported excess heat.
In muon-catalyzed fusion there are more fusions because the presence of the muon causes deuterium nuclei to be 207 times closer than in ordinary deuterium gas. But deuterium nuclei inside a palladium lattice are further apart than in deuterium gas, and there should be fewer fusion reactions, not more.
Paneth and Peters in the 1920s already knew that palladium can absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen gas, storing it at several thousands of times the atmospheric pressure. This led them to believe that they could increase the nuclear fusion rate by simply loading palladium rods with hydrogen gas. Tandberg then tried the same experiment but used electrolysis to make palladium absorb more deuterium and force the deuterium further together inside the rods, thus anticipating the main elements of Fleischmann and Pons' experiment. They all hoped that pairs of hydrogen nuclei would fuse together to form helium nuclei, which at the time were very needed in Germany to fill zeppelins, but no evidence of helium or of increased fusion rate was ever found.
This was also the belief of geologist Palmer, who convinced Steve Jones that the helium-3 occurring naturally in Earth came from the fusion of deuterium inside catalysts like palladium. This led Jones to independently make the same experimental setup as Fleischmann and Pons (a palladium cathode submerged in heavy water, absorbing deuterium via electrolysis). Fleischmann and Pons had the same incorrect belief, but they calculated the pressure to be of 1027 atmospheres, when CF experiments only achieve a ratio of one to one, which only has between 10,000 and 20,000 atmospheres.[text 10] John R. Huizenga says they had misinterpreted the Nernst equation, leading them to believe that there was enough pressure to bring deuterons so close to each other that there would be spontaneous fusions.
The known rate of the decay process together with the inter-atomic spacing in a metallic crystal makes heat transfer of the 24 MeV excess energy into the host metal lattice prior to the intermediary's decay inexplicable in terms of conventional understandings of momentum and energy transfer, and even then we would see measurable levels of radiations. Also, experiments indicate that the ratios of deuterium fusion remain constant at different energies. In general, pressure and chemical environment only cause small changes to fusion ratios. An early explanation invoked the Oppenheimer–Phillips process at low energies, but its magnitude was too small to explain the altered ratios.
Michael McKubre working on deuterium gas-based cold fusion cell used by SRI International.
Cold fusion researchers (McKubre since 1994, ENEA in 2011) have posited that a cell that was loaded with a deuterium/palladium ratio lower than 100% (or 1:1) would never produce excess heat. Storms added in 1996 that the load ratio has to be maintained during many hours of electrolysis before the effects appear. Since most of the negative replications in 1989–1990 didn't report their ratios, this has been proposed as an explanation for failed replications. This loading ratio is tricky to obtain, and some batches of palladium never reach it because the pressure causes cracks in the palladium, allowing the deuterium to escape. Unfortunately, Fleischmann and Pons never disclosed the deuterium/palladium ratio achieved in their cells, there are no longer any batches of the palladium used by Fleischmann and Pons (because the supplier uses now a different manufacturing process), and researchers still have problems finding batches of palladium that achieve heat production reliably.
According to John R. Huizenga, who co-chaired the DOE 1989 panel, if unexplained excess heat is not accompanied by a commensurate amount of nuclear products, then it must not be interpreted as nuclear in origin, but as a measuring error.
Control experiments are part of the scientific method to prove that the measured effects do not happen by chance, but are direct results of the experiment. One of the points of criticism of Fleischmann and Pons was the lack of control experiments.
Although details have not surfaced, it appears that the University of Utah forced the 23 March 1989 Fleischmann and Pons announcement to establish priority over the discovery and its patents before the joint publication with Jones. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) announced on 12 April 1989 that it had applied for its own patents based on theoretical work of one of its researchers, Peter L. Hagelstein, who had been sending papers to journals from the 5th to the 12th of April. On 2 December 1993 the University of Utah licensed all its cold fusion patents to ENECO, a new company created to profit from cold fusion discoveries, and on March 1998 it said that it would no longer defend its patents.
A U.S. patent might still be granted when given a different name to disassociate it from cold fusion, though this strategy has had little success in the US: the same claims that need to be patented can identify it with cold fusion, and most of these patents cannot avoid mentioning Fleischmann and Pons' research due to legal constraints, thus alerting the patent reviewer that it is a cold-fusion-related patent. David Voss said in 1999 that some patents that closely resemble cold fusion processes, and that use materials used in cold fusion, have been granted by the USPTO. The inventor of three such patents had his applications initially rejected when they were reviewed by experts in nuclear science; but then he rewrote the patents to focus more in the electrochemical parts so they would be reviewed instead by experts in electrochemistry, who approved them. When asked about the resemblance to cold fusion, the patent holder said that it used nuclear processes involving "new nuclear physics" unrelated to cold fusion. Melvin Miles was granted in 2004 a patent for a cold fusion device, and in 2007 he described his efforts to remove all instances of "cold fusion" from the patent description to avoid having it rejected outright.
In Jan, 2014 Forbes reported that "The Department of Energy included low energy nuclear reactions—which NASA scientists have said could fuel home nuclear reactors—among other representative technologies in a $10 million funding opportunity it announced last fall." Figure 3 of the FOA includes : "3.6 chemonuclear reactors, low-energy nuclear reactions, nuclear fuel chemistry". The initial stage solicits short "concept papers". Selected applicants will then be invited to submit full applications. Approximately twenty grants will be awarded, each lasting at most one year and costing less than $500,000.
In Undead Science, sociologist Bart Simon gives some examples of cold fusion in popular culture, saying that some scientists use cold fusion as a synonym for outrageous claims made with no supporting proof, and courses of ethics in science give it as an example of pathological science. It has appeared as a joke in Murphy Brown and The Simpsons. It was adopted as a product name by software Coldfusion and a brand of protein bars (Cold Fusion Foods). It has also appeared in advertising as a synonym for impossible science, for example a 1995 advertisement for Pepsi Max.
The plot of The Saint, a 1997 action-adventure film, parallels the story of Fleischmann and Pons, although with a different ending.  The film might have affected the public perception of cold fusion, pushing it further into the science fiction realm.
The plot of Chain Reaction, a 1996 science-fiction film, depicts a scientist discovering a new energy source that burns hydrogen and leaves only water as residue, although it is not left clear whether it is cold fusion or some form of hot fusion.
Alan L. Durham (2004), Patent law essentials: a concise guide (2, illustrated ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 72 (footnote 30), ISBN 0-275-98205-X, ISBN 9780275982058.
Jeffrey G. Sheldon (1992), How to write a patent application (illustrated ed.), Practising Law Institute, ISBN 0-87224-044-4.
^ 60 Minutes: Once Considered Junk Science, Cold Fusion Gets A Second Look By Researchers, CBS, 2009-04-17.
^ a b Chang, Kenneth (2004-03-25), US will give cold fusion a second look, The New York Times, retrieved 2009-02-08.
^ a b c d Broad 1989b, Goodstein 1994, Platt 1998, Voss 1999, Beaudette 2002, Feder 2005, Adam 2005 "Advocates insist that there is just too much evidence of unusual effects in the thousands of experiments since Pons and Fleischmann to be ignored", Kruglinksi 2006, Van Noorden 2007, Alfred 2009. calculates between 100 and 200 researchers, with damage to the their careers.
^ a b 'Cold fusion' rebirth? New evidence for existence of controversial energy source, American Chemical Society.
^ C. DeW. Van Siclen and S. E. Jones, "Piezonuclear fusion in isotopic hydrogen molecules," J. Phys. G: Nucl. Phys. 12: 213-221 (March 1986).
^ a b University of Utah, 'Simple experiment' results in sustained n-fusion at room temperature for first time, retrieved 28 July 2011.
^ For example, in 1989, the Economist editorialized that the cold fusion "affair" was "exactly what science should be about." Footlick, JK (1997), Truth and Consequences: how colleges and universities meet public crises, Phoenix: Oryx Press, p. 51, ISBN 978-0-89774-970-1. as cited in Brooks, M (2008), 13 Things That Don't Make Sense, New York: Doubleday, p. 67, ISBN 978-1-60751-666-8.
^ Broad, William J. 19 April 1989. Stanford Reports Success, The New York Times.
^ Taubes 1993, p. 242 (Boston Herald's is Tate 1989).
^ Broad, William J. (30 October 1990). "Cold Fusion Still Escapes Usual Checks Of Science". New York Times. Retrieved 27 November 2013.
^ Taubes 1993, pp. 410–411, 412, 420, the Science article was Taubes 1990, Huizenga 1993, pp. 122, 127–128.
^ National Cold Fusion Institute Records, 1988–1991.
^ Huizenga 1993, pp. 210–211 citing Srinivisan, M., "Nuclear Fusion in an Atomic Lattice: An Update on the International Status of Cold Fusion Research", Current Science 60: 471.
^ "Our dream is a small fusion power generator in each house", Times of India, 4 February 2011.
^ a b COLD FUSION – The history of research in Italy (2009) PDF 8.7Mb In the foreword by the president of ENEA the belief is expressed that the cold fusion phenomenon is proved.
^ a b c d "Effetto Fleischmann e Pons: il punto della situazione", Energia Ambiente e Innovazione (in Italian) (ENEA) (3), May–June 2011.
^ Goodstein, David L. (2010), On Fact and Fraud:Cautionary Tales from the Front Lines of Science, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 87–94, ISBN 0691139660.
^ Journal of Condensed Matter Nuclear Science.
^ a b c "Cold fusion debate heats up again", BBC, 2009-03-23.
^ Scientists in possible cold fusion breakthrough, AFP, retrieved 2009-03-24.
^ a b Wired News Staff Email (24 March 1998), Cold Fusion Patents Run Out of Steam, Wired.
^ a b US DOE 1989, pp. 7–8, 33, 53–58 (appendix 4.A), Close 1992, pp. 257–258, Huizenga 1993, p. 112, Taubes 1993, pp. 253–254 quoting Howard Kent Birnbaum in the special cold fusion session of the 1989 spring meeting of the Materials Research Society, Park 2000, pp. 17–18, 122, Simon 2002, p. 50 citing Koonin S.E. and M Nauenberg (1989), "Calculated Fusion Rates in Isotopic Hydrogen Molecules", Nature (339): 690–692, Bibcode:1989Natur.339..690K, doi:10.1038/339690a0.
^ Tate, N. (1989), "MIT bombshell knocks fusion 'breakthrough' cold", Boston Herald (May 1, 1989): 1, ISSN 0738-5854.
^ Broad, William J. (1989-04-13), 'Cold Fusion' Patents Sought, New York Times.
^ Daniel C. Rislove (2006), C. The Cold Fusion patents, "A Case Study of Inoperable Inventions: Why Is the USPTO Patenting Pseudoscience?", Wisconsin Law Review 2006 (4): 1302–1304, footnote 269 in page 1307.
^ Sidney Perkowitz (2010), Hollywood Science: Movies, Science, and the End of the World (illustrated ed.), Columbia University Press, pp. 113–114, ISBN 978-0-231-14281-6.
^ Brigham Young University discovered Tandberg's 1927 patent application, and showed it as proof that Utah University didn't have priority for the discovery of cold fusion, cited in Wilford, John Noble (24 April 1989), "Fusion Furor: Science's Human Face", New York Times.
^ Labinger & Weininger 2005, p. 1919 Fleischmann's paper was challenged in Morrison, R.O. Douglas (28 February 1994). "Comments on claims of excess enthalpy by Fleischmann and Pons using simple cells made to boil". Phys. Lett. A 185 (5–6): 498–502. Bibcode:1994PhLA..185..498M. doi:10.1016/0375-9601(94)91133-9.
^ Close 1992, pp. 257–258, Huizenga 1993, pp. 33, 47–48, 79, 99–100, 207, 216 "By comparing cathode charging of deuterium into palladium with gas charging for a D7Pd ratio of unity, one obtains an equivalent pressure of 1.5×104 atmospheres, a value more than 20 orders of magnitude (1020) less than the Fleischmann-Pons claimed pressure.", Huizenga also cites US DOE 2004, pp. 33–34 in chapter IV. Materials Characterization: D. 'Relevant' Materials Parameters: 2. Confinement Pressure, which has a similar explanation.
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This article uses material from the Wikipedia article Cold Fusion, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0.


text:
London Cries (antes Juke Kartel) es una banda de rock proveniente de Melbourne, Australia, formada a comienzos del año 2000. Desde octubre de 2007 su alineación consiste en el cantante Toby Rand, el guitarrista y teclista Todd Burman, el guitarrista Dale Winters, el baterista Jason Pinfold y el bajista Tommy Kende. Toby Rand se hizo famoso por participar en la competencia Rock Star: Supernova, programa estadounidense de la CBS, en el que Rand terminó en el tercer lugar.

Influencias musicales
Las principales influencias de la banda provienen de músicos y bandas australianas como INXS, AC/DC y Midnight Oil, al igual que agrupaciones de otras partes del mundo como Led Zeppelin, Guns N' Roses y U2. En una entrevista, Toby Rand comentó que si su banda pudiera tocar cualquier tipo de música, le encantaría que fuera una mezcla entre los estilos de AC/DC, Pink Floyd, Incubus, INXS y Guns 'N' Roses.

Músicos
 Toby Rand - Voz
 Tommy Kende - Bajo
 Dale Winters - Guitarra
 AJ Oliveira - Guitarra
 Jason Pinfold - Batería

Discografía

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Grupos de rock de Australia
Grupos de rock alternativo de Australia

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
GREAT NEWS FROM THE RNRS
EVERYTHING is coming up roses for a threatened St Albans tourist attraction which faced closure because it could not resolve parking difficulties. The Royal National Rose Society (RNRS), which has its internationally-known gardens in Chiswell Green, warned last August that not only the garden but also the society itself would have to close if it could not get permanent parking for visitors. But this week RNRS chief executive Roz Hamilton and John Breheny, chairman and chief executive of civil engineering company Breheny which now owns 95 per cent of the neighbouring Butterfly World, announced that agreement had been reached between the two parties not only about parking but also other collaborations including joint ticketing and discounted entry to both attractions. A delighted Roz said: "We need to build on the positiveness of both sides because we can complement each other so much. I think it is good for both organisations, not just locally but from a tourist perspective." St Albans council leader, Julian Daly, who had brokered several meetings between the two parties, also welcomed the agreement. He said: "I think together they will be much more successful than individually. It has taken a long time but this is the next stage and a sensible step for everyone." The agreement follows years of rancour between the two parties which left the Gardens of the Rose unable to open for more than a few weeks in the summer because it could not get planning permission for anything other than temporary parking for visitors. Negotiations about using car parking at Butterfly World, which was built on land sold by the RNRS to founder Clive Farrell, kept stalling and the impasse led to a decision by the RNRS that closure would be inevitable unless the situation could be resolved. RNRS president Bernard Williams said this week: "We could not survive with just a six-week opening period. We have to be open for the whole season." When the Herts Advertiser revealed that the RNRS and its gardens might have to close, we launched our Keep the Roses Blooming campaign and support poured in both to this newspaper and the RNRS. Breheny's purchase of the majority of Butterfly World resulted in round-the-table discussions and the two parties agreed that parking for garden visitors would be on the Butterfly World site and joint ticketing arrangements introduced. Although it is too late for the gardens to open for more than a limited period this summer, from next year it hopes to open all summer long as well as get a licence for wedding ceremonies to be performed there. Mr Breheny said on Monday that when his company became the majority shareholder, it had become aware that there were problems in the background between Butterfly World and RNRS and was keen to resolve them for the benefit of both parties. He confirmed that the butterfly biome, which was to have been the centrepiece of the project under Clive Farrell's plans, would not be built in the current financial climate but it was hoped that Butterfly World would open as an all-year-round attraction in the near future. The limited opening period at the Gardens of the Rose in the past few years had hit the RNRS hard because even in those few weeks of opening, it raised more income from visitors than from membership. Eighty per cent of its visitors are from overseas as the gardens house one of only two rose trial grounds in the world. The gardens celebrate their 50th anniversary this July during the 2013 opening period from June 8 until July 29. Butterfly World will remain open until November 3 this year.
Details of all our roses are available on our web site. Over 1000 varieties to choose from.
www.countrygardenroses.co.uk

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Battlefield 5 battle royale lets you kill with tractors
Thread: Battlefield 5 battle royale lets you kill with tractors
Battlefield V's steady march through World War II continues, and we're just about to the famous moment where a whole bunch of soldiers did battle inside a shrinking fire circle in an effort to be the last squad standing. You may not remember that one from the history books, but Firestorm – DICE and Criterion's take on battle royale – launches in March.
We already had a rough release date for the Firestorm, and a new trailer for upcoming updates gives us just a tiny tease of what's coming. Specifically: tractors. Yes, you'll be able to drive farm equipment in Firestorm. Eagle-eyed fans may remember back in November when Criterion dev Arthur Rohart mentioned the possibility of killing Firestorm players with the tractor, and it looks like dreams of agricultural murder are coming true.
Firestorm is a Chapter 3 update, but we've got Chapter 2 before that – which starts this week. On January 17, that means a new set of weapons including the Zk-383 SMG, the Modele 1944 semi-auto rifle, and the M1922 MMG. We've also got a new 8v8 Squad Conquest mode for small-scale battles, which will last until January 30.
A new Grand Operation hits the Panzerstorm and Arras maps in February, available in Airborne, Breakthrough, and Rush modes. And yeah, Rush mode is coming back, too – for a limited time running March 7 through March 20. We've also got a new co-op mode in Combined Arms, which starts in February.
Check out some of what to expect in the new trailer above. You can find more details in the full patch notes.
Those notes also include details on the latest TTK changes that DICE has been working on. Battlefield V's Tides of War roadmap only continues through March's Chapter 3 – whatever's after that remains to be seen.
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The Lapham Group Recruits CEO for IFG Companies
April 15, 2021 – After a national search, executive search firm The Lapham Group has placed Behram Dinshaw as chief executive officer of IFG Companies, a multiline property and casualty insurer. Mr. Dinshaw was most recently executive vice president and president of Global Small Commercial and Middle Market Business Centers at Travelers Insurance Co. Craig Lapham, managing partner and CEO, led the assignment. Mr. Dinshaw replaces Christopher M. Lewis who joins the IFG board of directors and will continue as a director of IFG Companies. Mr. Lewis is also assisting in an effective transition both through his role on the board and as an advisor to IFG Companies.
"Over the past seven years, IFG Companies has executed a significant transformation, with key investments in technology and talent, that have enabled the company to generate a strong track record of profitable growth," said Robert D. Linton, chairman of IFG Companies' parent, International Financial Group. "With his broad expertise in insurance, finance, actuarial science and analytics, Behram is uniquely positioned to lead IFG Companies in the next stage of our journey." Prior to his most recent role with Travelers, Mr. Dinshaw served in a variety of roles of increasing responsibility at the company, including (in reverse order) senior vice president and chief operating officer of personal lines; senior vice president of product management, actuarial and analytics and field sales for personal lines; senior vice president and chief actuary, personal lines; and vice president of product management, personal lines. Mr. Dinshaw started his career at Allstate Insurance Co. where he served in a number of product, pricing and field management roles. He received his bachelor's degree in business administration, with a major in actuarial science from Drake University in 1991. He is a fellow of the Casualty Actuarial Society (FCAS).
Founded in 1985, IFG Companies is one of the largest privately held insurance groups in the U.S. IFG Companies provides property–casualty insurance on both a non-admitted basis and an admitted basis throughout America. IFG Companies has two principal underwriting groups, the Bind Division and the Brokerage Division. Bind provides general liability, garage liability and property coverages through select contracted producers. Brokerage focuses primarily on mid-sized or more complex accounts and includes the primary casualty, excess/umbrella liability and property underwriting units.
Respected Recruiters
The Lapham Group is a leading boutique executive search firm headquartered in New York City. For over two decades the firm has conducted senior-level search engagements in insurance and diversified financial services, including private equity, venture capital, and asset management. Searches include board directorships, president/CEO/general management, risk management, finance & investment, marketing/sales, and information technology engagements conducted across North and South America, Europe, Asia and the Far East. In addition, The Lapham Group has developed strong working relationships with its clients in the implementation of strategic initiatives and new business ventures to include numerous search assignments for start-ups and turnaround opportunities.
Mr. Lapham has served as CEO since 1997. Under his leadership, the firm has conducted senior executive search engagements for multiple Fortune 100 insurance clients and smaller emerging insurance/financial services firms across both P&C and life insurance. He previously served, from 1992 to 1997, as an attorney with global insurer American International Group within the corporation's U.S. property and casualty business.
"We are in the human capital business and humans by their very nature are inherently unpredictable…both clients and candidates," Mr. Lapham told Hunt Scanlon Media in a recent interview. "As a result, the best and most successful search firms have the necessary controls in place to adapt and survive within a high level of uncertainty and changing landscape. In the immediate term, our firm has focused on serving clients virtually throughout the entire lifecycle of a search engagement. The close and trusted long-term client relationships developed through a boutique search firm model also pay dividends during these crises. There is a reciprocal loyalty between search firm and client due to our strong performance and high integrity representation of our clients' interests over long periods of time."
Related: For Executive Search Firms, Analytics Can be a Game Changer
Contributed by Scott A. Scanlon, Editor-in-Chief; Dale M. Zupsansky, Managing Editor; and Stephen Sawicki, Managing Editor – Hunt Scanlon Media
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Popular Presidents
Written by	Jack Kenny
In 1909, in the great state of Illinois, school teachers one February day were directed to spend at least half the school day in public exercises, patriotic music, and recitations of sayings, verses, and speeches to mark the centennial birthday of a great hero. At the end of it all, they were to have their students face in the direction of Springfield and chant in unison the following:
Six-year-old Suspended for Bringing Camping Utensils to School Wins Reprieve
Written by	Selwyn Duke
Zachary Christie won't have to attend reform school after all. As you may know, Zachary is the button-cute Cub Scout who brought a hobo tool (containing a spoon, fork, knife, and bottle opener) to school because he wanted to eat lunch with it.
Rifqa Bary Must Return to Ohio
Written by	R. Cort Kirkwood
Rifqa Bary, the 17-year-old Christian girl who fled her parents because she feared they would kill her, must return to her home state of Ohio.
Obama, Longer School Days & the Edu-crats
Written by	Joe Wolverton, II, J.D.
The teachers' unions, historically loyal soldiers in the army of social liberalism, are falling out of formation over the Obama administration's proposal to increase the length of the academic day and the days in the academic year.
Six-year-old Suspended for Bringing Cub Scout Tool to School
Our authorities may not be able to track down Osama bin laden, but never fear, they're keeping us safe from budding little terrorists such as first grader Zachary Christie. Caught red-handed, the Newark, Delaware, six-year-old was suspended from his school and may face 45 days in reform school for violating the Christina School District's "zero tolerance" policy on weapons. His offense?
The New Face of Psychiatry
Written by	Beverly K. Eakman
To ensure that psychiatry "permeate every educational activity of national life" and "infiltrate the professional and social activities of [all] people" was a global goal that originated with British Brigadier General Dr. John Rawlings Rees in a 1940 speech to the National Council for Mental Hygiene. He ended on an ominous note: "Though our knowledge be incomplete … I think we must imitate the Totalitarians and organize some kind of fifth column activity."
Celebrating Columbus Day
Written by	James Heiser
Columbus Day — once a time to celebrate one of the heroes of modern Western Civilization — is dying a slow death. Besieged by leftwing loons and of little apparently utility to the shopping malls, the day to remember Christopher Columbus may simply fade away. According to a Columbus Day article in the Wall Street Journal:
The Oldest Constitutional Republic
Written by	Joe Wolverton, II
The Constitution of San Marino was adopted on October 8, 1600, making the tiny European enclave arguably the world's oldest constitutional republic.
Can Reading Kafka Make You a Better Patriot?
Worried about the long-term psychological effects of enduring the senseless policies of one absurd administration after another? Afraid of the potential cerebral damage caused by this never-ending parade of prancing donkeys and bellowing elephants? Well, take heart, Patriot, and fear no more! A new study published in the journal Psychological Science suggests that in the aftermath of oddities, inexplicable behavior, and cacophonic coincidences comes a sharper mind and a heightened sensitivity to one's surroundings.
Battle of Lepanto: Armada of the Cross
Written by	William Norman Grigg
Autumn had come to the Mediterranean, and more than a hint of the blustery winter to come was in the air, as two formidable armadas gathered for battle near Corinth. By far the larger force was the fleet commanded by Ali Pasha, servant of Ottoman Turkey's Sultan Selim II.
Declining Population Accompanied Rome's Rise to Empire
Following in the wake of the news of the discovery of Nero's extravagant banquet hall, another archaeological find is revealing even more about the life in first century Rome. According to a story from LiveScience.com, scientists are closer to a definitive explanation for the reported increase in Rome's population during the crucial period surrounding the fall of the Republic and the first generations under the reign of the Caesars:


Now let's add yet another finger to the mix to make a sixteenth note pattern. It is really remarkable how different these patterns sound when played slowly than when played quickly.
Don't be in too much of a hurry to play them at a fast tempo, because what you DON'T want to do is play sloppy licks quickly!


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Solar Panels. Solar panels are made up of photovoltaic cells, which convert sunlight into DC power.
Inverter. An inverter is a device that converts DC power from the solar panels into the standard AC power that is used in your home.
Electric Panel. The electric panel, or breaker box, contains your home's fuses and breakers. This is where electricity is distributed throughout your home.
Utility Meter. The utility meter measures the flow of electricity between your home and the utility grid.
Utility Grid. The utility grid is the network of distribution wires that is maintained by your local electric utility. You will remain connected to the grid after your solar system is in place.
Each Ault Energy Grid-Tied Solar System is composed of solar panels, mounting hardware, and associated structural elements, and is created to the custom specifications of each customer. Ault Energy will come to your home to determine the best size, mounting arrangement and positioning for your system, and present you with a detailed design and installation plan.
Ault Energy Grid-Tied Solar Systems are designed to work in parallel with the electric utility grid, allowing you the ease and comfort of generating electricity during daylight hours and drawing from the grid during nighttime hours. We will help you set up a net metering relationship with your local utility, enabling you to sell excess power back to the utility during peak hours when rates are high and buy electricity during non-peak hours when rates are low. This ensures that you will never experience any interruption in your electric service.
Your initial investment in a Ault Energy Grid-Tied Solar System can be likened to pre-paying for tomorrow's electricity at today's rates. As rates continue to rise, your investment becomes more and more valuable. On average, homeowners can expect to recoup their entire investment in 5-10 years. Depending on the incentives and electric rates offered in your area, it might take even less time than that. Once your system is paid off, you can start pocketing the savings!
Our solar panels carry a 25-year manufacturer's power warranty. Many last longer than that; some of the first solar power systems installed more than 40 years ago are still going strong! When you invest in solar, you can have confidence that you are making a smart investment.
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• Solar systems can be financed. Ault Energy will help you determine the best way to finance your investment in solar power. In some cases, the sum of your loan payments and your new electricity bill will be less than your previous electric bill - this means you could start saving money immediately.
The Ontario Government has extended the rebate on the provincial sales tax for PV systems.
The Ontario Power Authority's Standard Offer Program offers generators of PV electricity that are connected to Ontario's distribution system 42 cents per kilowatt hour – more than three times the offered price for other renewable technologies. There are costs and fees associated with connecting your system to the grid. This is more suitable to larger systems. Contact your local electrical distribution company for details.
Residents who install smaller micro-generation PV systems who do not wish to participate in the Standard Offer Program can choose to use the electricity generated for their own consumption. Ontario's net metering regulation allows you to send electricity generated from renewable sources to the electrical grid for a credit toward your energy costs. Your utility will subtract the value of electricity you supply to the grid from the value of what you take from the grid. What you'll see on your bill is the "net" difference between those two amounts. If you supply power that is worth more than what you take from the grid over the billing period, you'll receive a credit that can help lower future energy bills.
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Ault Energy will arrange for a certified energy assessor to visit your home at your convenience to ensure to determine the best location to install your solar energy system.
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Chou, R. (2012). Asian American sexual politics: The construction of race, gender, and sexuality. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Chou, R., & Feagin, J. R. (2008). The myth of the model minority: Asian Americans facing racism. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers.
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DIBAAJIMOWIN
Dibaajimowin Blog
Michif Language
Ojibwe Language
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Metis Community Map
US & Canadian Reservations
Tawn Kaayaash
Metis Stories
Women's Stories
Elder Stories
Legend Stories
Mutual Hunting to Sustain the Herds
Cree, Ojibwe, Metis, and Assiniboine working together
As the buffalo herds started to dwindle during the middle 1800s, the tribes and bands of the region began to make changes to accommodate the changing patterns of the herds' movements and the growing competition to gain access to them.
It was noted that the Cree led an "armed migration", in cooperation with the Ojibwe, Assiniboine, and Métis, into the Cypress Hills region during the late 1860s. There, the large multi-ethnic camps would form in the summer months to provide protection against the Blackfoot and to ensure that order was maintained so as to not scare off the herds and ruin hunting for everyone.
It was noted that camps could include upwards of 350 lodges of Cree, Assiniboine, Ojibwe, and Métis, but the camps were not exactly a blended effort by the different groups. Even though these people would come together for mutual needs, the camps would remain relatively separate along ethnic lines with tipis and tents being pitched in different camp circles within the main camp itself. The camps would also break up as soon as its goals were accomplished. The main social collective of these camps was the development of a system of mutual Sun Dance ceremonies, which affirmed the social cohesion of the assembled bands.
These joint camps lasted for about a decade before the bison herds could not be sustained. In 1876, the Ojibwa and Cree still in Cypress Hills sent a message to the local commissioner asking for help. Their petition stated: "We are now all gathered together in these Cypress Hills… and we see with our own eyes that the buffalo are gradually dying."
See more at: Peers, Laura L. (Laura Lynn). 1994. "Ojibwa Of Western Canada, 1780 To 1870." Manitoba Studies In Native History. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press.
A collaborative effort of members of the Ojibwe and Metis communities
About Dibaajimowin
Dibaajimowin was created as a way to share interesting and unique stories and other information about the Metis and Ojibwe people (and others) so that these can be used by our guests to educate themselves and others about the history, culture, and language of the people.
We hope you enjoy everything you find here and are glad to have you return in the future. If you are interested in using our content for educational or personal purposes, please give proper attribution and credit to our page. It is important that we acknowledge the tellers of stories and the creators of intellectual property in all forms.
Please enjoy! See you soon.
Photo used under Creative Commons from trendingtopics


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Two for 1 kobo, by Lawal Ogienagbon
HEN last did anyone see the kobo? It has been long, right! The kobo was not phased out. It was not withdrawn from circulation by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN). It eased itself out of the system when it became a rejected legal tender.
Under the law, the kobo remains a legal tender, but hardly can it be found in circulation because it has lost its store of value, as economists would say. It has become archival material; a museuem piece to be put on display. Once a legal tender loses value, it becomes worthless. It is not worth the paper it is printed or the coin it is minted. This is sadly the fate of the kobo, which many of us cherished as kids.
We could buy sweets and biscuits with it; as well as guguru and epa (popcorn and groundnut) as the coins, if we had two or more, jingled in our pockets on our way back from school or to the playground. It was also fun betting with the kobo. All these are now in the past. The kobo is now dead as dodo. If anyone holds the kobo today, they won't get it to spend.
Before it is even out of your pocket, you would be bombarded with questions, such as, where did you get it? Is it still in circulation? In a jiffy, some of those around will collect it from you, look at it with nostalgia and tell the younger ones about the legend of the kobo and its enormous value in its heyday. The kobo became extinct when the public all of a sudden stopped accepting it. It began with traders, who felt that the money had lost its value as there was nothing that they could sell for one kobo.
The rejection spread so fast that even the Nigerian Security Printing and Minting Company, NSPMC, (is it still functioning?) was forced to stop minting the kobo. The kobo attained its legend when secondhand cloth dealers around major bus stops in Lagos started using it as a sales gimmick. "Bend down and pick your own", they bellowed at the roadside, "two for one kobo". I recall the fate of the kobo as I mused over the endorsement of the presidential candidate of Labour Party (LP), Mr Peter Obi, by former President Olusegun Obasanjo.
If people had followed Obasanjo's body language since virtually all the candidates turned his Abeokuta, Ogun State home to a Mecca of sorts to seek his blessings they would have known where he was going. Obasanjo, like another former leader, likes to play god over the affairs of the nation. They want to be consulted before contestants throw their hats in the ring and where this is not done, they feel slighted. On this score alone, they are ready to work against such a contestant.
So, it is in the enlightened self-interest of a contestant to go to Abeokuta or the Minna Hilltop residence of former self-styled military president Gen Ibrahim Babaginda in Niger State for blessings to show the world that they have the backing of these 'kingmakers'. Politicians are suffering for what they created with their own hands. What are the political antecedents of Obasanjo and Babaginda that they must be consulted by presidential candidates who wish to win the election?
Neither Obasanjo nor Babaginda is a politician in the mould of former Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters, the late Maj. Gen. Shehu Yar'Adua, who, with the help of others built the political machine known as Peoples Democratic Movement (PDM) some years after retiring from the army in 1979. Yar'Adua worked with highly experienced politicians to become a political colossus in his lifetime. He built political bridges across the country as he nursed the ambition of becoming president.
He was done in by the maradonic Babaginda who banned him and other politicians from the contest then. At best, Obasanjo and Babaginda are military politicians, that is politicians in uniform, not grounded in the politics of the real world.
Obasanjo was like a lost needle when he came out of prison in 1998 and was offered the Presidency on a platter. He was running from one politician to the other across the country begging for endorsement after weaning himself of the statement: "how many presidents do you want to make of me in my lifetime"?
Some eight or nine years later, that same Obasanjo had become so used to being president that he did not want to leave again. It is the same Obasanjo that endorsed Obi on January 1 in his letter to ''young Nigerians''. Who else, but those who do not really know him? When endorsements, as we see them now, become two for one kobo, they lose their worth. Look at those endorsing Obi. Pa Ayo Adebanjo, Obasanjo and Niger Delta chieftain Chief Edwin Clark.
Who are they politically? How many votes can they give Obi in their respective regions? Can their endorsements translate to votes for their preferred candidate? The answer is capital NO. They have exercised their rights to back the candidate of their choice. That is where the matter ends.
It is now left for the electorate to exercise their rights to vote for the president they want on February 25 and this Obasanjo, Clark and Adebanjo have no control over. I have nothing against the trio, I only blame candidates who run to them to be anointed despite knowing full well that they have no electoral value whatsoever.
Their endorsements will have no effect on the poll. Mark my words.
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Vin Diesel Asks Dwayne Johnson to Return to 'Fast and Furious' Movies
By Liz Calvario 2:17 PM PST, November 7, 2021
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Vin Diesel is asking Dwayne Johnson to return to the Fast and Furious films.
As the action movie franchise comes to an end, Diesel took to social media on Sunday to share a message to The Rock. Posting a photo of their characters, Dominic Toretto and Luke Hobbs, Diesel tells Johnson that he hopes he fulfills his "destiny."
The last time Diesel and Johnson appeared together in a Fast and Furious movie was in 2017's The Fate of the Furious.
"My little brother Dwayne... the time has come. The world awaits the finale of Fast 10. As you know, my children refer to you as Uncle Dwayne in my house. There is not a holiday that goes by that they and you don't send well wishes... but the time has come," Diesel began. "Legacy awaits. I told you years ago that I was going to fulfill my promise to Pablo. I swore that we would reach and manifest the best Fast in the finale that is 10!"
Diesel continued by expressing that he says "this out of love," telling The Rock that he "must show up" and "not leave the franchise idle."
"You have a very important role to play. Hobbs can't be played by no other," the actor added, before concluding the post by writing, "Hope that you rise to the occasion and fulfill your destiny."
A post shared by Vin Diesel (@vindiesel)
The actors' reported drama on the Fast and Furious sets went public in 2016 when Johnson called a few of his male Fast & Furious co-stars "candy a**es" and "unprofessional" on Instagram, which fans quickly speculated was about Diesel. A source told ET at the time that Diesel and Johnson definitely clashed on set during filming.
In a recent Vanity Fair profile, Johnson admitted to regretting the post after the fact, noting that it "wasn't my best day, sharing that."
"I shouldn't have shared that. Because at the end of the day, that goes against my DNA. I don't share things like that. And I take care of that kind of bulls**t away from the public," he expressed. "They don't need to know that. That's why I say it wasn't my best day. I meant what I said. For sure. I mean what I say when I say it. But to express it publicly was not the right thing to do."
He also revealed that he met with Diesel to hash things out after the post went viral, but that he wouldn't necessarily "call it a peaceful meeting." "I would call it a meeting of clarity. He and I had a good chat in my trailer, and it was out of that chat that it really became just crystal clear that we are two separate ends of the spectrum. And agreed to leave it there," he said at the time.
Vin Diesel Confirms Cardi B Will Be in 'F10' and Teases the 'Greatest Finale in Cinematic History'
The Fast and Furious franchise will conclude with two more films. Back in June, Diesel told ET that fans won't be disappointed in the popular franchise's final two films, F10 and F11.
"You know, like I said, the finale's coming and F9 starts to align everything perfectly for the greatest finale in cinematic history," he said. The 10th movie is expected to start filming in January and scheduled to be released on April 7, 2023.
Meanwhile, ET recently spoke with Johnson about a Diesel joke that is included in his latest movie, Red Notice. His co-star and longtime friend, Ryan Reynolds, threw in the joke -- and Johnson decided to keep it in the film.
"You know, Ryan loves to improv, and I love that," Johnson told ET at the Los Angeles premiere last week. "I've known Ryan for a long time, 20 years. Man, we go way back. I've known Ryan longer than anyone in Hollywood, and so that's how close we are and the Vin joke, audiences love it, very, very funny. But that was Ryan. He came up with that."
"He came up with a few of them, and I thought that was the one that could be funny," Johnson explained. "Look, in a movie like this, you've got to have a sense of humor."
Hear more of what he said in the video below.
Dwayne Johnson Reacts to 'Red Notice's Surprise Vin Diesel Joke From Ryan Reynolds (Exclusive)
Dwayne Johnson Reacts to Surprise Vin Diesel Joke in 'Red Notice'
Dwayne Johnson Says He Met With Vin Diesel After 'Fast & Furious' Feud
Dwayne Johnson 'Laughed Hard' After Vin Diesel Showed Him 'Tough Love'
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What Betty White Had to Say About Turning 100 (Exclusive)