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Richard Denniss
Chief economist and former Executive Director of the Australia Institute, Richard is a prominent Australian economist, author and public policy commentator, and has spent the last twenty years moving between policy-focused roles in academia, federal politics and think-tanks.
@RDNS_TAI
He was also a Lecturer in Economics at the university of Newcastle and former Associate Professor in the Crawford School of Public Policy at ANU. He is a regular contributor to The Monthly and the author of several books including: Econobabble, Curing Affluenza and Dead Right: How Neoliberalism Ate Itself and What Comes Next?
Fossil Fuel Mining
August 24, 2020 by Mark Ogge, Tony Shields, Tom Swann, Rod Campbell and Richard Denniss
Gender at Work, Social Security & Welfare, Tax, Spending & the Budget
Gender experiences during the COVID-19 lockdown
July 1, 2020 by David Richardson and Richard Denniss
Education & Training, Employment & Workers' Rights
Participating in growth: Free childcare and increased participation
June 25, 2020 by Matt Grudnoff and Richard Denniss
Nordic Policy Centre
Inequality, Infrastructure & Construction, Public Sector, Procurement & Privatisation, Social Security & Welfare, Tax, Spending & the Budget
The Reconstruction Memorandum
June 24, 2020 by Richard Denniss
Employment & Workers' Rights, Public Sector, Procurement & Privatisation
The macroeconomic impact of the NSW public sector pay cut
June 1, 2020 by Richard Denniss, Matt Grudnoff and David Richardson
Show all research
Which jobs and what growth?
January 11, 2021 by Richard Denniss in The Monthly
Who should pick up the tab for the costs of climate change in north Queensland?
January 11, 2021 by Richard Denniss in The Guardian
Stop believing in fairytales: Australia's coal industry doesn't employ many people or pay its fair share of tax
December 23, 2020 by Richard Denniss in The Guardian
Until recently, pressure on Australia to drop carryover credits had little impact. But times change
Podcast: Follow the Money
An unprecedented year: reflecting on 2020 with Richard Denniss
December 10, 2020 featuring Ebony Bennett and Richard Denniss
Democracy & Accountability


Somehow I haven't posted for about three weeks. I don't know how it happens! We had the school half-term hols last week, and so far this whole week has been spent doing some (boring) accounts for our company, but that's finished now, so back to sewing. Actually I have made a couple of dresses in the last few weeks, and have another couple of things planned and strewn across various tables, making the place look even more untidy than usual.
One of the dresses I finished was Vena Cava V1228. I wasn't sure the shape would suit me, as I'm short and tend to look swamped and shapeless in clothes that aren't very shaped themselves. This time I made a muslin and I quite liked it so I went ahead with the dress, and cut it out in a lovely Liberty Tana Lawn I have, called Chilterns. It has a special place in my heart as the village we live in is in the Chilterns (not right in them, but you can see them from the window!) I didn't want to ruin the fabric so I was playing safe (talking about wasting fabric...I've decided I actually detest the red dress in my last post and every time I see it hanging in my wardrobe I feel hatred towards it - what a waste of a lovely fabric that could have made a wonderful, summery shirt).
I really did enjoy making this dress up; it was very straightforward. It has kimono sleeves, so no sleeves to sew on (apart from the cuffs, but that is okay). There is a horizontal pleat at the front just below the square neckline, and one in the middle of the upper back. There is a concealed zip in one side. I had never put in a concealed zip before, but it was easy with the concealed-zip foot, though fiddly at the top and bottom of the zip. I hand sewed the top and bottom in...I don't know if this is the usual thing to do but I couldn't see how one would manage to take the zipper foot either all the way up or all the way down.
All the seams are french seams, except where the cuff is attached, but that is folded back on itself, to cover the unfinished seam, and slip-stitched in place (and then turned up again).
I did make a change to the sleeves, of which I'm quite proud, as I'm usually not very innovative with my sewing and tend to just follow the pattern without even considering I could ever do anything differently. In the case of the dress one is supposed to actually sew the loose end of the shoulder tab permanently at the seam where the cuff is attached (after hooking it over the sleeve fabric) but I thought it would be crazy for future laundering, as what you would have is a long sleeve, which is supposed to be turned up at the end (and the turn up is not sewn into place ) and then the whole thing ruched under the shoulder tab. There would be no way you could ever iron it properly, or dry it properly. Instead, I sewed a popper on to the end of the tab, and the inside of the cuff seam and now I can easily undo the whole thing for laundering, and no one would ever suspect!
I see that some have said the neckline is too low on the dress, and that it's difficult to find a bra that doesn't show at the corners of the neck. I found that a balcony type bra solves this problem for me. I don't have a large bust - maybe that makes a difference.
I really really like this dress a lot and just can't wait for the warmer weather in which to wear it. If it wasn't such a distinctive shape I'd make another.
(sorry the photos aren't too good. I will try to do some better shots tomorrow).
Gorgeous. I love the sleeves, and what great fabric!
BTW I am passing the Liebster Blog award on to you if you like that sort of thing :-) Thanks for all the inspiration!
Another lovely dress , I love the turn back sleeves.
So awesome was your make that I went and got this pattern and am making it up right now, good idea on using a popper I was going to put a button in but a popper is probably better.. Do you find yourself actually using the zipper or can you just slip it on over your head?
I must change the settings on my comments so I can tell when one has been left on a previous post!
Thanks for your enthusiastic comments on my dress! I'm glad you went for the pattern. I think it's a really cool modern shape.
SO, no I can't get it on without using the zip! Hey, now I'm wondering if mine would actually have looked better in a size 10!
And I think. A Button would be fine. I do recommend this mod, though, as I think laundering would be messy without it.
I haven't yet worn mine, by the way. It's still blooming freezing here, and the Liberty lawn is too floaty and light for anything but a hot , sunny day.
Good luck. I'm looking forward to seeing yours.
Sorry, there some errors in my typing but I can't figure out how to navigate back though text on this silly iPad thing! It doesn't have any navigation arrows. Must investigate.
Vogue V1228 and My Fifth V2091!
My NEW Sewing Show---The Tailor and the Dressmaker starts next month!


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Mararikulam is a beach village in the district of Alappuzha. It has the famous temple Mararikulam Mahadevar temple dedicated to Lord Siva(also called Marari by the locals). It is the fertile land of communism and it has a very beautiful beach which is known by the name Marari Beach or Mararikulam beach.


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Scott Bischoff
Charleston Third-Offense DUI Lawyer
As one would expect, third-offense DUI charges are prosecuted more vigorously than first or second offense charges because prosecutors deem repeat offenders as substantial threats to public safety. Understandably, repeat offenders are much less likely to receive a plea offer, let alone a favorable one, as an option to resolve their case short of trial.
Still, a charge for a third DUI offense is not an automatic jail sentence. A Charleston third-offense DUI lawyer could work with judges and prosecutors to preserve a defendant's future and protect them from, especially serious penalties. If you are facing charges, consult with a dedicated DUI attorney.
Common Penalties for a Charleston Third-Time DUI
Under South Carolina law, DUI penalties are more severe if the individual has one or more prior DUI convictions on their record within the last ten years. For a third-offense within ten years of the previous two, the penalty for a conviction ranges between a minimum 60 days in jail and up to five years in prison. Additionally, the fine for a third-offense DUI conviction in South Carolina ranges from a minimum of $3,800 up to $10,000, depending on the blood alcohol content of the defendant at the time of their arrest.
In addition to incarceration and a fine, a third-time DUI conviction triggers a number of consequences regarding insurance rates, substance abuse class completion requirements, and mandatory ignition interlock device requirements.
Third-offense DUI charges in Charleston are handled in Charleston County General Sessions Court. There are no diversion programs for third-offense DUI charges in South Carolina, but probation may be possible. The consequences of a conviction are severe, which is why it is critical for defendants to seek the services of a third-offense DUI lawyer in Charleston.
How Do Courts Treat Third-Offense DUI Charges?
Courts are bound to apply the same legal principles and rules to each case, regardless of whether the defendant is a repeat offender. Should, however, that repeat offender be convicted by a jury, judges have no choice but to sentence the defendant according to the applicable enhanced penalties associated with a third-offense DUI. Under those circumstances, most judges will conclude incarceration is the only option left given the defendant's history.
An experienced Charleston third-offense DUI attorney builds the defense in a particular case the same way they would with a first or second-time DUI. Principled, organized, and strategic case analysis and investigation on the front end is vital to a DUI case. A seasoned attorney should know the defendant and the entire circumstances surrounding their arrest in order to effectively represent them.
Important Evidence in DUI Cases
For a third-offense DUI charge, a lawyer may consider factors such as whether or not there is legal justification for the traffic stop, if there are surrounding environmental factors that may have impacted performance on field sobriety tests, whether the officer administering the field sobriety tests has the requisite training, and if there are any abnormalities with the breathalyzer machine.
An attorney may also consider if the defendant has an underlying substance abuse or mental health issue that contributed to the particular situation that led to their arrest.
Contact a Charleston Third-Offense DUI Attorney for Help
A third charge for DUI is often a sign of a severe substance abuse problem. An experienced Charleston third-offense DUI lawyer could work to alleviate the most severe penalties and work toward a sentence that allows the defendant to receive adequate treatment. If you or a loved one are facing a third DUI charge, reach out to a criminal defense attorney today.
Adams & Bischoff
171 Church St

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Notice that, by adding numbers to the name of the variable, we are able to get the address of any member of the array.
In this case, Number is a variable that represents 2 groups of 6 integers each.
We also established that this declaration by itself gives way to an array after an initialization. This means that we can safely assign the name of an array to the pointer and the pointer would be initialized.
This declaration creates two pointers, and each pointer points to an array of integers. After this declaration, you can initialize each pointer as you see fit. In fact, each pointer can point to an array of a different dimension. This means that one pointer can point to an array of 15 members and another pointer from this declaration can point to an array of 68 members. You have the choice. Since the compiler cannot predict and cannot decide on the number of members of each array, it is your responsibility to communicate this. If you want to use the members of an existing array to initialize the pointer, first specify which pointer you want to initialize, using its index. To access the first pointer, you would type *(pNumbers+0), which is the same as *(pNumbers) or *pNumbers. The second pointer can be accessed with *(pNumbers+1).
To start, type the kind of array you want to create: this is the DataType.
The ArrayName is a regular name you want to give to the variable. Since this is a pointer, the array name must be preceded by an asterisk operator.
Assign the new operator to the array name.
The new operator is followed by the same kind of data type of the first parameter, DataType.
The the necessary number of members of the array as the Dimension. This Dimension is included between square brackets, as every array.
After dynamically creating an array, the compiler allocates the necessary memory space for all the members of the array, based on the data type and accommodating each. Just like any variable, the memory allocated for each member of the array contains garbage. It is your responsibility to fill it up for appropriate values. This can be taken care of by assigning a value to each member of the array.
The required delete operator is used to let the compiler know that you want to delete a pointer variable that was pointing to an array.
The delete keyword is followed by empty square brackets. These brackets allow the compiler to know that you are deleting a pointer to an array. You must use the square brackets and they must be empty.
The VariableName must be the name of the pointer.
When calling the function, the name of the array allows the compiler to pass the whole array because that name is in fact a pointer to the variable. Based on this, instead of passing an array as argument, you can instead use a pointer. We have established that, once a pointer has been initialized as holding the address of an array, the name of the array and the name of the pointer point to the same address. This means that you can also use the name of the pointer when calling such a function. Remember that the name of the pointer preceded by an asterisk is a value; therefore, you should not use it as argument when calling the function.
This would produce the same result.


Board of Directors - New Hope CORPS New Hope CORPS Board of Directors - New Hope CORPS | Community based organization provides substance abuse treatment, outpatient and residential, HIV Aids counseling and testing, transitional housing for homeless, prevention and intervention services.
New Hope CORPS is a nonprofit CARF accredited community based organization that provides free of charge substance abuse treatment, behavioral health services, HIV-AIDS prevention, testing and counseling, in home counseling and case management, among other services.
New Hope CORPS © 2010 Graphic and Web Design by: DecoGraphic Inc.


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Deciding on Early Retirement? Don't Overlook Your Support Obligations
If you are on the brink of deciding whether to retire early, the recent Ontario case called Innes v. Innes is a reminder to make sure you take your spousal support obligations into account.
In that case, the couple had separated in 2001 after 26 years of marriage. After what the judge called some "hard fought" litigation, the husband was ordered to pay $2,000 per month in spousal support to the wife, which he dutifully did until 2012. But at that point, when he was aged 62, he decided to voluntarily retire from his job as a CEO of a not-for-profit corporation. He applied to have the wife's support cut off completely.
The court refused. The husband's decision to retire – thereby reducing his income from $200,000 to $70,000 – had been made as a "personal decision for lifestyle reasons", and not because of any health-related concern. He was living a very comfortable lifestyle: He had remarried to a woman earning about $100,000 a year, as the court pointed out, "His budget includes things like $400 a month for meals out, $850 a month for vacation, and $200 a month for golf." Yet he had not set aside savings, made investments, or taken any steps to allow him to keep up his ongoing spousal support obligations to his first wife.
In fact, not only had the husband neglected those obligations completely, but in making his decision he also failed to give the wife any advance notice of his intent to have her support cut off. In all the circumstances, this was simply not a material change that warranted letting the husband off the financial hook, the court found.
Thinking of making a change and retiring early? If you currently pay support to a spouse, don't assume that your support obligations will automatically change, too. Make sure you get legal advice first.
To see the family law court's full decision, see Innes v. Innes, 2013 ONSC 2254
Shulman Law Firm is a Toronto-area firm of experienced Family Lawyers who can provide practical advice and effective representation relating to the steps and processes involved in separating and getting divorced in Ontario. Contact us to set up a free consultation.
What To Do If My Ex Wants Nothing To Do With Our Child


Accommodation in Les 2 Alpes is as wide ranging as its ski terrain with an extensive selection of properties to choose from rated from functional 1 star apartments right up to newer, more spacious and better equipped 3 and 4 star accommodation.
As one of the largest and oldest ski areas in France, there are apartments dating from every era of French ski resort development, but common factors to all include functional design and usually piste proximity, so it should only be a short walk to the slopes wherever you choose to stay.
Located in the heart of Les Deux Alpes, the Résidence L'Ours Blanc is a convenient base near the shops and restaurants in town and only a 2 minute walk from the ski lifts.
Residence Le Jandri offers studio apartments that are ideal for those on a budget. Enjoy the cosy apartments and the spectacular views over Les Deux Alpes.
Centrally located self-catering apartments 400m from the ski lifts. The apartments are basic but well-suited to those on a budget wanting a central location in Les Deux Alpes.
Residence Les 2 Alpes offers self-catered accommodation in Les Deux Alpes located near to the Champame ski lift.


Stir together half the pineapple and 3/4 cup barbecue sauce in small bowl; set aside.
Mix remaining pineapple, remaining 1/4 cup barbecue sauce, beef, 1/4 cup rice, salt and pepper in large bowl until well blended. Shape mixture into 24 meatballs, about 1-1/4 inches each. Place in large skillet sprayed with cooking spray; spoon sauce mixture over meatballs.
Bring to a boil over medium-high heat. Stir gently and cover. Reduce heat to medium-low; simmer 16 to 18 minutes or until meatballs are cooked through (160°F).
Meanwhile, prepare remaining 2 cups rice according to package directions, omitting salt and butter and adding bell pepper. Serve meatballs and sauce over rice.


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If you are looking to invest into the Kingdom of God, then I have a wonderful opportunity for you! 100% of your contribution goes towards outreach. I work to pay for my own expenses. Your contribution goes towards the ministry that I am ordained in, Hungry Hearts.
Your contribution allows us to print more books and host more church services in other cities. I have written five books and 10 booklets to help you enter into a deep, personal relationship with Jesus Christ. I travel around and raise up churches for Hungry Hearts ministry. We also have overseas Missions in India and Kenya. Anything you give will be used towards these purposes.
You can make a one-time contribution or even contribute monthly. Donating to Hungry Hearts will give you tremendous reward for God's Kingdom!
Hungry Hearts Ministries is not a non-profit organization. This means that we are not tax-exempt, so your contribution is not tax deductible. We have no paid staff, but we are set up this way so that we can preach the full gospel of Jesus Christ.
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HOP! gets rebranded to Air France HOP
posted on 4th February 2019 by Justin Burns
Air France has rebranded routes operated by its regional fleet and currently under the HOP! brand and will now market them under the name Air France HOP.
The carrier said this development "makes it possible to link the regional flight offer more clearly to the Air France brand", and "strengthens it by making it the sole point of reference for customers wishing to travel on the French flag carrier".
This is the next step in the process of simplifying Air France-KLM's brand portfolio in order to provide greater clarity for customers and more consistency with the group's global commercial offer.
The Air France-KLM group relies on two strong brands, Air France and KLM, which both have regional variations with Air France HOP and KLM Cityhopper, and offers its customers low-cost services with the Transavia brand, present in France and the Netherlands.
"This is the next step towards consolidating the strength of our brands and increasing the clarity and overall consistency of the Air France-KLM Group's offer," said Air France-KLM Group chief executive officer, Benjamin Smith.
"The domestic network, including the regional market currently operated by HOP! is fundamental to the Air France business model, securing its regional foothold and is an integral part of its history and DNA. In the face of competition in this market, we must make our offer clearer and link it more closely to the values and strengths of the Air France brand.
"I would like to praise the commitment and professionalism of all staff at HOP!. I am confident that together we will succeed in making Air France HOP the reference brand for our customers when they travel on our regional network."
This project is in line with the simplification strategy currently being implemented within Air France's short-haul sector, including regional aircraft operations, which aims to regain customers' trust and restore a sustainable economic balance.
Air NZ increases its Bali service
posted on 19th July 2019
easyJet posts robust performance in third quarter, poaches Ryanair COO
Traffic growth for Cathay Pacific in June as added capacity boosts figures
IATA calls for "urgent improvements" to European air traffic management
Jet2.com gives woman lifetime ban and bills her £85,000 over diverted flight
Vietnam Airlines to lease two Airbus A320s from ALC
Moscow Sheremetyevo serves over 23 million passengers in 1H19
Cathay Pacific opens newly renovated Shanghai Pudong lounge
OPINION: BA GDPR fine should be a tipping point event for airlines and GHs
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Google today released a lot of updates, so I had to create this "Breaking News" post for that reason. Between the news, there's the addition of a translation link in Google+, for all the posts made in different languages. This is really useful for avoiding to continuously copy and paste into Google Translator.
Again, Google updated Youtube app for Android with a great new function, and then some ads for Google Maps software. Then they released an Android Device Manager to track lost cell phones and some updates for Adwords and Adwords Express.
Google is integrating a translation function into Google+, allowing users to easily convert posts in a foreign language to their native tongue.Any post that isn't written in the user's language of choice will be accompanied by a translate button, enabling users with a simple click to have the message interpreted.
If you use the YouTube application on your Android device, you have a good reason now to upgrade your app to this latest version. Users can open the guide from anywhere in the app if they want to quickly view their subscriptions and feeds. Just tap on the sideways arrow at the top of the app at any time.
Users of the Google Maps app will soon start seeing more ways to interact with paid content within the app, the company recently announced. After a user performs a search with the app, ads for local businesses will now appear at the bottom of the screen starting Thursday, the company announced in a blog post.
Last week Google announced it's new service called "Android Device Manager" which let's users to easily track the exact location of their lost Android smartphone. And now various users are saying that the roll out of this new service has been started and various users across the world have started using the service.
Several more minor updates to the way that local results are displayed on the front page of Google. These may have been in place for a while but they have just sunk in for me if they have been.
That's all for today, now you know all the updates and news by Google!


Several weekends ago, I was in New York City with my husband. It has become an annual affair—three years running now. And you know I won't let him forget this tradition he's begun.
I love the city. I love to soak in all the city offers, then leave it and come home to the peace and quiet nest of my Blue Ridge home. Certainly I prefer to spend my every day surrounded by mountains covered in verdant hues rather than skyscrapers of mirrored glass. But, I love how the city gifts me while I'm in it. This time, especially, it was full of giving.
I could give you my laundry list and describe each one in yawning detail. Don't worry. I won't. Besides, it isn't the individual experiences I want to invite you into as much as the language I discovered. For now, I will call it the language of the non-anxious heart.
I heard it in it's most direct form in the the Broadway musical, Come From Away. It's the true story of the 38 planes and the over 7,000 passengers that were diverted to the Newfoundland island town of Gander on the day of 9/11. People from all over the world with their dozens of languages and beliefs and ways of dealing with the uncontrollable things of life. All together, stranded in a Canadian island town for five days, now doubled in population.
"Be anxious for nothing," said one of the Newfoundlanders to a terrified African man and his family, who refused to get off the school bus being used to transport passengers from airplanes (finally, after midnight) to shelters. The man saw the Red Cross attendants and National Guard. No one had informed the passengers yet as to why they were diverted; why they had spent the entire day stuck on airplanes, landed on a runway at a nearly deserted airport on an island off the coast of "nowhere." They were desperate to get off the planes. They were willing to get into the buses. But now there were people in strange uniforms waiting for them in the middle of the pitch black night, and they could see nothing around them.
The couple looked at the verse, then back at Garth. They gave him a tired smile and followed him off the bus.
I long to speak the language of a non-anxious heart. Imagine what a difference it would make in my family. My friendships. My community. The language of a non-anxious heart is one open to speaking direction and correction without the pitch of fear ringing through. It is able to recount these days and their many events—not as exhausting and soul-sucking—but as gracious gifts; the blessings of an abundant life. It buoys neighbors (not only those who live next door) in connection and commonality rather than divisions.
It wasn't just in Come From Away where I recognized the language of the non-anxious heart. I found it in the character of Babette, in the Off-Broadway production, Babette's Feast. In her own non-anxious heart language, Babette sacrificed all (including her only chance for returning to her beloved France) to throw a feast for the religiously pious-to-the-point-of-joyless villagers who'd offered her refuge during France's years of revolution.
I heard the language of the non-anxious heart while walking through The Cloisters. Room after room filled with medieval art created for purpose of glorifying God, rather than rejoicing in one's own self-expression. Indoor and outdoor spaces set apart for contemplation. Examining the heart. Reframing one's purpose.
Even the 9/11 Museum. Maybe especially there. It was the language of the non-anxious heart that moved people into action on behalf of others. No hesitation. No thinking of self. Only looking to the need of the other.
Ultimately, the language of the non-anxious heart is the language of the other. It is the language of Garth, the bus driver, who sought what was best for his African passenger. It is the language of Babette, who sought to bless the villagers no matter the personal cost to herself. It is the language of first responders—all the time.
Yes. It was the language of the other I discovered in New York those several weeks ago. A language I most desperately need to learn.


Sarah finished her Masters in Counselling Psychology in 2010 with City University of Seattle and has been practicing as a school counsellor for 17 years. After completing her Expressive Arts Play Therapy Certificate and receiving specialized clinical supervision in the use of sand tray she started her private practice Expressive Child Therapies. Since then she completed her certification in Filial Family Play Therapy and is currently in the process of becoming certified as a Synergetic Play Therapist. Sarah has foundations in trauma informed practices and has a keen awareness of neurobiology and how "stuck" trauma may impact the ability for children to self regulate. As a counsellor in the schools, Sarah developed a passion for providing young children with the emotional competence and social skills that build their confidence and prevent future mental health concerns. Ultimately, she aims to build children's felt sense of resilience while helping empower the family system and expand the helping community so that children have the connections that help them feel validated and like they belong and have the support they need.


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Forest, Range & Recreation Resource Analysis Table of Contents
3.2 Timber Resource Maps
This section presents and describes a series of inventory maps for British Columbia's timber resource. Inventory maps for range and recreation resources are presented in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively.
Most maps in this section are presented at a scale of 1:10 million, but have been derived from forest cover maps at a scale of 1:20 000. B.C.'s 7027 forest cover maps were combined to produce the provincial map. These maps have all been updated by regional and district inventory staff.
Maps for 15 larger, older provincial parks were derived from the 1956-1958 Continuous Forest Inventory. These maps are considered less reliable than the rest of the provincial maps.
Provincial maps were produced by superimposing a 2-kilometre by 2-kilometre grid over the map of B.C. and summarizing inventory information within each 400 hectares (2-kilometre by 2-kilometre) square. For the "Leading species groups" map, for example, the area occupied by each species within the 2-kilometre grid was determined from the area and percent species composition of each polygon within or intersected by the grid. Each grid was then allocated to the species group occupying the greatest area of the grid. For example, if Douglas-fir is the leading species on 150 hectares (out of 400 hectares) in the grid and no other species occupies more than 150 hectares, the grid is labelled "Douglas-fir." Because this methodology may potentially under- or over-represent themes on the maps, tables comparing mapped areas and actual areas are provided for each map.
The description of each map is found on its facing page.
3.2.1 Tree Species
Figure 3.19 shows the leading tree species groups in the province.
The species groups mapped here are described in Table 3.2.
Interpretation of Database
In creating the map, the 2-kilometre grid was labelled according to the tree species group occupying the greatest area in each grid. For instance, a polygon with one leading species was allocated to that species. Where a polygon had two or more leading species, 60% of the polygon area was allocated to the first leading species and 40% to the second leading species.
The 2-kilometre grid summary process used to produce these maps may result in discrepancies between the actual and displayed areas and percentages for each theme. To address concerns about over- or under-representation of a theme on a map, Table 3.3 compares actual area and percentage to displayed area and percentage for each theme.
Comparison with 1984 FRRA
Species group designations are the same as those found in the 1984 FRRA (Figure B 15), with three primary exceptions. In the 1984 analysis, ponderosa pine and western white pine were grouped with Douglas-fir; here they are grouped with the other pines. Two species group names have been changed: fir and balsam (1984 FRRA) are now called Douglas-fir and true firs, respectively.
3.2.2 Age Classes
Figure 3.20 shows the leading age classes of B.C. forests.
Each 2-kilometre grid is labelled according to the age class group occupying the largest area in the grid. Themes are:
0-40 years (age classes 1, 2; includes not-satisfactorily-restocked [NSR][28] and non-commercial [NC] stands)
41-80 years (age classes 3, 4)
81-120 years (age classes 5, 6)
121-140 years (age class 7)
251+ years (age class 9)
not forested (all areas with no tree species, e.g., rock, alpine, meadow, grasslands, wetlands, transportation routes, urban and industrial areas).
This map is similar to Figure B-17 "Forest Cover–Degree of Disturbance" in the 1984 FRRA, with two major differences:
the 1984 map grouped age classes 7-9 as "average age over 121 years"; here they appear as three themes
the 1984 map used a "weighted mean average" approach in designating age class (e.g., if half the grid is 50 years old and half is 100 years old, it would be classed as "75 years old"); here, the grid is allocated to the age class occupying the largest area.
3.2.3 Site Index Classes
Figure 3.21 shows site index classes for B.C. forest lands. Site index is a measure of the relative productivity of a site based on the height of dominant trees in a stand at an arbitrary age. Site index distribution provides a measure of site productivity for tree growth (and indirectly for productivity of other vegetation and some other groups of organisms).
Site index at 50 years is calculated for all leading species in the 2-kilometre grid using tree species, height, age and the computer program FREDTAB. The grid is allocated to the site index class occupying the greatest area in each 2-kilometre grid.
The analogous map in the 1984 FRRA is Figure B-16 "Forest Cover–Productivity," though the measures of productivity are quite different:
in the 1984 FRRA, productivity was expressed in wood volumes produced (cubic metres per hectare per year); here productivity is expressed as height growth over 50 years
the values in the 1984 map are weighted means; values in the 1994 map represent the class occupying the greatest area.
Though the approaches vary, the resulting maps are quite similar. The 1994 map has greater resolution and has eight productivity classes compared to four in the 1984 analysis.
3.2.4 Mature and Immature Forest
Figure 3.22 shows B.C. forests by maturity.
Mature forests are defined as:
stands with lodgepole pine, whitebark pine or deciduous species as leading species, of stand age greater than 80 years
stands with conifers other than lodgepole or whitebark pine as leading species, of stand age greater than 120 years.
Immature forests are defined as:
stands with lodgepole pine, whitebark pine or deciduous species as leading species, of stand age 80 years or less
stands with conifers other than lodgepole or whitebark pine as leading species, of stand age 120 years or less.
If non-forested areas (not including "not stocked" [NSR and NC Brush]) cover more than 50% of the area in a 2-kilometre grid (i.e., greater than 200 ha), that grid is mapped as "non-forested." If forested areas cover more than 50% of the grid, then that grid is classed as "mature forest" or "immature forest," whichever has the greatest area.
There is no comparable map in the 1984 FRRA.
3.3 Condition of the Timber Resource
Forest productivity for timber decreases when forests are damaged by insects or disease (Section 3.3.1), when land is burned by wildfire (Section 3.3.2), when land is not satisfactorily restocked with acceptable (commercially valuable) tree species (Section 3.3.3) or when land is stocked with timber too old or too dense to produce desired timber products (Section 3.3.4).
3.3.1 Pests
Figure 3.23 summarizes, by forest region, the annual volume of timber damaged by forest insects and disease over the last decade. Areas and volumes of timber killed or damaged by pests do not necessarily translate into lost wood — salvage logging in many areas of the province recovers much of the wood.
Most of the decline between 1983-84 and 1989-90 can be attributed to a decline in bark beetle activity. The area of annual beetle damage slowly declined from approximately 550 000 hectares in 1983-84 to less than 200 000 hectares by 1987-88. Beetle populations increased slightly after 1987-88. Beetle damage (especially from mountain pine beetle in the Cariboo Forest Region) subsided substantially from the peak period in 1983-84 due to population collapse, due to very cold weather and to increased control efforts during the 1980s and early 1990s. Recently, the warmer and drier weather conditions favored by bark beetles have allowed populations to increase somewhat, although control activities continue to reduce damage.
Most of the annual timber volume affected by pests involves bark beetles (47.8%), defoliators (19.6%), dwarf mistletoe (16.9%) and root disease (15.7%), as shown in Figure 3.24. The gross annual loss to pests averages 14 million cubic metres. These figures do not account for salvaged timber; the net loss will be considerably less.
Figure 3.25 portrays, by region, the annual area damaged by bark beetles, defoliators and other insects between 1984-85 and 1992-93. Mountain pine beetle and western spruce budworm account for most of the area damaged. Kamloops Forest Region is the most severely affected, and damage has increased considerably over the period. Mountain pine beetle activity in the Cariboo Forest Region has recently begun to increase again, after almost a decade of low populations.
Information on areal extent of trees affected by disease damage is unavailable, as such damage often occurs in small pockets in otherwise healthy forests and can be difficult to detect.
3.3.2 Wildfire
Wildfires cause significant damage to B.C. forests each year, though the area affected by wildfire does not necessarily translate into timber volumes lost. Many stands are only lightly burned, leaving either live trees or dead trees that can be salvage logged, though the wood is often of lower quality.
British Columbia's fire detection and firefighting capabilities are among the best in the world. The area and volume burned each year since 1984 has, in general, remained below 50 000 hectares and 5 million cubic metres (Figures 3.26, 3.27). The summer of 1985 was an exception: extremely hot, dry, windy weather conditions resulted in a substantially larger area and volume burned — mainly in the Nelson and Prince George forest regions.
The 10-year averages (1984-1993), for area and volume burned by wildfire each year are approximately 48 630 hectares and 3.5 million cubic metres, respectively. Averages are used to smooth out large annual fluctuations resulting from the effects of weather on wildfire occurrence. These statistics cover all wildfires in British Columbia, including those on not satisfactorily restocked forest land, non commercial forest land, grazing land and non-productive sites.
Figures 3.28 and 3.29 show the annual area affected by wildfire and pests and the annual area harvested for timber. These histograms show that approximately three times as much area is damaged or killed by pests and wildfire each year as is logged. Much of the area damaged or killed by pests and wildfire is subsequently logged.
3.3.3 Not-Satisfactorily-Restocked Forest Land
The term "not-satisfactorily-restocked" (NSR) describes forest lands that are not growing to their full timber production potential due to insufficient stocking of acceptable tree species. NSR lands are grouped into three main administrative categories: those denuded prior to 1982, between 1982 and 1987, and after 1987.
Lands Denuded Pre-1982
NSR lands denuded prior to 1982 are referred to as "backlog" NSR; the Ministry of Forests is responsible for reforesting all backlog NSR sites. An aggressive regeneration program including site preparation, planting and stand tending, combined with regeneration surveys to verify natural restocking, has dramatically reduced the area of backlog NSR. Since 1984, the backlog NSR on good and medium sites decreased from 738 000 hectares to 272 975 hectares.
Lands Denuded 1982-1987
The Ministry of Forests is responsible for funding regeneration of all areas denuded between 1982 and 1987. Reforestation of these lands is undertaken by the agency responsible for harvesting — either the ministry or the licensee. The ministry is responsible for reforesting lands harvested under the Small Business Forest Enterprise Program prior to January 1, 1988. Most of these sites will be reforested by the year 2000.
Lands Denuded Post-1987
Under the Forest Act, areas harvested after 1987 must be reforested — by natural regeneration, planting or a combination thereof — within a specified time frame. Major licence holders are responsible for achieving free-growing status on their tenured Crown lands harvested since October 1, 1987. The Ministry of Forests is responsible for reforesting all lands harvested under the Small Business Forest Enterprise Program after this date, and woodlot licence holders are responsible for reforesting their woodlots. The Ministry of Forests also regenerates all treatable areas denuded by fire or pests after 1987 that have not been harvested; where areas are salvage logged, the licensee is responsible for reforestation.
The stocking requirements for each area are based on ecosystem-specific standards that define acceptable tree species, minimum stocking levels, acceptable regeneration delay and free-growing standards. An area will remain classified as NSR until it meets standards that have been identified and approved in the Pre-Harvest Silviculture Prescription. Regeneration activities must consider all forest resources, including recreation, wildlife, water and aesthetics.
The extent of NSR forest land has a direct bearing on sustainable harvest levels. Areas classified as NSR that are not scheduled to be reforested with commercial species for future harvesting, are not included in the operable timber harvesting land base to calculate timber supply and determine allowable annual cuts.[29] NSR statistics are also used to review government and industry performance in regenerating and protecting the resource base.
In 1982, British Columbia had some 1 634 500 hectares of NSR forest land.[30] NSR area continued to expand throughout the 1980s as regeneration efforts lagged behind harvesting on the operable timber harvesting land base (Figure 3.30). Regeneration efforts significantly increased with the signing in 1985 of the five year Federal–Provincial Forest Resource Development Agreement (FRDA I), which focused on backlog NSR. By 1987, the net area reforested began to exceed the net area being harvested (Figure 3.30).[31] Total NSR area, which peaked at 1 972 151 hectares in 1989, was reduced to 1 362 407 hectares by 1993 (Figure 3.31). This trend will hold at least until the year 2000 as ministry efforts to reduce backlog NSR continue.[32]
In the long term, the rate of reforestation is expected to approximately equal the rate of harvesting and NSR area will reach a steady state of about 600 000 ha. This NSR area is due to the delay between time of harvesting and regeneration.
3.3.4 Decadent and Stagnant Stands
The Ministry of Forests Act (Section 7b) requires this report to contain: "a description of the location and extent of areas of forest land in the Province that…are producing timber at a rate that, in the opinion of the chief forester, is substantially lower than their potential." This topic was addressed in the 1984 FRRA as "decadent and stagnant stands" (Chapter C-1). Today, as in 1984, there is no inventory information specifically about decadent and stagnant stands.
"Decadent" stands were defined in 1984 as "mature timber either growing very slowly or reducing in volume from decay and for which there are no present or anticipated timber values within the next 10 years." This corresponds well with some definitions of old growth. The B.C. government's 1992 Old Growth Strategy recognizes many values (including timber) associated with old-growth forests. Though these stands are often "producing timber at a rate that is…substantially lower than their potential," their other values (e.g., recreation, biodiversity, spiritual) will, in some cases, take precedence over stand conversion to provide timber yield.[33] The B.C. Ministry of Forests and B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks will jointly publish a report on B.C.'s old-growth forests (including inventory information) in summer of 1995.
"Stagnant" stands were defined in 1984 as "immature timber growing very densely and usually [resulting] from wildfires." This refers primarily to lodgepole pine stands in central interior B.C. No inventory information specifically about stagnant stands is available, though returning these stands to effective wood production (through thinning, fertilizing, and, in some cases, starting over) is a priority in some forest districts.