text:
Raymond Davis Jr.
Masatoshi Koshiba
Riccardo Giacconi
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Japanese (pdf)
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has decided to award the Nobel Prize in Physics for 2002 with one half jointly to
Raymond Davis Jr
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA, and
International Center for Elementary Particle Physics, University of Tokyo, Japan
"for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos"
and the other half to
Associated Universities Inc., Washington DC, USA
"for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources".
Two New Windows on the Universe
The Earth lies in the path of a continuous flux of cosmic particles and other types of radiation. This year's Nobel Laureates in Physics have used these very smallest components of the universe to increase our understanding of the very largest: the Sun, stars, galaxies and supernovae. The new knowledge has changed the way we look upon the universe.
The mysterious particle called a neutrino was predicted as early as 1930 by Wolfgang Pauli (Nobel Prize in 1945), but it would take 25 years to prove its existence (by Frederick Reines, Nobel Prize in 1995). This is because neutrinos, which are formed in the fusion processes in the Sun and other stars when hydrogen is converted into helium, hardly interact at all with matter and are therefore very difficult to detect. For example, thousands of billions of neutrinos pass through us every second without our noticing them. Raymond Davis Jr constructed a completely new detector, a gigantic tank filled with 600 tonnes of fluid, which was placed in a mine. Over a period of 30 years he succeeded in capturing a total of 2,000 neutrinos from the Sun and was thus able to prove that fusion provided the energy from the Sun. With another gigantic detector, called Kamiokande, a group of researchers led by Masatoshi Koshiba was able to confirm Davis's results. They were also able, on 23 February 1987, to detect neutrinos from a distant supernova explosion. They captured twelve of the total of 1016 neutrinos (10,000,000,000,000,000) that passed through the detector. The work of Davis and Koshiba has led to unexpected discoveries and a new, intensive field of research, neutrino-astronomy.
The Sun and all other stars emit electromagnetic radiation at different wavelengths, both visible and invisible light, e.g. X-rays. In order to investigate cosmic X-ray radiation, which is absorbed in Earth's atmosphere, it is necessary to place instruments in space. Riccardo Giacconi has constructed such instruments. He detected for the first time a source of X-rays outside our solar system and he was the first to prove that the universe contains background radiation of X-ray light. He also detected sources of X-rays that most astronomers now consider to contain black holes. Giacconi constructed the first X-ray telescopes, which have provided us with completely new – and sharp – images of the universe. His contributions laid the foundations of X-ray astronomy.
Raymond Davis Jr, born 1914 (87 years), in Washington, DC, USA (US citizen). PhD in Chemistry 1942 at Yale University, Connecticut, USA. Professor Emeritus at the Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA.
Masatoshi Koshiba, born 1926 (76 years), in Toyohashi , Aichi, Japan (Japanese citizen). PhD 1955 at the University of Rochester, New York, USA. Professor Emeritus at the International Center for Elementary Particle Physics, University of Tokyo, Japan.
Riccardo Giacconi, born 1931 (71 years), in Genoa, Italy (US citizen). PhD 1954 at the University of Milan. President of Associated Universities, Inc., Washington, DC, USA.
Prize amount: SEK 10 million. Davis and Koshiba share one half and Giacconi receives the other half.
Contact persons: Jonas Förare, Science editor,
phone +46 8 673 95 44, +46 70 327 72 00, jonas@kva.se
Eva Krutmeijer, Head of information, phone +46 8 673 95 95, +46 709 84 66 38, evak@kva.se
MLA style: Press release. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB 2020. Tue. 28 Jan 2020. <https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2002/press-release/>


Rush is a fast paced map set in a fictional paintball company, with arenas, nets and pro-shop. Lots of places to duck behind cover. Unfortunately you can't play with paintball guns, that would have been a really nice touch. (I remember the paintball option for Golden Eye – for the N64). Rush was part of the Vegeance Map pack, which also included Cove, Detour and Uplink (remake of Summit from Black Ops 1).


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Darryl Conway, MA, AT, ATC – Senior Associate Athletic Director, Student-Athlete Health and Welfare, University of Michigan Athletics. Darryl Conway serves as the Senior Associate Athletic Director – Student-Athlete Health and Welfare at the University of Michigan. In that role, he oversees Athletic Medicine, Performance Science, Performance Nutrition, Athletic Counseling, Olympic Strength and Conditioning, Performance Science, and Equipment Operations personnel, as well as serving as the liaison to Team Physicians from Michigan Medicine and the University of Michigan University Health Services. Darryl came to the University of Michigan in 2013 from the University of Maryland, where he served as the Assistant Athletic Director – Sports Medicine. Darryl has also worked full-time as an athletic trainer at the University of Central Florida, the University of Northern Iowa, Morgan State University, the University of Delaware, and the New York Jets Football Club. Darryl holds a Masters' Degree from Adelphi University in Sports Medicine and Sports Management.
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Mehmet Kurt, PhD – Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology; Adjunct Assistant Professor, Translational Molecular and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. Professor Mehmet Kurt is the director of the Kurtlab and an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Stevens Institute of Technology. He also holds an adjunct faculty position at the Translational Molecular and Imaging Institute at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. Dr. Kurt received his Ph.D. in Mechanical Science and Engineering from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign on developing novel nonlinear system identification methods.
Dr. Kurt's primary research area of interest is brain biomechanics and neuromechanics imaging. His research has been highlighted in various media outlets such as Reuters, Newsweek, CBS News, and Washington Post. His research group is currently sponsored by multiple grants from NSF and NIH. His awards include NSF Vizzies Best Scientific Visualization Award, People's Choice (2018), Annals of Biomedical Engineering "Editor's Choice Award" (2017), Thrasher Research Foundation Early Career Award (2015) and the Thomas Bernard Hall Prize for the Best Paper of the Year (2011).
Matthew Lorincz, MD, PhD – Clinical Associate Professor of Neurology, University of Michigan; Co-Director, Michigan NeuroSport, Michigan Medicine; Co-Director, Michigan Concussion Center Clinical Core, University of Michigan. Dr. Matthew Lorincz is an Associate Professor in the Department of Neurology at the University of Michigan. He is Co-Director of the Michigan Sports Neurology clinic, Michigan NeuroSport; Co-director of the Michigan Concussion Center Clinical core; and on the Michigan Concussion Center Executive committee. Dr. Lorincz is a team physician for the University of Michigan, Eastern Michigan University, USA Hockey, and US Ski and Snowboard. He has also served as a consultant to the National Basketball Association. Dr. Lorincz earned his MD and PhD at Wayne State University and completed residency and fellowship training in the Department of Neurology at the University of Michigan.
Dr. Lorincz specializes in Sports Neurology with an emphasis on treatment of acute concussions and the long-term consequences of concussion, as well as management of neurological disorders in athletes. Dr. Lorincz's current research interests are in optimizing recovery of sport related concussion and the long-term consequences of concussion in sport. His ongoing projects include investigating quantitative biomarkers for objective concussion diagnosis, evaluating the effects of early vestibular rehabilitation and novel physical therapy interventions following sport-related concussion, and determining markers for safe return-to-sport following concussion. His team is developing a clinical approach to tracking the spectrum of symptoms thought to be caused by a history of repetitive mild head trauma to better understand the long-term risk of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) from sport.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Lady Pintos claim Silver Bracket crown at Moriarty volleyball tourney
Posted by Ger Demarest | Nov 1, 2015 | News, Sports | 0 |
Alyssa Adams waiting for a volley from St. Mike's while teammates Malia Howe and Samantha Gauna look on. Photo by G. Demarest.
By G. Demarest
As the host school in Moriarty's annual volleyball tournament, the Lady Pintos have finished respectably the past few years but last weekend they claimed their first-ever crown in the Silver Bracket.
"I've got a great group of kids and they worked real hard," Moriarty's head coach Kim Bell said.
Sixteen schools from around the state ranging in size from Class 3A to Class 6A competed in the two-day tournament.
The top eight schools from Friday morning's pool-play rounds advanced to the Gold Bracket, the remaining schools comprised the Silver Bracket.
Facing three separate schools from Santa Fe—one Friday and two Saturday—the Lady Pintos won all three of their matches, the last two in five sets.
In a repeat of the final match at last year's tournament, the Lady Pintos battled their way to a 3-2 victory over St. Michael's.
After Moriarty won the first set, St. Mike's took the next two and looked poised to win the match, but the Lady Pintos fought back taking sets four and five; a game-winning kill by Alyssa Adams sealed it. She had 16 kills in the match.
"They found a second wind and played the way they're capable of playing, and Alyssa kept swinging—she finished it," said Bell.
Defense also played a key role during that final game.
Averee Ortiz and Mariah Peterson, anchoring the middle of the net, both jumped at the same time, creating a wall of four hands and blocking a shot, ending a St. Mike's rally. Peterson had 13 blocks in the match.
Prior to the St. Mike's match, the Pintos beat the Class 6A Santa Fe Demonettes, 3-2 (19-25, 27-25, 21-25, 30-28, 15-12).
The fourth game was the key, with the score tied at 20, 24, 25, and was still knotted 28-28, until consecutive kills by Samantha Gauna and Emily Gonzales won it 30-28.
"That shows their character, that shows what's in them, and I love that, because they can battle, so I'm very pleased with that," Bell said.
Moriarty opened with a 3-0 sweep over Santa Fe Indian School in Friday's first round.
With the three match victories the Lady Pintos improved their record to 5-0.
Estancia was one of just two Class 3A schools at Moriarty's tournament and put up a valiant effort in losing two of its three matches to take sixth place in the Silver Bracket.
The Lady Bears lost 3-0 (25-27, 14-25, 21-25 ) to Class 5A Capital in Friday's first round, and 3-1 (25-21, 16-25, 17-25, 23-25) to Class 5A Bernalillo in Saturday's finale.
Estancia's first-year head coach Alicia Pope said the effort she saw from her squad on Saturday was "ten times better" than it was Friday. "I think we were the better team [vs. Bernalillo] but they played hard, they were a worthy opponent," she said.
In Saturday morning's second-round match, Estancia had little trouble sweeping the Bosque Lady Bobcats in three games (25-12, 25-13, 25-21).
"I think the girls were upset about losing [Friday] and they came out today playing real hard," Pope said.
The Lady Bears dominated the first two sets but the Lady Bobcats kept the third game close.
Trailing 19-11, Bosque outscored Estancia 9-2 to trim the score to 21-20.
After Estancia increased its lead to 24-21, Callie Larson's well-placed serve was bobbled by a pair of Lady Bobcats and went unreturned giving the Lady Bears the set, and the match.
"My coach likes to use my serves as a weapon," Larson said. "I saw there was a hole [in Bosque's formation] so I tried to shoot it in that hole and it worked out."
Pope noted that the Lady Bears "have the skills and are constantly improving," which she said will make a difference as the season progresses.
Sandia Prep swept Texico to claim the crown in the tournament's Gold Bracket.
The Lady Pintos faced Sandia Prep Tuesday after The Independent went to print.
PreviousMcCarty boosts Pintos soccer in recent wins
NextSports Roundup
Ger Demarest
Ger has been writing and shooting photos of high school sports for The Independent for 15 years. His dedication to youth athletics goes beyond sports reporting. He is past president of East Mountain Little League and works as a baseball umpire. He lives in Edgewood with his family.
Veterans recognized—100 years after the war ended
Edgewood inches closer to a hotel
Free throws hoist East Mountain High to first-ever hoops win over Moriarty
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text:
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
La conquista del Messico fu una guerra compiuta da un piccolo esercito comandato da Hernán Cortés in nome del re Carlo I di Spagna, nel periodo dal 1519 al 1521; questi territori furono quindi annessi all'Impero spagnolo. Il 15 dicembre del 1521 la capitale dell'impero azteco, México-Tenochtitlan, fu presa dagli spagnoli al termine di una campagna militare favorita dalla ribellione di popolazioni che, fino ad allora sottomesse al dominio azteco, vedevano nei conquistadores la possibilità di affrancarsi dalla schiavitù.

La conquista, proseguita negli anni 1521–1525 estendendosi ai territori dell'attuale Messico e a parte degli Stati Uniti d'America meridionali, al di là degli aspetti militari ebbe risvolti di carattere sociale, culturale e religioso, dando così vita a una nuova identità culturale che esiste tuttora nei paesi centroamericani.

Le colonie spagnole dell'America centrale, riunite amministrativamente nel vicereame della Nuova Spagna, venivano sfruttate dagli spagnoli come fonte di risorse minerarie e agricole, provocando una notevole insofferenza nella popolazione abbiente locale, i cosiddetti "creoli". La situazione maturò gradatamente in un movimento d'indipendenza del Messico che, iniziato nel 1810, raggiunse l'obiettivo nel 1821.

Oltre ai diari dello stesso Cortés, per la ricostruzione del periodo storico in oggetto la storiografia si è appoggiata alla Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España di Bernal Díaz del Castillo e all'opera di Francisco López de Gómara Historia general de las Indias, basata non sulla diretta partecipazione alla conquista, ma sui resoconti che Cortés e altri conquistadores fecero di persona all'autore.

Prime spedizioni

Gli aztechi erano arrivati sull'altopiano della valle del Messico verso l'anno 1300 e già nel 1430 avevano esteso il proprio dominio su tutta la Mesoamerica e le civiltà preesistenti, inclusi gli zapotechi e i mixtechi. Nello stesso periodo in Europa, in particolare in Spagna e in Portogallo, era nato un intenso programma di esplorazioni marittime per trovare nuove rotte commerciali e fonti alternative per procurarsi le merci più preziose come la seta, l'oro e le spezie. A partire dal 1492, si iniziarono a esplorare le nuove terre scoperte da Cristoforo Colombo che venivano generalmente chiamate Indie Occidentali.

La prima spedizione si realizzò nel 1517, capitanata da Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, scopritore dello Yucatán; assieme a un gruppo di spagnoli, tra cui Lope Ochoa de Caicedo e Cristóbal de Morante, Hernandez acquistò due navi, partì da Cuba e arrivò a Champoton, sulle coste dell'attuale stato del Campeche. Scoprì l'Isla Mujeres e il Cabo Catoche, nella penisola dello Yucatán; il nome di questo capo deriva dal fatto che alcuni indigeni, avvicinatisi alle navi con delle canoe, li invitarono ad andare nelle loro case con l'esclamazione «cones cotoch», «cones cotoch» (appunto "venite nella mia casa" in maya). Il 5 maggio, giorno seguente al fatto, la spedizione inoltratasi nell'interno venne fatta oggetto di una imboscata nella quale morirono due spagnoli e cinque nativi, e due di loro vennero catturati; questi, nominati Julianillo e Melchorejo, divennero i primi traduttori dallo spagnolo al maya.

Nel 1518 ebbe luogo una seconda spedizione voluta da Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, governatore di Cuba, che inviò Juan de Grijalva, il quale esplorò un fiume che oggi porta il suo nome: il Fiume Grijalva. La spedizione risalì la costa e passò per i fiumi Tonalà e Coatzacoalcos. All'arrivo al fiume Papalopan, Pedro de Alvarado, uno dei capitani, navigò per quelle acque e tornò affascinato da ciò che aveva visto. La spedizione seguì fino al fiume Jampa. Lì lo attendevano gli ambasciatori del Tlatoani Montezuma II, il quale credeva che gli spagnoli fossero inviati dal dio Quetzalcoatl.

La spedizione continuò verso nord e passò per l'Isola dei Sacrifici, chiamata dagli indigeni Chalchihuitlapazco, fino a sbarcare su di un'isola che chiamarono San Juan de Ulúa. Pedro de Alvarado ritornò a Cuba con regali per il Re di Spagna, mentre Juan de Grijalva continuò il viaggio esplorando la costa di Veracruz. Arrivò a Nautla, Tuxpan, alla laguna di Tamiahua e al fiume Panuco, dove terminò il suo viaggio e fece ritorno a Cuba.

Nel 1518 Diego Velázquez decise di inviare, in una terza spedizione, Hernán Cortés; ma venuto a conoscenza di un possibile ammutinamento di questi ritirò la sua autorizzazione. In ogni caso, Cortés partì nel 1519 al comando dell'esercito che avrebbe conquistato il Messico e che in seguito avrebbe dato vita al Vicereame della Nuova Spagna.
Cortés, per evitare che i suoi uomini scappassero al primo segno di pericolo, o tornassero a Cuba, prese la decisione di far affondare e bruciare le sue navi, obbligando così i suoi uomini a combattere per poter sopravvivere.

Arrivo di Cortés a Cozumel. Presa di Potonchán

Il primo contatto di Hernán Cortés con le civiltà mesoamericane fu nell'isola di Cozumel dove la piccola squadra arrivò alla spicciolata, con una nave in avaria al traino e un'altra in ritardo di due giorni. Qui aveva sede un importante porto e centro religioso maya, parte dello stato di Ecab, dove si trovava il santuario dedicato a Ixchel, dea della fertilità. Gli spagnoli arrivarono durante il periodo postclassico della cultura maya poco dopo la caduta di Mayapan nel 1480, che portò alla frammentazione della penisola dello Yucatán in 16 piccoli staterelli in costante conflitto tra di loro, ognuno con il proprio governatore chiamato Halach Uinik.

Attraverso uno dei maya catturati nella precedente spedizione di Hernández de Córdoba, Melchorejo, e utilizzati come interpreti, Cortés si presentò allo Halach Uinik locale, parlandogli del re di Spagna e della fede cattolica alla quale avrebbero dovuto subordinarsi pacificamente; questi accettò le condizioni e convocò gli altri governatori dell'isola. Cortés impose agli autoctoni di abbandonare la loro religione e adottare il cristianesimo: egli pertanto invitò i suoi uomini a distruggere gli idoli religiosi maya per sostituirli con croci e immagini della Vergine Maria. Gli indigeni quindi tornarono alla loro vita abituale avendo apparentemente abbracciato la religione cattolica.

Hernán Cortés utilizzava come interprete una giovane ragazza maya presa come prigioniera sull'Isla Mujeres, il cui nome è sconosciuto, ma che venne soprannominata dagli spagnoli la Malinche. Attraverso di lei Cortés scoprì che uomini barbuti erano prigionieri di un capo tribù maya, inviò immediatamente degli ambasciatori per liberarli. Trovò fra Gerónimo de Aguilar sopravvissuto a un naufragio nel 1511. Aguilar allora si diresse per salvare un secondo prigioniero, Gonzalo Guerrero, che viveva a Chetumal.

Guerrero era riuscito a scappare dalla sua prigione e a guadagnarsi la fiducia del capo locale Nachan Can, così da diventare egli stesso un capo militare maya e sposare la principessa maya Zazil Há, con la quale ebbe vari figli, i quali vengono oggi considerati i primi Messicani moderni.
Aguilar decise di tornare da Cortés e di lavorare per lui come interprete, mentre Guerrero decise di rimanere con i maya e morì verso il 1536 combattendo proprio contro gli spagnoli.

La spedizione di Cortés continuò a percorrere la costa guidata dal navigatore Antón de Alaminos fino ad arrivare il 14 marzo del 1519 nelle vicinanze della città di Potonchan (Putunchan). Lì venne combattuta la cruciale Battaglia di Centla raccontata dal punto di vista spagnolo da Francisco López de Gómara, cappellano della casa di Hernán Cortés, nel capitolo Battaglia e presa di Potonchan del suo libro La Conquista del Messico.

Le autorità di Potonchan ordinarono di portare acqua e cibo agli spagnoli così che questi si allontanassero. Ma Cortés sostenne che non era sufficiente, e che dovevano lasciar entrare le sue truppe nella città.
Gli Indios non volevano avere sconosciuti nella loro città e tanto meno accettavano ordini da uomini terribili e che si atteggiavano da padroni. Una volta che Cortés capì che con la diplomazia non avrebbe ottenuto niente, mandò a dire loro che sarebbe entrato nelle loro terre, perché il più grande sovrano della terra lo mandava per esplorarle, e che se non lo avessero lasciato entrare potevano iniziare a pregare che Dio, le sue mani e quelle dei suoi soldati avessero pietà di loro.

Al loro rifiuto, gli spagnoli attaccarono la città dai lati, dando vita a una battaglia sanguinaria che terminò con la caduta di Potonchan, facendone la prima città scoperta e conquistata da Cortés.

Dopo la sconfitta le autorità di Tabasco offrirono a Cortés viveri, gioielli, tessuti e un gruppo di venti schiave, che furono accettate, e divise tra gli uomini.

Tra queste schiave c'era una donna chiamata Malintzin, che venne poi rinominata dagli spagnoli Marina, conosciuta anche con il nome di Malinche, che sarebbe poi diventata fondamentale per la conquista del Messico. La sua grande intelligenza, la sua padronanza delle lingue maya e nahuatl, la conoscenza della psicologia e dei costumi degli aztechi e la sua fedeltà verso gli spagnoli, fecero di lei una delle più straordinarie e controverse donne della storia dell'America..

La Malinche fu l'interprete, la consigliera e la concubina di Hernán Cortés, con il quale ebbe un figlio quattordici anni dopo, Martín Cortés. Lei e Gerónimo de Aguilar sostituirono Melchorejo come interprete, visto che quest'ultimo aveva abbandonato gli spagnoli e stava incitando gli indigeni a resistere e a combattere.

Fondazione di Veracruz e alleanza militare con Cempoala

A Tabasco, gli spagnoli vennero a sapere dell'esistenza di un paese ad ovest che gli indios chiamavano "Mexico". La flotta risalì la costa messicana in direzione nord-ovest, sbarcò di fronte alla città totonaca di Quiahuiztlan, e lì fu fondato l'insediamento di Veracruz.

I nuovi abitanti chiesero a Cortés di proclamarsi capitano generale, per dipendere così direttamente dal re di Spagna e non da Velázquez, al quale non riconoscevano l'autorità su quelle nuove terre. Dopo aver rifiutato varie volte, Cortés accettò il titolo. Nominò sindaco e amministratori, comportandosi de facto da governatore, svincolandosi definitivamente dall'autorità del governatore di Cuba. Lui stesso si nominò "Capitano Generale e Maggiore di Giustizia", e scrisse la prima di cinque lettere che inviò al re di Spagna per giustificare le proprie azioni. Questo atto è considerato come la fondazione della prima città europea nell'America continentale.

In questo luogo Cortés ricevette i primi ambasciatori di Montezuma II, il tlatoani degli aztechi. Cortés mostrò loro le armi da fuoco e i cavalli, così da spaventarli, ma allo stesso tempo parlando di pace. Gli ambasciatori portavano con sé pittori che disegnassero tutto ciò che avrebbero visto, per poter informare l'imperatore su ciò che questi semidei facevano e dicevano. Montezuma II inviò nuovamente regali, gioielli e oggetti preziosi, ma Cortés insisteva di voler vedere di persona l'imperatore, che continuava a negare l'incontro.

Cortés allora notò che l'impero azteco era circondato da molti nemici e che questo avrebbe facilitato i suoi piani. Cominciò a elaborare un piano per fomentare l'odio tra i popoli mesoamericani in modo da poterne trarre vantaggio. Cortés doveva prendere autorità visto che, secondo Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, Cortés non era autorizzato a popolare quei territori ma solo a esplorarli e, una volta terminata l'esplorazione, sarebbe dovuto tornare a Cuba. Quasi tutti i capitani e la truppa appoggiavano Cortés, visto che intuivano le enormi ricchezze che potevano celarsi in Tenochtitlán.

La prima nazione mesoamericana con la quale Cortés stabilì un'alleanza militare fu quella totonaca, con capitale a Cempoala, una città di 20.000 abitanti. Verso la metà del 1519 trenta villaggi totonachi si riunirono con Cortés a Cempoala per stabilire un'alleanza e marciare assieme verso la conquista di Tenochtitlán. I Totonaca misero assieme 13.000 guerrieri mentre Cortés disponeva solo di 400 uomini, qualche arma da fuoco e quindici cavalli.

L'accordo prevedeva che, una volta sconfitto l'impero azteco, la nazione totonaca sarebbe stata libera. Il patto non fu rispettato e, dopo la conquista del Messico, i Totonaca furono obbligati ad abbandonare la propria cultura e religione, pena la morte, sottomessi come schiavi dei signori spagnoli nelle loro terre, a coltivare la canna da zucchero. Cempoala rimase disabitata la loro cultura si estinse e venne dimenticata, solo verso la fine dei XIX secolo venne riscoperta dall'archeologo messicano Francisco del Paso y Troncoso.

Guerra e successiva alleanza con Tlaxcala

Una volta fondata Veracruz, Montezuma chiese a Cortés, attraverso l'invio di ambasciatori, di non proseguire. In ogni caso, il 16 agosto 1519, i conquistadores abbandonarono la costa e iniziarono la marcia verso il cuore dell'impero azteco. L'esercito invasore era composto da 13.000 guerrieri totonaca, 400 soldati spagnoli con armi da fuoco e 15 cavalli.

A fine di agosto l'esercito di Cortés arrivò nel territorio della confederazione o repubblica di Tlaxcala, formata da quattro signorie autonome: Tepeticpac, Ocotelolco, Tizatlan e Quiahuiztlán.

In quel periodo Tlaxcala e Tenochtitlán rappresentavano due concezioni opposte di organizzazione politica che le portò allo scontro aperto. Tlaxcala si era organizzata come una confederazione di città stato unite in una repubblica governata da un senato; Tenochtitlán al contrario era organizzata come un impero.

A partire dal 1455 l'impero azteco, formatosi sopra la base della Triplice Alleanza tra Tenochtitlán, Texcoco e Tlacopán, aveva iniziato quelle che erano chiamate «guerras floridas» (guerre fiorite) contro Huejotzingo, Cholula e Tlaxcala, con il fine di catturare prigionieri per i sacrifici religiosi.

In queste circostanze arrivò Cortés nel territorio di Tlaxcala, al comando del suo esercito totonaca-spagnolo. Inizialmente la Repubblica di Tlaxcala, comandata da Xicohténcatl Axayacatzin, negò agli stranieri di attraversare il suo territorio, scontrandosi il 2 settembre; lo scontro favorì Cortés.
Il giorno dopo si ebbe un nuovo scontro che fu nuovamente sfavorevole per Tlaxcala, e che portò alla divisione della repubblica, con la diserzione delle truppe di Ocotelolco e Tepeticpac. Superate in numero da Xicohténcatl furono nuovamente sconfitti e il senato ordinò di fermare la guerra e di offrire la pace a Cortés. Questo accordo stabilì la cruciale alleanza con i Tlaxcaltechi, acerrimi nemici degli aztechi, che non erano mai riusciti a conquistare il loro territorio. Cortés rimase diverse settimane a Tlaxcala.

Nel suo cammino verso Tenochtitlán i conquistadores arrivarono a Cholula, alleata dell'impero azteco, la seconda città più grande dopo Tenochtitlán, con 30.000 abitanti. La leggenda spagnola racconta che dopo aver ricevuto Cortés e il suo enorme esercito, le autorità di Cholula pianificarono di tendere un'imboscata così da distruggere gli spagnoli, ma un'anziana che volle salvare la Malinche, commise l'errore di confidarsi con lei, così che Cortés fu avvertito e poté attaccare i congiurati, iniziando quella che viene ricordata come la mattanza di Cholula, nella quale più di 5.000 uomini furono uccisi in meno di cinque ore. L'esercito rimase in Cholula nei mesi di ottobre e novembre e, quando ripartì, la città fu incendiata.

Nel cammino da Cholula, Cortés oltrepassò due vulcani, il Popocatépetl e il Iztaccíhuatl in un passo che ancora oggi porta il suo nome. Attraversato il passo avvistò per prima volta il lago di Texcoco e l'isola di Tenochtitlán, centro pulsante dell'impero azteco e si avvicinò verso Xochimilco.

A Ayotzinco fu preparato l'attacco a Tenochtitlán. Al suo arrivo a México-Tenochtitlán, Cortés rimase sorpreso per la bellezza del posto, che è descritta dal cronista Bernal Díaz del Castillo come "un sogno".

Entrata a Tenochtitlán

L'8 novembre 1519, nonostante Montezuma disponesse di un grande esercito, Cortés riuscì ad entrare a Tenochtitlán. Gli spagnoli entrarono dal lago di Chalco, mentre i loro alleati rimasero ad Amecameca.

Una serie di funesti presagi precedette l'arrivo dei conquistadores in città, secondo alcuni aztechi predizione della conquista.
 Una cometa apparve in cielo, in pieno giorno.
 Una colonna di fuoco (probabilmente la cometa) apparve nel cielo della notte.
 Il tempio di Huitzilopochtli venne distrutto dalle fiamme.
 Un fulmine colpì il tempio di Tzonmolco.
 Tenochtitlán subì un'inondazione.
 Gente strana con molte teste su un corpo solo fu vista camminare per la città.
 Si sentì la voce di una donna intonare un canto funebre per gli Aztechi.
 Venne catturato uno strano uccello. Quando Montezuma guardò nei suoi occhi, che erano come specchi, vide degli uomini dalle strane sembianze che sbarcavano sulla costa.

Al loro arrivo a Tenochtitlán gli spagnoli e Cortés furono accolti con tutti gli onori e alloggiati in un palazzo centralissimo, esattamente dove oggi sorge il Monte di Pietà di Città del Messico; la residenza vera e propria di Montezuma invece si trovava sull'altro lato dell'attuale Piazza dello Zócalo, dove oggi sorge il Palazzo Nazionale.

Dopo qualche giorno di riposo all'interno della città, Cortés invitò Montezuma a recarsi nel palazzo in cui gli spagnoli si erano insediati e lo fece prigioniero (14 novembre 1519), riuscendo a fargli giurare fedeltà a Carlo V re di Spagna.

Nei mesi successivi gli spagnoli vissero più o meno pacificamente e, con l'autorità di Montezuma, iniziarono a convertire al cristianesimo molti indios e a sostituire le statue delle divinità con crocifissi e con statue della Vergine Maria; iniziarono anche a esplorare tutto il territorio dell'impero e a scoprire i giacimenti di oro e argento del Messico. Parte della popolazione azteca credeva, come Montezuma, che gli spagnoli fossero degli dei, o per lo meno dei messaggeri divini; ma un'altra parte della popolazione, capeggiata dal fratello di Montezuma, Cuitlahuac, credeva che gli spagnoli non fossero altro che uomini molto ambiziosi e violenti.

Nuove battaglie
Quando il governatore di Cuba, Diego Velázquez, venne a sapere dell'avanzata di Cortés nel continente, decise di inviare immediatamente un esercito guidato da Pánfilo de Narváez, con l'ordine di catturare Cortés e riportarlo con i suoi uomini a Cuba, da dove poi sarebbe stato rispedito in Spagna per essere giudicato per tradimento. Appresa la notizia Cortés affidò il controllo di Tenochtitlán al capitano Pedro de Alvarado, radunò i suoi uomini e marciò contro l'esercito di Narvaez. Lo scontro avvenne a Zempoala, ma Cortés non ebbe grosse difficoltà per attrarre dalla sua parte il grosso delle truppe inviate da Velázquez, e così rapidamente schiacciò il resto delle truppe di Narvaez.

Nel frattempo Alvarado era asserragliato nel palazzo degli spagnoli con Montezuma praticamente prigioniero e circondato dal malcontento verso gli spagnoli che si stava diffondendo in tutta la città. La situazione precipitò il 15 maggio 1520, quando, durante una cerimonia religiosa, Alvarado ordinò di attaccare gli indios disarmati per poter strappare loro i gioielli che portavano: quell'atto segnò l'inizio della sollevazione popolare contro gli invasori ed è ricordato come il Massacro del Templo Mayor.

Il ritorno di Cortés a Tenochtitlan coincise con una delle sollevazioni popolari contro il dominio spagnolo, che si erano moltiplicate in quel periodo nella città; Cortés chiese subito a Montezuma di ordinare al popolo di cessare le sollevazioni, ma il popolo stanco dell'oppressione spagnola, in tutta risposta iniziò a lanciare pietre contro gli spagnoli e contro lo stesso sovrano che morì, molto probabilmente, a causa di una pietra lanciata dai suoi stessi sudditi.

Cuitlahuac, fratello di Montezuma e signore di Iztapalapa fu nominato tlatoani di Tenochtitlan e iniziò subito a organizzare una lotta armata contro gli spagnoli, ma dopo pochissimo tempo morì di vaiolo.

La notte tra il 30 giugno e il 1º luglio 1520, gli spagnoli capirono di star combattendo una battaglia che era impossibile da vincere, decidendo così di fuggire dalla città portandosi via tutto il tesoro degli aztechi. Per uscire dalla città Cortés decise di prendere la via ad ovest, che era anche la più corta, ma il ponte di legno non resistette al peso delle truppe spagnole e si spezzò lasciando la retroguardia, comandata da Alvarado, intrappolata in città; Cortés perse la maggior parte dei suoi uomini e dei suoi alleati, gran parte dei cavalli e dell'artiglieria, e tutto il tesoro trafugato venne inghiottito per sempre dal lago.
La leggenda racconta che Cortés arrivato alla riva del lago si mise a piangere, ancora oggi a Città del Messico esiste l'albero su cui Cortés avrebbe pianto quella notte, che viene ricordata come La Noche Triste (notte triste). La retroguardia venne massacrata dagli aztechi e i superstiti vennero sacrificati agli dei aztechi nel Templo Mayor.

Caduta di Tenochtitlán

Cortés e i sopravvissuti arrivarono a Tlacopán (oggi Tacuba) e seguirono la via per il nord dei laghi in direzione di Tlaxcala, lungo il cammino sconfissero un gruppo di indios nelle vicinanze di Otumba, e compirono un nuovo massacro nella città di Calacoaya. Nel frattempo Tlaxcala aveva rifiutato una richiesta di alleanza contro gli spagnoli giunta da Tenochtitlán, cosa che, molto probabilmente, avrebbe portato allo sterminio delle truppe di Cortés; al contrario Tlaxcala mantenne i patti con gli spagnoli. Questo permise a Cortés di riarmarsi e di trovare ancora più alleati indigeni, frustrando i tentativi del nuovo signore azteco Cuauhtémoc di riunire tutti i signori indigeni contro gli invasori. Era evidente che il rancore nei confronti del popolo di Tenochtitlan era troppo grande.

Secondo le cronache del tempo Cortés fece costruire dai suoi uomini una flotta di brigantini sulle rive settentrionali del lago e ordinò ai suoi alleati indigeni di distruggere tutti i villaggi sulle rive e di bloccare ogni via di comunicazione con Tenochtitlán, così da impedire l'entrata in città di acqua e di cibo. Nella città, messa già in ginocchio dalla peste e dal vaiolo (le due malattie avevano già ucciso circa la metà della popolazione), scoppiò una guerra per il potere tra i nobili che furono tutti misteriosamente assassinati; nel frattempo la flotta di Cortés iniziò l'assedio alla città-isola.

Nelle intenzioni originali di Cortés Tenochtitlán non doveva essere distrutta, avrebbe dovuto essere la punta di diamante delle sue conquiste e sarebbe divenuta la capitale del nuovo grande impero spagnolo, ma vista la strenua difesa dei mexica, si vide costretto a distruggere pezzo per pezzo la sua nuova capitale.

Gli aztechi trovandosi senza classe dirigente iniziarono a demoralizzarsi e vennero sterminati: poco a poco gli ultimi valorosi difensori della città arrivarono ad accamparsi a Tlatelolco, (qui sacrificarono gli ultimi prigionieri spagnoli), e dopo più di due mesi di combattimenti il 13 agosto 1521 gli spagnoli catturarono Cuauhtémoc, ultimo tlatoani di Tenochtitlán, ponendo fine alla guerra, con quello che è ricordato come il Massacro di Tlatelolco. Nel massacro morirono, come scrisse lo stesso Cortés, più di 40.000 aztechi, decretando così la fine di Tenochtitlán e della cultura azteca.

Con l'entrata degli spagnoli e dei loro alleati indigeni tutti gli aztechi rimasti vennero torturati e resi schiavi, Cuauhtémoc e i nobili ancora in vita vennero torturati più volte per obbligarli a rivelare la collocazione del tesoro di Montezuma, ma gli storici hanno riportato che resistettero alle torture con grande valore. Nel 1525, durante il viaggio alla scoperta di Las Hibueras, Cuauhtémoc venne condannato per tradimento e impiccato assieme al signore azteco di Tacuba.

Conseguenze della conquista

Con la caduta di Tenochtitlán e dell'impero azteco, la conquista spagnola non si fermò. Oltre a sottomettere il resto dell'attuale Messico e di gran parte dell'America centro-meridionale, compresi i popoli con i quali si erano in un primo tempo alleati, l'impero spagnolo negli anni seguenti attuò una seconda conquista, ossia nella sistematica repressione delle culture e delle religioni indigene.

Il Cattolicesimo venne imposto con la forza, e le antiche divinità vennero rapidamente associate al demonio, e dieci anni dopo la caduta del grande impero azteco e delle divinità della spiritualità tradizionale, nelle vicinanze del lago dell'antica Tenochtitlán si crede sia apparsa a un indio di nome Juan Diego una visione mistica. I cristiani la associarono immediatamente alla Madonna, chiamata Nostra Signora di Guadalupe e divenuta in seguito la patrona del Messico e dell'America Latina. L'apparizione tuttavia — come fa notare lo storico William Taylor — presentava le caratteristiche tipiche di alcune divinità locali, come il mantello blu e verde della coppia cosmica di Ometeotl e un'agave americana, pianta associata alla Dea Madre, un tempio alla quale sorgeva inoltre sulla stessa collina di Tepeyac, luogo della manifestazione.

Gran parte dei codici e del patrimonio culturale azteco venne mandato al rogo dall'inquisizione, (assieme a molti indigeni), causando così la scomparsa quasi totale delle culture precolombiane. Soltanto nel XIX secolo si iniziò a recuperare le antiche culture mesoamericane.
Esemplare quanto accaduto durante la costruzione della Cattedrale di Città del Messico: ci furono diversi cedimenti e le autorità religiose non tardarono a incolpare il terreno e le pietre usate per la costruzione. Infatti la nuova cattedrale stava sorgendo sopra le rovine del Templo Mayor di Tenochtitlán ed era edificato proprio con le pietre del tempio pagano. Si diffuse così la leggenda che le divinità azteche fossero presenti nelle pietre della Cattedrale.

In conclusione la conquista del Messico diede agli spagnoli il dominio per circa 300 anni di un territorio vastissimo e ricchissimo di materie prime e di minerali preziosi come l'oro e l'argento. Per gli aztechi e le altre popolazioni indigene significò l'annientamento quasi totale della propria cultura e identità, che sarebbero confluite solo nei secoli successivi in una nuova cultura meticcia e in una nuova grande nazione erede di due popoli.

Un fattore decisivo: la catastrofe demografica causata dalle malattie

La storiografia moderna ha determinato che uno dei fattori decisivi, se non quello definitivo, che rese possibile la conquista e la sottomissione delle culture e degli imperi dell'America Latina da parte degli europei, fu la catastrofe demografica causata dalle malattie portate dagli europei in America.

Malattie come il vaiolo e la peste sterminarono la popolazione che non ne era immune. Esse inoltre contagiarono per primi i capi e i nobili, lasciando così la popolazione senza una guida solida e facilitando ancor più la conquista.

I ricercatori Cook e Borah, dell'Università di Berkeley, dopo alcuni decenni di ricerche, sostennero che quando Cortés sbarcò in Messico, la popolazione della regione arrivava a circa 25,2 milioni di persone e che 100 anni dopo ne rimanevano meno di un milione. Nella stessa epoca Spagna e Portogallo assieme non arrivavano a 10 milioni di abitanti e in tutta Europa vivevano circa 57,2 milioni di persone. Il Messico ha recuperato la popolazione del XV secolo solo negli anni sessanta del XX secolo.

Cronologia della conquista
 1519
 21 aprile - Cortés arriva a Cozumel venendo da Cuba.
 22 aprile - Fondazione di Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz a Chalchicueyecan.
 24 aprile - Cortés si riunisce per la prima volta con gli ambasciatori di Montezuma.
 15-25 maggio - Creazione della prima congrega spagnolo a Vera Cruz.
 1-3 de giugno - Viaggio a Cempoala, alleanza con gli Zapotechi e trasferimento della congrega a Quiahuiztlán.
 giugno - Incendio delle navi spagnole
 16 agosto - Parte la spedizione per la conquista di Tenochtitlan.
 18 agosto - Si attraversa a Xalapa.
 1-10 settembre - Battaglie con i tlaxcaltechi
 16-18 ottobre - Massacro di Cholula
 3 novembre - Si attraversa Amecameca.
 8 novembre - Arrivo a Tenochtitlán.
 14 novembre - arresto di Montezuma.

 1520
 10 maggio - Uscita di Cortés a Cempoala, per l'incontro con Pánfilo de Narvaez.
 15 maggio - Massacro del Templo Mayor, si iniziano le ostilità contro gli Aztechi.
 24 giugno - Cortés torna a Tenochtitlán.
 30 giugno - Sconfitta della Notte Triste e ritirata degli invasori.
 7 luglio - Battaglia di Otumba
 8 luglio - Ritorno a Tlaxcala.
 luglio-ottobre - Cortés rafforza le alleanze, riceve rinforzi considerevoli e prepara il suo ritorno a Tenochtitlán.
 30 ottobre - trentacinquesimo compleanno di Cortés.
 25 novembre - Cuitláhuac muore di vaiolo lo sostituisce Cuauhtémoc.
 Dicembre - Si prepara l'assalto a Tenochtitlán e si realizzano vari massacri nelle popolazioni intorno al lago.

 1521
 gennaio-aprile - Cortés duplica il numero iniziale dei soldati.
 marzo - Vengono terminate a Tlaxcala le 12 navi che Cortés necessita per assediare Tenochtitlan.
 16 aprile - Gli eserciti invasori entrano a Xochimilco.
 30 maggio - Si dà inizio all'assalto di Tenochtitlán.
 13 agosto - Cattura di Cuauhtémoc, massacro di Tlatelolco e fine della guerra.

Note

Bibliografia

In spagnolo
 Historia General de México. Cuarta edición, El Colegio de México (1994), ISBN 968-12-0969-9
 Hombres y armas en la conquista de México, 1518-1521, Pablo Martín Gómez (2001)
 Hernán Cortés. Inventor de México, Juan Miralles Ostos (2001)
 Hernán Cortés: el conquistador de lo imposible, Bartolomé Bennassar (2002)
 Historia Minima de México. Colegio de México (1994), ISBN 978-968-12-0618-5
 Esbozo de Historia de México Juan Brom, Grijalbo, (1998), ISBN 970-05-0937-0
 Conquista della Nuova Spagna Bernal Diaz del Castillo
 Hispania Victrix Francisco López de Gomara
 "Hernán Cortés" (2006), PEREYRA, Carlos (1931), editore Martín Quirarte, México ed.Porrúa, ISBN 970-07-6062-6

e in linea, attraverso la Fundación Biblioteca Virtual Miguel De Cervantes che fornisce in modo gratuito vía internet l'opera completa di Bernal Díaz del Castillo:

In altre lingue

Romanzi correlati all'argomento
 L'azteco, Gary Jennings (1980)

Altri progetti

Impero azteco

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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Working software over comprehensive documentation
Customer collaboration over contract negotiation
Responding to change over following a plan
That is, while there is value in the items on the right, we value the items on the left more."
Agile Processes A software development methodology based on process-centric and iterative development, where requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration between self-organizing cross-functional teams and is collectively regarded as highly efficient to productivity. Specific processes include user stories, cross functional teams, unit testing, refactoring, continuous integration, multi-stage continuous integration, planning poker, burnup charts and burndown charts.
Agile Project Management The process of planning, organizing, and managing the necessary resources in order to complete project goals while adhering to Agile practices.
Agile SCM Tool Software Configuration Management tool that supports Agile Software Development Lifecycle requirements differently than requirements involved with traditional software development. These supported features and requirements of Agile SCM include feature-oriented development, sandboxing with private build before check-in, ability to revert to last good working version when integration testing fails, staging hierarchy, ability to revert and retarget changes, refactoring support and support for geographically distributed development.
Agile Software Development Agile software development is a way of thinking about software development, as expressed in the Agile Manifesto, and acts as an "umbrella" for a group of methodologies. The methodologies are based on process-centric and iterative development, where requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration between self-organizing, cross-functional teams. Agile software development is a conceptual framework that promotes evolutionary change throughout the entire life cycle of the project and represents a new, more flexible approach to development than the traditional methods that have been the norm for software development.
Application Development Process Tools Tools necessary to complete the application development process, such as Application Lifecycle Management tools, Software Configuration Management tools, Build and Release tools, security and defect tracking tools, etc.
Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) Also called ALM, Application Lifecycle Management is the management platform of the entire software application lifecycle, from planning to the final release. Key components of the platform include the ability to handle change management, workflow, source code management, task management, testing and bug tracking, reporting and analytics.
Backlog Also knows as "product backlog," the backlog is a prioritized list of user stories and defects in order from most valuable to least valuable for a system. Backlogs include both functional and non-functional user stories as well as technical team-generated stories.
Branching Branching is the duplication of objects under revision control (such as a source code file, or a directory tree) in such a way that the newly created objects initially have the same content as the original, but can evolve independently of the original. Branching can take two forms, static or dynamic. In static branches, copy and label operations are used to duplicate a given branch. The duplicate then can evolve independently. With dynamic branches, usually implemented in streams, only the label operation is used, to flag the point in time that a stream diverged from its parent stream. Both branching forms support some form of merging, so that code changes made on a branch can be re-integrated into another branch, as is typical in parallel development processes.
Burndown Chart Representation of the number of hours remaining for completion of a project; usually represented in chart form with points plotted on an x and y axis that map a downward trend of work left to do until burning down to zero.
Burnup Chart Representation of the number of stories completed; usually represented in chart form with points plotted on an x and y axis that map an upward trend of work completed until reaching 100%.
Change and Configuration Management Change and Configuration Management (also known as Software Change and Configuration Management or SCCM) combines aspects of both change management and configuration management to control a software development project as it evolves through the software development process. SCCM typically includes all technical aspects of the development process, such as version control, branching and merging.
Additionally, SCCM includes change related activities such as issue tracking, document tracking, and process workflows that enable development teams to control the overall process.
Change Control Process in which changes to a product or system are introduced in a controlled manner with minimal disruptions to services and cost effective solutions involved in implementing the changes.
Change Management Change Management enables development organizations to control, communicate and respond more effectively to rapidly changing business demands.
Change Packages Change Packages enable developers and managers to group file changes together into a logical whole and enable release managers to work at the issue or task level, while still providing developers with full access to the underlying file contents of the Change Package. Once created, a Change Package allows users to move, copy, modify, merge or revert the change package.
Collocation Collocation refers to development teams located and working in the same location. Collocation is usually applied at the cross-functional team level.
Configuration Management Configuration Management refers to a set of practices around storing, tracking and releasing versions of a software product. Software products that enable development organizations to perform these practices efficiently are also referred to as Configuration Management systems or Configuration Management tools. Configuration Management systems will typically provide users with a variety of features, including but not limited to source code control, issue tracking, and change set management.
Configuration Management Tools Configuration Management tools are the tools that make possible the practices around storing, tracking and releasing versions of software.
Continuous Integration Continuous integration, one of the foundational aspects of Agile software development methodologies, is defined by Martin Fowler to be "a fully automated and reproducible build, including testing, that runs many times a day. This allows each developer to integrate daily, thus reducing integration problems." By getting changes into the main line as frequently as possible, preferably daily, and by extending the idea of a nightly build, continuous integration helps reduce integrations problems and identify and resolve problems more quickly.
Cross-Functional Team Team comprised of members with all functional skills and specialties necessary to complete a project from start to finish.
Distributed Development Development teams that work on the same project but are located across multiple locations or worksites.
Enterprise Agile The adoption of specific Agile practices in an organization that works in conjunction with other non-Agile practices. Enterprise Agile is a highly efficient and customized practice for large organizations that have difficulty making a complete transition to Agile, as well as for organizations that already practice efficient development processes.
Epic A user story which describes a large amount of customer value and needs to be broken down into many smaller user stories.
Feature Driven Development Feature Driven Development (FDD) is an Agile method for developing software based on an iterative and incremental software development process. The main purpose of FDD is to deliver tangible, working software repeatedly in a timely manner.
Hybrid Processes Development process that uses both Agile and non-Agile practices in conjunction with each other and is proven highly effective for development teams
Inspecting and Adapting Agile process where teams evaluate a project by looking, listening to each other's feedback and ultimately improving the process or changing course.
Iteration Microcosm of a traditional Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC,) each of which produces working software. Iterations can be as large as 3 months but are more typically between 1 to 4 weeks. See sprint.
Kanban Methodology that comes from Lean software development and has three main components: visual system for managing work, limits work in progress, and work is pulled rather than pushed through the system.
Key Agile Principles See Agile Manifesto.
Lean Software Development A programming concept that focuses on optimizing efficiencies for development and minimizing waste. According to Mary Poppendieck, 10 rules of Lean programming include: eliminate waste, minimize artifacts, satisfy all stakeholders, deliver as fast as possible, decide as late as possible, decide as low as possible, deploy comprehensive testing, learn by experimentation, measure business impact and optimize across organizations.
Merging The process of incorporating branches back into the mainline.
Multi-stage Continuous Integration Agile method allowing for a high degree of integration to occur in parallel while vastly reducing the scope of integration problems. Multi-stage Continuous Integration (CI) is an expansion upon Continuous Integration, where each developer works on his or her own task. As changes are made, CI is done against that team's branch. If CI does not succeed, then that developer (possibly with help from her teammates) fixes the branch. This way when there is a problem, only that team, not the whole development effort is affected.
One Piece Flow Process in which each developer or development process works on only one piece at a time before pulling code downstream, one piece at a time, to the next process.
Pair Programming Process in which two developers work together at a single workstation, where one is responsible for typing code and the other for reviewing each line of code as it is typed in.
Parallel Development Parallel development occurs whenever a software development project requires separate development efforts on related code bases. For example, when a software product is shipped to customers, a product development team may begin working on a new major feature release of the product, while a product maintenance team may work on defect corrections and customer patch releases of the shipped product. Both teams begin work from the same code base, but the code necessarily diverges. Frequently the code bases used in parallel development efforts must be merged at some future date, for example, to ensure that the defect corrections provided by the product maintenance team are integrated into the major release that the product development team is working on.
Planning Poker A consensus-based technique for estimating; mostly used to estimate effort or relative size of tasks in software development. Planning Poker is useful for building team cohesion and for fostering self-organizing teams.
Product Backlog The backlog owned by the Product Owner.
Product Owner A role originating from Scrum, but has now been widely adopted independently of Scrum. A product owner manages the product backlog, addresses questions that arise during development and signs off on work results. The product owner guides the team with what should be done and when the final product should be shipped. The Scrum team then balances out the product owner's decisions by deciding how much work should be involved in an individual sprint and estimating the amount of time necessary to complete the task.
Real World Agile The adoption of specific Agile practices in an organization that works in conjunction with other non-Agile practices. Real World Agile is a highly efficient and customized practice for large organizations that have difficulty make a complete transition to Agile as well as for organizations that already practice efficient development processes.
Refactoring The practice of continuously improving the usability, maintainability, and adaptability of code without changing its behavior. Refactoring makes it much easier to add new and unanticipated functionality. Refactoring has the disadvantage that it takes extra effort and requires changing the code.
Release Management Release management comprises a broad set of activities in software development organizations that center on ensuring that software is ready to be released to customers.
Release Plan A document describing scheduling, activities, resources and responsibilities related to a particular release.
Release Process The software release process is the final stage in a typical software development effort, where the software product is made available for use. To ready a software product for release, the release process must ensure that all product requirements have been met, usually by executing test suites designed to exercise product functionality and correcting any defects found.
SCM Software Software Configuration Management software is a software tool that enable organizations to perform the SCM practices of storing, tracking and releasing a product, and typically provide users with a variety of features including source code control, issue tracking and change set management, advanced configuration management, change packages, process management and integrated issue tracking.
SCM Tools Software Configuration Management tools are tools that enable organizations to perform SCM practices and typically provide users with a variety of features, including source code control, issue tracking and change set management, advanced configuration management, change packages, process management and integrated issue tracking.
Scrum Agile development project management framework based around sprints and is generally comprised of a Scrum Team, Product Owner and Scrum Master. The framework of Scrum leaves most development decisions up to the self-organizing Scrum team, where decisions are reached as a whole team.
Scrum Master Person trained to facilitate daily Scrum meetings, remove impediments, oversee the team's progress through the process and track Scrum team updates.
Self Organizing A team, usually found in Scrum, that manages itself through various means of communication and reoccurring structured meetings. Self organizing teams solve development issues together as a whole and decide the best solution depending on the various team members.
Software Change and Configuration Management (SCCM) Software change and configuration management (SCCM) combines aspects of both change management and configuration management to control a software development project as it evolves through the software development process. SCCM typically includes all technical aspects of the development process, such as version control, branching and merging.
Software Configuration Management (SCM) Software Configuration Management (SCM) refers to a set of practices around storing, tracking and releasing versions of a software product. Software products that enable development organizations to perform these practices efficiently are also referred to as Software Configuration Management systems or Software Configuration Management tools. Software Configuration Management systems will typically provide users with a variety of features, including but not limited to: source code control, issue tracking and change set management.
Software Development Development of software in a planned and structured process. See software development process.
Software Development Process The software development process is the set of coordinated activities performed by engineers, managers and technical writers resulting in the creation of a software product. Various named software development processes are in use today, including Agile, XP, Scrum, Waterfall and Lean.
Source Code Control Source code control is a common requirement in all modern software development projects that provides mechanisms for checking source code in and out of a central repository. This allows different developers to work on the same project, with reduced fears of lost code or overwritten changes. Source code control also implies a version control system that can manage files through the development lifecycle, keeping track of which changes were made, who made them, when they were made, and why. Finally, source code control also frequently involves the ability to group versioned files as a single release, maintain multiple active releases concurrently (branching), and join different releases (merging).
Source Code Management Source code management refers broadly to the set of operations required to store, retrieve and version the files used to construct software applications. Development teams rely on source code management to organize the source code files for different releases of software, so that releases can be uniquely identified for testing, packaging and delivery to customers. Failure to do this properly results in poor quality releases and inefficient use of development resources.
Spike Timeboxed investigation of feasibility via a bare bones implementation, which touches on all aspects of the full implementation.
Sprint Scrum specific word describing iterations.
Sprint Backlog Plan for development team to map out implementation of features for an upcoming sprint.
Sprint Planning A meeting for Scrum Teams, Scrum Masters and Product Owners where the Product Owner describes priority features to the team. The Scrum Team gets enough of an understanding about the tasks discussed that they are able to choose which ones to move from the product backlog to the sprint backlog.
Retrospective Meeting held at the end of every sprint review to reflect on what went well during the sprint and what can be improved upon during the next sprint. Sprint retrospectives are valued as necessary parts of inspecting and adapting, and allow development teams to plan for future output.
Sprint Review In the sprint review, teams go over what stories were completed during the iteration and demonstrate those stories for stakeholders and the product owner.
Stand-up Daily Meetings that are meant to quickly and efficiently resolve obstacles that any team members may be experiencing.
Story Points Relative scale of effort required by a team to implement a user story.
Task Board A physical or electronic board representing the state of tasks in a current sprint, often divided into "to do," "in progress" and "done."
Timeboxing The practice of constraining the amount of time for performing any activity. Examples include iterations, spikes and stand up meetings.
Unit Testing Tests that exercise small amounts of isolated functionality.
User Stories Used with Agile methodologies for specifying requirements and presented as an informal statement of the requirement (usually fitting on a 3×5 index card).
Velocity The velocity of a team is the number of story points associated with stories that are finished over a given period of time, often 1 to 4 weeks. For instance, if the team completed 8 stories that were each 5 points during a four week period, then their velocity is 40 story points every four weeks.
Waterfall Model of a software development process in which progress flows downwards through phases of conception, initiation, analysis, design, construction, testing and maintenance.
Whole Teams Team comprised of members with different functional skills and specialties that work together during all phases of development in order to complete a project from start to finish. Also known as a cross-functional team.
XP "Extreme Programming," one implementation of the Agile methodology that focuses on producing the simplest coding situation for application requirements and includes practices such as pair programming, incremental design and continuous integration.


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myscience.org › news › news 2017 › EU funding for projects of six young researchers
EU funding for projects of six young researchers
Physics | Life Sciences
Grants by the European Research Council (ERC) count among the most prestigious research grants in Europe. (Image: ERC)
Six young scientists at the Technical University of Munich (TUM) will receive Starting Grants from the European Research Council (ERC). The prestigious awards have been granted to two projects in cardiology and neurosciences, which are key research areas of the TUM School of Medicine , to a physics project related to a special form of plasma, and one on the structure of chromosomes. In addition, a physics project has been selected for a Proof of Concept Grant.
Every year the ERC awards grants in various categories. Starting Grants are intended for talented early-career scientists, and include funding of up to ¤1.5 million. Proof of Concept grants are provided to scientists who wish to investigate whether their ERC research projects have the potential to yield marketable innovations - an aspect of great interest to TUM, as an entrepreneurial university. With the latest awards, TUM has now received a total of 79 ERC grants.
Adjunct Teaching Valentin Riedl
Where in the brain are our memories situated? Various theories see the hippocampus as the gateway for new memories, which are then gradually integrated into far-reaching networks in the cerebral cortex. In humans, however, these memory pathways have never been directly demonstrated. Adjunct Teaching Valentin Riedl believes that our brain, when at rest, combines new memories with earlier memory contents in the default mode network (DMN). For reasons not yet understood, energy consumption by the DMN is especially high in a state of rest.
With the ERC grant, Dr. Riedl will investigate exactly what is happening in the DMN when we process memories. That is possible with new analytical procedures that he has developed for an innovative PET/MRT device. This combination of imaging processes permits the simultaneous visualization of neurological networks and their energy consumption. With this method, Dr. Riedl wants to observe how new memory contents gradually "wander" into regions with established memories. In a further step, he plans to investigate whether the non-invasive stimulation of the DMN regions of the brain with magnetic fields can influence the processing of memories. This represents a possible approach to the treatment of illnesses in which this process is disrupted.
Valentin Riedl earned his doctorate in medicine and in systemic neurosciences. He heads the research group ,,Neuroenergetics of human brain function" in the Department of Neuroradiology at TUM's university hospital Rechts der Isar. The team is also involved in the TUM-Neuroimaging Center (TUM-NIC) beteiligt.
Dr. Simon Jacob
Dr. Simon Jacob's main area of interest the so-called working memory. In simple terms, this part of our memory serves as interim storage. It is only with our working memory that we are able to complete tasks despite distractions. It is not yet known which areas of the brain are involved in the working memory and in which ways. The conclusions of past studies have varied, depending on whether researchers have worked with humans or animals. It is unclear whether this is due to different measurement techniques or fundamental differences in brain functions. In his ERC-funded project, Dr. Simon Jacob will work with both humans and mice to answer this question. The human test subjects and the animals will perform comparable tasks that will make demands on the working memory. Their brain activity will also be recorded with comparable measurement techniques that permit the visualization of individual nerve cells. The results could make an important contribution to the understanding of an indispensable brain function.
Dr. Simon Jacob has headed the group ,,Translational NeuroCognition" at the TUM Institute of Neuroscience since 2015.
Dr. Rabea Hinkel
Dr. Rabea Hinkel does research into the effects of diabetes on small blood vessels around the cardiac muscle. In her earlier work she was able to show that an elevated blood sugar level leads to increasing losses of these small coronary vessels. As this process advances, the risk of a heart attack increases. In her ERC-funded project, Rabea Hinkel plans to explore the results of her previous research in greater depth. She will study new molecular approaches for drugs that stabilize the small coronary vessels and allow them to regenerate. She will also clarify whether the stabilized capillaries permit a long-term improvement in the cardiac muscle function in diabetes patients.
Dr. Rabea Hinkel has been a research associate in the Molecular Interventional Cardiology working group in the Clinic for Internal Medicine I at TUM's university hospital Rechts der Isar since 2015.
Dr. Hendrik Sager
Atherosclerosis is a condition where plaques build up on the walls of blood vessels. When ruptures occur in these plaques, blood clots can form. The clot blocks the blood vessel and may cause a heart attack, for example. Dr. Hendrik Sager will study how stress affects atherosclerosis in his ERC-funded project. Sager believes that stress heightens the inflammatory response in the plaques, causing them to grow and become unstable. He wants to conduct fundamental research into these processes and use the results to develop new treatments. The project will bring together scientists conducting fundamental and clinical research in cardiology, immunology and psychosomatic medicine.
Dr. Hendrik Sager has headed the working group Cardiovascular Inflammation at the German Heart Centre Munich. Before that he conducted research at the Massachusetts General Hospital, the teaching hospital of the Harvard Medical School in Boston.
Dr. Ante Bilandzic
The aggregate state studied by Dr. Ante Bilandzic existed in nature only for a very short time: for a fraction of a millisecond after the Big Bang. Quark-gluon plasma is a state of matter in which so much energy is present that even the elementary particles quarks and gluons can move relatively freely. Quark-gluon plasma can now be artificially produced, for example in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the world's largest particle accelerator, at CERN in Geneva. That is where Ante Bilandzic will collect the data for his ERC-funded project. Since upgrades to the LHC were carried out in the winter of 2014/15, it has been possible to produce quark-gluon plasma at even higher energy levels. Bilandzic is an expert in the analysis of the enormous quantities of data produced in these experiments and is hoping to use new methods he has developed to study the detailed properties of the quark-gluon plasma and in particular its flow behavior.
Dr. Ante Bilandzic has been a research associate with the Dense and Strange Hadronic Matter research group headed by Prof. Laura Fabbietti since 2015. He has been analyzing data collected at CERN for about 10 years.
Dr. Johannes Stigler
Chromosomes change their structure over the course of the cell division cycle. They have the familiar X shape mainly just before and during cell division. In the interphase, between successive divisions, they take on other shapes. This has far-reaching consequences: The structure of a chromosome is one of the factors determining which parts of the hereditary material become active or interact. It is known that certain proteins are responsible for chromosomes taking on certain shapes. We do not yet know what exactly happens in these processes. This is the starting point for Dr. Johannes Stigler's ERC project. He plans to use microscopy-based techniques to study how chromosomes "get in shape". The procedure is so precise that Stigler can observe the behavior of individual molecules.
Dr. Johannes Stigler is a research associate at the Chair for Molecular Biophysics.
Physicist Prof. Johannes Barth has been selected for a Proof of Concept Grant. He laid the foundation for his current project, SoftBeam, with the ERC Advanced Grant he received in 2009.
For SoftBeam, the team working with Prof. Barth and Dr. Hartmut Schlichting developed a method for controlling highly sensitive molecules in a vacuum. Such procedures open up new possibilities for manufacturing nanomaterials or for analyzing materials through mass spectroscopy. In both applications, important molecules and biological building blocks are available only in a dissolved state, but must be handled under vacuum conditions. There is still no universally applicable device for this task. Conventional methods can affect the integrity, and thus the functionality, of molecules that are sensitive to changes in temperature or the extraction of water. In their method, the scientists are using a controlled, intense, extremely pure and precisely targeted ion beam that can be generated from any soluble substance. With this development, they plan to close a gap in the nanotechnology and analytical chemistry markets.
Johannes Barth has been Professor of Molecular Nanoscience & Chemical Physics of Interfaces at TUM since 2006, and is currenty the dean of his department.
Further iinformation:
ERC-Grants at TUM
TUM Department of Physics
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We cannot wait to see campers zooming around the 1,100 foot 'Playland Speedway' this summer!
It hit us that campers love Uncle Gary's golf cart! As he drives by they scream for rides and some campers even ask their parents to pick them up from camp early just so they can ride on the golf cart.
What's more fun than riding in a cart!? Driving one!
We set off to research go-karts. Uncle Steve and Uncle Matt visited other camps with go-karts and spoke to other camp directors. In order to move forward, we needed to make sure that go-karts fit the Playland philosophy: safe, fun and instructional.
Safety – If camp is not safe, it's worthless.
The track we are designing will be have professional barriers, the same ones used by industry leaders. If a go-kart bumps into a barrier, the barrier will ensure the bump is soft and that the driver stays on course. While driving, campers will wear seat-belts, racing helmets and goggles. Additionally, the go-karts have adjustable speed. This way younger campers will not be able to go so fast, and while older campers will be able to go a bit faster, they still stay at a safe and controlled speed.
Other camp directors let us know that go-karts are one of their most popular camp activities. We want campers to have the best summer ever! It's a no brainer to invest in fun.
Instructional – We want campers to learn something.
Our counselors will help campers learn to be safe drivers. Driving will test campers' hand-eye coordination, their ability to listen to and remember instructions, and will be early practice for their driver's license tests!


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Maria Santissima dell'Udienza (en español: María Santísima de la Audiencia), también conocida como Madona dell'Udienza, es una advocación mariana venerada en el Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Audiencia en Sambuca di Sicilia, Italia. La imagen de la Virgen, una estatua de mármol creada por el escultor renacentista Antonello Gagini a principios del siglo , es procesionada por la Confraternita Maria SS. dell'Udienza (Confraternidad de María Santísima de la Audiencia) la tarde del tercer domingo de mayo, recorriendo las principales calles del centro histórico de Sambuca di Sicilia.

Historia
La estatua de la Madona dell'Udienza se remonta a comienzos del siglo . Una rica familia trajo la imagen a Sambuca di Sicilia, en el área donde se erigía la torre Cellaro, parte de las fortificaciones de la zona. Allí permaneció oculta por varios años en el interior de una cavidad empleada como horno en la cocina de la torre, siendo descubierta por un granjero sambucesi en 1575. En aquel entonces una peste estaba devastando la zona; los granjeros locales tomaron la decisión de sacar la estatua de la torre y hacerla desfilar a través de la enfermería de la localidad (único punto geográfico del país dedicado al cuidado de leprosos) con la esperanza de que la Virgen pudiese obrar un milagro. Este hecho provocó que se atribuyese a la talla la curación de la lepra, siendo desde entonces conocida como Nuestra Señora de la Audiencia debido a su escucha a las súplicas de los enfermos. Se decidió que todos los años la imagen debía ser llevada en procesión por las calles del pueblo y, cada diez años, pasar por el barrio de la enfermería, manteniéndose esta tradición en la actualidad.

Festividad

Desde 1575 se celebra anualmente la fiesta de Maria Santissima dell'Udienza; durante la festividad tiene lugar la procesión secular de la estatua, la cual desfila por las calles principales del centro histórico a hombros de los miembros de la Confraternidad de María Santísima de la Audiencia, vestida con trajes bordados en seda y oro. Antes de la procesión, por la tarde, tiene lugar el descenso de la Virgen (popularmente llamado la scinnuta di la Madonna) desde el nicho que la custodia, siendo este rito acompañado de rezos y cánticos tanto religiosos como populares.

La procesión, acompañada por la banda municipal, ciudadanos sambucesi, habitantes de pueblos cercanos y turistas, continúa hasta la madrugada del lunes y culmina triunfalmente con fuegos artificiales. Por la noche, la comitiva se detiene bajo las once coronas de los distintos barrios de Sambuco; estas paradas son aprovechadas por los hermanos de la confraternidad para refrescarse y contemplar los fuegos artificiales.

Durante toda la semana, el festival se enriquece con numerosos tipos de celebraciones, como el Palio dei Quartieri, desfiles, conciertos de bandas y luces nocturnas. Hasta 2005, en el Palio dell'Udienza se disputaban famosas carreras de caballos, uno de los eventos más antiguos de Italia, tal y como atestiguan fotografías tomadas el 18 de mayo de 1913. Otro evento destacado es el festival de la Minna di virgini, con degustaciones del famoso postre típico de la ciudad.

Sicilia
Maria Santissima dell'Udienza es venerada en toda Sicilia: en Ciminna, en la Iglesia de San Juan Bautista, se conserva un tríptico fechado en el siglo  el cual representa el milagro, mientras que en Petralia Soprana se custodia una réplica de la estatua, existiendo además una iglesia dedicada a ella. También se venera a Maria Santissima dell'Udienza en otras aldeas, como Mezzojuso y Roccamena.

Estados Unidos
Los sicilianos llevaron la veneración a esta advocación de la Virgen a un gran número de iglesias en los Estados Unidos, incluyendo la Iglesia del Santo Rosario de Kansas City, Misuri, donde su festividad ha sido celebrada desde la fundación de la iglesia en 1890. Una familia local llevó consigo una réplica de la imagen cuando emigró, celebrándose una procesión anual la cual cuenta con la presencia de una guardia de honor perteneciente a los Caballeros de Colón.

Referencias

Escultura del Renacimiento
Esculturas en mármol de Italia
Advocaciones marianas de Italia


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