text:
Psychology & Economics
BA Hons Psychology & Economics
UCAS Code: CL81
Start date: Sep 2020
Study abroad: exchange partnerships in Spain, Germany & Netherlands
Facilities: includes 6 purpose-built experimental research laboratories
Applicant visit day: March each year
study the science of behaviour and the reasons for differences between individuals, across the lifespan
acquire skills in communication, numeracy and critical thinking
use key economics concepts and models to better understand real-world problems
develop excellent analytical and problem-solving skills that are highly valued by employers
work within our purpose-built experimental research labs
our BA degrees in Humanities & Social Sciences are initially broad-based. In Year 1 you'll study three subjects, including your chosen subject(s)
Why this course?
Our main focus in psychology is the study of human behaviour. Studying with us, you'll look at conditions of behaviour – how we learn, remember, co-ordinate our actions and interact with others – and the reasons for differences between individuals, such as personality or intelligence.
Due to the popularity of the course and performance criteria for entry into Honours (Year 4) the numbers admitted to Years 2 and 3 of the course are limited.
Following the recent global economic crisis, economics is more important and relevant than ever. Decisions on money, banking, interest rates, taxation and government spending affect us all with global consequences.
Economics aims to understand the activities of the different agents in the economy – consumers, producers and the government – and how they all fit together.
We're a 5-star
QS-rated University
More reasons to study at Strathclyde
What you'll study
The first year covers the basic principles of learning:
biological bases of behaviour
social influences on behaviour
changes in behaviour through the lifespan
Due to the popularity of the course, performance-related criteria may be in place to manage entry into Honours (Year 4); this means that the numbers admitted to Years 2 and 3 of the course are limited. The range of classes provides a greater understanding of human development and interaction, cognitive processes, individual differences and biological influences on behaviour.
We offer a variety of classes that allow you to study an area of psychology in greater depth. You'll study conceptual and historical issues in psychology and write a dissertation based on your research project.
There's an opportunity for you to take an optional international research placement through Erasmus.
The School of Psychological Sciences and Health has Erasmus exchange agreements with several European universities. We currently have active exchanges with:
Humboldt University zu Berlin, Germany
Universidad de A Coruna, Spain
University of Twente, Netherlands
University Tubingen, Germany
Radbout University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
For general queries about exchanges to and from the School of Psychological Sciences and Health, please email Dr Kellyanne Findlay.
You can undertake an optional summer research project working with a member of staff. In addition, there are opportunities to apply for funding to complete summer internships between year 3 and 4.
The first year of study looks at consumers and industries, with markets, market failure and the role of government, unemployment and inflation. No previous knowledge of economics is assumed but the class is also suitable if you've studied the subject before.
You'll take core classes in microeconomics and macroeconomics and choose from a number of optional classes.
As a third-year student, you will study a combination of core and optional classes to develop the foundations laid in Years 1 and 2 with a view to Honours study.
Optional classes complement the areas of microeconomics and macroeconomics. You'll also write a dissertation.
Our location in the Lord Hope building provides a social hub and access to student services such as the library, cafés, meeting areas and exhibition spaces.
Our high-quality facilities include six purpose-built experimental research laboratories:
perception and action lab
psychophysiology lab
psycholinguistics lab
oculomotor lab
We currently award two prizes to exceptional psychology students.
The Gustav Jahoda Prize founded in 1997 in honour of Emeritus Professor Gustav Jahoda, the first Head of the Department of Psychology, is awarded annually on the recommendation of the Board of Examiners to a psychology Honours student for outstanding academic performance in their final year.
The British Psychological Society Undergraduate Award is also awarded annually for outstanding academic performance in the final year.
Psychology graduates can progress into postgraduate training to become professional psychologists. We currently run a number of post-graduate courses which provide additional research training:
Research Methods (MSc)
Clinical Health Psychology (MSc)
Psychology 1a
You'll take this class in semester 1 and are not expected to have any prior knowledge of psychology. It explores learning theory, developmental psychology, personality, biological psychology, and the scientific basis for psychology.
Psychology 1b
This class is taught in semester 2 and covers sensation and perception, cognitive psychology, social psychology, abnormal psychology, and research methods.
Introduction to Economics
The purpose of this class is to provide you with a balanced introduction to economics which will be at once self-contained and lay the foundation for further study in economics and more generally. The work of the class will be based on a programme of systematic directed reading, supplemented by tutorials, using group projects and in-class short answer tests as cumulative assessment.
Cognition & Neuropsychology
This class reveals how our understanding of higher mental functions has been enhanced through:
theoretical and experimental studies of normal human cognition
neuropsychological studies of how cognitive functions may be damaged as a result of brain lesions
Topics covered include disorders of the perceptual system, memory and attention, and the role of the frontal lobes in planning, motivation, emotion, and personality.
Social & Health Psychology
This class introduces social psychological theories and research that provide insights into why people believe what they believe, and why they behave the way they do.
Topics covered include attribution theory, aggression, prosocial behaviour, group influence, norms, conformity, obedience, and attitudes.
It ends with an introduction to health psychology, demonstrating how social psychological principles covered earlier in the class are applied to pressing, real-world health issues such as dietary behaviour, smoking/alcohol-use, and suicide.
Introduction to Research Design & Analysis
You'll be introduced to the main features of measurement, research design, and statistical analysis in psychology.
Following a general introduction, the course presents fundamental concepts, issues, and debates in the field of research methods.
You'll also become familiarised with the conceptual basis for inferential statistical testing, and introduced to different inferential statistics. Finally, a brief introduction to qualitative research methods takes place.
This is the core microeconomics class in second year. It aims to develop your understanding of: the concepts of consumer choice; the motives of the firm and profit maximisation; the market and its role in achieving equilibrium prices and quantities; and the implications of market power. It will introduce you to mathematical techniques commonplace in economics, giving you the ability to apply these in a wider economic context.
Macroeconomics 2
The class builds upon the macroeconomic foundations established in the first year Economics class and both extends and deepens analysis. In particular this class will develop your ability to use key macroeconomic models and will also provide an introduction to the analysis of economic data.
Research Methods in Psychology
This class builds on year 2 and equips you with a broader, more advanced set of methodological and analytic skills. These skills are essential for carrying out the year 4 dissertation and for being able to read and understand articles published in academic journals.
You're encouraged to think scientifically about conceptual and practical issues related to the study of individual differences, with specific reference to intelligence and personality. You'll gain the chance to put this knowledge into practice by designing your own measurement instrument.
You'll be introduced to some of the core topics in cognitive psychology
Perception and action, particularly how we perceive time and recognise faces
Memory and learning, including models of episodic and working memory
Language, including word production, sentence comprehension, and discourse processing
Thinking, specifically problem solving, deductive reasoning and judgement and decision making.
This class reviews the ways that children develop from infancy right through to the end of adolescence. Key theories are presented and used to explore the extent to which children's development is continuous or stage-like and whether specific skills develop more quickly than others. Issues relating to infancy, 'theory of mind' (understanding others' thoughts and beliefs), executive function (planning and monitoring abilities), language, and communication form the core themes in the class.
The purpose of this class is to provide the opportunity for you to learn the basic principles of brain function, and to encourage you to address the implications of this understanding for their own view of how behaviour is generated. It includes coverage of electrophysiology and psychopharmacology, neuroanatomy, research methods in neuroscience. There are focused sections relating to the visual system and the motor system.
This class allows you to consider current ideas and positions within social psychology. Four themes drive the class
Attitudes and attitude change, covering the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Health Belief Model
Identity, with a focus on social, personal and group identities
Prejudice, connecting both attitudes and identities, and covering a broad range of areas such as social representations, stereotyping, prejudice and conflict
Epistemology, where consideration is given to the theory of knowledge, how social psychological knowledge is produced, and to what effect
Adam Smith's hidden hand - markets result in efficient outcomes - doesn't always work. We seek to understand why through the study of market power, externalities and public goods, and then go on to apply these ideas to issues of education, healthcare provision and crime and punishment.
This class builds on the Macroeconomics you studied in second year by covering four topics in detail: (i) models of economic growth; (ii) the effects of macroeconomic policy in an open economy; (iii) the interrelationships between money growth, output, unemployment and inflation; and (iv) the implications of high government debt.
Dissertation in Psychology
The dissertation is an opportunity for you to undertake an original piece of research, closely supervised by a single member of staff. Planning for the dissertation begins in year 3, and dissertations can be of such high standards that they are subsequently published in peer-reviewed academic journals.
Advanced Organisational Behaviour
This class is offered by the Strathclyde Business School, and draws on current themes in Human Resource Management understood from the perspective of micro-organisational behaviour theory and research. Although the theoretical underpinning of the material covered is primarily about work and organisational issues at the level of individual behaviour in organisations, a contextual understanding of these issues is also encouraged.
Advanced Psychological Theory & Practice
Choice of topics may include:
Belief & Anomalistic Experience
The Psychology of Mental Health
Psychology & Ageing
Psychology of Language
The Psychology & Cognitive Neuroscience of Face Recognition
Neuropsychology of Ageing and Dementia
Practical Aspects of Memory
Psychology Work Placement
Students have the opportunity to undertake a 20 credit work placement class where they will have the opportunity to apply their academic knowledge and skills in a workplace setting, and develop both personally and professionally. Students are supported to find a suitable placement and throughout the experience. Previous placements have included: the NHS, Schools, University departments and third sector organisations such as health support and rehabilitation charities.
Study abroad
Erasmus International Work Placement
This class is an option which is available to a restricted number of students who'll apply to take part. It involves a placement with a European University partner working in a research team during the summer between years 3 and 4. Additional assessment is the completed during semester 1 of year 4.
Compulsory classes
The dissertation is an important part of the fourth year programme. Single Honours Economics BA students are required to submit a dissertation in Economics while Joint Honours BA students may submit a dissertation in Economics or in their other Honours subject.
Elective classes
Game Theory and Information Economics, the topics of this class, consider market failure resulting from two different sources: individuals pursuing their own self-interest at the expense of others; and information asymmetry which alters the way agents behave. Methods to alleviate these market failures will also be considered.
This class aims to provide you with the required tools to understand current macroeconomic issues, such as the interactions between the banking sector and monetary policy or the policy responses to the global financial crisis. Throughout the class, the analytical usefulness of the theoretical models taught is illustrated with real-world examples.
This class builds upon the empirical content of Macroeconomics 2 and further develops your ability to analyse economic data. In addition, this class lays the foundations for further study of econometrics at Honours level.
Economics of Firms & Industries
This class introduces you to different industry structures and studies the behaviour of firms within those structures. The material builds on the study of the theory of the firm presented in Microeconomics 2 and provides a foundation for the study of industrial organisation at Honours level.
This course investigates the actions that firms in an industry might take to preserve their profit in that industry, and the implications that this has for competition policy and regulation. We take an analytical approach to the issues which will be supported by examining case studies and current events.
In the third year econometrics class you'll have learned about regression in both a cross-sectional data and time series data context. This class extends that knowledge in three ways.
First, for cross-sectional data, the class deals with regression techniques where the dependent variable may be restricted or limited in some way. In such cases, the regression model as taught in the third year class is not appropriate; this class develops models which are similar in spirit to the standard regression model, but can handle all of these cases.
A second purpose of Applied Econometrics is to develop regression methods which can be used when you have panel data - consisting of both cross-sectional and time-series dimensions.
Third, the class will build on the introduction to the econometrics of time series data developed in this class by developing two classes of models.
Financial Development & Economic Growth
This class gives a balanced view of the role of finance in promoting long-run economic growth, but also booms and busts. The nature and role of financial intermediaries will be introduced, and, afterwards, formally addressed in a simple aggregate growth model. Empirical evidence will be examined, before turning to the specifics of micro-finance. The importance of financial globalisation will also be investigated. Finally, the rest of the class will be devoted to deciphering the causes and consequences of the current financial crisis.
Behavioural Economics offers alternative theories that merge psychological insights with economic theory and are based on experimental and other evidence, that attempt to provide a better explanation of real-world behaviour.
This class is concerned with exploring these new behavioural theories with the aim of providing you with an expanded toolkit with which to approach 'real-world Economics' that is based on the burgeoning Behavioural Economics literature that has emerged over the past two or three decades.
After studying this, you should be able to extend much of your previously-learned knowledge in Microeconomics in various directions that take into account more realistic ways of modelling how individuals behave.
Natural Resource, Environmental & Energy Economics
The class provides you with an introduction to natural resource, environmental and energy economics and policy. It focuses on the contributions of economics to understanding environmental, energy and resource problems, their causes, and the design of effective public policies to counteract them.
We assess students using:
class tests
practical reports
individual presentations
group presentations
degree examinations
Online and face-to-face group project work is also included in the course. You'll take part in practical assignments from first-year onwards.
The majority of classes are assessed by a final exam. This mark is supplemented by one or more forms of individual and/or group coursework. In some cases, you can earn an exemption from the exam by achieving a specified coursework mark. Exams are normally held at the end of the semester in which the class is taught.
You normally have one opportunity to be re-assessed for a failed class.
Our methods include:
small-group tutorials
practical labs
online wikis
problem-based learning
one-to-one supervision
These methods are used across all years of the degree and aim to provide you with opportunities to learn and work in different ways.
Teaching is given over two semesters in blocks of 12 weeks each. Methods include lectures, tutorials and seminars. As a student, you will take part in team-based projects and make use of online teaching materials. Our industrial partners regularly assist in teaching and the assessment of student presentations.
Glasgow is Scotland's biggest & most cosmopolitan city
Our campus is based in the very heart of Glasgow, Scotland's largest city. National Geographic named Glasgow as one of its 'Best of the World' destinations, while Rough Guide readers have voted Glasgow the world's friendliest city! And Time Out named Glasgow in the top ten best cities in the world - we couldn't agree more!
We're in the city centre, next to the Merchant City, both of which are great locations for sightseeing, shopping and socialising alongside your studies.
Find out what some of our students think about studying in Glasgow!
Find out all about life in Glasgow
Required subjects are shown in brackets.
Highers
Standard entry requirements:
1st sitting: AAAA
2nd sitting: AAAABB
(Higher English, Maths/ Applications of Mathematics National 5 B, or equivalent)
Minimum entry requirements*:
1st sitting: AABB
2nd sitting: AABBB
(Higher English B and Maths/ Applications of Mathematics National 5 C)
*Find out if you can benefit from this type of offer.
Year 1 entry: ABB-BBB
Year 2 entry: AAA-ABB
(GCSE English Language 6/B or Literature 6/B, GCSE Maths 4/C)
(Maths SL5)
Social Sciences:
Year 1 entry: A in Graded Unit; Maths National 5 B, or equivalent
AAB in Graded Units may enable second-year entry to Psychology with History or Politics & International Relations with six HNC/HND credits in each of the two subjects
Find out entry requirements for your country by visiting our country pages.
Not normally accepted
Due to the popularity of the course, performance-related criteria may be in place to manage entry into Honours (year 4). This means that the numbers admitted to Years 2 and 3 of the course are limited.
We want to increase opportunities for people from every background. Strathclyde selects our students based on merit, potential and the ability to benefit from the education we offer. We look for more than just your grades. We consider the circumstances of your education and will make lower offers to certain applicants as a result.
Find out if you can benefit from this type of offer.
Degree preparation course for international students
We offer international students (non-EU/UK) who do not meet the academic entry requirements for an undergraduate degree at Strathclyde the option of completing an Undergraduate Foundation year programme at the University of Strathclyde International Study Centre.
Upon successful completion, you will be able to progress to this degree course at the University of Strathclyde.
We've a thriving international community with students coming here to study from over 100 countries across the world. Find out all you need to know about studying in Glasgow at Strathclyde and hear from students about their experiences.
Visit our international students' section
All fees quoted are for full-time courses and per academic year unless stated otherwise.
Scotland/EU
Fees for students domiciled in Scotland and the EU are subject to confirmation in early 2020 by the Scottish Funding Council.
(2019/20: £1,820)
Assuming no change in RUK fees policy over the period, the total amount payable by undergraduate students will be capped. For students commencing study in 2020/21, this is capped at £27,750 (with the exception of the MPharm and integrated Masters programmes), MPharm students pay £9,250 for each of the four years. Students studying on integrated Masters degree programmes pay an additional £9,250 for the Masters year with the exception of those undertaking a full-year industrial placement where a separate placement fee will apply.
University preparation programme fees
International students can find out more about the costs and payments of studying a university preparation programme at the University of Strathclyde International Study Centre.
All recommended texts and computer software packages are available from the University Library and our portal, Pegasus.
Students should purchase a standard calculator. It's required for the duration of the course.
Take a look at our scholarships search for funding opportunities.
Please note: All fees shown are annual and may be subject to an increase each year. Find out more about fees.
How can I fund my studies?
Scotland / EU
Students from Scotland and the EU
If you're a Scottish or EU student, you may be able to apply to the Student Award Agency Scotland (SAAS) to have your tuition fees paid by the Scottish government. Scottish students may also be eligible for a bursary and loan to help cover living costs while at University.
For more information on funding your studies have a look at our University Funding page.
England, Wales & Northern Ireland
Students from England, Wales & Northern Ireland
We have a generous package of bursaries on offer for students from England, Northern Ireland and Wales:
Strathclyde Access Bursary
Strathclyde Excellence Scholarship
Strathclyde Accommodation Bursary
You don't need to make a separate application for these. When your place is confirmed at Strathclyde, we'll assess your eligibility. Have a look at our scholarship search for any more funding opportunities.
International Students (Non-UK Scholarships, EEA)
We have a number of scholarships available to international students. Take a look at our scholarship search to find out more.
As a Psychology graduate, continuing your studies will help you become a professional psychologist, which can lead to working in areas such as clinical, educational or occupational psychology. Many graduates also work in research.
Other possible careers are teaching, human resource management, social work, counselling and management and professional positions throughout the private and public sectors.
Economics graduates are employed in a wide range of areas, including the Government Economic Service, management, investment analysis and media outlets.
Studying psychology at Strathclyde
Find out from our lecturers and students about what it's like to study psychology at Strathclyde.
Psychology's anything about people and how they behave, how they think, how they act in society, how they behave in different settings.
Dr Sally Wiggins, Senior Lecturer
Qualification: BA
Undergraduate selection
Email: hass-ug-selectors@strath.ac.uk
Course-specific enquiries
Email: economics@strath.ac.uk


Specializing in residential sales, Melinda has spear-headed Corder Real Estate's growth to become one of the largest Tuscaloosa real estate brokerage firms for new construction. Melinda maintains a growing list of satisfied sellers and buyers looking for new homes in Tuscaloosa, and she holds the Certified Residential Specialist (CRS), Accredited Buyer Representative (ABR), and Graduate of the Realtor Institute (GRI) designations.
In her spare time, Melinda enjoys traveling, spending time on the water and antiquing. She is married to Lynn Corder, and has two sons, Brock (Amanda) and Blake (Angel), as well as 6 grandchildren — including a set of twins!
Blake has been in and around Real Estate most of his entire life. With both parents in the industry, it wasn't unusual for spare time and weekends to be quickly filled with residential construction jobsites, open houses, and real estate office visits. He is a 2002 graduate of the University of Alabama with a bachelor's degree in accounting. Professionally, he has over 18 years of experience in the industry, primarily in the residential construction and investment sides of Real Estate. He is a partner in The Builders Group, LLC and currently serves on the boards of the Alabama Housing Finance Authority, the Home Builders Association of Alabama (2017 Secretary-Executive Committee), Habitat for Humanity – Tuscaloosa, the Druid City Business League (2016 President), and the Home Builders Association of Tuscaloosa (2011 President).
Blake specializes in commercial and residential investment property sales and management. If your business is looking for a new space to lease or purchase, or if you are looking to invest in income-producing real estate, give him a call and use his experience for your gain!
Blake, along with fellow Corder Realtor and wife, Angel, have 3 amazing sons: John Thomas, Jackson and Mills; which keeps them active when not working. He and his family are long-time parishioners at St. Francis of Assisi Catholic Church on the University of Alabama campus.
JoAnn, a native of Tuscaloosa has been in the selling new homes in Tuscaloosa since the 1970's and a REALTOR® since 1992. She is very familiar with the area and surrounding areas. JoAnn is a down-to-earth, dedicated realtor that is trustworthy and has a commitment to her clients that goes past a closing. She believes in treating others the way you want yourself to be treated.
JoAnn has served on the Grievance Committee, Fair Housing and Professional Standards Committees for REALTOR®S.
She is a member of National Association of Realtors, Alabama Association of Realtors, and Tuscaloosa Association of Realtors.
JoAnn has achieved the designations of: GRI (Graduate Realtors Institute), ABR (Acredited Buyers Representative), RENE (Real Estate Negotiaion Expert) and has a Broker License as an Associate Broker.
Contact JoAnn and let her show you how her years of experience can benefit you in your buying or selling process.
With an ever-changing real estate market, being an informed buyer or seller will help you make the best decisions for the most important purchase or sale in your lifetime. I represent buyers and sellers and specialize in new construction. Having worked in an accounting capacity for 20 years after graduating from the University of Southern Mississippi, I am dedicated and committed to the details that successfully complete a real estate transaction.
I have been a resident of Tuscaloosa county since 1978 and received my real estate license in 2003. Since that time I have pursued the professional designations of GRI (Graduate of Realtor Institute), ABR (Accredited Buyer Representative) and RENE (Real Estate Negotiation Expert). I am currently a member of the Tuscaloosa Association of Realtors, The Alabama Association of Realtors, The National Association of Realtors and Women's Council of Realtors.
In my spare time I enjoy spending time with my family (especially the grandchildren) and working in my yard. My husband, Wendell, and I share 4 children, their spouses, 9 grandchildren, and a kennel full of Labrador Retrievers.
Frances James has specialized in Residential Real Estate for 15 years. She is very experienced in new construction along with existing home sales and has also received her designation for Accredited Buyers Representative. Frances is from Tuscaloosa and has been married to Dennis for 45 years. Dennis has worked for Michelin Tire Company in management for over 40 years. They have 3 children, 2 girls and 1 boy, and 5 grandchildren.
Because Tuscaloosa is her hometown, Frances prides herself in her knowledge of the Tuscaloosa County area and her success in finding that "SPECIAL HOME" for each individual buyer. Frances understands that purchasing that right home is a major life decision. She wants you to feel at ease and as relaxed as possible during this "new home" purchasing process.
Whether buyers are looking for an older home or prefer the custom new construction, Frances has the knowledge and experience to help buyers know that they have a "FRIEND" they can trust.
I am a native Tuscaloosan with many family ties and relationships to this community. My husband, Bill, and I have raised our son here.
After graduating from Judson College, I taught elementary school before working in my family's furniture business for 17 years. Since obtaining my real estate license in 1994 I have earned the designations of GRI (Graduate REALTOR® Institute), ABR (Accredited Buyer Agent), RENE (Real Estate Negotiation Expert), as well as obtaining e-PRO certification and my Broker's license.
I am genuinely concerned with helping people accomplish their real estate goals. I believe in total service for my customers and clients. A successful transaction comes through mutual trust and loyalty. I help people understand the entire process of buying or selling so they can make their best decisions.
I made the decision back in 2005 to join the Corder Real Estate team and I haven't looked back since. Through my years in real estate, I have met many wonderful people and seen the joy of home ownership as families, young and old, purchase their homes. That connection with people and seeing joyous families at the closing table are the reasons why I love what I do.
Early in my real estate career, I had the opportunity to do design and decorating work for a local construction company (The Builders Group). That unique experience coupled with my sales background with Corder Real Estate has allowed me a front row seat to the amazing transformation of Tuscaloosa and surrounding areas over the last decade. I've been a part of the Tuscaloosa metro's most rapid growth – from the UA campus to Highway 69 South and up to Northport and the North of the River area. New developments continue to come out of the ground in these areas, and with varied price ranges, home ownership is still attainable for all budgets. Let me help you attain that goal by walking you through the entire process!
As a wife with three life-loving boys, it isn't hard for me to stay involved in our community. We often enjoy Tuscaloosa's main attractions – Lake Tuscaloosa, PARA parks and sports complexes, the University of Alabama campus and the many UA sports, and the exploding restaurant and shopping scene here in Tuscaloosa. My husband, and Corder team member, Blake and I are excited to raise our sons in such a vibrant and diverse community. Call me today and let me help YOU find your perfect home!
Phyllis McDow is one of the leading Real Estate Consultants for Tuscaloosa, Alabama and the surrounding areas as exhibited by the numerous awards she has received for outstanding sales and service. She has been a part of the real estate industry for more than twenty years and is a member of the National Association of Realtors, Alabama Association of Realtors and Tuscaloosa Association of Realtors. Phyllis is also a CRS (Certified Residential Specialist) and is an Associate Broker.
Phyllis's philosophy is that there is a "perfect" property for each client and it is her responsibility to make the match. In order to do that she has developed a great networking system that keeps her informed about available properties, upcoming listings, new and innovative financial and mortgage programs, and an understanding of the community she serves. Her expertise in residential sales as well as commercial and acreage listings, coupled with her vast knowledge of custom building and first time home buyers' needs, insures that her clients will be directed to listings that meet their needs.
Phyllis's goal is to always provide excellent customer service. You will find that she takes pride in addressing all the needs of her clients. She understands that the client many times will be working under time constraints, be overwhelmed with paperwork issues, have numerous questions, and unexpected conflicts that could stall progress if not addressed promptly and appropriately. If you are searching for a REALTOR® who is sincere, honest, highly qualified and who knows her community, thereby a "perfect fit" for her client, please call Phyllis McDow of Corder Real Estate.
Glenn Arrington brings dedication, enthusiasm, and more than 30 years of sales experience to the real estate industry. The Georgia native moved to Birmingham in 1975 where for 14 years he ran his own automotive customizing business.
In 1987, he and his wife, Terry, moved with their children to her hometown of Tuscaloosa where they enjoy Alabama football, good weather and great people. Glenn worked locally in automotive sales until he decided to put his real estate license, acquired in 2009, to full-time use. He is a member of the Tuscaloosa Association of Realtors, the Alabama Association of Realtors, and the National Association of Realtors. Whether it's buying or selling property, Glenn is excited to help his customers in their search for the best real estate opportunities.
Amanda Corder is a life-long resident of the great city of Tuscaloosa. She was raised in Springhill Lake, where her parents still live today, and attended the Tuscaloosa City Schools. Amanda graduated from Central High School in 1997 and chose to stay in Tuscaloosa to further her education. A natural-born "people person", Amanda studied Public Relations at The University of Alabama, and she received her BA in Communication and Information Sciences, in 2002.
Since receiving her degree, Amanda has diligently pursued her passion for helping people reach their goals With sales experience since 2002, Amanda is well versed in working one-on-one with her clients to ensure their needs are met. Amanda built a strong base of loyal customers in the retail arena, and is excited about helping them achieve their real estate goals as well.
In 2017 Amanda was elected to serve on the board of the Tuscaloosa Association of Realtors. She has been a member of the Women's Council of Realtors since 2015 and is currently serving as a local chapter officer.
Personally, Amanda has been married to Brock Corder, who is also a REALTOR® and President of The Builders Group, since 2003. Together they have three children and love to spend time together at the beach, on the family farm or in the backyard. Amanda's passion for family gives her a unique perspective in helping young families find that perfect home.
Call, text or email Amanda today and find out just how pleasant she can make your buying or selling experience be.


text:
AC Milan football club soon to call "world's most innovative stadium" home
By Kindra Cooper • June 3, 2015
(Courtesy AC Milan, YouTube)
Italian football giant AC Milan is relocating to what the club purports as "the world's most innovative stadium" in the city's Portello area. The new mixed-use facility will be slightly over half the size of the team's current 80,000-seater San Siro stadium, which it shares with fierce rival Intel.
Flagging spectator turnout in recent years has incentivized several Italian football clubs to occupy downsized stadiums. In the 2013-14 season, AC Milan averaged just 40,061 spectators and half-empty bleachers.
The club selected a design team consisting of architecture and design firm Arup and Italian architect Emilio Faroldi, who studied 70 stadia around the world as part of the design process, absorbing ideas from the Emirates Stadium in London, the St. Jakob-Park in Basel, and the new San Mames stadium in Bilbao. Given initial protests by Milan residents over the club's relocation, Faroldi's onus was to create a minimally invasive design with the aesthetic of a building rather than a hulking sports facility.
Thus the first 33 feet of the stadium will be sunken underground, with the building peaking at just 98 feet. Aspiring towards a multi-use stadium that remains operational on non-matchdays like those in the UK, the facility will include a hotel, sports college, restaurants, courtyard and rooftop green areas, a children's playground, and public art spaces.
"Scientific research, through a series of studies, tell us clearly that the role of arenas in Europe and the world is gradually changing," Faroldi told Italy's La Gazetta dello Sport. "The stadiums are no longer meant just as a place for sporting events, although open all week, but as a useful piece to reorder the outlook of a neighborhood, a city."
The architect aimed for fewer turnstiles and fewer barriers between fans and the stadium, proposing to supplement these distancing reinforcements with heightened security. AC Milan recently mobilized to tout the benefits of the new stadium to the public, such as escalated land value and the creation of 1,000 jobs during construction and 500 jobs thereafter.
The club emphasized the incorporation of state-of-the-art sound-proof materials for near-zero noise pollution and minimal visual impact, as well as the stadium's integration with public transportation systems. AC Milan hopes to move into its new stadium by the beginning of the 2018–19 Series A season.
ARUP Italy Milan Soccer Sporting Architecture Stadiums Videos
July 19, 2019 FC Cincinnati's stadium redesign will be wrapped in 513 glowing fins
July 4, 2019 Here's what you need to know about the stadium hosting the World Cup finale
June 27, 2019 Allied Works designs a stadium for "Soccer City, USA"
May 29, 2019 Björk enlists Arup engineers to design musical chamber for her latest tour

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
\section{}

\section{Introduction}

Dust is one of important ingredients in space to control the physical
and chemical conditions in interstellar medium (ISM) and the formation
process of stars in molecular clouds via the interactions with radiation
and gas as well as the
formation of H$_2$ molecule on the surface. In astrophysical
environments, dust grains form in a cooling gas outflowing
from star to interstellar space such as
in the stellar winds from asymptotic giant branch (AGB)
stars and in the
ejecta of novae and supernovae (SNe) where gas density is high enough to
proceed the formation and growth of seed nuclei through collisions of
relevant gas species.

Formation of dust in the ejecta of SNe
had been invoked to explain the origin of interstellar dust
(Cernuschi, Marsicano, \& Codina 1967),
and the microscopic analysis of
individual grains in meteorites has identified the dust grains
formed in SNe
from their
isotopic compositions (see Clayton \& Nittler 2004 for a review).
Dust formation in the ejecta of SNe had been directly
observed for the first time in SN 1987A (see
McCray 1993 for a review), after then dust formation in
the ejecta was reported
in a handful of core--collapsed SNe (CCSNe).
Based on the observations of nearby SNe,
the mass of dust
formed in the ejecta has been considered to be less than $10^{-3}
M_{\odot}$ per SN, which is more than two to three orders of magnitude smaller
than the dust mass predicted by theoretical
investigations
(Kozasa, Hasegawa, \& Nomoto 1989, 1991; Todini \& Ferrara 2001; Nozawa
et al. 2003). Furthermore the observed dust mass is too small to explain the
amount of dust observed in the host galaxies of quasars at redshift of  $z>5$
(e.g. Bertoldi et al. 2003)
where CCSNe are considered to be a  major source of dust because
the cosmic age is too young for AGB stars to supply the dust.
So how much mass of dust forms in the ejecta has been still
controversial.

In the ejecta of SNe, dust
formation proceeds within the
He--core where condensible elements are
more abundant and the gas density is higher enough  due
to the smaller expansion velocity than in the outer envelope.
How much mass and what kind
of dust
are injected from a SN into ISM depend not only on  the
formation in the ejecta but also on the destruction
in the supernova remnant (SNR) where dust grains
are injected into and eroded by sputtering in the hot gas
swept up by the reverse and forward shocks produced
by the interaction of ejecta
with interstellar/circumstellar medium.
Both processes depend on the type of
SNe  through the thickness (mass) of outer envelope: With the
same kinetic energy of explosion,  the
thicker outer envelope makes the expansion velocity
slower and results in the gas density within
He--core being high enough to form
large--sized dust. Furthermore,
the lower gas density in the shocked region
caused by the delayed arrival of the reverse shock at the
dust forming region decreases the
erosion rate of dust by sputtering.

In this review we
show how the formation and destruction of dust in SNe
depend on the type, comparing the results of calculations
for Type II--P and Type IIb SNe; Type II--P SN
is a typical type among CCSNe, and the well studied Cas A
was
recently
identified as
Type IIb SN (Krause et al. 2008). Then, we demonstrate the time
evolution of thermal
emission from dust residing in SNR of Type IIb SN,
based on the results of calculations of dust formation and destruction.
In \S ~2, we summarize the observations of dust formation in SNe
after briefly introducing the classification of SNe. We present the
results of calculations of dust formation in the ejecta of
Type II--P and IIb SNe
in \S ~3. Focusing on Type IIb SN, in \S ~4 we calculate the evolution of
dust in the SNRs and the time evolution of thermal emission
from dust,  and compare with
the observation of
Cas A. Summary and concluding remarks are presented in \S ~5.

\section{Observations of dust formation in supernovae}

In this section we summarize the observations of dust formation in
SNe. First we briefly introduce the classification of SNe
for your information, and then review
the observations of dust forming SNe. Massive
stars whose main sequence mass is larger than 8 $M_{\odot}$
end up their lives as CCSNe,
but the details depend on the initial metallicity
(Heger et al. 2003 for details). Here
we shall confine to SNe evolved from stars with solar
metallicity.

\subsection{Classification of supernovae}

Supernova is the most energetic explosion in the
universe. Physically the supernovae are classified by the
explosion mechanism; Core--collapsed supernovae
which are triggered by the gravitational collapse of
the central core,
and thermonuclear supernovae in which the explosion
energy is supplied by explosive thermonuclear burning
(e.g. Hillebrandt \& Niemeyer 2000).

Observationally SNe are classified by the
spectral features at the early phase and the behavior of
the light curve (e.g. Wheeler \& Harkness 1990;
Filippenko 1997; Leibundgut 2008).
According to the presence of the H feature,
SNe are divided into Type I
and Type II;
Type I without H, and
Type II with H. Type I SNe are classified by the strength of
the Si feature
(Si II absorption at 6150 \AA); Type Ia SNe
showing the strong Si absorption feature are thermonuclear SNe
whose progenitors are white dwarfs in binary systems.
H--deficient Type I SNe with weak Si feature are
subdivided by the
content of He. He--rich is Type Ib and He--poor is Ic. The progenitors
are Wolf--Rayet stars; H--envelope, and both H-- and He--envelopes
are removed before explosion for Type Ib SN and Type Ic SN, respectively,
by stellar wind and/or interaction in binary
system.

Type II SNe, whose progenitors are red supergiants, are
 divided by the content of H; H--poor are
IIb SNe in which almost all of the
H--envelope is removed during the evolution. H--rich Type II
SNe are classified by the behavior of the
light curves; the light curve
linearly decays in Type II--L SNe, and have
a plateau in Type II--P SNe.
Type II SNe showing narrow emission lines originating
in circumstellar medium are labelled as IIn. Type II, Ib and
Ic SNe are core--collapsed supernovae.

\subsection{Observations of dust formation in core--collapsed supernovae}

Dust formation in the ejecta has been observed so far in the ejecta of
CCSNe except for Type Ic SNe. No evidence of dust
formation is reported in the ejecta of Type Ia SNe.
Table 1 summarizes the
observations of dust formation in the ejecta of CCSNe.
Formation of dust in the ejecta had been confirmed
observationally for the first time in SN 1987A which is a peculiar Type
II SN because the progenitor is not a red supergiant but a
blue supergiant (West el al. 1987).

The evidences of dust
formation in the ejecta of SN 1987A (see McCray 1993; Wooden 1997;
the references in Table 1) are the
following;
(1)
the enhancement of infrared flux
at $\sim$ 10 $\mu$m starting from day 450 followed by
the decline of U to M bolometric
 luminosity from $\sim$ day 500, and (2) the appearance of
blue--shifted profiles of [Mg I], [O I], [C I] lines starting
from $\sim$ day 530.
The behavior of bolometric luminosity
obtained by combining
the observed U to M, infrared (thermal
emission from dust), X-ray
and $\gamma$--ray luminosities satisfies the energy budget expected from
the decay of radioactive element $^{56}$Co.
The appearance of blue--shifted lines was interpreted as the
result of the attenuation of emission from the far (receding) side of the
ejecta caused by dust grains formed in
clumps within the ejecta, and in addition the intensities of
[Mg I], [O I] and [Si I] lines concurrently decreased (Lucy et
al. 1991). It should be noted
 that, in prelude to the dust formation, formation of CO and SiO molecules
 was observed as early as day 112 and 165, respectively.
The emission of SiO was no longer
recognized at day 517 around which dust formation
was confirmed by the observation of
blue--shifted lines (Roche et al. 1991).
The dust mass estimated from the observation was at least
$1 \times 10^{-4} M_{\odot}$ at day 775, and no information on the dust
composition was available since the thermal emission was well fitted by
a grey body (Wooden et al. 1993).

Taking the appearances of the blue--shifted lines, infrared excess and/or
decline of optical luminosity as
the diagnostics, so far
dust formation in the ejecta has been reported in four SNe excluding SN
1987A (see the references in Table 1);
three are Type II--P SNe
which is the most common type
among CCSNe (e.g. Smartt et al. 2009), and one is Type Ib.
The evidence of
dust formation in SN 2005af is based only on
the mid--infrared (MIR) excess observed by Spitzer, but the detection of CO
and SiO molecules supports the formation since CO and/or SiO
molecules are detected prior to dust formation in
Type II--P SNe. The molecules
could play an important role in
formation of dust because CO acts as a coolant in
the ejecta (e.g. Liu \& Dalgarno 1995), and
SiO is considered to be a precursor of
dust grains (Kozasa et al. 1989).  The onset of dust formation
ranges from $\sim 300$ to $\sim 600$ days after
the explosion in Type II--P SNe. In SN 1990I,
which is Type Ib, the onset seems to be earlier, as can be expected,
because the escape of
$\gamma$-rays with
less effective deposition causes the gas in
the ejecta to cool down faster without an
H--envelope.
The dust mass derived from the observations is less than $10^{-3}
M_{\odot}$, although the observation of SN 1999em
suggested that
dust much more than $10^{-4} M_{\odot}$ was produced in the ejecta
(Elmhamdi et al. 2003).

Recently formation of dust in cool dense shells (CDSs)
generated by the
interaction of ejecta with a
circumstellar medium (CSM)
has been reported in
three SNe summarized in Table 2 (see the references in Table 2);
two are Type IIn and one is  Type Ib,
where the presence of dense circumstellar envelopes is
confirmed by the
X--ray observations (e.g. Smith et al. 2008a).
The evidences come from the NIR/MIR excess and the
concurrent appearance of the blueshift of the narrow lines in
CSM and/or the
intermediate--width components originating in shocked gas.
Onset of dust formation depends on when the ejecta
encounters with dense CSM. The early formation of dust at day $\sim 50$ in
SN 2006jc is consistent with the LBV--like outburst $\sim 2$ yr
prior to the explosion.
The dust mass estimates
are $>2 \times 10^{-3} M_{\odot}$ in SN 1998S, and $3
\times 10^{-4}$ by day 230 in SN 2006jc, assuming carbon
dust. It should be noted that in addition to the formation of dust in CDSs,
we cannot deny the possibility that dust also forms
in the expanding
ejecta; see Smith et al. (2008b) for SN 2005ip;
Sakon et al. (2009), Tominaga et al. (2008), and Nozawa et al. (2008)
for SN 2006jc. Although the frequency of Type IIn SNe is rare among CCSNe
(Gal--Yam et al. 2007; Smartt et al. 2009), these observations on dust
formation in CDS
provide a new window to investigate the formation process of
dust in astrophysical environments.

Nowadays, based on the observations, the
mass of dust formed in the ejecta
has been claimed to be less than $10^{-3} M_{\odot}$ and to be
too small to contribute to the inventory of dust in our Galaxy.
However, we should keep in mind that the
conclusion is not necessarily
definite, based on the
limited number of the observations and the assumption that
thermal radiation from dust is optically

\begin{landscape}
\begin{table}[!ht]
\caption{Formation of dust in the ejecta. References;
1) Lucy et al. (1991), 2) Meikle et al. (1993),  3) Roche et
 al. (1989), 4) Whitelock et al. (1989), 5) Suntzeff \& Bouchet (1990),
6) Lucy et al. (1989), 7) Catchpole \& Glass (1987), 8) Aitken et
 al. (1988), 9) Ercolano et
 al. (2007), 10) Elmhamdi et al. (2004),
 11) Elmhamdi et al. (2003), 12) Spyromilio et al. (2001),
13) Sugerman et al. (2006), 14) Hendry et al. (2005), 15) Meikle et
 al. (2007), 16) Kotak (2008), 17) Kotak et al. (2006).
 Note; The optical depth of the dust core
derived from [O I]
 line profile $\tau_{\rm d} \gg 10$ at day 510 in SN 1999em
 (Elmhamdi. et al. 2003),
which is much larger than $\tau_{\rm d} \sim 1$ in SN 1987A (Lucy et al.
 1991).}
\vspace{-0.5cm}
\smallskip
\begin{center}
{\smallskip
\begin{tabular}{llllllll}
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
name & Type & onset of dust  & IR excess & decline of   & blue--shifted &
 molecules & $M_{\rm d}$ \\
\null & \null & formation $t_{\rm c}$[day] & (NIR/MIR) & opt. lum. & lines & \null &
 [$M_\odot$] \\
\noalign{\smallskip}
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
SN 1987A & II--pec. & $\sim$ 350--530 $^{1), 2)}$ &
MIR $^{3)}$ & yes $^{4), 5)}$ & [Mg I],[O I] etc. $^{6)}$  & CO $^{7)}$, SiO
 $^{8)}$ &
 $7.5\times 10^{-4}$ \ $^{9)}$ \\
SN 1990I & Ib & $\sim 250$ \ $^{10)}$ & -- & yes $^{10)}$ & [O I], [Ca II]
 $^{10)}$&
 -- & -- \\
SN 1999em & II--P & 465$<t_{\rm c}<$510 $^{11)}$ & -- & yes $^{11)}$
 & [O I],[Mg I],etc. $^{11)}$ & CO $^{12)}$ & $\ge 10^{-4}$ \ $^{11)}$\\
SN 2003gd &II--P & 250$<t_{\rm c}<$493 $^{13)}$& MIR $^{13)}$& yes
 $^{13)}$
& [O I],
 H$_{\alpha}$ $^{13), 14)}$& CO,SiO ? $^{15)}$&
 $4\times 10^{-5}$ \ $^{15)}$ \\
SN 2005af & II--P & 214$<t_{\rm c}<$571 $^{16)}$
& MIR $^{16)}$& -- & -- & CO,SiO $^{17)}$
& $\sim 4\times 10^{-4}$ \ $^{16)}$\\
\noalign{\smallskip}
\tableline
\end{tabular}
}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\vspace{0.0cm}
\begin{table}[!hb]
\vspace{-1.0cm}
\caption{Formation of dust in a cool dense shell produced by the
 interaction with dense circumstellar medium. References;
1) Pozzo et al. (2004), 2) Gerardy et al. (2000),
3) Smith et al. (2008b),
4) Fox et al. (2009), 5) Smith et al. (2008a), 6)Mattila et al. (2008).
Note: For SN 2005ip, Fox et al. (2009) suggested the early formation of
 dust at day $\sim 50$, but the spectroscopic observation (Smith et al.2008b)
suggested the later formation. It should be noted that
Smith et al. (2008b) have suggested formation of dust in the
 ejecta at earlier time.}
\smallskip
\begin{center}
{\small
\begin{tabular}{llllllll}
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
name & Type & onset of dust & IR excess & decline of  & blue--shifted &
 molecules & $M_{\rm d}$ \\
\null & \null & formation $t_{\rm c}$ [day] & (NIR/MIR) & optical lum. & lines & \null &
 [$M_\odot$] \\
\noalign{\smallskip}
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
SN 1998S & IIn \hspace{1cm} & $\sim250$ $^{1)}$ \hspace{0.8cm}
& NIR $^{1)}$ & --  &
 H$_{\alpha}$, He I $^{1)}\hspace{1.0cm}$ & CO $^{2)}$\hspace{2.0cm} &
 $>2 \times 10^{-3}$ $^{1)}$ \\
SN 2005ip & IIn & $\sim 730$ $^{3)}$  & NIR $^{3,4)}$ & -- & He I
 $^{3)}$ & -- & -- \\
SN 2006jc & Ib & $\sim 50$ $^{5,6)}$& NIR--MIR $^{5,6)}$& yes &
He I $^{5,6)}$& -- & $3 \times
 10^{-4}$ \ $^{6)}$ \hspace{2.0cm}\\
\noalign{\smallskip}
\tableline
\end{tabular}
}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\end{landscape}

\noindent
thin in some cases;
as pointed out by Meikle et al. (2007), the dust may reside
in optically thick clumps in the ejecta.
Also, the NIR--MIR observations could miss the cool dust, since
dust grains might cool down quickly after the formation
as is demonstrated by Nozawa et al. (2008). Therefore,
the monitorings of various
types of SNe
after the explosions, covering the
temporal and wavelength ranges as wide as possible, are necessary to
reveal the mass of dust formed in the ejecta and
its dependence on
the type of SNe. In addition the
sophisticated radiative transfer
calculations such as those carried out by Sugerman et al. (2006) and
Ercolano et al. (2007) are inevitable
to derive the dust mass from the observations relevant to dust
formation, taking into account the more realistic spatial distribution and
chemical composition of dust in the ejecta.

\section{Formation of dust in the ejecta}

In this section we investigate how the formation process of dust
in the ejecta depends on the type of SNe,
focusing on Type II--P and Type IIb SNe whose progenitors are
evolved from massive stars with solar metallicity.
The calculation of dust formation is
based on the theory of nucleation and growth developed by Nozawa et al
 (2003), taking into account chemical reaction at
the condensation by
considering that the key species, defined as a gas species with
the least
collisional frequency among the reactants, controls the kinetics of
nucleation and grain growth (Kozasa \&
Hasegawa 1987, Hasegawa \& Kozasa 1988) \footnote{There was a typo in the
nucleation rate $J$ in Kozasa \& Hasegawa (1987) and Nozawa et al.
(2003); replace $c_1$ with $c_1^2$, where
$c_1$ is the number density of key species.}. Given the time evolution
of gas density and temperature together with
the elemental composition,
we can determine when, where, what kind, what size, and how much mass of
dust condenses in the ejecta.

\subsection{Models of supernovae and dust formation calculation}

Formation process of dust grains in the ejecta of SNe
is controlled by the time evolution of
gas density and temperature as well as the elemental composition in the
ejecta as demonstrated
by Kozasa et al. (1989). Thus, we apply the
hydrodynamic model of a
SN explosion for the time evolution of the
gas density
and the nucleosynthesis calculation for the elemental composition in
the ejecta.
The time evolution of the gas
temperature is calculated by solving the radiative transfer equation
taking into account the energy deposition from radioactive elements.
Table 3 summarizes the models of SNe
used for the calculations.

\begin{table}[!ht]
\caption{Models of SNe; $M_{\rm pr}$ is the progenitor mass,
$E_{\rm exp}$ the kinetic energy of the explosion,
 $M(^{56}{\rm Ni})$ the mass of $^{56}$Ni in the ejecta, $
M_{\rm eje}$ the mass of the ejecta,
$M_{\rm H-env}$ the mass of the hydrogen envelope,
$M_{\rm He-core}$ the
 mass of the He--core, and $M_{\rm matal}$
the mass of metal inside the He--core. Model A is
taken from Nomoto et al.
 (2006), and model B from Umeda and Nomoto (2002).}
\smallskip
\begin{center}
{\small
\begin{tabular}{ccccccccc}
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
model & Type & $M_{\rm pr}$ & $E_{\rm exp}$ &
 $M(^{56}{\rm Ni})$ & $M_{\rm eje}$ & $M_{\rm H-env}$ & $M_{\rm
 He-core}$ & $M_{\rm metal}$\\
\null & \null & [$M_{\odot}$] & [erg] & [$M_{\odot}$] &  [$M_{\odot}$]
& [$M_{\odot}$] & [$M_{\odot}$] & [$M_{\odot}$]\\
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
A & II--P & 15.0 & $10^{51}$ & 0.134 & 12.2 & 10.4 & 1.80 & 0.482\\
B & II--P & 20.0 & $10^{51}$ & 0.07 & 15.7 & 10.9 & 4.77 & 3.35\\
C & IIb  & 18.0 & $10^{51}$ & 0.07 & 2.94 & 0.08 & 2.86 & 1.297\\
\noalign{\smallskip}
\tableline
\end{tabular} }
\end{center}
\end{table}

\begin{figure}[!th]
\begin{center}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=270pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/abun.15m.cl.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=270pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/abun.93j.cl.ps}
\caption{Elemental composition within He--core: Upper panel for Type
 II--P SN (model A) and lower panel for Type IIb SN (model C).
Note that the position
 in the ejecta is indicated by the mass coordinate that is defined as the
 enclosed mass from the center.}
\vspace{-1.0cm}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

In the calculations we consider that dust forms
within the He--core
because the large expansion velocity in the outer envelope causes
the density of condensible elements to be too low
to form dust grains. For the elemental
composition, we do not consider any mixing since the mixing driven by
the Rayleigh--Taylor instability in the ejecta at the
explosion is not microscopic but
macroscopic as have been revealed by the observation of Cas A
(Douvion et al. 1999; Ennis et al. 2006).
We assume that formation of CO and SiO molecules is complete; all carbon
(silicon) atoms are locked into CO (SiO) molecules in  the locations
where C/O (Si/O) is less than 1. This implies that C--bearing
dust condenses only in the region of C/O$>1$; see
Todini \& Ferrara (2001) and Bianchi \& Schneider
(2007) for the calculation of dust formation assuming the uniform
mixing of elements and considering formation processes of
CO and SiO in the ejecta.

Figure 1 shows the elemental composition within the
He--core for a Type II--P
SN (model A; upper panel) and for a
Type IIb SN (model C; lower panel).
From the view point of
dust formation, the
He--core is  roughly divided into four layers; the outer
C--rich layer, the O--rich layer, the
Si--S--Fe layer
and the Fe--S--Si layer.
What kind of dust grain really condenses depends on the details of
elemental composition. Thus,
in the calculation we simultaneously solve the
equations of nucleation and grain growth for 19 possible condensates
(see Nozawa et al. 2003 for details).

Figure 2 shows the time evolution of the
gas density and temperature in the
ejecta; Left panel for Type II--P SN (model A) and right panel for
Type IIb SN (model C).
It should be noted that the gas density in the ejecta of Type IIb SN
is more than three orders of magnitude smaller than that of type II--P SN,
because the expansion velocity in
the ejecta is much higher in Type IIb SN without thick H--envelope.
The
time evolution of the gas temperature
depends on the model through the
mass of H--envelope and $M(^{56}{\rm Ni})$ in the ejecta.

\begin{figure}[!h]
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/densi.15m.cl.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/densi.93j.cl.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/temp.15m.cl.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/temp.93j.cl.ps}
\caption{Time evolution of gas density and temperature in the ejecta;
 Left panel for Type II--P(model A) and right panel for Type IIb (model C)}
\vspace{-0.0cm}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[!h]
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/tc.15m.cl.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/tc.93j.cl.ps}
\caption{Condensation times of dust species formed in the
 ejecta; Left for Type II--P SN (model A) and right for Type IIb SN (model C).
The condensation time is
 defined as the time at which the nucleation rate reaches the
 maximum. The condensation times of dust species
in the C and O--rich layers are a little earlier in Type II--P than
in Type IIb, except for FeS and
 Si in C--rich layer of Type II--P SN, and FeS in Type IIb }
\vspace{0.0cm}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Results of dust formation calculations}

Figure 3 shows the condensation time of each grain species formed in the
ejecta; Left for Type II--P SN (model A) and right for Type IIb SN (model
C). As the gas in the ejecta cools down with time, C grains start to
condense first in the C--rich layer around day 300 after the explosion.
Afterwards,
in the oxygen--rich layer, Al$_2$O$_3$, Mg$_2$SiO$_4$, MgSiO$_3$ and SiO$_2$
condense in this order from day 350 to day 450. In the Si--S--Fe rich layer,
FeS and Si condense around day
450 in Type II--P SN and around day 630 in Type IIb SN. After then,
in the innermost Fe--S--Si layer,
Si, FeS and Fe condense in Type II--P SN, but Si and FeS in Type IIb SN.
The condensation sequence of MgO and Fe$_3$O$_4$ in the O--rich layer
is different between Type II--P SN and Type IIb SN, depending on the detailed
density structure and elemental composition in the ejecta.
Also small amount of  FeS and Si condenses
from 450 to 500 days in  the C--rich layer
of Type II--P SN, and so does FeS around
day 580 in the O--rich layer of Type IIb SN.

\begin{figure}[!h]
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/radi.15m.cl.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/radi.93j.cl.ps}
\caption{Average radii of dust species formed in the ejecta: Left for
 Type II--P SN (model A) and right for Type IIb SN (model C)}
\vspace{0.0cm}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[!h]
\includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/size.15m.cl.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/size.93j.cl.ps}
\caption{Cumulative size distributions of dust species
 by mass summed up over the
 ejecta. The mass is dominated by dust grains with radii larger than
 0.03 $\mu$m
 for Type II--P SN (model A; left), but with radii less than 0.006 $\mu$m
for Type IIb SN (model C; right)}
\vspace{0.0cm}
\end{figure}

Figure 4 shows the average radius of each dust species formed in the
ejecta. In Type IIb SN (right panel), the average radii of all grain
species are smaller
than 0.01 $\mu$m due to the low gas density  in the ejecta.
On the other hand, the average radii of dust grains are
larger than 0.01 $\mu$m in Type II--P (left panel), except for Si and FeS
in the C--rich layer, and Al$_2$O$_3$, MgO and Fe$_3$O$_4$ in
the O--rich layer. The difference in the size of dust grains
between Type II-P SN and Type IIb SN is
much more clearly represented by
the cumulative size distribution of dust by mass summed up over the
ejecta, which is given in Figure 5. Except for Al$_2$O$_3$, the dust
mass is dominated by grains with radii larger than $0.03 \mu$m in
Type II--P SN (model
A; left panel), while the dust mass of all species  is dominated by the
grains whose radii are less than 0.006 $\mu$m in Type
IIb (model C; right panel). This
leads to the big difference in the fate of dust grains in SNRs
as is presented in the next section.

\begin{table}[!t]
\caption{Dust mass formed in the the ejecta}
\smallskip
\begin{center}
{\small
\begin{tabular}{lccc}
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
 model & A & B & C \\
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
 Type & II-P & II-P & IIb \\
 $M_{\rm pr}[M_{\odot}]$ & 15 & 20 & 18 \\
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
dust species &  \multicolumn{3}{c}{$M_{{\rm d},j} [M_{\odot}]$ } \\
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
C & $4.30\times 10^{-2}$ & $4.00\times 10^{-2}$ & $7.08 \times 10^{-2}$ \\
Al$_2$O$_3$ & $1.76 \times 10^{-3}$ & $4.33\times 10^{-2}$ & $6.19\times 10^{-5}$ \\
Mg$_2$SiO$_4$ & $2.95 \times 10^{-2}$ & 0.133 & $1.74 \times 10^{-2}$ \\
MgSiO$_3$ & $1.91\times 10^{-3}$ & $5.68 \times 10^{-3}$ & $5.46\times10^{-2}$ \\
MgO & $3.19 \times 10^{-7}$ & 0.159 & $2.36 \times 10^{-3}$ \\
SiO$_2$ & $2.06 \times 10^{-2}$ & $8.21 \times 10^{-2}$ & $1.57 \times 10^{-2}$ \\
Fe$_3$O$_4$ & $5.60\times 10^{-5}$ & $1.55 \times 10^{-3}$ & \null \\
FeS & $3.79\times 10^{-2}$ & $5.66 \times 10^{-2}$ & $1.47 \times 10^{-3}$ \\
Si & $6.65 \times 10^{-2}$ & $9.04\times 10^{-2}$ & $5.07 \times 10^{-3}$ \\
Fe & 0.134 & $6.46 \times 10^{-2}$ & \null \\
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
total mass & 0.327 & 0.676 & 0.167 \\
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
$M_{\rm d}/M_{\rm metal}$ & 0.695 & 0.202 & 0.129 \\
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
\end{tabular}
}
\end{center}
\end{table}

\begin{figure}[!h]
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/tau.15m.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/tau.93j.ps}
\caption{Optical depth of the ejecta at 1000 days after explosion
 as a function of mass coordinate; Left for Type II--P SN (model A)
and right for Type IIb SN (model C).}
\end{figure}

Table 4 summarizes the mass of dust formed in the ejecta of
Type II--P SNe (model A and B) and Type IIb SN (model C). The masses of C,
Mg--silicates (Mg$_2$SiO$_4$ and MgSiO$_3$), SiO$_2$, Si and FeS
do not depend so much
on the model, while masses of Al$_2$O$_3$, MgO,
Fe$_3$O$_4$ and Fe are different from model to model, depending on the
detailed elemental composition and density structure in the ejecta.
Generally the total dust mass increases with increasing progenitor mass.
The total dust mass $M_{\rm d}$
ranging from $\sim$ 0.17 to 0.68 $M_{\odot}$ is two
to three orders of magnitude larger than the mass inferred from the
observations.  The condensation efficiencies defined by $M_{\rm
d}/M_{\rm metal}$ ranges from 0.13 (model C) to 0.7 (model A).
The condensation efficiency of model A is significantly higher than
in the other models, because the metal mass
within the He--core is
smaller due
to the thin O--rich layer (see Table 1 and Figure 1).
Thus, being different from the total dust mass, the condensation
efficiency strongly depends on the detailed density structure
and elemental composition in the
ejecta.

Finally we present the optical depth of the ejecta at day 1000
after the explosion in Figure 6.
The optical depth of the ejecta after
dust formation decreases proportional
to $t^{-2}$ since the ejecta
expands homologously. Thus, around day 500 after the onset of dust
formation,
the ejecta is optically thick even at 24 $\mu$m  except for the outer
$\sim$ 0.3 $M_{\odot}$ (1.5 $M_{\odot}$) region for
model A (model C). This
result suggests that it could be inappropriate to estimate
dust mass from the thermal emission by assuming the ejecta to
be optically thin at MIR.
It takes
about 800 (60) yr at 0.5 $\mu$m for the entire ejecta to be
optically thin, and about 50 (10) yr at
24 $\mu$m for model A (model C).

\section{Evolution of dust in supernova remnant}

Dust grains formed in the ejecta suffer from erosion and
destruction by sputtering in the hot gas between the reverse and forward
shocks produced by the interaction of
the ejecta with the surrounding medium. This process determines
how much mass and what kind of
dust can survive and be injected into
ISM. In this section we demonstrate the
evolution of dust in SNRs, focusing on type IIb SN (model
C). Then, we calculate the time evolution of thermal emission from
dust in the SNR and compare with the observation of Cas A.

\subsection{Motion and destruction of dust in SNRs}

At the time when the ejecta encounters the ISM
surrounding the SN,
the forward shock propagating into the ISM and the reverse
shock into the ejecta are generated (e.g. Truelove and McKee 1999),
and the gas swept up by the shocks is heated up and ionized. The dust
grains hit by the reverse shock are
injected into the shocked gas with a
velocity relative to the gas; gas is decelerated by
the shock, while dust grains
decoupling from gas penetrate into the hot gas with the same velocity
just before the encounter. Then dust grains are decelerated and
eroded by collision with gas. The deceleration of dust by the gas
drag is inversely proportional to $\rho_{\rm d}a$, and the erosion rate
of dust by sputtering is almost independent of
$a$ (e.g.
Dwek \& Arendt 1992), where $a$ and $\rho_{\rm d}$ is
the radius and the bulk density of dust, respectively. As a result,
the small sized/low density dust is easily
trapped into gas, and is
eroded by non--kinetic (thermal) sputtering, while larger sized/high
density dust moves through the gas,
suffering kinetic sputtering.

We calculate the motion and destruction of dust in the
SNR, adapting
the model for the SN explosion as
the initial conditions for gas velocity and
density, and applying the results of dust
formation calculations as the initial spatial and
size distributions of
dust grains in the ejecta. The method of calculation and
the underlying
assumptions are the same as those by Nozawa et al. (2007).
In the calculations, we assume that the
ejecta expands into a uniform medium with solar metallicity.
We consider the two cases for the ambient
hydrogen number density; $n_{\rm H}$ =1.0 and 10.0 cm $^{-3}$. We assume
the gas temperature in the ambient medium $T_{\rm g,amb}$ = $10^4$ K, and that
the ejecta hits the ISM at $t_{\rm enc}=10$ yr after the explosion. Note that
the assumptions on $T_{\rm g,amb}$ and $t_{\rm enc}$
do not significantly affect the result of
calculations. The sputtering yield of each grain species is taken from
Nozawa
et al. (2006).

\begin{figure}[!ht]
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=0, totalheight=200pt, clip=true]
  {figcolor/93j-1c10n-rho-t.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.3, angle=0, totalheight=200pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/93j-1c10n-r-a.ps}
\caption{Time evolution of gas density and temperature (left panel), and
 the motion and destruction of dust grains (right panel) in the Type IIb
 SNR for $n_{\rm H}= 10.0$ cm$^{-3}$ }
\end{figure}

The left panel of Figure 7 shows the time evolution of gas density and
temperature in the SNR of type IIb SN (Type IIb SNR) for
$n_{\rm H}=$ 10 cm$^{-3}$;
the positions of the
reverse (forward) shock at given times are
indicated by upward (downward) arrows.
The temperature of gas hit by the shocks quickly rises
up to 10$^{7}$ to 10$^9$ K, and is kept to be $ > 10^5$ K until the cool dense
shell forms behind the forward shock at $t \sim 10^6$ yr after the
explosion.
The reverse shock encounters
the C--rich layer at $\sim 80$ yr,
the O--rich layer at $\sim 440$ yr,
the Si--S--Fe rich layer at $\sim 800$ yr,
and the Fe-Si--S rich layer at $\sim 880$ yr after the explosion, and
the  ejecta are completely swept up by
the reverse shock in $\sim 1400$ yr. The right--upper panel
shows the trajectories of dust species with radii of 0.001 $\mu$m
(dashed curves) and 0.003 $\mu$m (solid curves) together with the
positions of the forward and reverse
shocks and the outer boundary of He--core.
The time evolution of the radius of each grain
species is depicted in the
right--lower panel. As can be seen, grains with radii of
0.003 $\mu$m are quickly trapped into the hot gas behind the reverse
shocks and are completely destroyed by thermal sputtering within $\sim 3
\times 10^3$ yr. How long dust grains remain in SNR depends
not only on the initial position but also on the chemical composition.

The time evolution of the mass of each dust species
in the hot gas of Type IIb SNR is displayed in
Figure 8; Left for $n_{\rm H}=1.0$ cm$^{-3}$ , and right for
$n_{\rm H}=10.0$ cm$^{-3}$. Except for C grains for $n_{\rm
H}=1.0$ cm$^{-3}$, all dust grains are destroyed in
$ t< 3 \times 10^4$ ($4 \times 10^3$) yr for
$n_{\rm H}=1.0 ~(10.0)$ cm$^{-3}$.
Although the time necessary for the
reverse shock to reach the dust forming layer is almost two times longer for
$n_{\rm H}=1.0$ cm$^{-3}$ than for $n_{\rm H}=10.0$ cm$^{-3}$,
it takes much longer for dust
grains to be destroyed for $n_{\rm H}=1.0$ cm$^{-3}$ because
the lower density in the hot gas caused by the delayed encounter
reduces the erosion rate of dust by sputtering significantly.
It should
be noted that C grains dominate the dust mass almost
over all times for $n_{\rm H}=1.0$ cm$^{-3}$, while for
$n_{\rm H}=10.0$ cm$^{-3}$ the mass of
C grains quickly decreases
at $t>300$ yr,
and then MgSiO$_3$ and SiO$_2$ grains dominate the dust mass in
the SNR. Thus,
the ambient gas density strongly affects
not only the mass but also the
composition of dust grains remaining in the SNR.

\begin{figure}[!t]
  \includegraphics[scale=.4, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/93jn1.mass.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.4, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/93jn10.mass4.ps}
\caption{Time evolution of dust mass in the shocked gas of
the Type IIb SNR:
Left for $n_{\rm
 H}=1.0$ cm$^{-3}$ and right for $n_{\rm H}=10.0$ cm$^{-3}$.}
\end{figure}

\begin{table}
\caption{Mass of dust surviving in the SNRs $M_{\rm
 surv}$ at t=10
$\time
 10^5$ yr and the efficiency of survival
defined by $\eta=M_{\rm surv}/M_{\rm d}$}
\smallskip
\begin{center}
{\small
\begin{tabular}{lcccc}
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
$n_{\rm H}[{\rm cm}^{-3}]$ & \multicolumn{2}{c}{1.0} &
\multicolumn{2}{c}{10.0} \\
\noalign{\smallskip}
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
 model (type) & $M_{\rm surv} [M_{\odot}]$ & $\eta$ &  $M_{\rm surv}
 [M_{\odot}]$ & $\eta$ \\
\noalign{\smallskip}
\tableline
\noalign{\smallskip}
 A (Type II--P) &  0.190 & 0.581 & 0.104  & 0.318 \\
 B (Type II--P)  &  $5.66 \times 10^{-2}$  & $8.37 \times 10^{-2}$ & $3.91
\times 10^{-2}$  & $5.78 \times 10^{-2}$ \\
 C (Type IIb \.)   & $7.83 \times 10^{-5}$ & 6.07 $\times 10^{-4}$ & 0.00
 & 0.00 \\
\noalign{\smallskip}
\tableline
\end{tabular}
}
\end{center}
\end{table}

Table 5
presents the surviving dust mass $M_{\rm surv}$ at $t=10^5$ yr for
the models. Although $M_{\rm surv}$ decreases with increasing
$n_{\rm H}$, how much mass of dust survives strongly
depends on the type of SNe through the thickness of outer H--envelope
that influences
the size of dust formed in the ejecta as well as
the time when the reverse shock reaches the dust forming layers.
In the Type IIb SNR, dust is destroyed quickly partly because
the small sized dust grains with radii $<$ 0.006 $\mu$m populate
the remnant region. In addition,
the earlier arrival of reverse shock at
the dust--forming layer causes
the gas density behind the reverse shock
to be higher, and  enhances the erosion rate of dust grains;
for example, the 35
times earlier arrival to the C--rich layer compared to the Type II--P
SNR (model A) results in the 10 times higher gas
density behind the reverse shock in the Type IIb SNR.
However, it should be noted that, contrary to the expectation,
dust grains are more destroyed in model B than in model A,
despite that
the mass of H--envelope is almost same.
One of the reasons is that MgO grains with a
sputtering rate somewhat larger than others
grains (Nozawa et al. 2006)
are more abundant in model B (see Table 4),
and another is that the sizes of Fe and Si
grains in model A are
significantly larger than those in model B. Thus, the survival of dust
grains in SNR depends on not only the thickness of H--envelopes but
also on the detailed chemical composition, size
distribution, and the
amount of dust grains formed in the ejecta.

The efficiency of
survival $\eta$ defined as $M_{\rm surv}/M_{\rm d}$ is larger
than $ \sim 0.06$ in the Type II--P SNR, but less
than 6 $\times 10^{-4}$ in the Type IIb SNR.
Dust grains surviving at $t=10^5$ yr
are almost free from the destruction
by sputtering, and are trapped into
the dense cool shell formed behind
the forward shock or
injected into the ISM. Thus, the injection efficiency
strongly depends on the type, which
should be incorporated into
chemical evolution models of dust in the ISM.
In addition, it should be
mentioned here that the survival in SNRs and the
injection into the ISM of newly formed dust
depend on the density structure in the ISM as
well as the inhomogeneity in
the ejecta. For the ambient medium whose gas density decreases as $r^{-n}$
with distance $r$, the time evolution of the density of gas swept up
by the reverse shock is different from that for a constant density as shown
by Chevalier \& Oishi (2003), which affects the evolution of dust in
SNRs. If dust grains reside in dense clumps (knots) as suggested by the
observations (e.g. Arendt, Dwek, \& Moseley 1999),
the dust grains could survive,
since the reverse shock encountering
dense clumps could indeed be radiative so that
the gas temperature could stay cool enough
for dust grains to be rescued from the
destruction  by
sputtering. These aspects should be explored to reveal
how much mass of dust grain can survive in SNRs
and be injected into the ISM.

\subsection{Thermal emission from dust in Type IIb SNR}

Dust grains formed in the ejecta and injected
 into the hot plasma between the reverse and
forward shocks are heated up by collision with gas, and emit
thermal
radiation. The equilibrium temperature of dust grain is determined by
balancing the collisional heating with the radiative cooling. However,
in a rarefied hot plasma such as in SNRs,
small sized dust grains undergo stochastic heating
which
affects the emissivity and the resulting spectral energy
distribution (SED); see Dwek (1986) and Dwek et al. (2008) for details.

\begin{figure}[!hb]
  \includegraphics[scale=.4, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/ptdist.pr.ps}
  \includegraphics[scale=.4, angle=270, totalheight=140pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/emiss.pr.ps}
\caption{Temperature distribution functions of small astronomical
 silicate in
the hot plasma with $n_{\rm e}=10 {\rm cm}^{-3}$ and $T_{\rm e}=10^7$ K (left) and the
emissivities (right) for given radii, where the radius is in units of $\mu$m.}
\end{figure}

For example, Figure 9 shows the
temperature distribution function and the emissivity of astronomical
silicate (Draine and Lee 1984) embedded in a hot plasma with the
electron
temperature of $T_{\rm e}$ = $10^7$ K and
number density of $n_{\rm e}$
= $10.0$ cm$^{-3}$, which is calculated by a
Monte--Carlo method. The fraction of incident
energy that is deposited in a grain is calculated by fitting
the experimental data of the stopping ranges of electrons tabulated by
Iskef et al. (1983), according to the method by Dwek (1987b).
With decreasing radius,
the temperature distribution function
becomes broader and the
resulting emissivity deviates strongly from
the emissivity calculated by
the equilibrium temperature; the deviation becomes significant for the
radius of $a < 0.02 \mu$m.

Taking into account the stochastic heating,
we demonstrate the time evolution of thermal emission from dust
grains embedded in the shocked gas in the Type
IIb SNR, based on
the results of dust formation and evolution calculations for Type IIb SN
presented in \S ~3
and \S ~4.1.  In the calculations, the heat capacities of grain species
are taken from Takeuchi et
al. (2005), and we use the same optical constants as those of
Hirashita et al. (2005), except for amorphous
Al$_2$O$_3$ (Begemann et al. 1997 for the wavelength
$\lambda > 8 ~\mu$m), SiO$_2$ (Phillip 1985) and Si (Pillar 1985).
We consider only collision with electrons for heating, because
the radii of dust grains formed in the ejecta are so small that dust
grains injected into the hot gas are quickly trapped
and comove with the
gas, and the heating is dominated by collision with electrons. In order
to compare with the observations of Cas A, we put the SNR at the
distance of 3.4 kpc.
Figure 10 and 11 show the time evolution of SED
ranging from 200 to 1800
yr after the explosion for $n_{\rm H}$=1.0 and 10.0 cm$^{-3}$,
respectively, where the solid (dotted) curve denotes the SED with (without)
stochastic heating. The solid circles are the flux densities
subtracting the synchrotron radiation from the observed ones
tabulated by Hines et al. (2004).

The SEDs taking into account the
stochastic heating is
completely different from those with the
equilibrium temperatures, especially in the wavelengths shorter than 20
$\mu$m. After the revere shock encounters
the C--rich layer
at $\sim$ 180 (80) yr for $n_{\rm H}$=1.0 (10.0) cm$^{-3}$, the thermal
emission from the stochastically heated C grains contribute to
the SED until
the reverse shock encounters the O--rich layer.
In the case of $n_{\rm
H}=1.0$ cm$^{-3}$, the thermal emission from C grains
dominates the SED over the entire simulation period considered
in the calculation,
because the mass of dust in the SNR is almost
dominated by C grains as
can be seen from Figure
8. The emission features of MgO
appearing at $\lambda \sim$ 16 $\mu$m from  $t=800$ to 1200 yr,
Mg--silicates at $\lambda \sim$ 10 $\mu$m
after $t=1200$ yr and SiO$_2$ at $\lambda \sim$ 20 $\mu$m
after $t=1600$ yr are not prominent, being overwhelmed by thermal
emission from C grains.
On the other hand, in the case of $n_{\rm H}=10.0$ cm$^{-3}$,
with C grains being more efficiently destroyed
by sputtering, the
emission features from other dust grains get
prominent with time,
after the reverse shock encounters the O--rich
layer at $t \sim 400$
yr; although the
feature of MgO is weak, the emission feature of
Mg--silicates around 10 $\mu$m becomes noticeable at
$t=600$ yr, after then the 20 $\mu$m feature of SiO$_2$ is prominent at
$t=800$ yr. With increasing time, the SED is dominated by the
emission features from stochastically heated dust grains.

\begin{figure}
\plotone{figcolor/93j.1c1n.compara.eps}
\vspace{0.8cm}
\caption{The time evolution of SEDs of Type IIb SNR for
$n_{\rm H}=1.0$ cm$^{-3}$ with (solid curve) and without (dotted
 curves) stochastic heating. Closed circles are the flux
 densities subtracting the synchrotron radiation
from the observed ones of Cas A (Hines et al. 2004)}
\vspace{0.5cm}
\plotone{figcolor/93j.1c10n.compara.eps}
\vspace{0.8cm}
\caption{The same as Figure 10, but for $n_{\rm H}=10.0$ cm$^{-3}$}
\end{figure}

The result of calculations clearly demonstrates that the time evolution
of the SED is very sensitive to the evolution of
dust in SNRs through
the destruction by sputtering and the stochastic heating,
which strongly depends on the density in the ambient medium.
It should be noted that
the calculated SED cannot be reproduced by a single dust component
with multiple temperatures.

\subsection{Comparison with the observation of Cas A}

\begin{figure}[!h]
\begin{center}
  \includegraphics [scale=0.3, angle=270, totalheight=240pt, clip=true]
{figcolor/compara.ps}
\caption{Comparison with the observation of Ca A. The symbols denote
the flux
 densities of Cas A. The solid curve is the
 total flux density, and the dotted curves denote
 the contributions of each grain species.}
\end{center}
\vspace{-0.5cm}
\end{figure}

Cas A is the nearby Galactic SNR well--studied at various wavelengths
and was recently identified as Type IIb SN
from the spectrum of the scattered
light echo (Krause et al. 2008). The presence of dust formed in
the ejecta
has been confirmed by the infrared and submillimeter
observations (Lagage et al. 1996; Arendt et al. 1999; Dunne et al. 2003).
However, the dust mass derived from the observations has
been controversial, ranging from $< 1 \times 10^{-3}$ to $\sim 1.0 M_
{\odot}$ (Dwek et al. 1987a; Douvion, Lagage, \& Pantin 2001;
Dunne et al. 2003;
Hines et al. 2004; Rho et al. 2008). The comparison of the calculated
SED with the observations of Cas A could provide some insights on dust
and its evolution in the Cas A SNR,
although the models of Type IIb
SN and the evolution of the SNR
are not necessarily applicable to the Cas A SNR.

As shown in Figures 10 and 11, the calculated SEDs for
$n_{\rm}=1.0$ cm$^{-3}$, being dominated by
thermal emission from small C grains, cannot reproduce the
observations at the wavelengths $\lambda <$ 20 $\mu$m at $t \le 1000$
yr, and are significantly smaller than the observed flux densities
at $\lambda \ge$ 20 $\mu$m. On the other hand,
for $n_{\rm H}=10.0$ cm$^{-3}$, the calculated SED at $t=800$
around which the reverse shock encounters
the Si--rich layer seems to reproduce the observed SED.

Figure 12 shows the detailed comparison of the SED calculated
at $t=$ 800 yr with the observation and
the contribution of each dust grains. Although the
discrepancy around $\lambda \sim$ 12 $\mu$m is remarkable and the 20
$\mu$m feature of SiO$_2$ is too sharp, the calculated SED
can reasonably reproduce the overall
shape of the observed SED
without any tuning. The SED is dominated by Mg-silicates
and SiO$_2$ at $\lambda >$ 15 $\mu$m, and
by C and Mg-silicates at $\lambda <$ 10 $\mu$m. The dominant dust species
(the mass in unit of solar mass) are MgSiO$_3$ ($1.72 \times 10^{-2}$),
SiO$_2$ ($1.08 \times 10^{-2}$), MgSiO$_4$ ($6.46 \times 10^{-3}$),
Si ($3.62 \times 10^{-3}$), C ($1.6 \times 10^{-3}$), and
FeS ($1.04 \times 10^{-3}$). The total dust mass is $\sim$
0.04 $M_{\odot}$, which is consistent with the dust mass
of 0.02--0.054 $M_{\odot}$ evaluated by Rho et al. (2008),
apart from the
details. The presence of Si grains in the model
indicates that the reverse shock already reaches
a part of the
inner Si--S--Fe layer, which is also not
in contradiction with the observation
of Cas A by Spitzer showing that the deeper Si--rich
layer has been hit by the reverse shock
in the region  associated with
the jet arising from the asymmetric explosion (Ennis et al. 2006).

\section{Summary and concluding remarks}

We calculate dust formation in the ejecta and evolution in the SNRs of
Type II--P and IIb SNe in order to clarify how
these precesses depend
on the type of CCSNe through the difference in the
thickness (mass) of the outer envelope. We show that the mass of newly
formed dust ranging from $\sim 0.1$ to 0.7 $M_{\odot}$ does not so
much depend on, but the size of dust grains is sensitive to
the thickness of H--envelope. The radii of dust grains are
less than 0.006 $\mu$m
in Type IIb SN with
$M_{\rm H-env}=$ 0.08 $M_{\odot}$, while the dust mass is dominated by the
grains with radii larger than 0.03 $\mu$m in Type II--P SNe with
$M_{\rm H-env}
\sim 10 M_{\odot}$. The difference in the size of the
dust formed in the
ejecta plays a crucial role in
the evolution of dust in SNRs because the
smaller sized grains are quickly trapped into the hot gas behind the
reverse shock and
are destroyed by sputtering. The surviving dust mass ranges
from  0.19 to $3.9\times 10^{-2}
M_{\odot}$ in the SNR of Type II--P SN for the ambient H number density
of $n_{\rm H}$ = 1.0--10.0
cm$^{-3}$, but the dust grains are almost
completely destroyed in the SNR of Type IIb SN.

The SED of the thermal emission from dust embedded in SNRs
can be applied as a diagnosis of
the evolution of dust, reflecting the destruction by sputtering and
the stochastic heating. The comparison of the calculated SED of Type IIb
SNRs with the
observation of Cas A suggests that the mass of dust in the SNR is 0.04
$M_{\odot}$, which implies that the mass of dust formed in the ejecta is
not less than
$1.0 \times 10^{-3} M_{\odot}$, being different from the dust mass
estimated from the dust forming CCSNe.
In addition, Mg--silicates and SiO$_2$ with mass reaching up to
$3.0 \times 10^{-2} M_{\odot}$
dominate the SED
at $\lambda >15 \mu$m, in contrast to the observed
dust forming SNe that so far show no signature of silicates.
This may indicate that these dust grains formed in the O--rich layer cool
down quickly
and evade being detected by the observations as is discussed
by Nozawa et al. (2008).

It has been claimed that the mass of dust formed per  CCSN is less
than $1.0 \times 10^{-3} M_{\odot}$ and is too small to
contribute to the
inventory of dust in ISM, based on the observations.
However,  it should bear in mind that the
conclusion comes from a small number of observations. In order to
clarify when how much mass and what kind of dust
condenses in the ejecta
of various types of SNe, it is inevitable to monitor SNe with temporal and
wavelength coverages as wide as possible. In addition, the dedicated
radiation transfer calculations such as those
by Sugerman et al. (2006)
and Ercolano et al (2007) are
promising in evaluating the dust mass
compared with the observations, taking into account
the distribution and chemical composition of
dust grains in the ejecta.

\acknowledgements

This work is partly supported by the Grant--in--Aid for Scientific
Research of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
(18104003, 20340038).

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
Home » Resources » Language -Expressive & Receptive Development and Delay & Specific Language Impairment
What's the Difference Between Speech and Language – (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association)
Why Baby's first Words are "Mama" or "Dada" – (Rediff India Abroad)
Deciphering the Chatter of Monkeys and Chimps to Understand the Evolution of Human Language – THE NEW YORK TIMES (January 2010)
LenaBaby Newsroom- Every word counts. Articles on the importance of language.
Monkeys Also Reason Through Analogy, Study Shows.
BishopBlog: Thoughts from a Language Researcher
Milestones/Development
The Development of Expressive Elaboration in Fictional Narratives
The Power of Talk – Connecting the importance of speaking to young children and the link to the child's future academic success. Highlights Dr. Todd Risley's seminal work – (District Chronicles)
Speech and Language Milestones: Birth to 5 years old – (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association)
Speech and Language Milestones: Kindergarten to 5th Grade – (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association)
Late Bloomers (Talkers) vs Language Problem – (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association)
MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories – A list of words that infants and toddlers speak and understand in Spanish and English
Impact on Development: Family Influence vs. child Care – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (May 2007)
Language Development: Affected by quality of childcare – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (May 2007)
Language Emergence: Results of Largest Study to Date – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (September 2008)
Communicating with Children: The Importance of the First Five Years – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (December 2008)
Learning Through Inference: Best Word Strategy for Toddlers – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (December 2007)
Smart Baby DVDs No Help, May Harm- What science says. (CNN)
How to Talk to Children: Linguistic Ability and the CNS – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (January 2008)
Speech, Language, Feeding Milestone Guide (pdf file)
Comprehensive Speech Language Milestones
Delay/Disorder/Disability
Spoken Language Disorders
When to Worry if a Child Has Too Few Words – THE NEW YORK TIMES (February 2010)The Pitfalls and Possibilities for Early Identification of Language Impairments in Children: A Review for Clinicians and Researchers by Dr. Nicole Magaldi
Risk Factors for a Speech and Language Delay in Young Children Including Autism: Red flags or clinical clues for a communication disorder – (NY State Department of Health)
Communication Milestones and Causes/Indications of Concern- Birth to 36 months of age – (NY State Department of Health)
Hyperlexia (Ability to Read at an Precocious Age) and Language Delay: Discusses how some children at an early age are advanced at reading despite having language delays. (Wisconsin Medical Society)
Language-Based Learning Issues/Disability – Definition, symptoms, diagnoses and treatment. – (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association)
Specific Language Impairment (SLI) – (CBS Business Network)
Abrupt Native Language Loss In international Adoptees – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (December 2008)
Word Finding Difficulties (January 2007)
Child World Finding: Student Voices Enlighten Us (The Asha Leader, February 2009)
What is Speech Language Impairment (SLI) (YouTube)
Understanding Speech and Language Impairments (Children's Speech Care Center)
Adoption & Pragmatic Problems
SALT- Software to analyze language sampling.
New Tool Assesses Narrative Structure – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (July 2009)
Exploring LENA as a Tool for Researchers and Clinicians – THE ASHA LEADER (May 2009)
Making a Case for Language Sampling: Assessment and Intervention With (Spanish-English) Second Language Learners – THE ASHA LEADER (March 2009)
A Different Way to Assess Receptive Language – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (March 2010)
Language Dynamics Group–Language tools for school success
A Non-word Repetition Task for Speakers with Misarticulations and Understanding the Significance of Non-word Repetition
The Relationship Between Language and Learning Disabilities
Videos about Specific Language Impairment
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) on Specific Language Impairment
New study sheds light on the importance of conversational turns
Activities to Encourage Speech and Language Development – Birth to 6 years – (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association)
The Efficacy of Fast ForWord Language Intervention – (Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research)
Word Retrieval
Use Toys for Multiple Purposes in Language Therapy – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (July 2005)
Principals for School-Age Language Intervention: Insights from a Randomized Controlled Trial – THE ASHA LEADER (January 2010)
Vocabulary Development: Five Components of a Strong Program – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (August 2009)
10 Principles of Grammar Intervention: Make Grammar a High Priority in Language Disorders – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (March 2006)
Oral Language Interventions: Effectiveness Surprises Panel of Literacy Experts – ADVANCE for Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists (July 2009)
For children with language impairments and poor reading skills, Fast ForWord-Language (FFW-L) may be more effective than Attention Control computer program. (American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology)
A study finds that children who used FFW-L and FFWL/NBLI outperformed children who did not use the interventions on two narrative measures. (Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research)
A central and trusted source of scientific evidence for what works in education, including reading/writing, language development, and academic achievement.
Evidence-Based Vocabulary Instruction: Strategies for Word Learning and Comprehension (Advance for Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists, July 2010)
Academic Vocabulary Games (Tennessee's Department of Education)
The First 4000 Words: The Vocabulary Building Program
Evaluation of Fast ForWord Language Effects on Language and Reading
Kerpoof: Learning Through Creativity
Make Beliefs Comix: Create Your Own Comix Strip
Downloadable cross-curricular vocabulary for free with registration
Berkeley Unified School District: tiered vocabulary by grade level (k-12th), along with teaching methodologies, videos, articles, downloadable lists, and much much more…
Roles and Responsibilities of a Speech Language Pathologist in Early Intervention – (American Speech Language Association)


text:
Q: Reaon of BrokenProcessPool error message while using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor()? I am trying to run this following code on Jupyter notebook (using Python 3.7.5) :
import time
import concurrent.futures

start = time.perf_counter()

def do_something(seconds):
    print(f'sleeping for {seconds} seconds')
    time.sleep(seconds)
    return 'done sleeping'

with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as executor:
    results = [executor.submit(do_something, 1) for _ in range(10)]
    for f in concurrent.futures.as_completed(results):
        print(f.result())

finish = time.perf_counter()

print(f'finished in  {round(finish-start,9)} seconds')

But, the interpreter shows an error message :

BrokenProcessPool: A process in the process pool was terminated abruptly while the future was running or pending.

I am learning multiprocessing from an YouTube tutorial where this code works fine. I haven't found any webpage discussing this error.

A: The code is correct; however it will not work in Jupyter.
Its expected behaviour according to the docs:

The main module must be importable by worker subprocesses. This
means that ProcessPoolExecutor will not work in the interactive
interpreter.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


As its name, this app will be useful as a drive or the place to save some documents and files. With Google Drive, users will have the new drive which could be nice to save their files and it will be helpful when users want to share their files. That is why this app is becoming popular today.
This app is developed by Google LLC. The developer does some well jobs there. The developer offers some innovations inside this app. By the innovation, of course, this app will be easier to be used. In Google Play, this app gets 4.4 score of rating stars. It shows how great this app is and million people download this app.
This app shows a friendly interface for the users. The users do not only see the modern icon of this app, which will make them interesting in using it. After opening the app, users also will find the well-organized menus there. Users will be easy to add and to upload new files to the drivers without any problem.
Google Drive could be the solution when users want to keep the files well. By using this app, users will be able to save their file safely. They could save the files from different device, since they use the same account. In other hand, after saving the files, they could search the files based on the name or content.
By using Google Drive for Android, users also could share the content. This app allows the users to copy the link of the files. By sharing the link of the files, of course users do not need a huge data to send the files.