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The Regulation of Food Packaging
While there is general familiarity with food laws in the legal community, the laws and regulations governing food packaging are often less understood, even though they may have a significant impact on a food company's success in marketing new products. This article explains how food packaging is regulated in the United States and how the U.S. regulatory scheme compares to other jurisdictions throughout the world; in addition, we provide insight to how many of the current food packaging regulations came about, including some recent updates to food packaging laws and regulations.
Food packaging serves a range of critical functions beyond containment of food and beverages. These range from providing physical protection and slowing product deterioration to offering convenience and transmitting information. More advanced food packages can include susceptors to aid in the browning of foods cooked in microwave ovens, features that interact chemically or biologically with their contents to extend shelf-life, and the ability to monitor the condition of the food. The evolution of regulations governing the composition and use of food packaging has included changes to accommodate these advances.
But let's start with the basics. Most food packaging regulatory systems include general safety requirements that are intended to preserve the physical, chemical, and sanitary integrity of the contents of food packages. These requirements generally prohibit the transfer of substances from the packaging to the food that may be deleterious to human health or bring about an unacceptable change in composition, taste, or odor of food.
Most global food packaging regulatory systems are based on similar scientific principles, but the approach used by different jurisdictions can vary considerably. These different approaches can also impact the data that is required to clear a substance for use in food packaging. For example, in the U.S., substances that may not reasonably be expected to become components of food and are not likely to present any public health problem can be cleared based on analytical chemistry data and extrapolations that show such components present no cause for toxicological concern due to minimal dietary exposure. Conversely, in the European Union (EU), just about all food packaging materials need to be explicitly cleared based on a toxicological evaluation and published regulations, regardless of exposure.
The Beginning of Food Packaging Regulation in the U.S.
Formal regulation of food packaging in the U.S. began with the passage of the Food Additives Amendment of 1958. This amendment added, among other things, a new section to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) that defined the term "food additive" as: "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food..." unless that substance is Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) or subject to one of a number of exceptions or exclusions listed in the Act.[1]
This definition is responsible for a distinctive feature of the U.S. food packaging regulatory scheme that is not common to other jurisdictions, namely that all food contact substances[2] that may reasonably be expected to migrate to food are regulated as food additives similar to the manner in which something added directly to food, such as a sugar substitute or and emulsifier, is regulated. Importantly, under Section 409 of the Act; a food additive that is not the subject of a regulation, or otherwise cleared by FDA for its intended use, is considered to adulterate food. No showing of the potential for harm is necessary under such circumstances to establish adulteration.
There are three exceptions under the Act, which, for purposes to this article, are important. The first is commonly referred to as the "prior sanctioned" substance exception. Prior to 1958, some companies that manufactured food packaging materials would inquire with FDA or the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) whether it would have an objection to the use of a particular material to package food. This was often done to assure customers as to the safety of the product when used with food. If FDA or USDA did not object to the use of the substance in question, the agency that received the request would issue a "no objection" letter. When the Food Additives Amendment was passed in 1958, the subjects of these letters became known as "prior sanctioned" substances and were exempted from the food additive requirements for further clearance or authorization by FDA. It was a kind of grandfathering provision.
Substances that are "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) are also exempted from the definition of a food additive. A GRAS substance is one that is "generally recognized, among experts qualified by scientific training and experience to evaluate its safety, as having been adequately shown through scientific procedures (or, in the case of a substance used in food prior to January 1, 1958, through either scientific procedures or experience based on common use in food) to be safe under the conditions of its intended use."[3] These substances do not need clearance or authorization by FDA prior to being placed on the market for use. However, FDA has always allowed manufacturer or users to submit the basis for a GRAS determination to FDA for review. In this respect, FDA issued a final rule on its GRAS notification process in August 2016.[4] The final rule outlines the types of data that can be used to support a GRAS conclusion.
The third class of substances exempted by the food additive definition of importance here are those which may be used in food packaging, or are otherwise in contact food, but are not reasonably expected to become components of food. Such substances are not by definition "food additives," and may be used without prior authorization or clearance by FDA. Additional history on the underpinnings for this so-called "no migration" exemption is discussed further below.
A subset of the no migration exclusion is the "functional barrier doctrine." Food contact substances that are separated from food by a functional barrier that prevents migration of those substances are not considered food additives. To use this doctrine, it is necessary to establish that the functional barrier actually prevents migration. The composition and thickness of the material separating the substances from the food, in addition to its physical and chemical characteristics, are important factors in making this type of determination. Other factors to consider are the time and duration of exposure to the food and the type of food.
The Food Additive Petition Process
The Food Additives Amendments of 1958 included a process to petition FDA to allow the use of an additive in food by way of the issuance of a "Food Additive Regulation." The food additives petition process involves clearing food additives (including food packaging materials that meet the definition of a food additive) through a notice and comment rulemaking process. A food additive petition requires detailed information about the identity and composition of the substance of interest and a description of how it is made, in addition to information on its intended use—such as food types, temperature conditions, and duration of contact with food—and chemistry and toxicology data supporting the safety of that food additive for the intended use. Once a food additive is cleared through this process, FDA publishes a regulation.[5] These clearances are generic and can be relied on by anyone as long as any limitations and specifications listed in the regulation are met.
Shortly after the food additive petition process was put in place, FDA announced in 1961 that it would no longer provide "no objection" letters on the basis of migration data. After that announcement, there was some disagreement on whether a company could make a self-determination that a substance was not a food additive based on "no detectable migration" and, thereby, avoid the need to submit a food additive petition prior to using that substance in food packaging.
Prior to that time, FDA had not provided definitive criteria on how to determine whether a substance may be reasonably be expected to become a component of food. However, guidance on this issue came from two main sources. First, FDA circulated a proposal in 1969 that it would not require a food additive regulation for substances without toxicological concern migrating to food in quantities no greater than 50 parts per billion (ppb). While this proposal was never formally adopted by FDA, it did take on a life of its own, and became known as the "Ramsey Proposal."
Second, in Monsanto v. Kennedy,[6] which FDA a regulatory determination by FDA which prohibited the marketing of beverage bottles made from a certain type of polymer, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia found that for FDA to classify a substance as a food additive, Congress must have intended the agency "to determine with a fair degree of confidence that a substance migrates into food in more than insignificant amounts." The court remanded the matter to FDA for further consideration under this standard.
FDA eventually adopted a rule that in a way addressed this issue. In 1995, the agency amended the food additives regulations to formally establish a process for determining when the migration of a food contact substance to food is "so trivial as not to require regulation of the substance as a food additive."[7] The Threshold of Regulation (TOR) Rule permits FDA to exempt a food contact material from regulation based on exposure and toxicology. The dietary exposure of the material must be less than 0.5 ppb or, if it is already cleared for use as a directive additive, exposure from the food contact use must be less than 1% of the Accepted Daily Intake (ADI). With respect to toxicology data, the food contact material cannot be carcinogenic or have any impurities that are potent carcinogens.
Once FDA receives a request to exempt the use of a food contact substance from regulation as a food additive based on insignificant migration to food, it will review the data and, if the TOR criteria is met, the agency will issue a TOR exemption letter.[8] These letters are not proprietary and, therefore, anyone can rely on them.
When FDA first developed regulations governing the safe use of polymers to be used in contact with food, it focused on what might migrate from the polymer into the food. This led to regulation of polymers as a whole rather than the complex variations in the polymerization process and has become known as the "basic polymer doctrine." Under this doctrine, substances such as catalysts, chain transfer agents, and initiators used in accordance with good manufacturing practices are considered part of the basic polymer and are implicitly cleared along with the polymer. These substances need to be integral to the polymerization process, used in small quantities, washed out or become a part of the polymer backbone, and not affect the suitable purity of the polymer.
One final feature of food packaging regulation in the U.S. that should be mention is the so-called "housewares exemption." Under this exemption, which arose out of the legislative history of the 1958 Act, and recognized by FDA officials in the ensuing years on several occasions, substances that are used in contact with food as part of a houseware product are excluded from the need for FDA premarket clearance. Housewares are generally considered to be articles sold empty and used by consumers in the home or by a commercial establishment to hold, prepare, or serve food. However, substances in housewares are not exempt from the general safety provisions of the FFDCA.
The Food Contact Notification Program
A significant development in the regulation of food packaging in the U.S. took place when the Food Contact Notification (FCN) program became effective in January 2000.[9] Since its inception, it has become the preferred method for clearing food contact substances. A major advantage of the FCN program over the food additive petition process is expediency. While it can take two to four years or more to clear the use of a food additive through the petition process, a FCN becomes effective in 120 days from the time FDA accepts the notification, unless the agency objects in writing. Another major difference between FCNs and food additive regulations is that FCNs are proprietary to the manufacturer of the substance and its customers.
The data requirements for a FCN are similar to those for a food additive petition but some differences exist. Both require the notifier to determine the amount of a food contact substance that is expected to enter the human diet, i.e., the Estimated Dietary Intake (EDI). This can be calculated by multiplying the amount of the substance that is expected to migrate to food by the approximate fraction of the daily diet expected to contact materials containing that substance. One difference between data requirements for petition and FCNs is FCNs must include the cumulative estimated dietary intake (CEDI) from all potential sources, not just from the food contact substance that is the subject of the FCN. The type and amount of toxicology data required to clear the food contact substance for its intended use will depend on the nature of that substance and its CEDI.
An additional requirement for FCNs, TOR requests, and food additive petitions is they must include information about the potential environmental impact of their use in order for FDA to issue a finding of no significant impact, or, if needed, complete an environmental impact statement.[10] This requirement stems from the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA),[11] which requires federal agencies to assess the potential environmental impact of "major" actions.
Food Packaging Regulation in the EU and Other Jurisdiction
In today's global economy, different systems for regulating food packaging in different jurisdictions can impact trade between countries. As a result, some countries have revised or are in the process of revising their laws and regulations governing food packaging to better align with other jurisdictions, especially the EU.
To understand the difference between the U.S. and European food regulatory systems, let's start with a brief overview of food packaging regulations in the EU. The Framework Regulation[12] governs all food contacts materials in the EU, including containers for transporting food, machinery to process food, and housewares. It also establishes safety standards and authorizes the European Commission (EC) to adopt measures for specific food contact materials or substances.
EU's most comprehensive legislation on a specific category of food contact materials, to date, is the Plastics Regulation.[13] This regulation includes a positive list (also known as the Union list) of monomers and other starting substances, additives (other than colorants), and some polymer production aids that may be used in the production of food contact plastics. The Plastics Regulation also establishes an overall migration limit (OML) of 10 mg/dm2 for all plastic substances in contact with food, unless their use is subject to an exemption. Specific migration limits (SMLs) and residual quantity in the material (QM) limits for certain substances also are specified.
The Plastics Regulation is "harmonized," i.e., it essentially preempts the Member States of the EU from imposing additional or different requirements on plastics intended to be used with food except under very narrow circumstances. Plastics are one of the few types of food contact material so far subject to the harmonization in Europe.[14] Member States do retain regulatory authority over other types of materials (e.g., paper, metal, coatings, etc.).
The use of positive lists in the regulation of food packaging materials is becoming more widespread. Under a positive list system, all substances need to be explicitly cleared based on a toxicological evaluation and published in regulations, regardless of exposure, and use of substances not on mandatory "positive lists" is generally prohibited. These lists generally apply to specific categories of food contact materials, such as monomers or additives.
Following are some of the jurisdiction that incorporate (or are in the process of incorporating) positive lists in their food packaging regulations.
MERCOSUR (Mercado Común Del Sur or the "Common Market of the South") is the largest trading bloc in South America, with Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela as members. This group issues GMC resolutions that must be adopted by member countries to become law. MERCOSUR's resolutions on "Positive list of monomers, other starting substances and polymers authorized for the manufacture of plastic packaging and equipment that come into contact with food"[15] and "Positive List of Additives for Plastic Materials Intended for the Manufacture of Packages and Equipment in Contact with Foods"[16] are based on clearances in the EU's Plastic Regulation.
The GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) Standardization Organization (GSO) develops standards and technical regulations for the GCC Member States (the Kingdom of Bahrain, the State of Kuwait, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) and Yemen, which cover, among other things, food contact materials. The implementation of these standards is voluntary in the GCC Member States. GSO 1863/2013 establishes a list of authorized monomers, other starting substances, macromolecules obtained from microbial fermentation, additives, and polymer production aids (PPA) that may be used in the manufacture of plastic packages.
China's Food Safety Law requires approval of all "food-related products," including food packaging materials. One of China's standards, "Hygienic Standards for Uses of Additives in Food Containers and Packaging Materials,"[17] includes a positive list of additives permitted for use in food-packaging materials and covers polymers, coatings, and adhesives.
Japan is in the process of transitioning to a positive list system for regulating food contact materials, which is expected to become effective in April 2020. A proposed positive list of 32 resins is based on the existing positive lists developed by the Japan Hygienic PVC Association and the Japan Hygienic Olefin and Styrene Plastics Association.
Food Packaging in the Spotlight
Greater attention has been paid to food packaging over the last few years, with part of that attention in the form of increased scrutiny concerning the safety of food contact materials. Some of the concern stems from advances in technology and the need for FDA to review some of the decisions it made prior to those advances, but it is also due to attacks by environmental groups and other self-defined "public interest" organizations on the safety of food packaging materials. One example is perfluroinated substances.
A petition to delist three perfluoroalkyl ethyl compounds used in water and grease repellant coatings for paper and paperboard to package aqueous and fatty foods was submitted to FDA in March 2015. In reviewing the petition, FDA could not determine the dietary exposure from food contact use of the substances. In addition, there were no toxicological studies showing reproductive or developmental toxicity for the three substances, but recently available data did show toxicity of similarly structured substances. As a result, FDA concluded that there was no longer a reasonable certainty of no harm for the food contact use of the three substances and amended the food additive regulations in January 2016 to no longer permit their use. Interestingly, the three substances had not been used in the U.S. since 2011; the groups that submitted the petition indicated that they were concerned about food packaging made with these substances being imported from other countries.
The use of food contact substances can also be banned in individual states or local jurisdictions. In March 2018, the governor of Washington State signed a bill[18] banning food packaging that contains perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances. The ban will become effective in 2022 unless the state Department of Ecology cannot identify safer alternative by then. In San Francisco, a ban on the sale of food service wares that contains fluorinated chemicals will becomes effective in 2019. Needless to say, food packaging materials are also subject to the warning requirements of California's Proposition 65 (Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986).
As food packaging continues to receive more attention especially with regards to the safety of individual components, the food and food packaging industries will need to keep abreast of the latest science and how it fits in with the statutory and regulatory requirements designed to assure the safety of packaging materials for use with food.
This article was first published in the online version of the American Bar Association's The SciTech Lawyer, Winter 2019 edition.
[1] See Section 201(s) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.
[2] A food contact material is defined in the FDCA Sec. 409(h)(6) as: "any substance intended for use as a component of materials used in manufacturing, packing, packaging, transporting, or holding food if such use is not intended to have a technical effect in food."
[3] See 21 C.F.R. § 201(s).
[4] See "Substances Generally Recognized as Safe," 81 Fed. Reg. 54960-55055, Oct. 17, 2016, available at: https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2016/08/17/2016-19164/substances-generally-recognized-as-safe.
[5] The regulations clearing indirect food additive are found in Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.) Parts 1754-186.
[6] 613 F.2d 947, 955 (D.C. Cir. 1979).
[7] 60 Fed. Reg. 36582-96 (July 17, 1995).
[8] See 21 C.F.R. § 170.39 for details on how to submit a TOR request.
[9] The Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act (FDAMA) of 1997 introduced this program.
[10] FDA has only once attempted to complete an environmental impact statement for a food packaging material, and it gave up on that effort after a decade worth of work.
[11]42 U.S.C. 4321 et. seq. (1998).
[12] Regulation (EC) No. 1935/2004.
[13] Regulation (EU) No. 10/2011.
[14] The EU also has harmonized sector-specific food contact legislation for ceramics, regenerated cellulose film, and recycled plastics.
[15] GMC Resolution No. 02/12.
[17] GB 9685.
[18] Available at: http://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/biennium/2017-18/Pdf/Bills/Session%20Laws/House/2658-S.SL.pdf, accessed September 25, 2018.
Related By Topic
UK Announces Procedure for Authorization of New FCMs
China Approves New Food-Contact Materials
FDA Adds Three New Substances to its Inventory of Effective FCS Notifications
Related By Region
California Proposes New Amendments to Proposition 65 Warning Regulations
Food-Contact Chemicals Database Implications Questioned
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Custom Mirrors at La Linea Bella !
Mirrors are a designer favorite at LLB. They are a fantastic way to break up a wall, add some light, or open up a space. And, of course, they are useful in bathrooms and hallways. They can also feature your favorite frame as a dramatic design element.
They can be leaned, they can be hung, you can pop a small or large mirror anywhere you would like to add some interest!
Indulge your wall in a little beauty treatment, and pop a mirror into a fabulously stacked frame to add some pizzazz and sparkle to your room.
La Linea Bella ! frames mirrors, and we do it well, to your taste and to your budget. And with our great selection of mouldings, you're bound to fall in love with the perfect choice!
For more visual inspiration, CLICK HERE.
For inspiration from our friends at The Scout Guide: click here.
- The conventional wisdom has long been that mirrors are an easy way to bring light into a space and make rooms appear larger. That's definitely true, but it also sells mirrors short. The best ones can function as works of art and have the same outsize effect in a room as a dynamic painting—at a fraction of the cost.
As designer Nick Olsen points out, "They provide so much. A large, bold mirror, like a powerful artwork, provides scale. It creates a textural contrast with the surrounding wall. And if it has an ornate frame, it provides an architectural quality as well."
Sara Gilbane agrees and says she uses mirrors in virtually every project. "There's just something very appealing about a mirror," she says. "They are a way to create the effect of a window in a window-less wall. They provide a grace note, whether in a room that's supermodern or traditional. Decorating with a mirror is the oldest trick in the book, but it's still around for a reason."
Copyright 2014 La Linea Bella ! Fantastic Framing & Art. All rights reserved.


America is still the Saudi Arabia of wind. According to a 2007 Department of Energy study, building out our wind capacity in the Great Plains – from northern Texas to the Canadian border – would produce 138,000 new jobs in the first year, and more than 3.4 million new jobs over a ten-year period, while also generating as much as 20 percent of our needed electricity.
No discussion about America's energy future is complete without including wind energy. From Jay Leno putting a windmill atop his garage, to huge wind farms like those in Sweetwater, Texas, wind is a clean, abundant source of energy for America.
The U.S. wind industry now totals 61,327 MW of cumulative wind capacity through the end of 2013. That represents a home-equivalent of more than 15.5 million. The U.S. wind industry has invested over $15 billion per year from 2009 through 2013. Today, U.S. wind power capacity represents more than 20% of the world's installed wind power.
While many industries have been cutting back on their workforce, about 85,000 people are employed in the wind industry today, up from 50,000 a year ago, holding jobs in areas as varied as turbine component manufacturing, construction and installation of wind turbines, wind turbine operations and maintenance, as well as legal and marketing services.
Additionally, the land on which the wind turbines are located are rented from the ranchers and farmers who own it. Much like a natural gas or oil well, the landowner shares in the money generated by the sale of the electricity, thus further adding to the economic well-being of the community in which the wind farm is located.
When it comes to wind power, Texas is the national leader. But many other states are aggressively developing this resource. In 2011, California added more capacity that any other state, and Iowa ranked first in the U.S. for percentage of electricity derived from wind at more than 15%.
From an environmental standpoint, Iowa's wind power installations will avoid over 8.7million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually. This is equivalent to taking 1,550,000 cars off the road.
Wind power generates no emissions, and displaces carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that would otherwise be emitted by fossil fuel-fired electric generation. The clean generation provided by wind capacity installed through 2008 will displace approximately 44 million tons of carbon dioxide annually. One megawatt-hour (MWh) of wind energy produced reduces CO2 emissions by roughly 1,200 pounds. A single 1.67-MW turbine produces over 5,000 MWh of electricity, and so each turbine reduces CO2 emissions by over 3,000 tons.


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Rep. Jayapal Denounces President Trump for Executive Orders on Dakota Access and Keystone XL Pipelines
WASHINGTON, D.C. – Congresswoman Pramila Jayapal issued the following statement on Tuesday after President Trump signed executive orders to advance the Dakota Access and Keystone XL pipelines:
"President Trump appears to be on a fast track to destroying our environment and along with it the future of our children. By moving forward with the Keystone XL and Dakota Access pipelines, the administration is not only going against the will of millions of people across the country, but infringing upon the sovereign rights of the indigenous tribes in the Dakotas who led the historic fight against DAPL."
"There are no 'alternative facts' to climate science. Last year was the hottest year in recorded history. We have a moral imperative to justly transition our economy from fossil fuels to renewable energy, providing sustainable jobs to our communities as we do so."
Issues: 115th Congress, Civil Rights, Environment

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• Articles • Next Articles
Abstract: Phylogenies are essential to studies investigating the effect of evolutionary history on assembly of species in ecological communities and geographical and ecological patterns of phylogenetic structure of species assemblages. Because phylogenies well resolved at the species level are lacking for many major groups of organisms such as vascular plants, researchers often generate a species-level phylogenies using a phylogeny well resolved at the genus level as a backbone and attaching species to their respective genera in the phylogeny as polytomies or by using a megaphylogeny well resolved at the genus level as a backbone and adding additional species to the megaphylogeny as polytomies of their respective genera. However, whether the result of a study using species-level phylogenies generated in these ways is robust, compared to that based on phylogenies fully resolved at the species level, has not been assessed. Here, we use 1093 angiosperm tree assemblages (each in a 110×110km quadrat) in North America as a model system to address this question, by examining six commonly used metrics of phylogenetic structure (phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic relatedness) and six climate variables commonly used in ecology. Our results showed that (1) the scores of phylogenetic metrics derived from species-level phylogenies resolved at the genus level with species being attached to their respective genera as polytomies are very strongly or perfectly correlated to those derived from a phylogeny fully resolved at the species level (the mean of correlation coefficients is 0.973), and (2) the relationships between the scores of phylogenetic metrics and climate variables are consistent between the two sets of analyses based on the two types of phylogeny. Our study suggests that using species-level phylogenies resolved at the genus level with species being attached to their genera as polytomies is appropriate in studies exploring patterns of phylogenetic structure of species in ecological communities across geographical and ecological gradients.
Key words: Genus-level phylogeny, Species-level phylogeny, Phylogenetic diversity, Phylogenetic relatedness, Community phylogenetics, Environmental gradient
Hong Qian, Yi Jin. Are phylogenies resolved at the genus level appropriate for studies on phylogenetic structure of species assemblages?[J]. Plant Diversity, 2021, 43(04): 255-263.
Abrahamczyk, S. 2019. Comparison of the ecology and evolution of plants with a generalist bird pollination system between continents and islands worldwide. Biol. Rev. 94, 1658-1671.
Algar, A.C., Kerr, J.T., Currie, D.J. 2009. Evolutionary constraints on regional faunas:whom, but not how many. Ecol. Lett. 12, 57-65.
Baum, D.A., Smith., S.D. 2012. Tree thinking:An introduction to phylogenetic biology. Roberts Co., Greenwood Village, Colorado.
Behrensmeyer, A.K., Damuth, J.D., DiMichele, W.A., et al., 1992. Terrestrial ecosystems through time:evolutionary paleoecology of terrestrial plants and animals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Brunbjerg, A.K., Cavender-Bares, J., Eiserhardt, W.L., et al., 2014. Multi-scale phylogenetic structure in coastal dune plant communities across the globe. J. Plant Ecol. 7, 101-114.
Cadotte, M.W., Davies, T.J. 2016. Phylogenies in Ecology:A Guide to Concepts and Methods. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford.
Carvallo, G.O., Teillier, S., Castro, S.A., et al., 2014. The phylogenetic properties of native- and exotic-dominated plant communities. Austral Ecol. 39, 304-312.
Cavender-Bares, J., Kozak, K.H., Fine, P.V.A., et al., 2009. The merging of community ecology and phylogenetic biology. Ecol. Lett. 12, 693-715.
Chalmandrier, L., Munkemuller, T., Lavergne, S., et al., 2015. Effects of species' similarity and dominance on the functional and phylogenetic structure of a plant meta-community. Ecology 96, 143-153.
Chen, S.-C., Wu, L.-M., Wang, B., et al., 2020. Macroevolutionary patterns in seed component mass and different evolutionary trajectories across seed desiccation responses. New Phytol. 228, 770-777.
Cooper, N., Rodriguez, J., Purvis, A. 2008. A common tendency for phylogenetic overdispersion in mammalian assemblages. Proc. Roy. Soc.:Biol. Sci. 275, 2031-2037.
Culmsee, H., Leuschner, C. 2013. Consistent patterns of elevational change in tree taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity across Malesian mountain forests. J. Biogeogr. 40, 1997-2010.
Currie, D.J., Paquin, V. 1987. Large-scale biogeographical patterns of species richness of trees. Nature 329, 326-327.
Darwin, C. 1859. The Origin of Species. Reprinted by Penguin Books, London.
Donoghue, M.J. 2008. A phylogenetic perspective on the distribution of plant diversity. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 105, 11549-11555.
Eiserhardt, W.L., Svenning, J.-C., Borchsenius, F., et al., 2013. Separating environmental and geographical determinants of phylogenetic community structure in Amazonian palms (Arecaceae). Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 171, 244-259.
Elven, R. 2011. Annotated checklist of the panarctic flora (PAF):vascular plants. National Centre of Biosystematics, Natural History Museum, University of Oslo.
Eme, D., Anderson, M.J., Myers, et al., 2020. Phylogenetic measures reveal eco-evolutionary drivers of biodiversity along a depth gradient. Ecography 43, 689-702.
Emerson, B.C., Gillespie, R.G. 2008. Phylogenetic analysis of community assembly and structure over space and time. Trends Ecol. Evol. 23, 619-630.
Faith, D.P. 1992. Conservation evaluation and phylogenetic diversity. Biol. Conserv. 61, 1-10.
Fritz, S.A., Bininda-Emonds, O.R.P., Purvis, A. 2009. Geographical variation in predictors of mammalian extinction risk:big is bad, but only in the tropics. Ecol. Lett. 12, 538-554.
Fritz, S.A., Rahbek, C. 2012. Global patterns of amphibian phylogenetic diversity. J. Biogeogr. 39, 1373-1382.
Gamba, D., Muchhala, N. 2020. Global patterns of population genetic differentiation in seed plants. Mol. Ecol. 29, 3413-3428.
Giehl, E.L.H., Jarenkow, J.A. 2012. Niche conservatism and the differences in species richness at the transition of tropical and subtropical climates in South America. Ecography 35, 933-943.
Graham, A. 1999. Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic history of North American vegetation north of Mexico. Oxford University Press, New York.
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Rafford Bed and Breakfast, Cheap Hotel and Guest House Accommodation
Rafford
Rafford Bed and Breakfasts. Compare latest rates and Live availability for all your favourite places and places you have always wanted to go using our new My Shortlist feature. Click + to add to your Shortlist.
Bed and Breakfasts in Rafford, Moray for 1 night from Sun Jan 17, 2021 to Mon Jan 18, 2021 within 10 miles, in an Average Nightly price range of £1 to £200.
The Carisbrooke
Forres 2.18 3.51 N/A 17181920212223 £60.00 £60.00 £60.00 £60.00 £60.00 £60.00 £60.00 £60.00
The Old Kirk
Ardvorlich Guest House
Elgin 9.76 15.7 N/A 17181920212223 £64.00 £74.00 £74.00 £74.00 £74.00 £64.00 £64.00 £64.00
Mansion House Hotel
Elgin 9.85 15.86 4 17181920212223 £62.00 £64.80 £64.80 £64.80 £64.80 £64.80 £64.80 £62.00
St Michaels Guest House
Elgin 9.9 15.93 N/A 17181920212223 £55.00 £55.00 £55.00 £55.00 £55.00 £55.00 £55.00 £55.00
Tullochwood Lodges
Forres 0.6 0.96 4 17181920212223 FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL
Blervie House
Forres 0.74 1.19 5 17181920212223 FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL
Pindlers Croft
Rafford 0.9 1.44 N/A 17181920212223 FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL
Willowbarn
Rafford 0.91 1.47 4 17181920212223 FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL
Cluny Bank Hotel
IolaireBNB
Forres 2.25 3.62 N/A 17181920212223 FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL
Ramnee Hotel
6 Varis Apartments
Forres 2.36 3.8 N/A 17181920212223 FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL
Aboyne, Forres
Ben Klibreck
Kinloss 2.55 4.11 N/A 17181920212223 FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL
Ben Wyvis
Knockomie Hotel
Riverview Country Park
Dalvey House
The Steading Tower, Forres
St Orans
Rafford 4.08 6.56 N/A 17181920212223 FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL FULL
A Wee Gem
Strathnaver
Carisbrooke House Hotel Drumduan Road, Forres, IV36 1BS
Set 3.3 km from Benromach Distillery, The Carisbrooke in Forres has a bar. The property is situated 8 km from Brodie Castle. Free WiFi is available. T...more
Set 3.3 km from Benromach Distillery, The Carisbrooke in Forres has a bar. The property is situated 8 km from Brodie Castle. Free WiFi is available. The units in the hotel are equipped with a kettle. All rooms are equipped with a private bathroom. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 31 km from The Carisbrooke.
Dyke, Forres, IV36 2TL
Enjoy your stay in this excellent B&B. A traditional former Scottish Church converted to a stylish and comfortable B&B. Close to the beautiful Brodie ...more
Enjoy your stay in this excellent B&B. A traditional former Scottish Church converted to a stylish and comfortable B&B. Close to the beautiful Brodie castle and perfectly placed to explore Moray from a relaxing rural setting. Four poster suite available.
125 South Street West End, Elgin, IV30 1JB
Situated in Elgin, 600 metres from Elgin Cathedral and 1.5 km from Glen Moray Distillery, Ardvorlich Guest House features accommodation with free WiFi...more
Situated in Elgin, 600 metres from Elgin Cathedral and 1.5 km from Glen Moray Distillery, Ardvorlich Guest House features accommodation with free WiFi. Some of the units have a satellite flat-screen TV, a fully equipped kitchenette with a microwave, and a private bathroom with a shower and a free toiletries. Guests can also relax in the garden. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 47 km from the property.
The Haugh, Elgin, IV30 1AW
Nestled within its own grounds on the banks of the River Lossie, The Mansion House is a peaceful getaway just a few minutes' walk from the historical ...more
Nestled within its own grounds on the banks of the River Lossie, The Mansion House is a peaceful getaway just a few minutes' walk from the historical centre of Elgin. Free parking is available on site, and free Wi-Fi is accessible throughout. The Mansion House Hotel is a 19th century Baronial House, decorated in an elegant country house style but finished with modern amenities. All rooms are en suite, and all have a TV. Several golf courses are located within a 15-minute drive. Elgin Cathedral is a 15-minute walk away. Elgin Railway station is 1 mile from the hotel.
st michaels guesthouse northfield terrace, Elgin, IV30 1NE
Featuring a garden and a shared lounge, St Michaels Guest House is situated in Elgin, 400 metres from Elgin Cathedral. Built in 1911, the property is ...more
Featuring a garden and a shared lounge, St Michaels Guest House is situated in Elgin, 400 metres from Elgin Cathedral. Built in 1911, the property is within 1.9 km of Glen Moray Distillery. Both free WiFi and private parking are available at the guest house. All guest rooms at St Michaels Guest House are fitted with a seating area. The accommodation provides some units that include a balcony, and every room has a private bathroom with a shower and free toiletries. Guest rooms in St Michaels Guest House are equipped with a flat-screen TV and a hair dryer. A Full English/Irish breakfast is served each morning at the property. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 48 km from the property.
Rafford, Forres, IV36 2RU
Nested in 28 acres of woodland with its own lake and children's playground, Tullochwood Lodges feature self-catering accommodation, 4 miles from Forre...more
Nested in 28 acres of woodland with its own lake and children's playground, Tullochwood Lodges feature self-catering accommodation, 4 miles from Forres. BBQ facilities are available on site together with free private parking. All built with timber, the lodges come with a living room with flat-screen TV and DVD player and a bathroom with bathtub and shower. Each has a fully equipped kitchen with oven, stove and microwave. Home to the Highland Games, Forres offers shopping and sporting amenities including tennis, golf and swimming just 4 miles away. Guests can go bird watching in the area or go for walks in the surroundings. The property is located on the Malt Whisky Trail and the Moray Coast and its sand beaches are just 5 miles away. Forres Railway Station is 3.9 miles away.
Blervie House Rafford, Forres, IV36 2RU
Set in Forres, 7 km from Benromach Distillery, Blervie House features accommodation with air conditioning and access to a garden with a terrace. Free ...more
Set in Forres, 7 km from Benromach Distillery, Blervie House features accommodation with air conditioning and access to a garden with a terrace. Free WiFi is available. There is also a kitchenette in some of the units equipped with a fridge. Continental and buffet breakfast options are available every morning at the bed and breakfast. Cycling and hiking can be enjoyed nearby. Brodie Castle is 11 km from Blervie House. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 34 km from the property.
, Rafford, IV36 2RQ
Set in Rafford in the Grampian region, Pindlers Croft has a garden. Featuring sea views, this holiday home also comes with free WiFi. The holiday home...more
Set in Rafford in the Grampian region, Pindlers Croft has a garden. Featuring sea views, this holiday home also comes with free WiFi. The holiday home includes 3 bedrooms and a kitchen with a dishwasher and an oven. Inverness is 45 km from the holiday home, while Elgin is 19 km from the property. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 32 km from Pindlers Croft.
The Willows, Rafford, IV36 2RR
Willowbarn is set in Rafford and offers free bikes, a garden and a terrace. Guests may enjoy free WiFi. This apartment with mountain views has 1 bathr...more
Willowbarn is set in Rafford and offers free bikes, a garden and a terrace. Guests may enjoy free WiFi. This apartment with mountain views has 1 bathroom with a bath. A flat-screen TV with satellite channels and a Blu-ray player are available. If you would like to discover the area, cycling is possible in the surroundings and the property can arrange a bicycle rental service. Inverness is 47 km from the apartment. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 34 km from Willowbarn.
69 St. Leonard's Road, Forres, IV36 1DW
Nestling in the bank of Cluny Hill, this small, family-run Victorian hotel offers award-winning food and overlooks the beautiful village of Forres, be...more
Nestling in the bank of Cluny Hill, this small, family-run Victorian hotel offers award-winning food and overlooks the beautiful village of Forres, between Aberdeen and Inverness. Built in 1865 and extended in 1910, Cluny Bank is a listed building at Historic Scotland. Carefully maintained, it was a private home for many years and was only recently converted into a hotel. Today the hotel offers a unique blend of modern amenities and many of its fine original features. Forres is located on the A96, within easy reach of both the Whisky and Castle trail. As the Forres Golf Course is just around the corner, Cluny Bank Hotel is also ideally situated for golfers. Cluny Bank is home to the award-winning Franklin's restaurant, which specialises in local produce.
Iolaire Mannachie Grove, Forres, IV36 2WE
IolaireBNB is set in Forres. Free WiFi is featured. A patio with garden views is offered in all units. A continental or buffet breakfast is available ...more
IolaireBNB is set in Forres. Free WiFi is featured. A patio with garden views is offered in all units. A continental or buffet breakfast is available every morning at the property. The bed and breakfast offers a terrace. Guests can also relax in the garden. Benromach Distillery is 2.5 km from IolaireBNB. Inverness Airport is 29 km from the property.
Victoria Road, Forres, IV36 3BN
Set in an Edwardian mansion, the 4-star Ramnee Hotel features leafy gardens and a traditional restaurant. The hotel is situated just outside Forres ce...more
Set in an Edwardian mansion, the 4-star Ramnee Hotel features leafy gardens and a traditional restaurant. The hotel is situated just outside Forres centre, adjacent to Grant Park. The bright bedrooms at Ramnee are individually decorated, and some offer scenic views towards Findhorn Bay. All rooms feature free Wi-Fi, a flat-screen TV and a private bathroom with free toiletries. The elegant restaurant serves classic British cuisine, using fine Scottish produce. Hearty cooked breakfasts are available daily, and the bar offers a range of real ales and over 50 malt whiskies. Surrounded by beautiful Morayshire countryside, the family-run Ramnee Hotel is a 10-minute drive from Findhorn Beach. Free parking is available, and Inverness Airport is a 30-minute drive away.
6 Varis Wynd High Street, Forres, IV36 1GH
Situated in Forres, just 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery, 6 Varis Apartments offers accommodation with free WiFi. This apartment is 7 km from Brodie ...more
Situated in Forres, just 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery, 6 Varis Apartments offers accommodation with free WiFi. This apartment is 7 km from Brodie Castle. This apartment comes with 1 bedroom, a satellite flat-screen TV, and a kitchen with an oven. If you would like to discover the area, cycling is possible in the surroundings and a bicycle rental service can be arranged. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 29 km from the apartment.
3 Varis Apartments offers accommodation in Forres, 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery and 7 km from Brodie Castle. This apartment features accommodation...more
3 Varis Apartments offers accommodation in Forres, 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery and 7 km from Brodie Castle. This apartment features accommodation with a terrace and free WiFi. This 1-bedroom apartment comes with a kitchen, a seating area, and a satellite flat-screen TV and Blu-ray player. If you would like to discover the area, cycling is possible in the surroundings and the apartment can arrange a bicycle rental service. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 29 km from the property.
Varis Wynd, High Street, Forres, IV36 1GH
5 Varis Apartments offers accommodation in Forres, 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery. This apartment offers accommodation with free WiFi. The apartment...more
5 Varis Apartments offers accommodation in Forres, 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery. This apartment offers accommodation with free WiFi. The apartment comes with 1 bedroom, a flat-screen TV and a fully equipped kitchen that provides guests with an oven and a microwave. If you would like to discover the area, hiking is possible in the surroundings. Brodie Castle is 7 km from the apartment. Inverness Airport is 29 km from the property.
7 Varis Apartments, featuring a terrace, is located in Forres, 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery and 7 km from Brodie Castle. Guests may enjoy free WiF...more
7 Varis Apartments, featuring a terrace, is located in Forres, 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery and 7 km from Brodie Castle. Guests may enjoy free WiFi. The apartment includes 1 bedroom and a living room with a flat-screen TV. There is a seating area and a kitchen equipped with an oven. If you would like to discover the area, hiking is possible in the surroundings and the apartment can arrange a bicycle rental service. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 29 km from 7 Varis Apartments.
1 Varis Wynd, High Street, Forres, IV36 1GH
Featuring mountain views, 1 Varis Apartments provides accommodation with a terrace, around 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery. The accommodation feature...more
Featuring mountain views, 1 Varis Apartments provides accommodation with a terrace, around 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery. The accommodation features free WiFi. The apartment has 3 bedrooms, a living room, and a kitchen with a dining area and a dishwasher. A flat-screen TV and Blu-ray player are available. A bicycle rental service is available at the apartment, while hiking can be enjoyed nearby. Brodie Castle is 7 km from 1 Varis Apartments. Inverness Airport is 29 km from the property.
Boasting garden views, 2 Varis Apartments is situated in Forres, 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery. The property is 7 km from Brodie Castle. With free ...more
Boasting garden views, 2 Varis Apartments is situated in Forres, 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery. The property is 7 km from Brodie Castle. With free WiFi, this 2-bedroom apartment features a satellite flat-screen TV and a kitchen with a dishwasher and oven. The apartment offers a terrace. A bicycle rental service is available at this property and hiking can be enjoyed nearby. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 29 km from the property.
Set in Forres, this apartment is 1 km from Benromach Distillery. Free WiFi is featured throughout the property. There is a seating area, a dining area...more
Set in Forres, this apartment is 1 km from Benromach Distillery. Free WiFi is featured throughout the property. There is a seating area, a dining area and a kitchen complete with an oven and a microwave. Towels and bed linen are available in this self-catering accommodation. There is a private bathroom with a bath. Bike hire is available at the property and the area is popular for cycling. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 27 km from the property.
4 Varis Wynd, Forres, IV36 1GH
Boasting garden views, 4 Varis Apartments offers accommodation with a garden and a terrace, around 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery. The property, hou...more
Boasting garden views, 4 Varis Apartments offers accommodation with a garden and a terrace, around 2.1 km from Benromach Distillery. The property, housed in a building dating from 2009, features free WiFi. This apartment comes with a kitchen, a seating area, a dining area and a satellite flat-screen TV. A bicycle rental service is available at this property. Brodie Castle is 7 km from the apartment. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 29 km from the property.
16 Cinchona Road, Forres, IV36 2PN
Aboyne, Forres in Forres offers accommodation with free WiFi, 3.4 km from Benromach Distillery and 7 km from Brodie Castle. Guests staying at this hol...more
Aboyne, Forres in Forres offers accommodation with free WiFi, 3.4 km from Benromach Distillery and 7 km from Brodie Castle. Guests staying at this holiday home have access to a fully equipped kitchen. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 29 km from the property.
Woodland Lodges, Kinloss, IV36 2QU
Ben Klibreck is situated in Kinloss. The property has sea views. The holiday home features a TV. The kitchen comes with a dishwasher. Inverness is 48 ...more
Ben Klibreck is situated in Kinloss. The property has sea views. The holiday home features a TV. The kitchen comes with a dishwasher. Inverness is 48 km from the holiday home, while Elgin is 14 km away. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 35 km from Ben Klibreck.
Ben Wyvis is located in Kinloss. The holiday home features sea views and is 48 km from Inverness. The holiday home features a TV. The kitchen is fitte...more
Ben Wyvis is located in Kinloss. The holiday home features sea views and is 48 km from Inverness. The holiday home features a TV. The kitchen is fitted with a dishwasher. Elgin is 14 km from the holiday home. Inverness Airport is 35 km away.
Grantown Road, Forres, IV36 2SG
Set in 4 acres of attractive gardens, the Knockomie Hotel offers individually-styled rooms, scenic views and an impressive Malt Library, with over 100...more
Set in 4 acres of attractive gardens, the Knockomie Hotel offers individually-styled rooms, scenic views and an impressive Malt Library, with over 100 Scottish whiskies. Built in 1821, the Knockomie Hotel offers free parking and free Wi-Fi. The distinctive, modern rooms feature tea and coffee making facilities and a TV. Some have patio doors which open onto the garden, whilst others feature traditional tartan fabrics and garden views. The Grill Room Restaurant serves seasonal Scottish cuisine, with an extensive wine list and choice of local whiskies. The Malt Library features an open fire, and tasting tuition is available. Just 4 miles from the Moray Coast, Knockomie is within walking distance of Forres Railway station and town centre. Inverness Airport, Findhorn village and Forres Golf Course are all within easy reach.
The Farmhouse, Riverview Country Park, Mundole, Forres, Invernesshire, Forres, IV36 2TA
Set in Forres, 2.5 km from Benromach Distillery, Riverview Country Park features accommodation with a garden and access to a hot tub. Some units also ...more
Set in Forres, 2.5 km from Benromach Distillery, Riverview Country Park features accommodation with a garden and access to a hot tub. Some units also have a kitchen equipped with a dishwasher and oven. The holiday home offers a terrace. Brodie Castle is 3.4 km from Riverview Country Park. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 25 km from the accommodation.
Dalvey House, Forres, IV36 2SP
Dalvey House is a detached holiday home with a terrace, located in Forres. WiFi is available throughout, and there is also free onsite private parking...more
Dalvey House is a detached holiday home with a terrace, located in Forres. WiFi is available throughout, and there is also free onsite private parking. Guests can enjoy the garden with outdoor seating area. The kitchen features a two-electric ovens and electric hob, a washing machine, tumble dryer, a fridge/freezer and dishwasher. A catering service is also available on request. The lounge features a log burning stove, and guests are welcome to make use of the DVDs, games and books. There is also a TV with Sky TV available, a DVD player and Sonos music sound system. An additional lounge is also available on request. Inverness Airport is 24 km from the property.
, Forres, IV36 3UA
The Steading Tower, Forres is an accommodation situated in Forres, 8 km from Benromach Distillery and 13 km from Brodie Castle. Guests staying at this...more
The Steading Tower, Forres is an accommodation situated in Forres, 8 km from Benromach Distillery and 13 km from Brodie Castle. Guests staying at this holiday home have access to a fully equipped kitchen. Inverness Airport is 35 km away.
Sluie Dunphail , Rafford, IV36 2QG
Set in Rafford in the Grampian region, St Orans has a garden. The accommodation is 48 km from Inverness. The holiday home has a TV. Aviemore is 46 km ...more
Set in Rafford in the Grampian region, St Orans has a garden. The accommodation is 48 km from Inverness. The holiday home has a TV. Aviemore is 46 km from the holiday home. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 34 km from the property.
, Rafford, IV36 2QG
A Wee Gem is situated in Rafford and offers a garden. Guests staying at this holiday home have access to free WiFi. The holiday home has a TV. Inverne...more
A Wee Gem is situated in Rafford and offers a garden. Guests staying at this holiday home have access to free WiFi. The holiday home has a TV. Inverness is 48 km from the holiday home. Inverness Airport is 34 km from the property.
, Kinloss, IV36 2UA
Situated in Kinloss in the Grampian region, Strathnaver features a patio. It provides free WiFi and a garden. The holiday home includes 4 bedrooms, a ...more
Situated in Kinloss in the Grampian region, Strathnaver features a patio. It provides free WiFi and a garden. The holiday home includes 4 bedrooms, a kitchen with a dishwasher and an oven, as well as a kettle. Inverness is 50 km from the holiday home, while Elgin is 15 km from the property. The nearest airport is Inverness Airport, 37 km from the property.


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Ideasinhat
Essays On Science And Philosophy
Essays On Philosophy And Science
Why I exist
Soccer: The Philosophy Of
July 5, 2018 November 19, 2018 by IdeasInHat
The Philosophy Of Soccer
The Ways To Watch Soccer
Walk into a soccer stadium, search for a seat of preference, sit-down, and begin to watch the soccer match: how to watch a soccer game. But, though the simple explanation is satisfactory, there is yet a different explanation, of which be wedded to sophistication and counterintuitive intuitions. Think about walking into the soccer stadium, and then think about how to gain entry into the stadium, and then execute on these thoughts; think about which seat is optimal for the set of personal preferences held in mind, think about a strategy to reach the seat without interrupting other soccer fans, and then execute a the plan of action; think about the teams on the field, think about the score, and then evaluate the current state of the game. This is also how one can go about attending a sporting event. The same outcome, but a different phenomenal analysis.
The source of the primary differences between both the simple and sophisticated approach depends entirely upon the position of consciousness which either the simple or sophisticated approaches originate in. That is to say, the style of description we adopt, particularly when we explain the things in the world, can be from numerous vantage points within conscious experience. Great stress must likewise be added to this, for a comprehensive understanding this point can solve a lot of futile problems in philosophy, as many useless problems arise out of point-of-view explanations. So what does it mean to have vantage points within consciousness? What is the philosophy of soccer?
The stream of consciousness we experience while at a soccer event is a feed of information coming from numerous sense-organs; and awareness is at the centre of the numerous pathways which feed information inwardly toward it. Of course, in some cases, awareness modifies the information that is coming in via top-down expectation; for example, the labels on the packaging of food can influence our beliefs about the properties of said food, even to the point of modifying the taste of the food. Meaning, some of the information that is fed into the locus of awareness is modified by expectation: thus, bottom-up processing is not the only means of knowing, we can know things both a priori and a posteriori: before and after the experience. Moreover, each stream of information that flows into awareness can be identified and focused on via effortful attention.
For instance, there is a psychological phenomenon known as in-attentional blindness that occurs when a person either pays too little or too much attention to something, and so, even though their brain might have unconsciously processed a visual-input, the person fails to notice something that is within their visual field. A good, concrete example of this would be slight-of-hand tricks. Street performers can trick on-lookers by simply doing their slight-of-hand tricks in plain sight, as most on-lookers expect the slight-of-hand trick to be hidden from their view and so over-focus on small details like the cuff of a sleeve or the opening of a jacket. What we can learn from in-attentional blindness and phenomena similar to it, like change blindness, is that we can select particular aspects from various streams of information which bombard consciousness. We need not attend to the entire world as it impresses upon our sensory-organs.
Data On Attentional Blindness
Source: Barnard, P. Scott, S.K. Taylor, J. May, J & Knightley, W. (2004). Paying attention to meaning.Psychological Science. 15, 179-186.
Now, to relate this back to the vantage points within consciousness and the different descriptions of the soccer match that we presented, consider the following: we have the ability to actively select various aspects of conscious experience and focus entirely on said conscious content. With our so choosing to do so, we can focus on either our beliefs or representations of the environment; that is, we could describe our thoughts about the environment, or we could describe the visual representation of the environment. In reference to our two descriptions of watching a soccer match, we can see that one focuses on the meta-cognitive processes which are necessary to watch the soccer match, and the other focuses on the visual-field, of which bares the contents of the soccer stadium. By flashing a light onto either our meta-cognitive processes or the stream of visual input rushing towards consciousness, we can have two different descriptions of the same environment: we can shift the vantage point within consciousness.
The Intentionality of Consciousness
What we have thus far described is the notion of Intentionality: the ability for the mind to be directed toward or to be about something. That is, when we are concerned about finding our ticket for the soccer match, so we can gain entry into the stadium, we are necessarily concerned about the ticket and its location. Likewise, when we are earnestly watching the soccer game, rooting for our favourite team, our mind is necessarily directed toward something. But to be clear, not all mental states are about something. There are experiences such as Free-Floating Anxiety, which are neither about nor directed at anything. Even furthermore, we also have unconscious beliefs and attitudes, of which remain unconscious until the right circumstances arise, that are either about or directed at something; for example, the attitudes we have towards our previous employers are necessarily directed at someone in the world, but are dormant for the majority of our day. So Intentional states must be about something and can sometimes be unconscious.
In addition to the structure of Intentional states, that is, in addition to them being about or direct at something, Intentional states can be categorized: we have Intentional states of action, we have Intentional states for collective behaviour, we have Intentional levels, and etc.,. Intentionality can characterize much our moment-to-moment activity, and so we should expect to see such a diversity in Intentional states. Thus, I seek to explain these intentional states, and I believe these Intentional states can be further understood by considering them in the context of a sporting event, like soccer.
The Intentional Action of Soccer
In his 1999 book "Intentionality," John Searle argued that Intentional action has a sequential structure like the following: the prior intention, the intention in action, the bodily movement, and then the action.
When a soccer player is ready to perform a free kick, the player has a similar intentional sequence. Before the player performs the kick, he or she has to be thinking about the kick its self; that is, the object of their intentional state is the image or thought of performing the kick. So, the prior intention is to perform the kick. After such, the intention in action follows; here, the mental state is about the details within the act of performing the kick. That is, when the player thinks about the kick with the prior intention, they are concerned about the overall structure of the act: I.e., that one has to be in a certain spot, that there are certain players to kick the ball towards, and etc., but during the intention in action, the player then becomes hyper-focused on how hard they must kick the ball, where their foot needs to land, and where the players are standing on the field. And this is then followed by the bodily movement.
The intention associated with the bodily movement is drastically different than the previous two intentional states; similar to the function of a smoke alarm, the intentional state of the bodily movement is about checking the degree of accuracy between the intended actions and the actual movements. The smoke alarm sounds when it detects smoke, likewise, the bodily movement stage will be about minor corrections of movement to mitigate the discrepancy between the intention in action and the bodily movement: it allows for self-correction. And after all of that, one then has the action. The action is a conjunction of both the intention in action and the bodily movement.
Soccer's Intentional Rules and States
Soccer players and fans, throughout the game, form a complex system of variables that follow a given set of rules, which lead to reoccurring states within the system. To explain further, let us consider the notion of a goal.
For a goal to occur, a ball cannot simply pass over a line, nor can a ball simply pass between the poles of a net: i.e., during the warm-up one cannot score a goal on the opposing team. Even while the opposing teams goalie is in net, if the game is in time-out, then one can still not score a goal. The rule to score a goal has plenty of contingencies, but the general rule might be something like: "if no other rules were broken, and the game is underway, then the ball going into the opposing teams net is a goal". Thus, the only way to score a goal is if we all agree that, in addition to the ball going into the opposing teams net, the players have the follow the other rules: i.e., no hand-ball goals.
On top of the rules for declarations of whether something was a goal or not, there are also rules which the players must follow. More specifically, we can distinguish between the rules of the game and the strategic rules which soccer players abide by. Consider, if player X is in field position Y with the ball, then I need to be at position W incase player X decides to execute plan Z. This type of rule is not rigid and can be broken without directly impacting the rules of the game. As such, we can say such a rule is not necessary to play the game of soccer.
Another set of un-necessary rules would be the social conventions associated with soccer. Though it may not seem obvious, there are a lot of social conventions involved in the game of soccer, and a lot of them stem from the interaction between the fan and the game its self. Think about the interaction between the home-fans and the home-team when the home-team scores a goal: there is a social convention for the home-fans to loudly cheer. Such an interaction can be stated as, "If home-team scores, and I am a home-fan, then I should cheer". Of course, there are also social conventions between players as well; for instance, "if my teammate scores a goal, then I should run and congratulate them". These social conventions, as said, are entirely un-necessary to the game, though are vitally important for the beliefs and intentions about the game; for without these social conventions, the complex states of soccer would not exist.
If we recall from earlier, we said that soccer players and fans form complex systems of variables, and we said that it is because of rule the driven behaviour that both soccer fans and players engage in. Well, now that we understand the rule driven behaviour, let us consider how states within the soccer game system come about.
Suppose there are two soccer games going on at once, and that one of these games, which we will call game-B, has no fans attending. When a goal is scored during game-B, the game cannot reach the conditions that would be reached, if a goal was scored, at game-A, which has fans attending. Without the fans, game-B cannot reach certain states of existence, and so because rule-abiding agents are not present at game-B, it is necessarily missing some of the states we associate with a professional soccer game. And this necessarily impacts the performance of the players inside game-B, of which can then influence the fluidity of the game. For instance, the players in game-B might feel as though they can get away with more cheating since there are less eyes viewing the field: better odds for cheating successfully.
What this tells us is that soccer games are composed of various agents who follow intentional rules, whether they be the formal rules of the game or not, that, through the very act of following those rules, influence the state of the complex system known as a soccer game.
The Collective Intentions of Soccer
Soccer cannot just be something which spontaneously arises, and the reason is far beyond the simple fact that rules and regulations are necessary, of which take deliberate action. There is also some background assumption about the game of soccer, and that background assumption allows us to engage in a framework of beliefs. Therefore, this framework must be adopted as well.
Lets suppose we were to walk into the general public with a soccer ball and attempt to play soccer with everyone. Our doing so would end in failure, with the exception of a few adventurous personalities playing along, at least temporarily so. Even if everyone knew the rules of the game, we would still fail at our attempt to engage the general public in soccer. The reason for our failure is due the missing collective beliefs associated with soccer, of which reside in the background of the players and fans, necessary to play.
Whenever we are pulled-over by a car with lights and sirens, we are aware that we are partaking in a traffic stop; that is, we have an immediate background assumption about what is currently happening, particularly based on the given perceptual conditions. We fit our cultural framework of "traffic-stop" onto certain conditions of satisfaction. In our doing so, we begin to operate with the belief systems associated with those background assumptions. In example, we know that the person who is about to approach our car has more authority over us, that there are certain rules of behaviour we need to follow now more than ever, and that we are subject to something known as 'the law". The culturally bound framework, as a result of certain environmental conditions, has lead to our use of different sets of beliefs, of which are all related to one another by the simple perceptual conditions: we adopt the appropriate belief sets for the environment.
And thus, when we attempt to engage someone with the soccer framework while they are in, let us say, the "going to work" framework, we will of course fail. The reason why we can play soccer is because we adopt a cultural framework as a background assumption, which then allows us to adopt the appropriate belief system: namely, the rules of the game, the conventions of sportsmanship, and etc.,.
We can then say that some group behaviours necessarily require a collective intention. Soccer cannot be played without all the participants adopting the framework for it, similar to how one cannot be baptized by simply being dunked in just any body of water. To be baptized requires a collective of people to adopt a particular framework, to the point where they recognize different social roles and social abilities. Likewise, the framework of soccer allows for the social roles of team, coach, and referee. And those social roles come with certain social abilities, of which depend entirely upon an acceptance of soccer framework. That is, if the collective do not engage in the soccer framework, then the social roles and abilities associated with the framework are useless, as no one will recognize their authority or legitimacy. So, soccer depends on collective intentionality.
Intentional Attitudes and Collective Intentionality
Not all intentional states involve abstract thought, for instance, we can have attitudes toward a certain thing; that is, when we are annoyed, we can be annoyed by something; when we are spiteful, we can be spiteful about something; and, when we are disagreeable, we can be disagreeable towards someone. These are all instances of attitudes which are either directed at or about something. Thus, they are intentional attitudes.
Furthermore, intentional attitudes, though they can occur independent of other intentional qualities, like beliefs, can occur in conjunction with beliefs or frameworks. For instance, we can be annoyed with someone, which would be an intentional attitude, while also believing the person did X. In doing so, we would have an intentional state that consisted of both an attitude and a belief.
Intentional attitudes, thus, allow us to categorize varieties of collective intentionality in respect to soccer. To clarify, we can recognize attitudes as modulating the difference between a competitive versus non-competitive game. Someone who adopts the soccer framework with a serious attitude will more than likely play competitively, whereas someone who adopts the soccer framework with a non-serious attitude will play non-competitively. These attentional attitudes modify how we enact the beliefs within the framework of soccer.
A non-serious player will be less likely to push the rules to their boundaries, for instance. That is, when it comes to head-to-head soccer, the mild shoving which can take place will be less aggressive, supposing that it even took place to begin with. And likewise, the serious players will push each other more aggressively, to the point where they are quite close to a violation of the rules. The intentional attitude modifies the entire soccer framework; and so, we can categorize varieties of soccer frameworks via attitudes.
The Ontology of Intentionality
Although these explanations sound perfectly reasonable, we have a particular problem with the ontology of our views on intentionality. To explain further, theories can put forth ontological entities, like when cognitive psychologists posit memory to the brain. When this is done, we can either reject the propositioned entities or accept them. That is, we can accept that memory is a real thing or can reject the notion, entirely. And so, we are now at a point where we need to consider whether we want to accept a real ontology for the philosophy of Intentionality, or simply reject any kind of ontological realism for the philosophy.
The problem of ontology, in respect to our philosophy of intentionality, relates to the fact that we've been appealing to mental states while not empirically demonstrating the mental states. We have yet to point out something which could be measured, observed, or quantified. Rather than point to empirical objects, we have instead explained the behaviour of objects with a self-consistent view. Metaphorically speaking, what we have done is placed a blanket over-top of a set of objects. Meaning, our theories have been ad-hoc explanations that fit the environment in the same way that the blanket will be malleable to the objects we lay it over-top of. The blanket is not the objects themselves but is instead a characterization of their outline; it is likewise the case that our explanations of intentionality are merely just explanations of the objects rather than the objects themselves: they are imaginary or rationalist explanations. This is a problem because the realism of the ontology, that is, the claim to real objects which our explanations can make is incredibly limited. We cannot claim the ontology of these theories to be real until we can empirically demonstrate them – assuming we subscribe to the standard of empirical evidence. But we can solve this problem.
The problem of ontology can be solved through cognitive neuroscience. In cognitive neuroscience, with the simple assumption that the mind is whatever the brain is doing, we can correlate metabolic processes with mental states: i.e., "increased blood-flow to region X is correlated with task Z or subjective report Y". After we get a sufficient amount of data, we can formulate predictions about how brain structures will react when mental in state H or doing activity N. And if our predictions fail to be correct or remotely accurate, then we can presume the ontology and theory are most likely irrelevant to one another.
The Pragmatics of Phenomenology
Now most of what we have done throughout this essay is armchair speculation, as is the case with most phenomenology. And although we just discussed a kind of neurophenomenology to increase the rigour of our epistemology of mind, there is still a pragmatic justification for the discipline, regardless of rigorous methodology.
Phenomenology allows us to heuristically understand human nature without having to engage with computational models of physiology; it is the language of human subjectivity. So, even though it might be scientifically incoherent, it can nonetheless provide us with greater insight and understanding of our subjectivity. Rather than talking to someone about various levels of neurotransmitters within their brain, we can instead use folk-psychology and phenomenal analysis to explain their depression to them. The pragmatics of phenomenology justify its use, even if we reject the validity of this type of theorizing on the grounds of speculative epistemology and no ontology.
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Circuit judge Joel McCrea visits a town that's under the thumb of feudal landowner John McIntire and his clan. When McCrea learns that McIntire's spoiled son (Kevin McCarthy) has not been arrested for a fatal shooting, he begins searching the hostile town for witnesses. An intelligent western filmed against the beautiful red rocks of Sedona, Arizona.


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Mayweather vs. Pacquiao features tactical…
SportsBoxing/MMA
Mayweather vs. Pacquiao features tactical questions, but outcome might not be surprising
Floyd Mayweather Jr., left, and Manny Pacquiao pose during their weigh-in on Friday, May 1, 2015 in Las Vegas. The world weltherweight title fight between Mayweather Jr. and Pacquiao is scheduled for May 2. (AP Photo/John Locher)
PUBLISHED: May 1, 2015 at 12:30 p.m. | UPDATED: August 28, 2017 at 6:51 a.m.
LAS VEGAS — "Look it up," Bob Arum commanded. "He's 'The Emperor Jones.'"
Do so, and you find a fascinating character that only faintly resembles Floyd Mayweather.
Eugene O'Neill's 1920 play became the first mainstream movie to feature an African-American leading man, Paul Robeson. He played Brutus Jones, a railway porter who killed a man in a gambling dispute and fled to a Caribbean island, where he harshly ruled the natives.
His own insanity caught up with him, only after he mistreated the subjects and hurled a copious number of n-words.
• Need to know: When does fight start, how to watch
Mayweather is neither insane nor dictatorial. But he has done time for abusing women, probably not enough time, and he is perhaps the most spectacular consumer in sports. He said the other day that being undefeated means nothing in comparison to making money, although he said he was doing it for his children. Bookmakers love him, as do technical boxing fans and a sizeable cross-section that cheers his gratuitous independence.
This is the same guy who said he would beat Diego Corrales on behalf of the women Corrales physically mistreated. This is the same guy who makes news by denying he will provide bail money for Suge Knight.
Same guy who is 47-0. That is why he does what he wants.
"You don't get those millions doing nothing," said Floyd Sr., his father and trainer. "You get it by working very hard."
• Fight of the Century: Mayweather-Pacquiao is finally here
Saturday night, Mayweather meets Manny Pacquiao in a fight he considers an illustration of his power and preparedness.
He says the money numbers are so stunning because he ducked and dodged this fight in 2010, and let the demand build. He held the line on drug testing, even when he had to settle a defamation lawsuit filed by Pacquiao, and now Pacquiao has had blood drawn 12 times in his training camp.
"I'm a pioneer not just in boxing but all sports," Mayweather said. "All I wanted was a level playing field."
Mayweather also insisted on 60 percent of the purse and 100 percent control of the promotion. Arum, the Top Rank CEO who was promoting fights in Ali's time, had to be introduced at the press conference by Leonard Ellerbee, Mayweather's right-hand man. Arum then enumerated all of Pacquiao's commercial endorsements, knowing that Mayweather has none.
"Not even for chewing gum," Arum said later.
And Mayweather not only controlled the tickets, which were only distributed last week, but the announcement of the fight itself. "Megalomania," Arum said.
• Golden Boy: De La Hoya rooting for Pacquiao, not a fan of Mayweather
Pacquiao seems blissfully unaware of the tensions in this arranged marriage. He hasn't been an underdog since he took down Oscar De La Hoya.
But Mayweather is a much bigger man. He will go into the ring at 155 to 160 pounds. Pacquiao weighed 144 on Thursday.
Mayweather has stood and fought more eagerly than he used to, when his legs were fresher. His right hand is an accurate, punishing weapon. He is a counterpuncher, as was Juan Manuel Marquez, who gave Pacquiao perhaps his four most difficult fights.
But Pacquiao will be a new experience, full of potential shock value. He is a lefthander with strange angles and alarming speed. In Marquez's first round against Pacquiao, he went down three times. Whether Pacquiao can dart in and out as quickly as he'll need to, for 12 rounds, is debatable. Mayweather's knack for adjusting is not.
"If Mayweather stands and fights, we've got a plan for that," said Freddie Roach, Pacquiao's trainer. "If he runs, Manny will cut off the ring. But Manny can't just stand in the pocket and trade. He was on the ropes against Miguel Cotto and I asked him why, and he said because he wanted to see how hard Cotto could hit. I said, that's not a good idea."
When Pacquiao met Roach, he showed him two early career tapes. In both, Pacquiao was knocked down.
"I wanted to show you that knockdowns are part of the game, that I can come back," Pacquiao said.
Mayweather Sr. dismisses it all.
"Once you've been hit like he got hit by Marquez (in the fourth fight), you'll get hit again," he said. "This will be a short fight. In fact, this fight is already over."
If that's true, a lot of people are wasting a lot of money.
It could go any way. Maybe a head butt, as often happens when a lefty meets a righty. Maybe a close decision, a we-wuz-robbed chorus. Maybe even a tactical staredown that will be as crowd-repelling as a game of Risk.
As night turns to morning, boxing will reach a different level. It will not escape its Emperor.
1. Mayweather has decisioned 11 of its last 13 victims. The knockouts came against Victor Ortiz and Ricky Hatton.
2. Mayweather is 11-0 since he parted ways with Top Rank promotions in 2006.
3. Referee Kenny Bayless worked Mayweather's win over Marcos Maidana last September, and Pacquiao's win over Tim Bradley in April of 2014.
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