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Category Archives: Couplers
Painted Kadee couplers
Posted on April 23, 2017 by terry2foot
Editor's note, 08-May-2017: the original content of this post has now been incorporated in a new blog post with the title "Couplers – Maine Two Foot prototype and models". Click here to view the new topic on another browser page.
This page is retained for administrative purposes.
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The Precision Scale ¾ MCB knuckle coupler.
Couplers – Maine Two Foot prototype and models.
Maine Two Footer Prototype couplers – a quick history and overview
Most of the Maine Two Footers used link and pin couplers in their early days, particularly on freight cars. The B&B was notable in using the Miller Hook on all its equipment, but the line did not last very long. All of the B&B equipment was transferred to the Sandy River. The B&SR Laconia built passenger equipment was also fitted with the Miller Hook.
ICC and other Federal Regulations dating from 1893 forced the introduction of Knuckle couplers on all American railroads. The Maine Two Footers which complied with these regulations appeared to have installed in them in programs, starting with the locomotives and passenger equipment, then freight cars. Most of these knuckle couplers were slotted to allow coupling to link and pin couplers. All of the Maine Two Footers retained this facility as it enabled M-O-W and track maintenance equipment to be moved in regular trains.
Both the SR&RL (date required) and B&SR (all engines and cars fitted with knuckle couplers during 1906 at a cost of $800) are believed to have changed to knuckle couplers completely, and the Wiscasset may also have done so by retiring or not using the link and pin fitted equipment. The KC seems to have retained link and pin couplers (confirmation required).
The Monson line was noted for retaining link and pin couplers to the end of operations in the early 1940's.
MaineOn2 Yahoo! group members should note that there was a pretty substantial and thorough discussion of prototype couplers in a couple of threads starting around 13 and 15th April 2006.
Link and Pin coupler – prototype.
This picture shows a Monson flatcar fitted with a link and pin coupler alongside a standard gauge boxcar fitted with a standard Knuckle coupler.
For a picture and article about the prototype standard gauge link and pin coupler on another browser page click here.
The Miller Hook or Miller Platform – prototype.
The Miller hook coupler was a proprietary design aimed at ensuring that cars did not slide over each other in the event of a collision. The Equipment Builders photos of the B&B Railroad state that each piece of rolling stock was equipped with these couplers. The major use of these couplers was for passenger rolling stock when used with the Miller Platform.
For further information about the Miller Hook/Platform on another browser page click here.
Knuckle coupler – prototype.
The Maine Two Footers that used knuckle couplers fitted the ¾ MCB knuckle coupler with a slotted knuckle. The picture above shows a young Dwight Smith standing on the pilot of B&SR/B&HR Loco #8 in 1940, fitted with a ¾ MCB slotted knuckle coupler.
For further information about knuckle couplers on another browser page click here.
Model couplers – Kadee HO knuckle coupler as a de facto standard for On2
Way back in November 2000, Bill Kerr wrote, in response to an enquiry on the Yahoo! group board: "..traditionally, Kadee #5 couplers are the standard choice for Maine On2, but I suspect there will be a move to the Sergent "S" scale coupler."
The wide availability of the Kadee and other similar knuckle couplers for HO, and their operational capabilities mean that the Kadee #5 coupler became the de facto standard for Maine On2 modellers. There are alternatives such as the Sergent coupler or the use of a link and pin coupler, but these are rare.
On2 Coupler height should be set for coupler center to be 16-17″ above rail height. There is a coupler height gauge made by AMB's John Hitzeman.
In response to a Yahoo! group enquiry asking for clarification about coupler heights in 2009, Terry Smith wrote:
On2;- I build my own On2 cars to the prototype derived dimension of 18″ from the underside of the underframe to the rail head………and then I fit an HO Kadee coupler on each end……it works for me and seems to match the brass loco's that I have. I don't refer to the NMRA Standard for this, no need to.
Maine style On30;- based on my past experience as a small scale manufacturer, then all those On30 customers who had real votes (ie dollar bills) chose to build their On30 cars at a scale 21″ underside of the underframe to the rail head dimension and floor mount their couplings which then matched with the rest of their On30 stock.
Definitions; I find it far simpler to define an underfloor height as a coupler mounting surface and then mount the coupler than work to a rather nebulous and complicated centre of knuckle height.
Terry later noted (in 2013) that the NMRA correct coupler height will result from using the proper car floor to rail dimension of 18″ (prototype) or .375″ (model) and normal Kadee HO couplers (#5 and similar) in their normal draft gear/boxes mounted with their topsides against the floor.
Mark Hall wrote a good article of representing prototypical coupler boxes when using Kadee couplers in M2FM 1989 Vol 21.
In May 2013 Terry Smith posted to the MaineOn2 board; –
In the many discussions over the years about what couplers were used on the Maine Two Footers and their sizes and what coupler to use with On2 models, the one thing that mildly concerned me was that I had never thought that the Kadee HO couplers I use actually looked out of place on my own stock in comparison with the full size Maine Two Foot cars that I had seen at Edaville, Portland and other places, or with various published historical photo's in standard texts.
I have now finally managed to print out an end-on photograph of one of my own boxcar models with approximately the same perspective as some pictures of the full size car taken at Edaville and the earlier historical photographs from the B&SR. The ratios of boxcar width to coupler knuckle heights in the photographs are Edaville 11.2; Model 11.2; Bridgton 10.7.
It seems to me that the standard HO Kadee coupler is a pretty good match sizewise for those fitted to the B&SR Boxcars.
Shown below are Terry's photos of (L) one of his models with a Kadee coupler and (R) prototype car at Edaville.
The Kadee #5 knuckle measures 0.146″ top to bottom, this is equivalent to 7″ full size in US O scale. The knuckle may be oversize for HO scale, but seems to be the right size for On2.
A search through the past messages of the Yahoo! group in 2014 showed that the height of the knuckle of the ¾ MCB coupler used on the prototype is 6 3/4″ or 0.141″ in US O scale, so the Kadee #5 is pretty close!
The so-called "elephant in the room"
Some modelers have issues with the appearance of the Standard Kadee HO coupler, in particular the spring that closes the knuckle. The coupler (and spring) can be painted (as in the model boxcar photo above) – check out the spring – is it really that obvious?
The above picture shows a close up of 4 standard HO Kadee couplers, as used as the "de-facto" standard for On2 by many modellers. The top and bottom couplers are unpainted. The middle two have been airbrushed with paints depicting a fresh orange rust colour (2nd from top) and an alternate darker brown rust (3rd from top).
Clicking on the picture will load a larger version into your browser window.
Model couplers – scale ¾ MCB knuckle coupler.
Precision Scale Models have a scale ¾ MCB knuckle coupler in their extensive product range of brass parts. Part number PSH-4032-2 is described as On3 coupler, regular shank, slotted knuckle.
Dimensions: the piece of wire is 1.197″ long: the knuckle on the left measures 0.186″ high: the left coupler body measures 0.254″ across its maximum width and the left coupler shank measures 0.095 – 0.097 wide.
The Precision Scale part is accurately scaled, with a working knuckle released by a working pin that can be operated by a working cut lever. It would make a nice front coupler for any On2 loco that only very occasionally needs a working front coupler, but it does require careful assembly.
Jerry Kitts of Foothill Model Works wrote of his experience with these couplers on his Westside logging models: "I have been using both the PSC and Back Shop 3/4 size MCB working couplers but they tend to uncouple at all the wrong times. I keep going back to using Kadee #26."
Model couplers – Link and Pin Couplers
Foothill Model Works list a link and pin coupler set in their current product range – part number FMW – 4005, based on a Westside Lumber Company prototype. Click here to view on another browser page.
Coronado Scale Models also listed a number of different link and pin coupler sets in their own range of brass castings (confirmation of current availability and part numbers required). CP-118, CP-138 & CP-140.
Model couplers – working Link and Pin Couplers
Harold Minky has a web site showing his designs for working link and pin couplers in O scale narrow gauge, click here to view on another browser page.
Model couplers – Sergent – Trevor Marshall's experience and evaluation of Sergent Couplers.
FAQ's fellow editor, Trevor Marshall has done a lot of experimenting with the Sergent coupler in both On2 and S scale standard gauge.
Readers should note that Trevor's current use of Kadee couplers on his S scale layout is more to do with his own reliability of assembly of Sergent couplers than their inherent design. Trevor has said many times that if factory assembled Sergent's were available in S scale then he would use them.
This picture shows one of Trevor's S&PCC boxcars (based on a SR&RL prototype) fitted with the HO scale Sergent coupler.
This underside view shows how neatly the HO scale Sergent coupler fits between the wheels of the Grandt Line freight truck.
This picture shows one of Trevor's caboose's fitted with "S" scale Sergent couplers.
Trevor wrote (back in 2004 or 2005);- I'm very pleased with the appearance. The coupler head scales out to about 10″ square, which looks about right. I even add a small piece of chain between the coupler and the cut lever – there's space near the back of the top of the coupler head to drill a small hole and anchor the chain with an HO scale eyebolt. In doing tests with these, I did note that using Sergents seriously affects layout design – it will force you to keep everything within easy reach because you need to be able to reach equipment for coupling as well as uncoupling. There are benefits to this, however:
1 – If everything's within coupling reach, it's also within reach for building and maintaining track, cleaning track, etc.
2 – The need to open a knuckle before coupling increases the amount of work the crew does, which takes time and therefore makes the run seem longer (something from which all layouts can benefit).
3 – The Sergents are just more realistic. They'd be incredibly frustrating on a large, operations oriented layout (like an HO club layout with several hundred cars to move in a session)…. but who in On2 is doing that?
As for height, I use a little laser cut coupler height gauge made by AMB's John Hitzeman. I've attached a Sergent coupler to the top of it (without the ball bearing), and use this to set the height on my equipment. Usually, this requires a spacer between the locomotive frame and the coupler box. I've been building my own coupler boxes, as I've yet to find one that these couplers fit into. The hole in the coupler shaft is smaller than that in a Kadee #5, so the plastic tube in a #5 coupler box is too big to fit through the Sergent coupler. Some good coupler boxes (laser cut acrylic, perhaps, John?) would be a great benefit for these.
Update: Feb 2005: Having tried my own coupler boxes for several months now, I decided to try some Kadee coupler boxes. The boxes for Kadee's S std gauge/On3 couplers (same box) fit the Sergent's perfectly. By cutting them to discard everything behind the two mounting holes, they'll fit between the wheels of an On2 car and not interfere with the outboard axle. The Kadee S boxes provide better coupler swing and are easier to install. I was able to bulk order 100 boxes directly from Kadee. (www.kadee.com).
More thoughts on Couplers from Trevor Marshall, including a comparison between Kadees and Sergents, originally posted the MaineOn2 group 25th April 2006:
Those interested in a scale size coupler as operating on the Maine lines during their heyday should probably engage in further research before jumping on the Sergent S scale bandwagon (as attractive as that seems).
One thing that I haven't seen mentioned in this coupler debate is the giant spring on the side of every Kadee coupler, that controls the knuckle. I find it amusing that people are getting twisted up about a scale inch here or there, but are apparently quite happy to ignore the big spring. And that brings me to a larger issue that I haven't seen addressed, and that's this: before picking a coupler, decide what it is you want to do with the model when it's done. Each style of coupler has pros and cons… I'll list a few, based on my experience with both.
Assembly/Installation: – Kadee wins here, hands down. They're easy and quick to assemble and install. This may be important to those planning to build a lot of rolling stock. Sergents take about 45 minutes per pair to build – and most people should plan on rebuilding their first half-dozen pairs because you'll get better at doing them, and the first ones won't operate as reliably as the rest.
Appearance: – Sergent wins, hands down. As I noted above, knuckle couplers – whether 1/2 MCB, 3/4 MCB, Type D, Type E, or what have you – don't have large springs on their sides. Even if the Sergents are a little too large, or a little too small, not having a spring on the side more than makes up for it, appearance-wise.
Operation of the coupler itself: – Kadee gets a slight nod here, as they are pretty damn reliable right out of the box. But if you take your time and work carefully on building the Sergents, they can operate very, very well. Your success depends on your own skill.
Operation on the layout: – This depends on what your design goals are…
KADEE LAYOUTS – If you are building an operations-intensive layout – let's say you're doing Farmington to Phillips, with staging north of Phillips and staging northeast of Strong – you will be better off with Kadees. You'll be shuffling a lot of cars, and the need to open knuckles on the Sergents can become tiring pretty quickly.
– If you are building a layout that has car-spotting locations that are more than 18″ from the aisle, or that are inside buildings, you'll want to use Kadees. Obviously, this depends on a number of factors, including layout height, the length of your arm, and how good your eyes are. But in general, with Sergents you need to be able to get your head directly above the couplers you want to couple or uncouple, every time. Sergents have a smaller gathering range than Kadees, so you must open the knuckle(s) then carefully check the alignment of the couplers before trying to couple. If you can't reach and can't see to do this, you'll experience no end of frustration. Kadees have a better gathering range, couple automatically, and can be uncoupled using under-track magnets so one doesn't have to reach into the layout to make them work.
SERGENT LAYOUTS – If you are building a smaller, more relaxed layout – for instance, the KCRR – then the extra work that Sergents require (opening the knuckles, aligning the couplers) actually becomes more play value. Prototype railroads have to open knuckles, manually align couplers, etc., so it's more realistic, too. Sergents slow down your operations. It's impossible to bang the cars about with Sergents, whereas with Kadees one can do jackrabbit-like changes in direction over a magnet and kick cars all afternoon. Sergents, manually writing switch lists, train orders and other paperwork, and installing and learning to properly use sound systems (DCC or analog) help stretch out an operating session and turn it from a puzzle to a re-enactment of real life. For a small layout, the extra work involved with all of this will make a 15 minute operating session take an hour. Some people may like that, others will not. Decide which type of person you are before picking couplers.
Update December 2013: there is now a Sergent couplers Yahoo! group;-
http://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/SergentEng/info
and Sergent now have a more accurately moulded S scale coupler on the market.
Trevor Marshall had reported having difficulties with reliably assembling the earlier version of this coupling, so much so that he opted for the pre-assembled scale HO version (visibly undersized) for his MaineOn2 layout). See http://themodelrailwayshow.com/cn1950s/?p=4122 for pictures, or http://www.sergentengineering.com/ for more information.
Editors note dated 04 January 2014: Trevor Marshall is currently modelling a CN standard gauge branch line in S scale, and using Kadee couplers for reliability. This may well change if Sergents produce a more "robust" S scale coupler for home assembly or factory assembled couplers. Please note that "robust" is used here in its manufacturing engineering (Statistical Process Control) context, rather than the more common physical meaning of hefty or over-large.
Posted in Couplers	| 2 Replies
Couplers: On2 models.
Model On2 couplers added from MaineOn2FAQ-Gen: updated 04-Jan-2014
Editor's note, 30-April-2017: the original content of this post has been revised and extended and is now incorporated into a new blog post with the title "Couplers – Maine Two Foot prototype and models". Click here to view the new topic on another browser page.
Coupler offsets and angular mis-alignments on curves
The picture above shows a model of a B&SR 26 foot boxcar (left) and a model of a B&SR 34 foot flatcar (right) on a piece of Precision Scale flex track curved to a 48″ radius on the centreline.
The table below lists the calculated coupler offset (radial displacement from the nominal centreline) and angular mis-alignment (angle between the coupler centreline and the track centreline at the coupler position) for a selection of Maine Two Foot rolling stock on curves of various radii. Note some pieces of information are missing. Modellers in scales other than 1:48th should note that the figures below have been calculated from scaled dimensions and geometry only. They do not include any allowance for wheel-set clearance within on the track gauge, and can therefore be scaled up or down for different modelling scales.
The intention is to show how these parameters increase with decreasing radii.
Curve Coupler Coupler Coupler Coupler
radius Radial Radial Angle (F) Angle (R)
(ins) offset (F) offset (R)
Boxcar #47
Coach #17
Loco, #7 & #8
Loco, SR&RL #6
1/. Rolling stock refers to B&SR/B&HR examples unless otherwise noted.
2/. Boxcar #47 is a 26 foot long boxcar with 18ft 6in truck centres. This is the shortest example of normal revenue carrying freight car found on the B&SR/B&HR. Similar sized freight cars were common to all Maine Two Footers.
3/. Boxcar #73 is a 34 foot long boxcar with 27ft 6in truck centres. This is the longest example of revenue carrying freight car found on the B&SR/B&HR, and on any of the Maine Two Footers.
4/. Coach #17 is a 48 foot 9 inch long coach with 34ft 9in truck centres. This is the longest member of the passenger car fleet of the B&SR/B&HR, and is fairly representative of a number of B&SR/B&HR and SR&RL stock.
5/. Coach #18 is a 46 foot long coach with 32ft 6in truck centres. This is the shortest member of the passenger car fleet of the B&SR/B&HR.
6/. Loco #7 & #8 are Big 2-4-4T Forney type locomotives, prototypes weighed 32/35 tons and measured just over 33 feet long. These are the largest of the Two Foot Forneys and similar sized locomotives were found on the SR&RL system.
7/. SR&RL Loco #6 is a small 0-4-4T Forney type locomotive, the prototype weighed around 15/18 tons and measured 25 feet 6 inches long. This is a typical Maine Two Foot Forney, and similar sized examples were found on all lines.
The picture above shows the front of SR&RL Locomotive #6 (left) and a B&SR 34 foot flatcar (right) on a piece of Precision Scale flex track curved to a 48″ radius on the centreline.
The picture above shows the rear of SR&RL Locomotive #6 (left) and a B&SR 34 foot flatcar (right) on a piece of Precision Scale flex track curved to a 48″ radius on the centreline.
Posted in Analytical/Technical, Couplers, Terry Smith	| 2 Replies


Weddings at East Dene – a beautiful stone built mansion in Bonchurch (near Ventnor) on the Isle of Wight – are always special. And if you've ever been to Bonchurch you'll know what I mean when I say there is a really magical feel about the place making it a perfect spot beside the sea for a wedding.
Jo and Alex certainly thought so and earlier in the year they celebrated their wedding in style at East Dene incorporating a seaside theme complete with giant deck chairs (amongst loads of other stuff) for their special day!


The Burlington, Vermont area's first dedicated gay bar in eleven years is set to open next week, but its questionable name has drawn sharp criticism.
In his Facebook announcement, McGaughan stated that "the LGBT community in Vermont has been missing a place to call our own and through luck, a lot of support and hard work, we have the space to offer that." He has since, however, taken to directing any concerns over the name to an unspecified elsewhere while deleting any unfavorable comments.
This is because the proposed name has encountered opposition among some members of the community.
This impasse led to the abrupt resignation of two other board members, Timber Adams and Bailey Cummings, late Tuesday. They faulted the Center for not taking a more active stance on the matter.


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airmen An airman is a member of an air force An air force – in the broadest sense – is the national military branch that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More specifically, it is the branch of a nation A nation is a community of ...
) fulfil them. Although rank titles vary by military branch and country, the rank hierarchy is common to all state armed forces worldwide. In addition to their rank, personnel occupy one of many trade roles, which are often grouped according to the nature of the role's military tasks on combat operations:
combat Combat ( French for ''fight'') is a purposeful violent conflict meant to physically harm or kill the opposition. Combat may be armed (using weapons) or unarmed ( not using weapons). Combat is sometimes resorted to as a method of self-defense, ...
roles (e.g.
infantry Infantry is a military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its mem ...
combat support In the United States Army, the term combat support refers to units that provide fire support and operational assistance to combat elements. Combat support units provide specialized support functions to combat units in the following areas * Che ...
combat engineer A combat engineer (also called pioneer or sapper) is a type of soldier who performs military engineering tasks in support of land forces combat operations. Combat engineers perform a variety of military engineering, tunnel and mine warfare ...
s), and combat service support roles (e.g. logistical support). In the past, the armed forces of some Communist states, such as the Soviet Union, China and Albania, have attempted to abolish military ranks, but they were later reintroduced due to operational difficulties relating to command and control.
Personnel may be recruited or conscripted, depending on the system chosen by the state. Most military personnel are males; the minority proportion of female personnel varies internationally (approximately 3% in India, 10% in the UK, 13% in Sweden, 16% in the US, and 27% in South Africa). While two-thirds of states now recruit or conscript only adults, as of 2017 50 states still relied partly on children under the age of 18 (usually aged 16 or 17) to staff their armed forces. Whereas recruits who join as officers tend to be upwardly-mobile, most enlisted personnel have a childhood background of relative socio-economic deprivation.Brett, Rachel, and Irma Specht. Young Soldiers: Why They Choose to Fight. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004. For example, after the US suspended conscription in 1973, "the military disproportionately attracted African American men, men from lower-status socioeconomic backgrounds, men who had been in nonacademic high school programs, and men whose high school grades tended to be low". However, a study released in 2020 on the socio-economic backgrounds of U.S. Armed Forces personnel suggests that they are at parity or slightly higher than the civilian population with respect to socio-economic indicators such as parental income, parental wealth and cognitive abilities. The study found that technological, tactical, operational and doctrinal changes have led to a change in the demand for personnel. Furthermore, the study suggests that the most disadvantaged socio-economic groups are less likely to meet the requirements of the modern U.S. military.
The obligations of military employment are many. Full-time military employment normally requires a minimum period of service of several years; between two and six years is typical of armed forces in Australia, the UK and the US, for example, depending on role, branch, and rank. Some armed forces allow a short discharge window, normally during training, when recruits may leave the armed force as of right. Alternatively, part-time military employment, known as reserve service, allows a recruit to maintain a civilian job while training under military discipline at weekends; he or she may be called out to deploy on operations to supplement the full-time personnel complement. After leaving the armed forces, recruits may remain liable for compulsory return to full-time military employment in order to train or deploy on operations. Military law introduces offences not recognised by civilian courts, such as absence without leave (AWOL), desertion, political acts, malingering, behaving disrespectfully, and disobedience (see, for example, offences against military law in the United Kingdom). Penalties range from a summary
reprimand A reprimand is a severe, formal or official reproof Reproof may refer to: * Reproof (firearms), a test of a gun after its original proof * Reproof, a form of congregational discipline among Jehovah's Witnesses * Reproof, a less severe censure t ...
to imprisonment for several years following a
court martial A court-martial or court martial (plural ''courts-martial'' or ''courts martial'', as "martial" is a postpositive adjective) is a military court or a trial conducted in such a court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of me ...
. Certain fundamental rights are also restricted or suspended, including the freedom of association (e.g. union organizing) and freedom of speech (speaking to the media). Military personnel in some countries have a right of conscientious objection if they believe an order is immoral or unlawful, or cannot in good conscience carry it out. Personnel may be posted to bases in their home country or overseas, according to operational need, and may be deployed from those bases on exercises or operations anywhere in the world. During peacetime, when military personnel are generally stationed in
garrison A garrison (from the French ''garnison'', itself from the verb ''garnir'', "to equip") is any body of troop A troop is a military sub-subunit, originally a small formation of cavalry, subordinate to a squadron. In many armies a tro ...
s or other permanent military facilities, they mostly conduct administrative tasks, training and
education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honest ...
activities, technology maintenance, and recruitment.
Initial training conditions recruits for the demands of military life, including preparedness to injure and kill other people, and to face mortal danger without fleeing. It is a physically and psychologically intensive process which resocializes recruits for the unique nature of military demands. For example: * Individuality is suppressed (e.g. by shaving the head of new recruits, issuing uniforms, denying privacy, and prohibiting the use of first names); * Daily routine is tightly controlled (e.g. recruits must make their beds, polish boots, and stack their clothes in a certain way, and mistakes are punished); * Continuous stressors deplete psychological resistance to the demands of their instructors (e.g. depriving recruits of sleep, food, or shelter, shouting insults and giving orders intended to humiliate) * Frequent punishments serve to condition group conformity and discourage poor performance; * The disciplined drill instructor is presented as a role model of the ideal soldier.
The next requirement comes as a fairly basic need for the military to identify possible threats it may be called upon to face. For this purpose, some of the commanding forces and other military, as well as often civilian personnel participate in identification of these threats. This is at once an organization, a system and a process collectively called
(MI). The difficulty in using military intelligence concepts and military intelligence methods is in the nature of the secrecy of the information they seek, and the clandestine nature that intelligence operatives work in obtaining what may be plans for a conflict escalation, initiation of combat, or an invasion. An important part of the military intelligence role is the military analysis performed to assess military capability of potential future aggressors, and provide combat modelling that helps to understand factors on which comparison of forces can be made. This helps to quantify and qualify such statements as: "
maintain the largest armed forces in the World" or that "the U.S. Military is considered to be the world's strongest". Although some groups engaged in combat, such as militants or
resistance movement A resistance movement is an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to withstand the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability. It may seek to achieve its objective ...
s, refer to themselves using military terminology, notably 'Army' or 'Front', none have had the structure of a national military to justify the reference, and usually have had to rely on support of outside national militaries. They also use these terms to conceal from the MI their true capabilities, and to impress potential ideological recruits. Having military intelligence representatives participate in the execution of the national defence policy is important, because it becomes the first respondent and commentator on the policy expected strategic goal, compared to the realities of identified threats. When the intelligence reporting is compared to the policy, it becomes possible for the national leadership to consider allocating resources over and above the officers and their subordinates military pay, and the expense of maintaining military facilities and military support services for them.
Defense economics is the financial and monetary efforts made to resource and sustain militaries, and to finance
military operation A military operation is the coordinated military actions of a state, or a non-state actor, in response to a developing situation. These actions are designed as a military plan to resolve the situation in the state or actor's favor. Operations ...
s, including war. The process of allocating resources is conducted by determining a military budget, which is administered by a military finance organization within the military. Military procurement is then authorized to purchase or contract provision of goods and services to the military, whether in peacetime at a permanent base, or in a combat zone from local population. File:Military Expenditures by Country 2019.svg, A pie chart showing global military expenditures by country for 2019, in US$ billions, according to SIPRI File:Military Expenditures as percent of GDP 2017.png, Map of military expenditures as a percentage of GDP by country, 2017. File:2014 militrary expenditures absolute.svg, Military expenditure of 2014 in USD
Capability development, which is often referred to as the military 'strength', is arguably one of the most complex activities known to humanity; because it requires determining: strategic, operational, and tactical capability requirements to counter the identified threats; strategic, operational, and tactical doctrines by which the acquired capabilities will be used; identifying concepts, methods, and systems involved in executing the doctrines; creating design specifications for the manufacturers who would produce these in adequate quantity and quality for their use in combat; purchase the concepts, methods, and systems; create a forces structure that would use the concepts, methods, and systems most effectively and efficiently; integrate these concepts, methods, and systems into the force structure by providing military education, training, and practice that preferably resembles combat environment of intended use; create military logistics systems to allow continued and uninterrupted performance of military organizations under combat conditions, including provision of health services to the personnel, and maintenance for the equipment; the services to assist recovery of wounded personnel, and repair of damaged equipment; and finally, post-conflict demobilization, and disposal of war stocks surplus to peacetime requirements. Development of military doctrine is perhaps the most important of all capability development activities, because it determines how military forces are used in conflicts, the concepts and methods used by the command to employ appropriately military skilled, armed and equipped personnel in achievement of the tangible goals and objectives of the war, campaign,
battle A battle is an occurrence of combat Combat ( French for ''fight'') is a purposeful violent conflict meant to physically harm or kill the opposition. Combat may be armed (using weapons) or unarmed ( not using weapons). Combat is sometime ...
, engagement, and action.Dupuy, T.N. (1990) ''Understanding war: History and Theory of combat'', Leo Cooper, London, p. 67 The line between strategy and tactics is not easily blurred, although deciding which is being discussed had sometimes been a matter of personal judgement by some commentators, and military historians. The use of forces at the level of organization between strategic and tactical is called
operational mobility In the field of military theory, the operational level of war (also called operational art, as derived from russian: оперативное искусство, or operational warfare) represents the level of command that connects the details o ...
Because most of the concepts and methods used by the military, and many of its systems are not found in commercial branches, much of the material is researched, designed, developed, and offered for inclusion in
arsenal An arsenal is a place where arms and ammunition Ammunition (informally ammo) is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. Ammunition is both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, g ...
s by military science organizations within the overall structure of the military. Military scientists are therefore found to interact with all Arms and Services of the armed forces, and at all levels of the military hierarchy of command. Although concerned with research into military psychology, particularly combat stress and how it affect troop
morale Morale, also known as esprit de corps (), is the capacity of a group's members to maintain belief in an institution or goal, particularly in the face of opposition or hardship. Morale is often referenced by authority figures as a generic value ...
, often the bulk of military science activities is directed at military intelligence technology,
military communications Military communications or military signals involve all aspects of communication Communication (from la, communicare, meaning "to share" or "to be in relation with") is usually defined as the transmission of information. The term may al ...
, and improving military capability through research. The design, development, and prototyping of weapons, military support equipment, and military technology in general, is also an area in which much effort is invested – it includes everything from global communication networks and
aircraft carrier An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it allows ...
s to paint and food.
Possessing military capability is not sufficient if this capability cannot be deployed for, and employed in combat operations. To achieve this, military logistics are used for the logistics management and logistics planning of the forces military supply chain management, the consumables, and capital equipment of the troops. Although mostly concerned with the military transport, as a means of delivery using different modes of transport; from military trucks, to
container ship A container ship (also called boxship or spelled containership) is a cargo ship that carries all of its load in truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization. Container ships are a common means of commercial intermodal f ...
s operating from permanent military base, it also involves creating field supply dumps at the rear of the
zone, and even forward supply points in specific unit's Tactical Area of Responsibility. These supply points are also used to provide military engineering services, such as the recovery of defective and derelict vehicles and weapons, maintenance of weapons in the field, the repair and field modification of weapons and equipment; and in peacetime, the life-extension programmes undertaken to allow continued use of equipment. One of the most important role of logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of consumable, their storage, and disposal.
In combat
The primary reason for the existence of the military is to engage in
, should it be required to do so by the national defence policy, and to win. This represents an organisational goal of any military, and the primary focus for military thought through
. How
victory The term victory (from Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) a ...
is achieved, and what shape it assumes, is studied by most, if not all, military groups on three levels.
Strategic victory
Military strategy Military strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek word ''strategos ''Strategos'', plural ''strategoi'', Linguistic Latinisation, Latinized ''strategus'', ( e ...
is the management of forces in wars and military campaigns by a commander-in-chief, employing large military forces, either national and allied as a whole, or the component elements of armies, navies and
s; such as
army group An army group is a military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its mem ...
naval fleet A fleet or naval fleet is a large formation of warships – the largest formation in any navy – controlled by one leader. A fleet at sea is the direct equivalent of an army An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the ...
s, and large numbers of
aircraft An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engin ...
. Military strategy is a long-term projection of belligerents' policy, with a broad view of outcome implications, including outside the concerns of military command. Military strategy is more concerned with the supply of war and planning, than management of field forces and combat between them. The scope of strategic military planning can span weeks, but is more often months or even years.
Operational victory
is, within warfare and military doctrine, the level of command which coordinates the minute details of tactics with the overarching goals of strategy. A common synonym is operational art. The operational level is at a scale bigger than one where line of sight and the time of day are important, and smaller than the strategic level, where production and politics are considerations. Formations are of the operational level if they are able to conduct operations on their own, and are of sufficient size to be directly handled or have a significant impact at the strategic level. This concept was pioneered by the German army prior to and during the
. At this level, planning and duration of activities takes from one week to a month, and are executed by Field Armies and Army Corps and their naval and air equivalents.
Tactical victory
Military tactics concerns itself with the methods for engaging and defeating the enemy in direct combat. Military tactics are usually used by units over hours or days, and are focused on the specific tasks and objectives of squadrons, companies,
battalion A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of 300 to 1,200 soldiers commanded by a lieutenant colonel Lieutenant colonel ( , ) is a rank of commissioned officers in the armies, most marine forces and some air forces of ...
regiment A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, service and/or a specialisation. In Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscript ...
brigade A brigade is a major tactical military formation that typically comprises three to six battalion A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of 300 to 1,200 soldiers commanded by a lieutenant colonel Lieutenant col ...
s, and divisions, and their naval and air force equivalents. One of the oldest military publications is ''
The Art of War ''The Art of War'' () is an ancient Chinese military treatise dating from the Late Spring and Autumn Period The Spring and Autumn period was a period in Chinese history from approximately 770 to 476 BC (or according to some authorit ...
'', by the Chinese philosopher
Sun Tzu Sun Tzu ( ; zh, t=孫子, s=孙子, first= t, p=Sūnzǐ) was a Chinese military general, strategist, philosopher, and writer who lived during the Eastern Zhou period of 771 to 256 BCE. Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the author of '' Th ...
. Written in the 6th century BCE, the 13-chapter book is intended as military instruction, and not as military theory, but has had a huge influence on Asian military doctrine, and from the late 19th century, on European and United States military planning. It has even been used to formulate business tactics, and can even be applied in social and political areas. The Classical Greeks and the Romans wrote prolifically on military campaigning. Among the best-known Roman works are
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman people, Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caes ...
's commentaries on the
Gallic Wars The Gallic Wars were waged between 58 and 50 BC by the Roman general Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman people, Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Ca ...
, and the Roman Civil war – written about 50 BC. Two major works on tactics come from the late Roman period: ''Taktike Theoria'' by Aelianus Tacticus, and '' De Re Militari'' ('On military matters') by Vegetius. ''Taktike Theoria'' examined Greek military tactics, and was most influential in the
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn R ...
world and during the Golden Age of Islam. ''De Re Militari'' formed the basis of European military tactics until the late 17th century. Perhaps its most enduring maxim is ''Igitur qui desiderat pacem, praeparet bellum'' (let he who desires peace prepare for war). Due to the changing nature of combat with the introduction of
artillery Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications dur ...
in the European
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
, and infantry firearms in the
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late ...
, attempts were made to define and identify those strategies, grand tactics, and tactics that would produce a victory more often than that achieved by the Romans in praying to the gods before the battle. Later this became known as military science, and later still, would adopt the
scientific method The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also ca ...
approach to the conduct of military operations under the influence of the
thinking. In his seminal book '' On War'', the
Prussia Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, w ...
n Major-General and leading
expert An expert is somebody who has a broad and deep understanding and competence in terms of knowledge, skill and experience through practice and education in a particular field. Informally, an expert is someone widely recognized as a relia ...
on modern
, Carl von Clausewitz defined military strategy as 'the employment of battles to gain the end of war'. According to Clausewitz:
strategy forms the plan of the War, and to this end it links together the series of acts which are to lead to the final decision, that is to say, it makes the plans for the separate campaigns and regulates the combats to be fought in each.
Hence, Clausewitz placed political aims above military goals, ensuring civilian control of the military. Military strategy was one of a triumvirate of ' arts' or 'sciences' that governed the conduct of warfare, the others being: military tactics, the execution of plans and manoeuvring of forces in battle, and maintenance of an army. The meaning of military tactics has changed over time; from the deployment and manoeuvring of entire land armies on the fields of ancient battles, and galley fleets; to modern use of small unit ambushes, encirclements, bombardment attacks, frontal assaults, air assaults, hit-and-run tactics used mainly by guerrilla forces, and, in some cases,
suicide attack A suicide attack is any violent attack, usually entailing the attacker detonating an explosive, where the attacker has accepted their own death as a direct result of the attacking method used. Suicide attacks have occurred throughout histor ...
s on land and at sea. Evolution of aerial warfare introduced its own air combat tactics. Often, military deception, in the form of military camouflage or misdirection using decoys, is used to confuse the enemy as a tactic. A major development in infantry tactics came with the increased use of
trench warfare Trench warfare is a type of land warfare using occupied lines largely comprising military trenches, in which troops are well-protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery Artillery is a ...
in the 19th and 20th centuries. This was mainly employed in
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in ...
in the Gallipoli campaign, and the Western Front. Trench warfare often turned to a stalemate, only broken by a large loss of life, because, in order to attack an enemy entrenchment, soldiers had to run through an exposed '
no man's land No man's land is waste or unowned land or an uninhabited or desolate area that may be under dispute between parties who leave it unoccupied out of fear or uncertainty. The term was originally used to define a contested territory or a dump ...
' under heavy fire from their opposing entrenched enemy.
As with any occupation, since the ancient times, the military has been distinguished from other members of the society by their tools, the military weapons, and
military equipment A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state A sovereign state or sovereign country, is ...
used in combat. When
Stone Age The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC, with ...
humans first took a sliver of flint to tip the
spear A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material faste ...
, it was the first example of applying technology to improve the weapon. Since then, the advances made by human societies, and that of weapons, has been irretrievably linked. Stone weapons gave way to
Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing Writing is a medium of human communication which involves the representation of a langu ...
weapons, and later, the
Iron Age The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age ( Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age ( Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostl ...
weapons. With each technological change, was realized some tangible increase in military capability, such as through greater effectiveness of a sharper edge in defeating leather armour, or improved density of materials used in manufacture of weapons. On
land Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of the planet Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water ca ...
, the first really significant technological advance in warfare was the development of the ranged weapons, and notably, the sling. The next significant advance came with the domestication of the horses and mastering of
equestrianism Equestrianism (from Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) arou ...
. Arguably, the greatest invention that affected not just the military, but all society, after adoption of fire, was the
wheel A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle An axle or axletree is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the v ...
, and its use in the construction of the
chariot A chariot is a type of cart driven by a charioteer, usually using horses to provide rapid motive power. The oldest known chariots have been found in burials of the Sintashta culture in modern-day Chelyabinsk Oblast Chelyabinsk Oblast (rus ...
. There were no advances in military technology, until, from the mechanical arm action of a slinger, the
Greeks The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation A nation is a community of people formed on the basis of a combination of shared features such as language, history, ethnicity, culture and/or ...
Egyptians Egyptians ( arz, المَصرِيُون, translit=al-Maṣriyyūn, ; arz, المَصرِيِين, translit=al-Maṣriyyīn, ; cop, ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, remenkhēmi) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian ...
, Romans,
ns, Chinese, etc., developed the siege engines. The bow was manufactured in increasingly larger and more powerful versions, to increase both the weapon range, and armour penetration performance. These developed into the powerful composite and recurve bows, and crossbows of
Ancient China The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the ''Book of Documents The ''Bo ...
. These proved particularly useful during the rise of cavalry, as horsemen encased in ever-more sophisticated
armour Armour (British English British English (BrE, en-GB, or BE) is, according to Oxford Dictionaries, " English as used in Great Britain Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the secon ...
came to dominate the battlefield. Somewhat earlier, in medieval China,
gunpowder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon Carbon () is a chemical element with the symbol C and ...
had been invented, and was increasingly used by the military in combat. The use of gunpowder in the early vase-like mortars in Europe, and advanced versions of the long bow and cross bow, which all had armour-piercing arrowheads, that put an end to the dominance of the armoured knight. After the long bow, which required great skill and strength to use, the next most significant technological advance was the
musket A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that appeared as a smoothbore weapon in the early 16th century, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus, capable of penetrating plate armour Plate armour is a historical type of personal bod ...
, which could be used effectively, with little training. In time, the successors to muskets and
cannon A cannon is a large- caliber gun classified as a type of artillery Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery developm ...
, in the form of
rifle A rifle is a long-barreled firearm A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions). The first firearms originated ...
s and
, would become core battlefield technology. As the speed of technological advances accelerated in civilian applications, so too warfare became more industrialized. The newly invented
machine gun A machine gun is a fully automatic, rifled autoloading firearm A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions). ...
repeating rifle A repeating rifle is a single- barreled rifle A rifle is a long-barreled firearm A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Lega ...
redefined firepower on the battlefield, and, in part, explains the high casualty rates of the American Civil War. The next breakthrough was the conversion of artillery parks from the muzzle loading guns, to the quicker loading breech loading guns with recoiling barrel that allowed quicker aimed fire and use of a shield. The widespread introduction of low smoke (smokeless) propellant powders since the 1880s also allowed for a great improvement of artillery ranges. The development of breech loading had the greatest effect on
naval warfare Naval warfare is combat in and on the sea, the ocean, or any other battlespace involving a major body of water such as a large lake or wide river. Mankind has fought battles on the sea for more than 3,000 years. Even in the interior of large lan ...
, for the first time since the Middle Ages, altering the way weapons are mounted on warships, and therefore naval tactics, now divorced from the reliance on sails with the invention of the
internal combustion An internal combustion engine (ICE or IC engine) is a heat engine in which the combustion Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox Redox (reduction–oxidation, , ) is a type of chemical reaction in whic ...
. A further advance in military naval technology was the design of the
submarine A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely ...
, and its weapon, the
torpedo A modern torpedo is an underwater ranged weapon launched above or below the water surface, self-propelled towards a target, and with an explosive warhead A warhead is the forward section of a device that contains the explosive agent or tox ...
Main battle tank A main battle tank (MBT), also known as a battle tank or universal tank, is a tank A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle intended as a primary offensive weapon in front-line ground combat. Tank designs are a balance of heavy fir ...
s, and other heavy equipment such as
armoured fighting vehicle An armoured fighting vehicle (AFV) is an armed combat vehicle protected by armour Armour (British English British English (BrE, en-GB, or BE) is, according to Oxford Dictionaries, " English as used in Great Britain Great ...
military aircraft A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat: * Combat aircraft are designed to destroy enemy equ ...
ship A ship is a large watercraft that travels the world's oceans and other sufficiently deep waterways, carrying cargo or passengers, or in support of specialized missions, such as defense, research, and fishing. Ships are generally distinguishe ...
s, are characteristic to organized military forces. During
, the need to break the deadlock of trench warfare saw the rapid development of many new technologies, particularly
tank A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle intended as a primary offensive weapon in front-line ground combat. Tank designs are a balance of heavy firepower, strong armour, and good battlefield mobility provided by tracks and a powerful ...
Military aviation Military aviation comprises military aircraft A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat: ...
was extensively used, and
bomber A bomber is a military combat aircraft designed to attack ground and naval targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry (such as bombs), launching torpedoes, or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. The first use of bombs dropped from an ai ...
s became decisive in many battles of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposi ...
, which marked the most frantic period of weapons development in history. Many new designs, and concepts were used in combat, and all existing technologies of warfare were improved between 1939 and 1945. During the war, significant advances were made in
through increased use of radio, military intelligence through use of the
radar Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the distance ('' ranging''), angle, and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft A spacecraft is a vehicle ...
, and in military medicine through use of
penicillin Penicillins (P, PCN or PEN) are a group of β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from ''Penicillium ''Penicillium'' () is a genus of ascomycetous fungi that is part of the mycobiome of many species and is of major importance ...
, while in the air, the guided
missile In military terminology, a missile is a guided airborne ranged weapon capable of self-propelled flight usually by a jet engine A jet engine is a type of reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet of heated gas (usually air) that ge ...
jet aircraft A jet aircraft (or simply jet) is an aircraft (nearly always a fixed-wing aircraft) propelled by jet engines. Whereas the engines in propeller-powered aircraft generally achieve their maximum efficiency at much lower speeds and altitudes, j ...
helicopter A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally spinning rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and laterally. These attribu ...
s were seen for the first time. Perhaps the most infamous of all military technologies was the creation of the
atomic bomb A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions ( thermonuclear bomb), producing a nuclear explosion. Both b ...
, although the exact effects of its
radiation In physics Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department ...
were unknown until the early 1950s. Far greater use of military vehicles had finally eliminated the cavalry from the military force structure. After World War II, with the onset of the
, the constant technological development of new weapons was institutionalized, as participants engaged in a constant ' arms race' in capability development. This constant state of weapons development continues into the present, and remains a constant drain on national resources, which some blame on the military–industrial complex. The most significant technological developments that influenced combat have been the guided missiles, which can be used by all branches of the armed services. More recently,
information technology Information technology (IT) is the use of computer A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations ( computation) automatically. Modern digital electronic computers can pe ...
, and its use in
surveillance Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, many activities, or information for the purpose of information gathering, influencing, managing or directing. This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such as ...
, including space-based reconnaissance systems, have played an increasing role in military operations. The impact of information warfare that focuses on attacking command communication systems, and military databases, has been coupled with the new development in military technology, has been the use of robotic systems in intelligence combat, both in hardware and software applications. Recently, there has also been a particular focus towards the use of renewable fuels for running military vehicles on. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable fuels can be produced in any country, creating a strategic advantage. The
US military The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. ...
has committed itself to have 50% of its energy consumption come from alternative sources.
As part of society
For much of
, the armed forces were considered to be for use by the heads of their societies, until recently, the crowned heads of states. In a democracy or other political system run in the public interest, it is a public force. The relationship between the military and the
society A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group In the social sciences, a social group can be defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characte ...
it serves is a complicated and ever-evolving one. Much depends on the nature of the society itself, and whether it sees the military as important, as for example in time of threat or war, or a burdensome expense typified by defence cuts in time of peace. One difficult matter in the relation between military and society is control and transparency. In some countries, limited information on military operations and budgeting is accessible for the public. However transparency in the military sector is crucial to fight
corruption Corruption is a form of dishonesty Dishonesty is to act without honesty Honesty or truthfulness is a facet of moral character that connotes positive and virtuous attributes such as integrity, truthfulness, straightforwardness, includin ...
. This showed the Government Defence Anti-corruption Index Transparency International UK published in 2013. Militaries often function as societies within societies, by having their own military communities, economies,
medicine Medicine is the science Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the ea ...
, and other aspects of a functioning civilian society. Although a 'military' is not limited to nations in of itself as many private military companies (or PMC's) can be used or 'hired' by organizations and figures as security, escort, or other means of protection; where police, agencies, or militaries are absent or not trusted.
Ideology and ethics
Militarist ideology is the
's social attitude of being best served, or being a beneficiary of a
government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature A legislature is an assembly with ...
, or guided by concepts embodied in the military ''culture, doctrine, system'', or ''leaders''. Either because of the cultural memory, national history, or the potentiality of a military threat, the militarist argument asserts that a
civilian Civilians under international humanitarian law are "persons who are not members of the armed forces A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typ ...
population is dependent upon, and thereby subservient to the needs and goals of its military for continued
independence Independence is a condition of a person, nation A nation is a community of people formed on the basis of a combination of shared features such as language, history, ethnicity, culture and/or society. A nation is thus the collectiv ...
. Militarism is sometimes contrasted with the concepts of comprehensive national power, soft power and hard power. Most nations have separate military laws which regulate conduct in war and during peacetime. An early exponent was
Hugo Grotius Hugo Grotius (; 10 April 1583 – 28 August 1645), also known as Huig de Groot () and Hugo de Groot (), was a Dutch humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian, jurist, poet and playwright. A teenage intellectual prodigy, he was born in Del ...
, whose '' On the Law of War and Peace'' (1625) had a major impact of the humanitarian approach to warfare development. His theme was echoed by
Gustavus Adolphus Gustavus Adolphus (9 December Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">N.S_19_December.html" ;"title="Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/nowiki>Old Style and New Style dates">N.S 19 December">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/now ...
. Ethics of warfare have developed since 1945, to create constraints on the military treatment of prisoners and civilians, primarily by the Geneva Conventions; but rarely apply to use of the military forces as internal security troops during times of political conflict that results in popular protests and incitement to popular uprising. International protocols restrict the use, or have even created international bans on some types of weapons, notably weapons of mass destruction (WMD). International conventions define what constitutes a war crime, and provides for war crimes prosecution. Individual countries also have elaborate codes of military justice, an example being the United States' Uniform Code of Military Justice that can lead to
for military personnel found guilty of war crimes. Military actions are sometimes argued to be justified by furthering a humanitarian cause, such as disaster relief operations, or in defence of refugees. The term military humanism is used to refer to such actions.
Arms industry The arms industry, also known as the arms trade, is a global industry which manufactures and sells weapons and military technology. It consists of a commercial industry involved in the research and development Research and developme ...
Civil defense Civil defense ( en, region=gb, civil defence) or civil protection is an effort to protect the citizens of a state (generally non-combatants) from man-made and natural disasters. It uses the principles of emergency operations: prevention, m ...
* Civilian control of the military * Command and control *
Conscription Conscription (also called the draft in the United States) is the state-mandated enlistment of people in a national service, mainly a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and it continues in some countries to the present day ...
* Court-martial *
Deterrence theory Deterrence theory refers to the scholarship and practice of how threats or limited force by one party can convince another party to refrain from initiating some other course of action. The topic gained increased prominence as a military strategy ...
Martial arts Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defense; military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily inten ...
Martial law Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory. Use Marti ...
Mercenary A mercenary, sometimes also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any ...
* Militaria * Military academy * Military advisor * Military aid * Military aid to the civil community (MACC) * Military aid to the civil power (MACP) *
Military alliance A military alliance is a formal agreement between nations concerning national security. Nations in a military alliance agree to active participation and contribution to the defense of others in the alliance in the event of a crisis. (Online) ...
Military dictatorship A military dictatorship is a dictatorship in which the military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained ...
* Military district * Military engineering *
Military exercise A military exercise or war game is the employment of military resources in training for military operation A military operation is the coordinated military actions of a state, or a non-state actor, in response to a developing situation. ...
* Military fiat * Military incompetence * Military–industrial complex * Military junta * Military meteorology * Military operations other than war * Military police * Military prison * Military Revolution *
Military sociology Military sociology is a subfield within sociology Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of Interpersonal ties, social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated wi ...
* Military terminology * Militarization of police *
Militia A militia () is generally an army An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a f ...
* Ministry of defence *
Mobilization Mobilization is the act of assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war. The word ''mobilization'' was first used in a military context in the 1850s to describe the preparation of the Prussian Army. Mobilization theories an ...
Police The police are a constituted body of persons A person ( : people) is a being that has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of ...
* Private military company * Staff (military) * Standing army * Weapon ; Armed forces of the world * List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel * List of countries by Military Strength Index * List of countries by level of military equipment * List of countries by Global Militarization Index * List of countries without armed forces * List of countries by military expenditures * List of countries by past military expenditure * List of countries by military expenditure per capita * List of air forces * List of armies * List of navies
Military Expenditure % of GDP
hosted by Lebanese economy forum, extracted from the World Bank public data. * {{Authority control Defense Government institutions International security National security Main topic articles

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
La saison 2021-2022 de la section féminine des Girondins de Bordeaux est la sixième saison consécutive du club girondin en première division du championnat de France depuis la saison 2016-2017 et la première campagne du club en Ligue des Champions.

Transferts

Mercato d'été
De nombreuses cadres quittent le club après une saison 2020-2021 réussie. L'attaquante jamaïcaine Khadija Shaw, meilleure buteuse du championnat, ne prolonge pas son contrat et part pour Manchester City. La milieu Ghoutia Karchouni, au club depuis 5 saisons, ne prolonge pas et part à l'Inter Milan. L'attaquante Ouleymata Sarr rejoint elle le Paris FC après une année marquée par les blessures. La latérale Estelle Cascarino est recrutée par le Paris Saint-Germain. Après une saison en prêt à Rodez et une blessure aux ligaments, Axelle Touzeau quitte également le club.

Les Girondines se renforcent en faisant signer des joueuses de D1. Les attaquantes costaricaine Melissa Herrera et portugaise Mélissa Gomes, en provenance du Stade de Reims, la gardienne du Dijon FCO, Mylène Chavas, ainsi que la défenseuse canadienne de l'ASJ Soyaux Paige Culver, signent ainsi à Bordeaux. La milieu de terrain néerlandaise Sisca Folkertsma arrive elle du FC Twente pour rejoindre sa compatriote Katja Snoeijs.

L'entraîneur, Pedro Martínez Losa, quitte le club pour devenir coach de l'équipe d'Écosse. Il est remplacé par Patrice Lair, passé par Montpellier, l'OL (où il a remporté deux Ligues des champions) et le PSG.

Mercato d'hiver
L'attaquante Svava Rós Guðmundsdóttir et la défenseuse Paige Culver quitte le club, après avoir échoué à se faire une place dans l'effectif girondin. La Canadienne, qui n'a joué aucun match avec Bordeaux, rejoint l'IFK Kalmar en D2 suédoise. Alors que les Girondines connaissent de groses difficultés défensives pendant la première partie de saison, deux cadres de la défense centrale, la récente médaillée d'or olympique canadienne Vanessa Gilles et l'Américaine Malia Berkely, sont transférées en NWSL pour une somme d'environ , faisant émerger des doutes quant aux ambitions sportives du club depuis son rachat par Gérard Lopez. La première est recrutée par Angel City et la seconde par le North Carolina Courage.

La défense centrale est renforcée par l'arrivée de l'Allemande Laura Stiben, qui était sans club depuis son départ l'été précédent de l'Eintracht Francfort, avec qui elle a remporté la Ligue des champions en 2015. En attaque, Bordeaux recrute la jeune Brésilienne Amanda Gutierres, en provenance de Santos. Tainara, une autre Brésilienne, internationale, arrive de Palmeiras pour renforcer la défense centrale. Bordeaux parie à nouveau sur une jeune joueuse en recrutant une internationale monténégrine de 19 ans, Jelena Karličić, pour consolider le secteur offensif. L'expérimentée gardienne de l'ASJ Soyaux, Laëtitia Philippe, arrive en prêt. Elle remplace l'Anglaise Anna Moorhouse, qui est transférée au Pride d'Orlando.

Le , le coach Patrice Lair est démis de ses fonctions, six mois seulement après son arrivée. Soutenu par la quasi-totalité des joueuses, il est finalement réintégré une semaine plus tard.

Effectif professionnel

Pré-saison
Le premier match amical de la saison est disputé le 30 juillet à Buxerolles près de Poitiers contre le Paris SG. Les Bordelaises s'imposent facilement 3-0 avec des buts de Dufour et Pallis (x2). Les Girondines participent ensuite à la Women's Cup du Grand Est en affrontant l'Eintracht Francfort le 5 août (victoire 2-0 avec des buts de Snoeijs et Garbino) et le TSG Hoffenheim le 8 août (match nul 0-0) à Phalsbourg.

Championnat de France

La Division 1 2021-2022 est la quarante-huitième édition du championnat de France féminin de football et la vingtième sous l'appellation « Division 1 ». La division oppose douze clubs en une série de vingt-deux rencontres. Les trois meilleurs de ce championnat se qualifient pour la Ligue des champions.

Journées 1 à 6

Lors de la première journée de championnat, les Bordelaises se déplacent sur la pelouse du promu stéphanois. Malgré l'ouverture du score de Vanessa Gilles en fin de première période, les Vertes égalisent et privent le FCGB de victoire.

Les Girondines se rattrapent la journée suivante en étrillant l'ASJ Soyaux à domicile lors du derby d'Aquitaine, avec notamment un but et trois passes décisives de Katja Snoeijs.

Lors de la , les Girondines, émoussées par les 120 minutes disputées en Ligue des champions quelques jours avant, chutent à domicile face au FC Fleury 91 malgré l'ouverture du score précoce de Katja Snoeijs et perdent du terrain dans la course au podium.

Bordeaux reçoit ensuite le leader du championnat, l'Olympique lyonnais. Malgré une ouverture précoce du score () par Ève Périsset, Lyon égalise quatre minutes plus tard et domine le reste du match. Le match bascule vers la  avec un penalty pour Bordeaux oublié par l'arbitre, puis un penalty pour Lyon qui scelle le match, aboutissant sur une défaite 1-4 des Bordelaises.

Les déboires bordelais continuent la journée suivante à Reims. Après une ouverture du score bordelaise, les Rémoises marquent 5 buts, portées par Bussy et Dumornay, et les Girondines s'inclinent sévèrement 5 buts à 2, concédant leur troisième défaite en six matches et pointant déjà à 8 points de la troisième place. Un temps annoncée, la démission du coach n'est pourtant pas encore actée.

Journées 7 à 11

Les Bordelaises se doivent de rebondir à domicile face à l'En avant Guingamp. Les Girondines font preuve de sérieux et s'imposent 3-0 face à des Bretonnes limitées, avant un déplacement sur le terrain du Paris FC, primordial dans la quête du podium.

Face au Paris FC, Bordeaux commence fort en ouvrant le score dès la  par Vanessa Gilles. Malgré une avance de deux buts et un carton rouge pour les Franciliennes à la , le Paris FC revient dans la partie grâce à un but de Clara Matéo, mais c'est finalement Ève Périsset qui redonne deux buts d'avance aux Bordelaises en toute fin de match. Les Girondines reviennent à quatre points de leur adversaire.

Bordeaux doit confirmer la journée suivante face à un autre adversaire direct, Montpellier. Les Girondines dominent la rencontre mais encaissent un penalty de Petermann sur une faute de Bilbault sur Torrent et ne parviennent pas à faire trembler les filets montpelliérains. Les Bordelaises se retrouvent sixièmes, derrière leurs adversaires du jour.

Lors de la , Bordeaux reçoit le Dijon FCO. Malgré l'ouverture du score de Mélissa Gomes, les Bourguignonnes égalisent juste avant la pause, et les Girondines doivent se contenter d'un match nul qui les éloigne encore un peu plus du podium.

Pour le dernier match de la phase aller, le FCGB se déplace sur la pelouse du champion en titre, le Paris Saint-Germain, qui pointe à la . Les Bordelaises offrent une belle résistance, grâce notamment à une belle performance de Moorhouse, mais doivent s'incliner sur un but de Karchaoui. À la mi-saison, Bordeaux est à la , à huit points du Paris FC qui occupe la troisième marche du podium.

Journées 12 à 17

Après le report de son match contre Guingamp, Bordeaux commence la phase retour du championnat par la réception du Stade de Reims, juste devant les Girondines au classement. Les Rémoises ouvrent le score sur penalty, mais Snoeijs inscrit un triplé qui donne la victoire aux Bordelaises et leur permet de repasser devant leur adversaire du jour.

Sur la pelouse de l'En avant Guingamp, les Bordelaises ouvrent le score très rapidement, avant de gérer leur avantage et de doubler la marque dans le temps additionnel.

Journées 18 à 22

Classement

Évolution du classement

Coupe de France

La Coupe de France 2021-2022 est la  de la Coupe de France féminine de football, une compétition à élimination directe mettant aux prises tous les clubs de football amateurs et professionnels à travers la France métropolitaine et les DOM-TOM. Elle est organisée par la FFF et ses ligues régionales. Bordeaux évoluant en Division 1, il démarre aux seizièmes de finale.

Pour son entrée dans la compétition, Bordeaux reçoit l'Olympique lyonnais, tenant du titre. Les Girondines se présentent avec un effectif très réduit en raison de nombreuses blessures et cas de Covid-19, et ne disposent que de trois remplaçantes, dont la gardienne Mylène Chavas qui entre finalement en jeu en attaque. Face à une équipe lyonnaise beaucoup plus puissante, les Bordelaises rentrent aux vestiaires avec quatre buts encaissés, et ne parviennent pas à réduire l'écart en seconde période. Bordeaux est donc éliminé de la compétition.

Coupe d'Europe

La Ligue des champions 2021-2022 est la  édition de la Ligue des champions féminine de l'UEFA, la compétition inter-clubs européenne de football féminin. Elle est divisée en deux phases, une phase de qualification pour certaines équipes, et une phase finale avec les principales équipes et celles qualifiées précédemment. Les Girondins de Bordeaux étant troisièmes du championnat de France 2020-2021, pays alors à la première place du coefficient UEFA, le club entre dans la compétition au premier tour de qualifications.

Après le tirage au sort effectué le , les Bordelaises sont opposées au 1. FC Slovácko, troisième du championnat tchèque 2020-2021, avant de rencontrer le Brøndby IF, deuxième du championnat danois, ou le Kristianstads DFF, troisième du championnat suédois. Face aux Tchèques, les Bordelaises dominent la rencontre et se procurent la plupart des occasions, ouvrant le score à la  par Jaurena. Mais un cafouillage entre Gilles et Moorhouse permet au Slovácko d'égaliser dans le temps additionnel. Heureusement, 80 secondes plus tard, Gilles se rattrape en reprenant de la tête un coup franc de Périsset. Les Bordelaises rejoignent Kristianstad en finale. Une efficacité retrouvée en première mi-temps leur permet de mener 3-1 à la pause. Cet avantage conservé en seconde période permet aux Girondines de se qualifier pour le .

Les Bordelaises sont ensuite opposées au VfL Wolfsburg, deuxième du dernier championnat allemand et ancien vainqueur de la compétition. Après avoir concédé l'ouverture du score, les Marine et Blanc égalisent sur l'action suivante, mais encaissent un deuxième but quelques minutes plus tard et sont menées à la pause. Au retour des vestiaires, une nouvelle erreur défensive offre le but du break aux Allemandes, avant que Cardia (entrée à la place de Herrera blessée en première période) ne réduise l'écart.

Lors du match retour, les deux équipes commettent une erreur défensive en première période. Au retour des vestiaires, Mélissa Gomes, entrée en cours de jeu, donne l'avantage à Bordeaux d'une magnifique frappe. Les Girondines résistent aux assauts allemands et décrochent les prolongations. Alors que Pajor s'offre un doublé, Cardia lui répond d'une frappe splendide en pleine lucarne et envoie Bordeaux aux tirs au but. Malheureusement, les Bordelaises craquent sous la pression et manquent leurs trois premières tentatives. Les Bordelaises quittent la compétition.

Statistiques individuelles

Notes et références

Notes

 Note(s) de type "Rapport"

Références

Annexes

Articles connexes

 Championnat de France féminin de football
 Coupe de France féminine de football

Liens externes

Saison 2021-2022 de club féminin de football
Bordeaux
Saison des Girondins de Bordeaux

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia