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Polarization-division multiplexing
Multiplexing
Analog modulation
QAM
Circuit mode
(constant bandwidth)
FDM / WDM
OAM
Statistical multiplexing
(variable bandwidth)
Dynamic TDMA
FHSS
DSSS
OFDMA
SC-FDM
MC-SS
Channel access methods
Media access control
Polarization-division multiplexing (PDM) is a physical layer method for multiplexing signals carried on electromagnetic waves, allowing two channels of information to be transmitted on the same carrier frequency by using waves of two orthogonal polarization states. It is used in microwave links such as satellite television downlinks to double the bandwidth by using two orthogonally polarized feed antennas in satellite dishes, it is also used in fiber optic communication by transmitting separate left and right circularly polarized light beams through the same optical fiber.
1 Radio
1.1 Cross-Polarization Interference Cancellation (XPIC)
1.2 Differential Cross-Polarized Wireless Communications
2 Photonics
Radio[edit]
Polarization techniques have long been used in radio transmission to reduce interference between channels, particularly at VHF frequencies and beyond.
Under some circumstances, the data rate of a radio link can be doubled by transmitting two separate channels of radio waves on the same frequency, using orthogonal polarization. For example, in point to point terrestrial microwave links, the transmitting antenna can have two feed antennas; a vertical feed antenna which transmits microwaves with their electric field vertical (vertical polarization), and a horizontal feed antenna which transmits microwaves on the same frequency with their electric field horizontal (horizontal polarization); these two separate channels can be received by vertical and horizontal feed antennas at the receiving station. For satellite communications, orthogonal circular polarization is often used instead, (i.e. right- and left-handed), as the sense of circular polarization is not changed by the relative orientation of the antenna in space.
A dual polarization system comprises usually two independent transmitters, each of which can be connected by means of waveguide or TEM lines (such as coaxial cables or stripline or quasi-TEM such as microstrip) to a single-polarization antenna for its standard operation. Although two separate single-polarization antennas can be used for PDM (or two adjacent feeds in a reflector antenna), radiating two independent polarization states can be often easily achieved by means of a single dual-polarization antenna.
When the transmitter has a waveguide interface, typically rectangular in order to be in single-mode region at the operating frequency, a dual-polarized antenna with a circular (or square) waveguide port is the radiating element chosen for modern communication systems; the circular or square waveguide port is needed so that at least two degenerate modes are supported. An ad-hoc component must be therefore introduced in such situations to merge two separate single-polarized signals into one dual-polarized physical interface, namely an ortho-mode transducer (OMT).
In case the transmitter has TEM or quasi-TEM output connections, instead, a dual-polarization antenna often presents separate connections (i.e. a printed square patch antenna with two feed points), and embeds the function of an OMT by means of intrinsically transferring the two excitation signals to the orthogonal polarization states.
A dual-polarized signal thus carries two independent data streams to a receiving antenna, which can itself be a single-polarized one, for receiving only one of the two streams at a time, or a dual-polarized model, again relaying its received signal to two single-polarization output connectors (via an OMT if in waveguide).
The ideal dual-polarization system lies its foundation onto the perfect orthogonality of the two polarization states, and any of the single-polarized interfaces at the receiver would theoretically contain only the signal meant to be transmitted by the desired polarization, thus introducing no interference and allowing the two data streams to be multiplexed and demultiplexed transparently without any degradation due to the coexistence with the other.
Companies working on commercial PDM technology include Siae Microelettronica, Huawei and Alcatel-Lucent.
Some types of outdoor microwave radios have integrated orthomode transducers and operate in both polarities from a single radio unit, performing cross-polarization interference cancellation (XPIC) within the radio unit itself. Alternatively, the orthomode transducer may be built into the antenna, and allow connection of separate radios, or separate ports of the same radio, to the antenna.
CableFree 2+0 XPIC Microwave Link showing OMT and two ODUs connected to H & V polarity ports
Cross-Polarization Interference Cancellation (XPIC)[edit]
Practical systems, however, suffer from non-ideal behaviors which mix the signals and the polarization states together:
the OMT at the transmitting side has a finite cross-polarization discrimination (XPD) and thus leaks part of the signals meant to be transmitted in one polarization to the other
the transmitting antenna has a finite XPD and thus leaks part of its input polarizations to the other radiated polarization state
propagation in presence of rain, snow, hail creates depolarization, as part of the two impinging polarizations is leaked to the other
the finite XPD of the receiving antenna acts similarly to the transmitting side and the relative alignment of the two antennas contributes to a loss of system XPD
the finite XPD of the receiving OMT likewise further mixes the signals from the dual-polarized port to the single-polarized ports
As a consequence, the signal at one of the received single-polarization terminals actually contains a dominant quantity of the desired signal (meant to be transmitted onto one polarization) and a minor amount of undesired signal (meant to be transported by the other polarization), which represents an interference over the former; as a consequence, each received signal must be cleared of the interference level in order to reach the required signal-to-noise-and-interference ratio (SNIR) needed by the receiving stages, which may be of the order of more than 30 dB for high-level M-QAM schemes. Such operation is carried out by a cross-polarization-interference cancellation (XPIC), typically implemented as a baseband digital stage.
Compared to spatial multiplexing, received signals for a PMD system have a much more favourable carrier-to-interference ratio, as the amount of leakage is often much smaller than the useful signal, whereas spatial multiplexing operates with an amount of interference equal to the amount of useful signal; this observation, valid for a good PMD design, allows the adaptive XPIC to be designed in a simpler manner than a general MIMO cancelling scheme, since the starting point (without cancellation) is typically already sufficient for establishing a low-capacity link by means of a reduced modulation.
An XPIC typically acts on one of the received signals "C" containing the desired signal as dominant term and uses the other received "X" signal too (containing the interfering signal as dominant term); the XPIC algorithm multiplies the "X" by a complex coefficient and then adds it to the received "C". The complex recombination coefficient is adjusted adaptively to maximize the MMSE as measured on the recombination. Once the MMSE is improved to the required level, the two terminals can switch to high-order modulations.
Differential Cross-Polarized Wireless Communications[edit]
Is a novel method for polarized antenna transmission utilizing a differential technique .[1].
Photonics[edit]
Polarization-division multiplexing is typically used together with phase modulation or optical QAM, allowing transmission speeds of 100 Gbit/s or more over a single wavelength. Sets of PDM wavelength signals can then be carried over wavelength-division multiplexing infrastructure, potentially substantially expanding its capacity. Multiple polarization signals can be combined to form new states of polarization, which is known as parallel polarization state generation.[2]
The major problem with the practical use of PDM over fiber-optic transmission systems are the drifts in polarization state that occur continuously over time due to physical changes in the fibre environment. Over a long-distance system, these drifts accumulate progressively without limit, resulting in rapid and erratic rotation of the polarized light's Jones vector over the entire Poincaré sphere. Polarization mode dispersion, polarization-dependent loss. and cross-polarization modulation are other phenomena that can cause problems in PDM systems.
For this reason, PDM is generally used in conjunction with advanced channel coding techniques, allowing the use of digital signal processing to decode the signal in a way that is resilient to polarization-related signal artifacts. Modulations used include PDM-QPSK and PDM-DQPSK.[3]
Companies working on commercial PDM technology include Alcatel-Lucent, Ciena, Cisco Systems, Huawei and Infinera.
Polarization scrambler
Wavelength-division multiplexing
Orbital angular momentum multiplexing
^ Differential Cross-Polarized Wireless Communications, Scientific Research, 2019-04-02
^ She, Alan; Capasso, Federico (17 May 2016). "Parallel Polarization State Generation". Scientific Reports. Nature. arXiv:1602.04463. Bibcode:2016NatSR...626019S. doi:10.1038/srep26019. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
^ "The Road to 100G Networking" (PDF). Ciena. 2008. Retrieved 2012-06-25.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polarization-division_multiplexing&oldid=899813195"
Differential Cross-Polarized Wireless Communications
Orthomode transducer
An orthomode transducer is a waveguide component. It is referred to as a polarisation duplexer. Orthomode transducers serve either to combine or to separate two orthogonally polarized microwave signal paths. One of the paths forms the uplink, transmitted over the same waveguide as the received signal path, or downlink path; such a device may be part of a terrestrial microwave radio feed. For VSAT modems the transmission and reception paths are at 90° to each other, or in other words, the signals are orthogonally polarized with respect to each other; this orthogonal shift between the two signal paths provides an isolation of 40 dB in the Ku band and Ka band radio frequency bands. Hence this device serves in an essential role as the junction element of the outdoor unit of a VSAT modem, it protects the receiver front-end element from burn-out by the power of the output signal generated by the block up converter. The BUC is connected to the feed horn through a wave guide port of the OMT junction device.
Orthomode transducers are used in dual-polarized Very small aperture terminals, in sparsely populated areas, radar antennas and communications links. They are connected to the antenna's down converter or LNB and to the High Power Amplifier attached to a transmitting antenna. Wherever there are two polarizations of radio signals, the transmitted and received radio signal to and from the antenna are said to be "orthogonal"; this means that the modulation planes of the two radio signal waves are at 90 degrees angles to each other. The OMT device is used to separate two equal frequency signals, of low signal power. Protective separation is essential as the transmitter unit would damage the sensitive low micro-voltage, front-end receiver amplifier unit at the antenna; the transmission signal of the up-link, of high power originating from BUC, the low power received signal power coming from the antenna to the LNB receiver unit, in this case are at an angle of 90° relative to each other, are both coupled together at the feed-horn focal-point of the Parabolic antenna.
The device that unites both up-link and down-link paths, which are at 90° to each other, is known as an Orthogonal Mode Transducer OMT. In the VSAT Ku band of operation case, a typical OMT Orthomode Transducer provides a 40 dB isolation between each of the connected radio ports to the feed horn that faces the parabolic dish reflector; the port facing the parabolic reflector of the antenna is a circular polarizing port so that horizontal and vertical polarity coupling of inbound and outbound radio signal is achieved. The 40 dB isolation provides essential protection to the sensitive receiver amplifier against burn out from the high-power signal of the transmitter unit. Further isolation may be obtained by means of selective radio frequency filtering to achieve an isolation of 100 dB; the second image demonstrates two types of outdoor units, a 1-watt Hughes unit and a composite configuration of a 2-watt BUC/OMT/LNB Andrew, Swedish Microwave units. The following images show a Portenseigne & Hirschmann Ku band configuration, that highlights the horizontal the vertical, circular polarized wave-guide ports that join to the Feed-horn, the LNB or BUC elements of an outdoor unit.
An ortho-mode transducer is a component found on high capacity terrestrial microwave radio links. In this arrangement, two parabolic reflector dishes operate in a point to point microwave radio path with four radios, two mounted on each end. On each dish a T-shaped ortho-mode transducer is mounted at the rear of the feed, separating the signal from the feed into two separate radios, one operating in the horizontal polarity, the other in the vertical polarity; this arrangement is used to increase the aggregate data throughput between two dishes on a point to point microwave path, or for fault-tolerance redundancy. Certain types of outdoor microwave radios have integrated orthomode transducers and operate in both polarities from a single radio unit, performing cross-polarization interference cancellation within the radio unit itself. Alternatively, the orthomode transducer may be built into the antenna, allow connection of separate radios, or separate ports of the same radio, to the antenna. An ortho-mode transducer can be modelled as a 4-port device, 2 of these representing the single-polarization ports and the remaining embodied by the degenerate modes in the dual-polarized port.
The scattering parameters can be gathered in a 4×4 scattering matrix S, symmetrical for a reciprocal OMT, thus leaving 10 independent terms for a general lossy device: S = [ S H H S H V S H h S H v S H V S
Coaxial cable, or coax is a type of electrical cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables have an insulating outer sheath or jacket; the term coaxial comes from the outer shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880. Coaxial cable is a type of transmission line, used to carry high frequency electrical signals with low losses, it is used in such applications as telephone trunklines, broadband internet networking cables, high speed computer data busses, carrying cable television signals, connecting radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. It differs from other shielded cables because the dimensions of the cable and connectors are controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, needed for it to function efficiently as a transmission line. Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals.
Its applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas, computer network connections, digital audio, distribution of cable television signals. One advantage of coaxial over other types of radio transmission line is that in an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and outer conductors; this allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference. Coaxial cable conducts electrical signal using an inner conductor surrounded by an insulating layer and all enclosed by a shield one to four layers of woven metallic braid and metallic tape; the cable is protected by an outer insulating jacket. The shield is kept at ground potential and a signal carrying voltage is applied to the center conductor; the advantage of coaxial design is that electric and magnetic fields are restricted to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield.
Conversely and magnetic fields outside the cable are kept from interfering with signals inside the cable. Larger diameter cables and cables with multiple shields have less leakage; this property makes coaxial cable a good choice for carrying weak signals that cannot tolerate interference from the environment or for stronger electrical signals that must not be allowed to radiate or couple into adjacent structures or circuits. Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and microwave transmission, computer and instrumentation data connections; the characteristic impedance of the cable is determined by the dielectric constant of the inner insulator and the radii of the inner and outer conductors. In radio frequency systems, where the cable length is comparable to the wavelength of the signals transmitted, a uniform cable characteristic impedance is important to minimize loss; the source and load impedances are chosen to match the impedance of the cable to ensure maximum power transfer and minimum standing wave ratio.
Other important properties of coaxial cable include attenuation as a function of frequency, voltage handling capability, shield quality. Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, power handling capabilities, flexibility and cost; the inner conductor might be stranded. To get better high-frequency performance, the inner conductor may be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is used as an inner conductor for cable used in the cable TV industry; the insulator surrounding the inner conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plastic, or air with spacers supporting the inner wire. The properties of the dielectric insulator determine some of the electrical properties of the cable. A common choice is a solid polyethylene insulator, used in lower-loss cables. Solid Teflon is used as an insulator; some coaxial lines have spacers to keep the inner conductor from touching the shield. Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield; this allows the cable to be flexible, but it means there are gaps in the shield layer, the inner dimension of the shield varies because the braid cannot be flat.
Sometimes the braid is silver-plated. For better shield performance, some cables have a double-layer shield; the shield might be just two braids, but it is more common now to have a thin foil shield covered by a wire braid. Some cables may invest in more than two shield layers, such as "quad-shield", which uses four alternating layers of foil and braid. Other shield designs sacrifice flexibility for better performance; those cables cannot be bent as the shield will kink, causing losses in the cable. When a foil shield is used a small wire conductor incorporated into the foil makes soldering the shield termination easier. For high-power radio-frequency transmission up to about 1 GHz, coaxial cable with a solid copper outer conductor is available in sizes of 0.25 inch upward. The outer conductor is corrugated like a bellows to permit flexibility and the inner conductor is held in position by a plastic spiral to approximate an air dielectric. One brand name for such cable is Heliax. Coaxial cables require an internal structure of an insulating material to maintain the spacing between the center conductor and shield.
The diel
Antenna feed
In telecommunications and electronics, an antenna feed refers to several different parts of an antenna system: The antenna feed is the wire or cabling that connects between the antenna and the radio called the feed line. The antenna feed is the location on the antenna where the feedline from the receiver or transmitter connects or attaches; the antenna feed is the matching system at the attachment point that converts the feedline impedance to the antenna's intrinsic impedance, makes any balanced-to-unbalanced conversion. In a transmitting antenna system the term can refer to any one or all of the components involved conveying the RF electrical current into the radiating part of the antenna, where the current is converted to radiation; because of the several meanings, "antenna feed system" is used to refer to all of the parts of the antenna feed between the radio and the radiator. Simple antennas, such as monopole or whip antennas, dipole antennas, large loop antennas are directly connected to a feedline cable that matches the impedance of the antenna and the radio.
Compound antennas are made of multiple simple antennas, similar to the way that compound lenses are made of several simple lenses. Examples of compound antennas are array antennas, Yagi-Uda antennas, log periodic antennas, quad antennas, small loop antennas. One of the simple sub-antennas, part of a compound antenna is a feeder antenna called the "driven element": The driven element converts the RF electrical currents to free space radio waves, or vice versa, it radiates the signal into the space nearby the other elements of the compound antenna, which in turn absorb and re-radiate the signal. Those elements are called "passive" or "parasitic" elements and they re-radiate the radio waves they absorb in the form of a beam in the desired direction; the passive elements function as reflecting and directing structures in the same way that mirrors and focusing lenses function in compound lenses. For example, in a rooftop Yagi-Uda television antenna, the feed consists of a dipole driven element, which converts the radio waves to an electric current, a coaxial cable or twin lead transmission line which conducts the received signal from the driven element into the house to the television receiver.
The rest of the antenna consists of rods called parasitic elements, which strengthen reception from a given direction. In more complex antenna systems the feed can be more complicated; the term "antenna feed system" refers to all of the components between the beam-shaping part of the antenna and the receiver's first amplifier. For a transmitting antenna, the feed system consists of everything after the last power amplifier, might include an antenna tuner unit near the amplifier, it certainly includes any impedance matching sections adjacent to, or incorporated into the structure of the antenna. In a radar or satellite communications antenna the feed might consist of a feed horn, orthomode transducer, frequency diplexer, waveguide switches, rotary joint, etc. With a transmitting antenna, the antenna feed is a critical component that must be adjusted to function compatibly with the antenna and transmitter; each type of transmission line and each type of antenna has a specific characteristic impedance, the ratio of voltage to current, the "favorite" of the antenna, or line, or radio.
The impedances of radios and feedlines are constant. Antenna impedances, swing by factors well over 1 000: 1 , with changing frequency, as the antenna passes through an evenly-spaced sequence of resonances and "anti-"resonances at different frequencies; the line impedance must be matched to the impedance of the antenna at one end and the transmitter at the other to efficiently transfer power between the transmitter and its antenna. If the impedances at either end of the line do not match, it will cause a condition called "standing waves" on the feed line, in which the RF energy is reflected back toward the transmitter, wasting energy and overheating the transmitter; the impedance is matched through a device called an antenna tuner or matching network, which can be in the transmitter, next to the transmitter, near the antenna, on the antenna, or any combination, including none. The degree of mismatch between the feedline and the antenna is measured by an instrument called an SWR meter, which measures the standing wave ratio on the line: The ratio of the adjacent maximum and minimum voltage amplitudes, or adjacent maximum and minimum current amplitudes.
Standing wave ratio Antenna tuner Silver, H. Ward, ed.. The ARRL Antenna Book. Newington, CT: American Radio Relay League. ISBN 978-0-87259-680-1
Spatial multiplexing
Spatial multiplexing is a transmission technique in MIMO wireless communication, Fibre-optic communication and other communications technologies to transmit independent and separately encoded data signals, known as "streams". Therefore, the space dimension is multiplexed, more than one time. If the transmitter is equipped with N t antennas and the receiver has N r antennas, the maximum spatial multiplexing order is, N s = min if a linear receiver is used; this means that N s streams can be transmitted in parallel, ideally leading to an N s increase of the spectral efficiency. The practical multiplexing gain can be limited by spatial correlation, which means that some of the parallel streams may have weak channel gains. In an open-loop MIMO system with N t transmitter antennas and N r receiver antennas, the input-output relationship can be described as y = H x + n where x = T is the N t × 1 vector of transmitted symbols, y, n are the N r × 1 vectors of received symbols and noise and H is the N r × N t matrix of channel coefficients.
An encountered problem in open loop spatial multiplexing is to guard against instance of high channel correlation and strong power imbalances between the multiple streams. One such extension, being considered for DVB-NGH systems is the so-called enhanced Spatial Multiplexing scheme. A closed-loop MIMO system utilizes Channel State Information at the transmitter. In most cases, only partial CSI is available at the transmitter because of the limitations of the feedback channel. In a closed-loop MIMO system the input-output relationship with a closed-loop approach can be described as y = H W s + n where s = T is the N s × 1 vector of transmitted symbols, y, n are the N r × 1 vectors of received symbols and noise H is the N r × N t matrix of channel coefficients and W is the N t × N s linear precoding matrix. A precoding matrix W is used to precode the symbols in the vector to enhance the performance; the column dimension N s of W can be selected smaller than N t, useful if the system requires N s streams because of several reasons.
Examples of the reasons are as follows: either the rank of the MIMO channel or the number of receiver antennas is smaller than the number of transmit antennas. Space–time code Space–time trellis code WiMAX MIMO 3G MIMO Fibre-optic communications
XPIC
XPIC, or cross-polarization interference cancelling technology, is an algorithm to suppress mutual interference between two received streams in a Polarization-division multiplexing communication system. The cross-polarization interference canceller is a signal processing technique implemented on the demodulated received signals at the baseband level, it is necessary in Polarization Division Multiplexing systems: the data sources to be transmitted are coded and mapped into QAM modulating symbols at the system's symbol rate and upconverted to a carrier frequency, generating two radio streams radiated by a single dual-polarized antenna. A corresponding dual-polarized antenna is located at the remote site and connected to two receivers, which downconvert the radio streams into baseband signals; this multiplexing/demultiplexing technique is based on the expected discrimination between the two orthogonal polarizations: an ideal, infinite XPD of the whole system guarantees that each signal at the receivers contains only the signal generated by the corresponding transmitter.
Some of the factors causing such cross-polarization interference are listed in Polarization-Division Multiplexing. As a practical consequence, at the receiving site the two streams are received with a residual mutual interference. In many practical cases for high-level M-QAM modulations, the communication system cannot tolerate the experienced levels of cross-polarization interference and an improved suppression is necessary; the two received polarizations at the antenna outputs linear horizontal H and vertical V, are routed each to a receiver whose baseband output is further processed by an ad-hoc cross-polarization cancelling scheme implemented as a digital stage. The XPIC algorithm attains the correct reconstruction of H by summing V to H to cancel any residual interference, vice versa; the cancelling process is implemented using two blocks: a baseband equalizer and the baseband XPIC. The output from the latter is subtracted from the former and sent to the decision stage, responsible for yielding the estimation of the data stream.
The equalization and XPIC blocks are adaptive for a correct tracking of the time-variant channel transfer function: XPIC must provide a shaping of the received cross signal equal to the portion of the cross interference affecting the main one. The feedback control to drive the adapting criteria comes from the measure of the residual error across the decision block. In the example, both blocks are based on the typical structure of the Finite Impulse Response digital filter and whose the coefficients are not fixed, but adapted to minimize a suitable functional J while multiple delays D act on the input signal. Given: ϵ k: residual complex error at time instant k, s k: baseband main received signal complex sample at time instant k, s k: baseband cross received signal complex sample at time instant k, C j, k: complex coefficient of baseband equalizer on the tap j and time instant k, C j, k: XPIC complex coefficient on tap j and time instant k, j = − n... N: index of tap y k: result of cancelling action feeding the decision device at time instant k, d k: estimated transmitted data at time instant k, so ϵ k = y k - d k γ: step-size or compression factor for adaptativity,if the function to minimize is for example the mean power the residual error, J = E, the adapting gradient algorithm prescribes that the coefficients are updated after every time step k as: C j, k + 1 = C j, k − γ ϵ k ∗.
Polarization (waves)
Polarization is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave, the direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave. A simple example of a polarized transverse wave is vibrations traveling along a taut string. Depending on how the string is plucked, the vibrations can be in a vertical direction, horizontal direction, or at any angle perpendicular to the string. In contrast, in longitudinal waves, such as sound waves in a liquid or gas, the displacement of the particles in the oscillation is always in the direction of propagation, so these waves do not exhibit polarization. Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves, gravitational waves, transverse sound waves in solids. In some types of transverse waves, the wave displacement is limited to a single direction, so these do not exhibit polarization. An electromagnetic wave such as light consists of a coupled oscillating electric field and magnetic field which are always perpendicular.
In linear polarization, the fields oscillate in a single direction. In circular or elliptical polarization, the fields rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the wave travels; the rotation can have two possible directions. Light or other electromagnetic radiation from many sources, such as the sun and incandescent lamps, consists of short wave trains with an equal mixture of polarizations. Polarized light can be produced by passing unpolarized light through a polarizer, which allows waves of only one polarization to pass through; the most common optical materials are isotropic and do not affect the polarization of light passing through them. Some of these are used to make polarizing filters. Light is partially polarized when it reflects from a surface. According to quantum mechanics, electromagnetic waves can be viewed as streams of particles called photons; when viewed in this way, the polarization of an electromagnetic wave is determined by a quantum mechanical property of photons called their spin.
A photon has one of two possible spins: it can either spin in a right hand sense or a left hand sense about its direction of travel. Circularly polarized electromagnetic waves are composed of photons with only one type of spin, either right- or left-hand. Linearly polarized waves consist of photons that are in a superposition of right and left circularly polarized states, with equal amplitude and phases synchronized to give oscillation in a plane. Polarization is an important parameter in areas of science dealing with transverse waves, such as optics, seismology and microwaves. Impacted are technologies such as lasers and optical fiber telecommunications, radar. Most sources of light are classified as incoherent and unpolarized because they consist of a random mixture of waves having different spatial characteristics, frequencies and polarization states. However, for understanding electromagnetic waves and polarization in particular, it is easiest to just consider coherent plane waves. Characterizing an optical system in relation to a plane wave with those given parameters can be used to predict its response to a more general case, since a wave with any specified spatial structure can be decomposed into a combination of plane waves.
And incoherent states can be modeled stochastically as a weighted combination of such uncorrelated waves with some distribution of frequencies and polarizations. Electromagnetic waves, traveling in free space or another homogeneous isotropic non-attenuating medium, are properly described as transverse waves, meaning that a plane wave's electric field vector E and magnetic field H are in directions perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. By convention, the "polarization" direction of an electromagnetic wave is given by its electric field vector. Considering a monochromatic plane wave of optical frequency f, let us take the direction of propagation as the z axis. Being a transverse wave the E and H fields must contain components only in the x and y directions whereas Ez = Hz = 0. Using complex notation, the instantaneous physical electric and magnetic fields are given by the real parts of the complex quantities occurring in the following equations; as a function of time t and spatial position z these complex fields can be written as: E → =
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most as a means to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths than electrical cables. Fibers are used instead of metal wires. Fibers are used for illumination and imaging, are wrapped in bundles so they may be used to carry light into, or images out of confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers. Optical fibers include a core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of total internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, while those that support a single mode are called single-mode fibers.
Multi-mode fibers have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters. Being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication; this is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the fiber cores, the coupling of these aligned cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common. In this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a mechanical splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors; the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics.
The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany, acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London, 12 years later. Tyndall wrote about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature of light in 1870:When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent towards the perpendicular... When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular... If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be reflected at the surface.... The angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, while for diamond it is 23°42′.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, light was guided through bent glass rods to illuminate body cavities. Practical applications such as close internal illumination during dentistry appeared early in the twentieth century. Image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. In the 1930s, Heinrich Lamm showed that one could transmit images through a bundle of unclad optical fibers and used it for internal medical examinations, but his work was forgotten. In 1953, Dutch scientist Bram van Heel first demonstrated image transmission through bundles of optical fibers with a transparent cladding; that same year, Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany at Imperial College in London succeeded in making image-transmitting bundles with over 10,000 fibers, subsequently achieved image transmission through a 75 cm long bundle which combined several thousand fibers. Their article titled "A flexible fibrescope, using static scanning" was published in the journal Nature in 1954.
The first practical fiber optic semi-flexible gastroscope was patented by Basil Hirschowitz, C. Wilbur Peters, Lawrence E. Curtiss, researchers at the University of Michigan, in 1956. In the process of developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced the first glass-clad fibers. A variety of other image transmission applications soon followed. Kapany coined the term fiber optics, wrote a 1960 article in Scientific American that introduced the topic to a wide audience, wrote the first book about the new field; the first working fiber-optical data transmission system was demonstrated by German physicist Manfred Börner at Telefunken Research Labs in Ulm in 1965, followed by the first patent application for this technology in 1966. NASA used fiber optics in the television cameras. At the time, the use in the cameras was classified confidential, employees handling the cameras had to be supervised by someone with an appropriate security clearance. Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company Standard Telephones and Cables were the first, in 1965, to promote the idea that the attenuation in optical fibers could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer, making fibers a practical communication medium.
They proposed th
Polarization (waves) [videos]
Polarization is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave, the direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave. A simple example of a polarized transverse …
Circular polarization on rubber thread, converted to linear polarization
Color pattern of a plastic box showing stress-induced birefringence when placed in between two crossed polarizers.
Microwave [videos]
Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF …
A telecommunications tower with a variety of dish antennas for microwave relay links on Frazier Peak, Ventura County, California. The apertures of the dishes are covered by plastic sheets (radomes) to keep out moisture.
The parabolic antenna (lower curved surface) of an ASR-9 airport surveillance radar which radiates a narrow vertical fan-shaped beam of 2.7–2.9 GHz (S band) microwaves to locate aircraft in the airspace surrounding an airport.
Some of the dish antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) a radio telescope located in northern Chile. It receives microwaves in the millimeter wave range, 31 – 1000 GHz.
Small microwave oven on a kitchen counter
Satellite television [videos]
Satellite television is a service that delivers television programming to viewers by relaying it from a communications satellite orbiting the Earth directly to the viewer's location. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic antenna commonly referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise …
Satellite television dishes in Malaysia.
Back view of a linear polarised LNB.
Corrugated feedhorn and LNB on a Hughes DirecWay satellite dish.
A C-band satellite dish used by TVRO systems.
Optical fiber [videos]
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications …
A bundle of optical fibers
Fiber crew installing a 432-count fiber cable underneath the streets of Midtown Manhattan, New York City
A TOSLINK fiber optic audio cable with red light being shone in one end transmits the light to the other end
A wall-mount cabinet containing optical fiber interconnects. The yellow cables are single mode fibers; the orange and aqua cables are multi-mode fibers: 50/125 µm OM2 and 50/125 µm OM3 fibers respectively.
Coaxial cable [videos]
Coaxial cable, or coax is a type of electrical cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an insulating outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor …
Cross-sectional view of a coaxial cable
Oliver Heaviside invented coaxial cable in 1880
A male F-type connector used with common RG-6 cable
A male N-type connector
Orthomode transducer [videos]
An orthomode transducer is a waveguide component. It is commonly referred to as a polarisation duplexer. Orthomode transducers serve either to combine or to separate two orthogonally polarized microwave signal paths. One of the paths forms the uplink, which is transmitted over the same …
Orthomode transducer, VSAT Ku band
Outdoor unit, includes feed horn, OMT, LNB and BUC
Orthomode transducer (Portenseigne, France)
Orthomode transducer, vertical and horizontal polarity
Huawei [videos]
Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd. is a Chinese multinational telecommunications equipment and consumer electronics manufacturer, headquartered in Shenzhen, China. — Ren Zhengfei, a former military engineer in the People's Liberation Army …
Huawei headquarters in Shenzhen, Guangdong
Huawei E220 HSDPA USB modem
Satellite dish [videos]
A satellite dish is a dish-shaped type of parabolic antenna designed to receive or transmit information by radio waves to or from a communication satellite. The term most commonly means a dish used by consumers to receive direct-broadcast satellite television from a direct broadcast satellite in …
A mobile satellite dish used by TVNZ news reporters.
Special dish for up to 16 satellite positions (Ku-band).
U.S. residential satellite TV receiver dishes
Frequency modulation [videos]
In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. — In analog frequency modulation, such as FM radio broadcasting of an audio signal representing voice or music, the instantaneous …
FM has better noise (RFI) rejection than AM, as shown in this dramatic New York publicity demonstration by General Electric in 1940. The radio has both AM and FM receivers. With a million-volt arc as a source of interference behind it, the AM receiver produced only a roar of static, while the FM receiver clearly reproduced a music program from Armstrong's experimental FM transmitter W2XMN in New Jersey.
An American FM radio transmitter in Buffalo, NY at WEDG
Image: Waterfall FM
Wavelength-division multiplexing [videos]
In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand …
Nortel's WDM System
WDM multiplexer for DWDM communications
Image: SFP WDM 2
Very high frequency [videos]
Very high frequency is the ITU designation for the range of radio frequency electromagnetic waves from 30 to 300 megahertz, with corresponding wavelengths of ten meters to one meter. — Frequencies immediately below VHF are denoted high frequency, and the next higher …
VHF television antennas used for broadcast television reception. These six antennas are a type known as a Yagi antenna, which is widely used at VHF
"Rabbit-ears" VHF television antenna (the small loop is a separate UHF antenna).
A VHF television broadcasting antenna. This is a common type called a super turnstile or batwing antenna.
Waveguide [videos]
A waveguide is a structure that guides waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound, with minimal loss of energy by restricting expansion to one dimension or two. There is a similar effect in water waves constrained within a canal, or guns that have barrels which restrict hot gas expansion to …
Example of waveguides and a diplexer in an air traffic control radar
Waveguide supplying power for the Argonne National Laboratory Advanced Photon Source.
A section of flexible waveguide with a pressurizable flange
Amplitude modulation [videos]
Amplitude modulation is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to that of the message signal being …
One of the crude pre-vacuum tube AM transmitters, a Telefunken arc transmitter from 1906. The carrier wave is generated by 6 electric arcs in the vertical tubes, connected to a tuned circuit. Modulation is done by the large carbon microphone (cone shape) in the antenna lead.
One of the first vacuum tube AM radio transmitters, built by Meissner in 1913 with an early triode tube by Robert von Lieben. He used it in a historic 36 km (24 mi) voice transmission from Berlin to Nauen, Germany. Compare its small size with above transmitter.
Spatial multiplexing [videos]
Spatial multiplexing is a transmission technique in MIMO wireless communication, Fibre-optic communication and other communications technologies to transmit independent and separately encoded data signals, known as "streams". Therefore, the space dimension is reused …
Image: Spatial multiplexing 2
Alcatel-Lucent [videos]
Alcatel-Lucent S.A. was a French global telecommunications equipment company, headquartered in Boulogne-Billancourt, France. It was formed in 2006 by the merger of France-based Alcatel and U.S.-based Lucent, the latter being the successor of AT&T's Western …
Headquarters in Boulogne-Billancourt, France
Former Alcatel-Lucent head office to 2009
Modulation [videos]
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted. Most radio systems in the 20th century used frequency modulation …
Image: Waterfall AM
Reflector (antenna) [videos]
An antenna reflector is a device that reflects electromagnetic waves. Antenna reflectors can exist as a standalone device for redirecting radio frequency energy, or can be integrated as part of an antenna assembly. — Standalone reflectors — The function of a standalone reflector is to …
Corner reflector part of a UHF television antenna
Single-sideband modulation [videos]
In radio communications, single-sideband modulation or single-sideband suppressed-carrier modulation is a type of modulation, used to transmit information, such as an audio signal, by radio waves. A refinement of amplitude modulation, it uses transmitter power and bandwidth more …
A Collins KWM-1, an early Amateur Radio transceiver that featured SSB voice capability
Frequency-division multiplexing [videos]
In telecommunications, frequency-division multiplexing is a technique by which the total bandwidth available in a communication medium is divided into a series of non-overlapping frequency bands, each of which is used to carry a separate signal. This allows a single transmission medium such …
The passband of an FDM channel carrying digital data, modulated by QPSK quadrature phase-shift keying.
Packet switching [videos]
Packet switching is a method of grouping data that is transmitted over a digital network into packets. Packets are made of a header and a payload. Data in the header are used by networking hardware to direct the packet to its destination where the payload is extracted and used by application …
NSFNET Traffic 1991, NSFNET backbone nodes are shown at the top, regional networks below, traffic volume is depicted from purple (zero bytes) to white (100 billion bytes), visualization by NCSA using traffic data provided by the Merit Network.
Time-division multiple access [videos]
Time-division multiple access is a channel access method for shared-medium networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into different time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using its own time slot. This …
TDMA frame structure showing a data stream divided into frames and those frames divided into time slots
Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access [videos]
Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access is a multi-user version of the popular orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing digital modulation scheme. Multiple access is achieved in OFDMA by assigning subsets of subcarriers to individual users. This allows simultaneous …
OFDMA subcarriers
Electromagnetic radiation [videos]
In physics, electromagnetic radiation refers to the waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, light, ultraviolet …
Antenna feed [videos]
In telecommunications and electronics, an antenna feed refers to several slightly different parts of an antenna system: — The antenna feed is the wire or cabling that connects between the antenna and the radio, specifically called the feed line. — The antenna feed is the location on …
The feed for this Yagi-Uda television antenna is the driven element (doubled rod) and the feedline attached to it.
Circular polarization [videos]
In electrodynamics, circular polarization of an electromagnetic wave is a polarization state in which, at each point, the electric field of the wave has a constant magnitude but its direction rotates with time at a steady rate in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the wave. — In …
The rose chafer's external surface reflects almost exclusively left-circularly polarized light.
Patch antenna [videos]
A patch antenna is a type of radio antenna with a low profile, which can be mounted on a flat surface. It consists of a flat rectangular sheet or "patch" of metal, mounted over a larger sheet of metal called a ground plane. They are the original type of microstrip antenna described by Howell in …
A 2.4 GHz patch antenna
Siae Microelettronica [videos]
SIAE MICROELETTRONICA is an Italian multinational corporation and a global supplier of telecom network equipments. It provides wireless backhaul and fronthaul solutions that comprise microwave and millimeter wave radio systems, along with fiber optics transmission systems provided by its subsidiary …
SIAE Oscilloscope 431A (introduced in 1963) used for the synthesizer in the Studio di fonologia musicale di Radio Milano
XPIC [videos]
XPIC, or cross-polarization interference cancelling technology, is an algorithm to suppress mutual interference between two received streams in a Polarization-division multiplexing communication system. — The cross-polarization interference canceller is a signal processing technique …
Polarization-Division Communication System
Henri Matisse [videos]
Henri Émile Benoît Matisse was a French artist, known for both his use of colour and his fluid and original draughtsmanship. He was a draughtsman, printmaker, and sculptor, but is known primarily as a painter. — Matisse is commonly …
Henri Matisse, 1913
Henri and Amélie Matisse, 1898
Woman Reading (La Liseuse), 1895, oil on board, 61.5 x 48 cm, Le Cateau-Cambrésis, Musée Matisse
Woman with a Hat, 1905. San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
History of Israel [videos]
The Land of Israel is the birthplace of the Jewish people, the place where the Hebrew Bible was composed and the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity. It contains sites sacred to Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Samaritanism, Druze and the Bahá'í Faith. — The …
Es Skhul cave
The Merneptah Stele. While alternative translations exist, the majority of biblical archaeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as "Israel," representing the first instance of the name in the historical record.
City of David in Jerusalem
The route of the exiles to Babylon
Annapurna Massif [videos]
Annapurna is a massif in the Himalayas in north-central Nepal that includes one peak over 8,000 metres, thirteen peaks over 7,000 metres, and sixteen more over 6,000 metres. The massif is 55 kilometres long, and is …
South Face of Annapurna I (Main)
The Annapurna massif, view from aircraft
The south face of Annapurna I
Reflection of Annapurna Dakshin (South) Mountain in fresh water
Budapest [videos]
Budapest is the capital and the most populous city of Hungary, and the tenth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits. The city had an estimated population of 1,752,704 in 2016 distributed over a land area of about 525 square …
Clockwise from top left: St. Stephen's Basilica, Liberty Statue on Gellért Hill, Fisherman's Bastion, Széchenyi Chain Bridge, Hungarian Parliament and Heroes' Square
Retaking of Buda from the Ottoman Empire, 1686 (17th-century painting)
Satellite imagery illustrating the core of the Budapest Metropolitan Area
Buda Castle at night viewed from Danube Promenade
Sandra Bullock [videos]
Sandra Annette Bullock is an American actress, producer, and philanthropist. She was the highest paid actress in the world in 2010 and 2014. In 2015, Bullock was chosen as People's Most Beautiful Woman, and was included in Time's 100 most influential people in the world in …
Bullock in July 2013
Bullock at the Cannes Film Festival in 1996
Bullock at the premiere of The Proposal in 2009
Napoléon (coin) [videos]
The Napoléon is the colloquial term for a former French gold coin. The coins were minted in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 40, 50, and 100 francs. This article focuses on the 20 franc coins issued during the reign of Napoléon Bonaparte, which are 21 mm in diameter, weigh 6.45 grams …
Reverse of the same coin 1803 Paris (AN. 11 indicates the 11th year after the French Revolution or the latter part of 1803). A coin not often seen, 58,262 were minted, this example exhibits Extra Fine details for a 206-year-old coin. The "A" denotes the Paris mint and the rooster denotes the mint master Charles-Pierre de l'Espine (1797–1821). Napoleon ordered coins struck in year 11 to be dated with Roman numerals fearing that Arabic numeral eleven would look like a two in Roman numerals and thus remind the public of the horrors of the Reign of Terror which occurred in the year 2.
Image: France 1803 04 A 20 Francs
Image: France 1807 A 40 Francs
Image: An XI Obv
Mariah Carey [videos]
Mariah Carey — is an American singer, songwriter, actress, record producer, and entrepreneur. Referred to as the "Songbird Supreme" by the Guinness World Records, she is noted for her five-octave vocal range, power, melismatic style, and signature use of the whistle …
Image: Mariah Carey WBLS 2018 Interview 4


The Magic Zone is pleased to announce the final management appointments for the 2017 season.
The Magic Zone launched the Level 2 Performance Programme at Cambridge High School yesterday.
This appointment is a great reward for Rebecca and encouragement for all coaches within our Zone as Rebecca was Assistant Coach of the BEKO Team last year under Margaret Forsyth.
Will take place the morning of the BEKO trials from 12.00 - 4.00pm December 11.
The Magic BEKO team will run alongside the Magic team.
A blockbuster Super Sunday featuring all six teams in action in Hamilton will signal the start of the inaugural ANZ Premiership – New Zealand's new elite Netball league - on March 26, 2017.


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How to make the "information explosion" work for you
Mary Brandel
CIO Jeff Saper drives a hybrid car, favors service providers that use alternative energy and has launched many green IT initiatives at his strategic communications firm, Robinson Lerer & Montgomery LLC in New York. But he's also concerned about a type of pollution that even Al Gore has yet to tackle: digital pollution.
The recent growth of information sources such as blogs, social networks, news aggregators, microblogs like Twitter, instant messaging and e-mail has been exponential. And with broadband penetration among active Internet users expected to break 90% this year, according to Internet marketing firm Website Optimization LLC, there aren't many people today who haven't experienced some form of information overload.
"On the positive side, there's so much more information available," Saper says. "But it becomes overwhelming, especially for those unfamiliar with the tools to filter through it."
The idea of "information overload" has been discussed for decades, but never before has it seemed so relevant. Today, ideas and discussions are broadcast not at a prescribed time on a specific channel via a single medium, but all the time, on millions of forums, discussion groups, blogs and social networks. And they occupy a growing piece of our consciousness, thanks to RSS feeds, Twitter messages, mailing list and newsletter subscriptions, instant messaging, e-mail and Web surfing.
According to market research firm IDC, by 2011 the digital universe will be 10 times the size it was in 2006.
It's gotten to the point where information — which should be useful — has in some cases become a distraction. According to New York-based research firm Basex Inc., information overload is the "problem of the year." Basex claims that disruptions caused by e-mail, text messages and other incoming data cost large organizations billions of dollars annually in lower productivity and hampered innovation.
Disruption comes in many forms. There's the urgent e-mail that arrives when you're heads-down on a project, the scads of stuff to browse through to make sure you're not missing anything relevant, and the temptation to scan your RSS feed during conference calls.
"For so long, companies have preached the importance of multitasking," says Michael Fowler, IT director of risk, compliance and change management at Constellation Energy Group Inc. But now, he says, the pendulum has swung back: "What happens when you're too multitasked?"
Many worry about missing out on something. "People fear a disruptive technology or business model will come on the scene and they won't have time to act," says Steve Borsch, CEO of Marketing Directions Inc., a consulting firm in Eden Prairie, Minn. "It's becoming exponentially more difficult to tap into the collective consciousness and stay on top of changes in an industry or area of interest, or even stay relevant in the workplace."
He admits to struggling. "I now am skimming and reading articles on dozens of news sites and technology journals, clicking on sources linked to by a blogger, and a whole lot more," Borsch says. "The river of content is turning into a flood, and my instinct is to get to higher ground."
IT professionals and information management specialists say that higher ground can be reached. Some use technology to combat the information overload, while others suggest putting yourself on an information diet and taking control over how much you allow yourself to be exposed to.
Turning to Technology
Borsch firmly subscribes to the belief that what technology has gotten us into, it can get us out of. He has studied customizable RSS feeds and "smart" news-aggregation sites that allow him to choose the types of news he wants to see as well as submit content and vote on items to promote their visibility.
On his PC, Borsch has arranged his browser into about a dozen workspaces. Three are always open for e-mail, the Google Reader RSS feed and three news aggregation sites: Techmeme for technology news, Blogrunner for general news and Wikio for global coverage.
Techmeme not only aggregates links to technology stories but also provides a visual sense of how important each story is through a list of links to the discussions each generated. If the list is long, Borsch says, he knows he should pay attention to that item. Similarly, compilation sites like Digg and Hackernews use social promotion techniques to help readers discern what's important. As readers vote on items, the most popular get more visibility.
Borsch says he has spent lots of time customizing Google Reader, editing what he wants to see and organizing how he sees it. He has created 20 folders for topics such as venture capital, video, technology, marketing/public relations, virtual worlds and gadgets. One is labeled "above the fold," for the 15 blogs that he considers must-reads, including Boing Boing. That feed pulls information from 171 blogs and various other sites, for a total of about 225 feeds. On one recent day, Borsch had 926 articles waiting for him. "I'll probably grab a sandwich and skim through them all, unless I get hooked into an article that burns up all my time," he says.
Still, the RSS feeder does save time. "It might take me a minute to scroll through the posts, but if I went to [each] site itself, it would take 45 seconds just to load the page," he says.
With all the time he spends on aggregation sites and his RSS feed, Borsch says he has reduced his investments in books, TV, newspapers and magazines. He's even cut down on his podcast listening time. At one point, Borsch says, he'd collected 36 hours' worth of weekly podcasts with only 10 hours per week available to listen. But with the aggregation sites, he says, "it feels like I've got people's thoughts at my fingertips, and to me, that's fabulous."
"If it weren't for RSS readers, I'd be dead," Borsch says.
Saper also uses aggregators to battle information overload. His favorites are Newsgator and Flock, which he says is a combined browser and aggregator. He says that Flock can aggregate all his social networking activity and feeds into one place. He subscribes to about 40 sources, with topics such as Microsoft, virtualization, mobile technology, networking, environment, public relations and general business.
"Do I read every hit? No," Borsch says. "It gets back to there being too much noise out there."
But tools can't do it all, he says. With new sources of information appearing every day, it's difficult to know which are legitimate. That has driven Saper to be more discerning about which sources he trusts. Mainly, he says, he sticks with sources he knows or those that are recommended by peers or friends.
Ole Eichhorn, chief technology officer at Aperio Technologies Inc., which provides systems for digital pathology, agrees. His No. 1 way of finding new blogs is by referrals, sometimes through his own blog. Once a week, he checks to see who has linked to his blog, which inevitably leads him to look at theirs. "They found me, so there must be a similarity of interest," he says.
The human touch can, of course, be automated, Fowler says. Although he seeks recommendations from peers and friends and uses social promotion sites like Digg, he has also found a shortcut: using Delicious, a social bookmarks manager. He marks favorite items on the site, but he also checks out the bookmarks of other people he trusts or those who specialize in areas of interest to him. "I'd expect them to have found the top sources, so why search?" he says. "I can just go to their Delicious site."
Step Away From the Internet
Fowler uses an RSS feed to keep on top of about a dozen sources from tech news, and to follow a local newspaper columnist who often writes about Constellation Energy. But he doesn't check them daily, and he purposefully limits the number he follows because much of the news gets repeated. "Less is more, at least for me," he says.
The less-is-more mantra may be the key to combating information overload. Mark Hurst, author of Bit Literacy (Good Experience Press, 2007), says technology tools simply can't scale up to the amount of information coming at us. So rather than using an RSS feed to subscribe to 200 blogs, he says, why not identify the three or four top blogs you really want to read each day and read them? It takes mental discipline to resist the rest, but it enables you to "get to zero" ? the point where there's nothing pending in your in-box.
"If overload is the problem, the solution is to unload," Hurst says.
The urge to unload may be taking hold. The WebWorkerDaily.com blog lists 21 tips to deal with information overload, including forsaking forums and having a Web-free day. There are even life coaches who specialize in reducing such overload.
For Borsch, mental discipline means he unsubscribes from any blog that is no longer adding value. And when he needs to concentrate on work, he closes down instant messaging, Skype and e-mail, turns off Twirl (the Twitter desktop client), and tries not to think about what he's missing.
Mental discipline is especially important when it comes to e-mail. Many people feel compelled to check e-mail throughout the day and to respond immediately to what comes in. "You can be on deadline, and one of your friends sends you a random note that you could read two hours later, but knowing it's there disrupts you," Eichhorn says.
He offers a solution: "Just because someone sent you something doesn't mean you have to read it. Thinking that way is empowering."
The same goes for RSS feeds. Although Eichhorn loves RSS and monitors 300 to 400 feeds via a reader called Sharpreader, he calls it an incredible distraction. He estimates that he gets 2,000 to 3,000 items per day and reads about one out of 20. His advice: Choose specific times throughout the day to check e-mail and read your feed. Otherwise, he says, you could lose an entire day in the ether.
Fowler says he gets 1,500 e-mails per day at work, thanks in part to co- workers mailing to distribution lists. Handling this requires setting up rules and filters through the e-mail system itself, he says, but he'd like to see these types of features become more intuitive.
"We'd be far more efficient if we taught people to direct the message to the person who could best handle the inquiry," he says. But Fowler admits that in a global company that operates around the clock, that person is not always easy to pinpoint.
Fowler has come to like Twitter, which limits messages to 140 characters. He mainly uses it to stay connected with other people via his group distribution list and to stay abreast of their activities. However, services such as CNN also broadcast news on Twitter, and some industry leaders have begun using it to communicate updates at conferences and boot camps. "The reason I like it is that it's short," Fowler says. "I don't have time for a novel; 140 characters is my attention span."
Eichhorn agrees that following Twitter is becoming more important. Originally, he says, the idea was "What are you doing?" but it has evolved to, "What are you thinking?"
Information overload is not going away, and organizations will need to find ways to deal with it, particularly when it comes to determining which sources are considered reliable, says David Newman, an analyst at Gartner Inc.
"I don't think we understand how bad it's going to get, especially as more young people come into the workplace and are used to using these sources in their personal lives," he says. "We can't put our head in the sand about this."
Brandel is a Computerworld contributing writer in Newton, Mass. Contact her at [email protected]
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Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TFCA) member countries' senior officials are meeting in Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe to deepen cooperation in trans-boundary natural resource management and promotion of sustainable tourism in the region which host about 70% of the global elephants' population.
Senior officials from Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe are attending the high level KAZA TFCA Joint Management Committee meeting aimed at fostering sound wildlife resources management and harmonization of strategies in conservation efforts.
Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (Zimparks) Director General, Mr Fulton Mangwanya highlighted that the regional initiative remains critical in promoting sustainable utilisation of the vast wildlife resources for the benefit host communities.
"We are so excited to be hosting the KAZA meeting and we are hopeful that the platform will afford us an opportunity to strengthen cooperation in conversation and maintaining of biodiversity integrity," he said.
As a result of the successful rollout of the KAZA univisa project implemented by Zambia and Zimbabwe, other member countries are also exploring strategies on how to boost tourists traffic in the region.
The meeting also comes at a time there are reports that Botswana is on the verge of joining the univisa initiative.
KAZA TFCA comprises 20 national parks, 85 forest reserves, 22 conservancies, 11 sanctuaries and 103 game management areas.


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Sports on the Road: Hednesford Town (A) Match Preview
Mickleover Sports have an opportunity to record a league double at the first time of asking this weekend as they head to Keys Park to take on Staffordshire based Hednesford Town. After the extremely disappointing crash out of the League Cup at the hands of Buxton in the week Sports will be looking to bounce back with positively and really take the game to their hosts this weekend. With so many of the sides around them having made changes and now starting to pick up results Sports know that they need to start picking up themselves in order to avoid the dreaded bottom three. Hednesford Town go into the game in 11th position so will certainly be a another tough test but one in which Sports can absolutely get a result if they can perform the same way they did at South Shields.
The Pitmen were last in action last weekend as they went down 2-0 away at Manchester based side Hyde United. Connor Simpson and Chibuzor Chilaka in the final six minutes decided the game for The Tigers over the Pitmen. Sports of course were in action on Tuesday night as they went down 3-0 to local rivals Buxton in the Integro League Cup. So both sides will be looking to bounce back from disappointing defeats.
SPORTS TEAM NEWS
Niall Dorran & Kevin Grocott remain out. John McGrath and Jake Scott are back in training so may have some involvement. Everyone else is presumed fit and available for selection.
GOING TO THE GAME?
The game is taking place at Hednesford Town's Keys Park, Keys Park Rd, Hednesford, Cannock WS12 2DZ. Admission prices are set at £11 Adults, £8 Concessions and plenty of Family Tickets are available on request. Match day programmes as well as hot and cold food and drink will as always be available inside the ground with alcoholic beverages available inside the clubhouse.
NOT GOING TO THE GAME?
Then no need to worry, Press & Media Officer Sam Goldsworthy will be at the game keeping you up to date via the usual platforms of Twitter & Facebook, with match reaction on Mickleover Sports TV (Youtube) after the game!
Don't forget that we will also be doing live match commentary on Mixlr during the game. Either download the app or go onto the website and search for Mickleover Sports. Once the broadcast has gone live at around 2:50pm click listen and you should be able to enjoy full match commentary. You can access our page by clicking on this link… http://mixlr.com/mickleover-sports/
← Mickleover Sports 0-3 Buxton: Match Report
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POtW: Private Driveway
Today's picture is a slightly weird one. It's a photo of a private driveway on SE 101st Street in Shawnee County. The reason I took a picture of it was because when I first saw the road, the little statue and the retaining rock wall, I originally thought it was a cemetery.
The cemetery I was looking for is the L.J. Beam Cemetery. According to "The Complete Tombstone Census of Douglas County, Kansas" the cemetery lies just over the Douglas-Shawnee County line east of Richland, which is about where this is.
Beam was a Second Lieutenant in command of the Kansas Fourteenth and was away on business in Leavenworth when Quantrill attacked Lawrence. Only 5 of his 22 men were able to escape. Beam always regretted not being there for his men but quickly recruited other men to begin the Kansas Fifteenth. Beam was promoted several times until he became a Major in the regiment.
According the Tombstone Census Book:
L.J. Beam buried three children and his wife on his own land on a bluff south of their home. The cemetery is enclosed by a 4 foot high native stone wall with a black iron gate. Three 6 foot spire tombstones mark the graves; one for Major Beam, one for his wife Sarah and one for their children. The cemetery itself is neglected, with brush and trees overshadowing stones and wall alike. Although the markers are all in excellent condition and standing completely upright.
The Beam home is still where it sat on the Beam property in the 1860s, complete with History and Memories.
Copied from stones November 14, 1987.
Major L.J. Beam died Mar. 24, 1901, aged 62 years - A Noble Life
Sarah F. Beam, Mar. 27, 1844-Apr. 3, 1898 - A Pure Life
M. Florence dau. of L.J. & S.F., B: May 14, 1878-D: Nov. 13, 1886
Freddie son of L.J. & S.F., B: & D: Dec. 10, 1876
Willie son of L.J. & S.F., B: & D: Aug. 19, 1867
I am still searching for the cemetery.
by Brian Hall at 8/08/2009 02:35:00 PM
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OSC Invites Public Comments On Reducing Regulatory Burden for Market Participants
Shawn Blundell
Ramandeep K. Grewal
Simon A. Romano
The OSC has established a burden reduction task force that indicates it will focus on enhancing competitiveness for market participants by reducing their regulatory burden.
The OSC recently published OSC Staff Notice 11-784 - Burden Reduction (the "OSC Staff Notice") outlining a public consultation process and inviting comments from stakeholders on methods of further reducing unnecessary regulatory burdens.
Stakeholders can also participate by taking the burden reduction survey launched in connection with the OSC Staff Notice. A link to the survey can be found here. The survey and consultation process will remain open until March 1, 2019.
The OSC will hold a roundtable discussion on March 27, 2019 to consider submissions on eliminating unnecessary rules and processes while protecting investors and the integrity of the capital markets.
Burden Reduction Initiatives
The OSC Staff Notice follows the national burden reduction initiatives launched in 2017 by the Canadian Securities Administrators ("CSA"). The CSA initiatives were outlined in CSA Staff Notice 51-404 - Considerations for Reducing Regulatory Burden for Non-Investment Fund Reporting Issuers ("CSA Staff Notice - 51-404") and CSA Staff Notice 81-329 - Reducing Regulatory Burden for Investment Fund Issuers.
Following a public consultation process and considering stakeholder submissions, the CSA outlined six policy projects it intends to concentrate on in CSA Staff Notice 51- 353 -Update on CSA Consultation Paper Considerations for Reducing Regulatory Burden for Non-Investment Fund Reporting Issuers ("CSA Staff Notice 51-353"). These six intended policy projects are further detailed below.
The OSC Staff Notice clarifies that, while the OSC is committed to nationally harmonized efforts in collaboration with the CSA, it is interested in implementing changes on an interim basis in Ontario that will assist market participates while coordinated national changes are pursued.
The OSC formed its burden reduction task force in November of 2018 in conjunction with the Ontario Ministry of Finance in support of the Government of Ontario's Open for Business Plan.
Balancing Investor Protection
The OSC has a statutory mandate of providing investor protection, fostering fair and efficient capital markets, contributing to the efficiency of the financial system and reducing systemic risks. One of the fundamental principles that the OSC is statutorily required to have regard to is that business and regulatory costs and restrictions on business and investment activity should be proportionate to the significance of the regulatory objective sought. Nonetheless, with respect to, for example, financial statements required in respect of significant business acquisitions, the stated policy of regulatory staff is that the cost of complying with its requirements is generally not sufficient to warrant exemptive relief.
In undertaking this public consultation, the OSC's burden reduction task force will consider and act on any suggestions to eliminate unnecessary rules and processes without compromising investor protection and the integrity of Ontario's capital markets.
The OSC's Areas of Focus
The OSC is requesting comments and suggestions from stakeholders on the following:
Operational or procedural changes that would make market participants' day-to-day interaction with the OSC easier or less costly.
Ways in which the OSC can provide greater certainty regarding regulatory requirements or outcomes to market participants.
Forms and filings that issuers, registrants or other market participants are required to submit that should be streamlined or required less frequently.
Particular filings with the OSC that are unnecessary or unduly burdensome.
Information that the OSC provides to market participants that could be provided more efficiently.
Requirements under the OSC rules that are inconsistent with the rules of other jurisdictions and that could be harmonized.
Specific requirements under Ontario securities laws that no longer serve a valid purpose.
Ways to enhance and improve how investors experience disclosure provided: (i) before they invest; (ii) as part of ongoing public disclosure; and (iii) by registrants.
Examples of Burden Reduction Submissions to the CSA
The CSA received 57 comment letters in response to CSA Staff Notice - 51-404. The following are examples of burden reduction recommendations that were submitted to the CSA by various commentators:
Facilitating the initial public offering process (IPO) to allow for:
confidential filings of preliminary prospectuses, similar to the process permitted by the Securities and Exchange Commission in the United States;
reduced historical financial statement requirements; and
more certainty with respect to businesses acquired prior to the IPO that are deemed to constitute a "primary business," including bright line tests for greater certainty and transparency and/ or reduced historical disclosure requirements;
Modernizing the policies regarding the dissemination of information to reflect advancements in technology and changes in investors' consumption of information;
Eliminating overlap in IFRS and MD&A disclosure requirements and duplicative requirements for director information and risk factors in various continuous disclosure documents;
Increasing the thresholds for non-venture issuers to trigger the requirement to file a "business acquisition report" or reducing the requirements with respect to such reports, including eliminating the requirement in certain industries;
Eliminating superfluous filing requirements in the short-form prospectus offering system and further facilitating "at-the-market" offerings;
Enhancing the electronic delivery of documents and implementing an "access equals delivery" model; and
Considering a semiannual (as opposed to quarterly) reporting regime.
The CSA's On-going Policy Projects Following its Public Consultation
As previously mentioned, following the public consultation process and considering stakeholders submissions, the CSA announced in CSA Staff Notice 51-353 that it intended to pursue the following six policy projects in the near term:
Exploring potential alternative prospectus models;
Facilitating "at-the-market" offerings;
Revisiting the historical financial statements required to be included in an IPO prospectus;
Removing or modifying the criteria to file a "business acquisition report";
Revisiting continuous disclosure documents with an aim to eliminate burden while enhancing usefulness and understandability for investors; and
Enhancing the electronic delivery of documents.
The CSA noted that there are a number of steps that must occur in connection with any changes in light of the harmonized regime adopted by the CSA and there can be no assurance that any changes will ultimately be adopted in any of the CSA jurisdictions.
The OSC's burden reduction initiative is potentially welcome news for businesses participating in Ontario's capital markets as well as businesses contemplating an initial public offering or go-public transaction. The initiative may also be taken as a signal that the OSC may be willing to be a leader in the national effort to reduce regulatory burdens.
Comments on the OSC initiative are due by March 1, 2019. The OSC indicates that it will then identify a series of short, medium and long-term actions to reduce unnecessary burden and host a roundtable on March 27, 2019 to engage in an open discussion about the proposals being considered and any issues identified.
For further information on how you can participate in the OSC's burden reduction initiative, please contact a member of the Stikeman Elliott Securities Practice Group.
DISCLAIMER: This publication is intended to convey general information about legal issues and developments as of the indicated date. It does not constitute legal advice and must not be treated or relied on as such. Please read our full disclaimer at www.stikeman.com/legal-notice.
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Report: Chiefs agree to 3-year extension with wide receiver Tyreek Hill
According to NFL Network's Ian Rapoport, the Kansas City Chiefs and wide receiver Tyreek Hill have agreed to terms on a three-year contract extension.
(KANSAS CITY, Mo.)— According to NFL Network's Ian Rapoport, the Kansas City Chiefs and wide receiver Tyreek Hill have agreed to terms on a three-year contract extension.
The deal is reportedly worth $54 million and will put Hill among the highest-paid receivers in the league.
Tyreek Hill is entering the final year of his rookie deal and with this extension, the Chiefs will not have to use the franchise tag in 2020.
Chiefs announce agreement on 3-year contract extension with Tyreek Hill
Chiefs wide receiver Tyreek Hill ruled out for Sunday's game against Oakland
Chiefs wide receiver Tyreek Hill returns to practice in limited role
UPDATE: No charges in Tyreek Hill investigation
Criminal case against Tyreek Hill reopened
Tyreek Hill not suspended by NFL
Tyreek Hill suffers bruised quad at training camp practice
Chiefs HC Andy Reid on WR Tyreek Hill: "I don't have anything further to tell you"
Chiefs trade up in 2nd round to select wide receiver
Kansas City shooting leaves 2 dead, possibly including gunman, and 15 others injured


Yamaha prices in Fiji with Bulacars.
Buy new or used Yamaha cars in Fiji from FJD 8500, that you can negotiate locally with the seller. Yamaha is one of the most popular brands of cars available for sale in Fiji. Get your next Yamaha car at the best available price with Bulacars from verified dealers, professional car dealers and independent local sellers.


Los Angeles: Actor Antonio Banderas is set to play a master of fraud in "Beyond the Edge".
The actioner, being directed by Aleksandr Boguslavskiy, marks the third film tie-up between Banderas and AMBI Media Group, reports hollywoodreporter.com.
They previously collaborated on "The Music of Silence" and "Black Butterfly". Both films are currently in post-production.
Being shot in Italy, Russia and Georgia, "Beyond the Edge" sees Banderas's character forced to come to the aid of his son, a master thief with plans to rob a casino. When his son's plans are foiled by an adversary with an identical agenda, but seemingly supernatural abilities, the only route to success is to assemble a team with telekinetic, hypnotic and telepathic powers of their own to carry out the heist.


The earth is heating and it will continue to heat up until we make a change. The global temperature is expected to rise another 2 degrees celsius on top of the 2 degrees that we have increased since 1977. That's a total of 3.6 degrees fahrenheit. If the temperature does continue to rise(which it will) then not only will our environment suffer, but the animals will suffer from it also. Some animals are already suffering from the temperature change such as polar bears,frogs, and birds. This is forcing the species to act differently and is changing their behaviours immensely.
Birds are nesting,breeding, and migrating a lot earlier due to climate change. The species in habitats that disappear completely are the species that are in the most danger. It is a possibility that the animals can adjust quick enough to the climate change because they have adjusted before. This time it is happening a lot quicker than the species are used to. Polar bears are having to change what they eat on a daily basis because due to ice freezing and melting earlier than its supposed to.
Global warming affects us in many ways. Climate change makes areas dryer and is make it easier for fires to start. Sea levels are rising and oceans are heating further endangering fish, coral, and other living organisms in the ocean. Climate change also has an impact on turtles and where they lay their eggs. Climate change also cause malaria carrying mosquitos to migrate closer to us putting us in danger. We need to change what we're doing in order to save not only the animals, but to save ourselves.