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Premier League Leeds United suffered a shock 3-0 defeat by fourth-tier Crawley Town in the FA Cup third round on Sunday.
Leeds manager Marcelo Bielsa fielded a strong line-up for the trip to West Sussex but League Two Crawley, a non-league club until nine years ago, produced the biggest upset of the round.
Nick Tsaroulla stunned the Yorkshire side in the 50th minute with a superb individual goal as he wriggled free of his marker and burst goalwards before drilling the ball into the far corner.
Three minutes later Ashley Nadesan doubled the advantage, breaking into the box on the right and driving a low shot which Leeds keeper Kiko Casilla failed to keep out at his near post.
The third came when Nadesan's low drive was saved by Casilla at close-range but Jordan Tannicliffe pounced to smash the ball home.
Meanwhile Manchester City produced a polished performance to outclass Birmingham and reach the FA Cup fourth round.
The hosts were without striker Sergio Aguero, who did not even make the squad despite pre-match promises he would start, but two early goals by Bernardo Silva put them in full control and Phil Foden's strike put the tie beyond doubt before half-time.
Pep Guardiola's side, who beat Manchester United on Wednesday to reach the Carabao Cup final, took things easier in the second half but still dominated possession and gave Bernardo enough chances to complete his hat-trick.
Birmingham were on the back foot from the start, and fell behind when they could only clear Joao Cancelo's clipped pass into the path of Bernardo, who expertly steered the bouncing ball into the top corner with a fierce first-time shot.
Another superb passing move soon after gave Bernardo his second goal, this time with a tap-in from Kevin de Bruyne's pull-back.
The Belgian was in majestic form and opened up the Birmingham defence time and time again before Riyad Mahrez fed Foden to make it 3-0 from the edge of the area.
That advantage was always going to be enough to see off a Birmingham side who are 18th in the Championship and had lost five of their previous six league games, failing to score in the past three.
Birmingham took until the 34th minute to test Zack Steffen through George Friend's deflected shot, but almost got a late consolation when substitute Jeremie Bela blasted just over the bar from 25 yards out.
Elsewhere Last season's FA Cup runners-up Chelsea returned to winning ways, comfortably beating League Two Morecambe to reach the fourth round on Sunday.
More in this category: « Inter's Hakimi nets stunner as Roma score late in thrilling draw. Original Soweto derby between Pirates, Swallows ends in stalemate. »


Posted August 19, 2014, 4:25 pm Howard LeWine, M.D., Chief Medical Editor, Internet Publishing, Harvard Health Publications Screening is an important part of routine medical care. Screening means checking a seemingly healthy person for signs of hidden disease. It is routinely done for various types of cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and other chronic conditions.


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The Brymill Cryo Tweezers have been designed for the localized treatment of Skin Tags. By using the Brymill Cryo Tweezers you can control freezing easily and accurately. Supplied with a Delrin Cup Holder and 10 Foam Cups.


The EUSAAP is pleased to announce that is has received a Jean Monnet funding grant from the Education and Culture Directorate General of the European Commission to the value of €50,000 for our upcoming annual conference to take place from the 17th – 19th of February 2011 in Thailand. For further details please see our events page.
A university student support scheme on EU integration this year marks two decades of helping new member states and candidate countries grow accustomed to European Union history, law and economics.
Named after a French entrepreneur who in the aftermath of the Second World War played a key-role in the creation of what later became the European Union, the Jean Monnet programme was introduced in 1989 to help universities set up departments and courses on European studies.
It has since expanded to 62 countries all over the world and reaches 250,000 students every year, with an annual budget of over €23 million.
The EUSA-AP has received a 50,000 euro grant to host the Asia-Pacific Studies Conference, Christchurch, September 25-27 2008.


The internet weighs in on Nicki's "No Frauds" feat. Drake & Lil Wayne. Nicki Minaj threw the kitchen sink at Remy Ma in her new diss track "No Frauds," and it's clear all she cares about is numbers. The diss was riddled with references to her comparative wealth and commercial success. (She responded to "shETHER" by alluding to the poor first-week performance of Remy's album Plato o Plomo.) She then asked fans to send her screenshots of the iTunes chart position of "No Frauds" in various countries, and concluded by challenging Remy to drop a hit within 72 hours. Here's how Twitter is reacting to "No Frauds."


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The study of Business and Management covers a broad understanding of business administration and business management, and a plethora of subject-specific knowledge in marketing, communications, human resources, supply chain management and others.
In the brisk pace of Singapore's business world, capable leaders are in high demand and reportedly, in short supply1. 79% of HR decision makers report difficulty in acquiring Business leaders, whose annual salaries can go up to S$185K2.
There is also strong growth and positive hiring outlooks across sectors such as in supply chain and logistics, where we see new PMET jobs by 2020, that data-driven Human Resource practitioners with strong consultancy skills will be highly sought after, and that Regional Marketing Directors can command salaries up to $216K.3
At Kaplan, the Best Private Education Institution in Business and Management4, you have many options for a business management Degree to suit your interests, or for career advancement. You can expect our wide range of business and management programmes to focus on real-world applications, core business principles and strategies, and extensive knowledge to provide you thorough education for you to become effective professionals, entrepreneurs and business leaders.
Find your niche. Talk to us today.
1 The Business Times article, 24 September 2016
2 Robert Half 2018 Singapore Salary Guide
3 Kelly Services and Capita Singapore 2018 Salary Guide; Human Resources Director Asia article, 19 Sept 2018
4 Awarded to Kaplan Higher Education Institute by JobsCentral Learning T.E.D. Awards 2018
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Charlyn Lim Zi Yu
Business Development Executive, Financial Sector
"Royal Holloway, University of London 1st Class Honours Graduate (2020) In comparison to other universities, Royal Holloway, University of London is a member of the University of London (UOL) federation and offers the opportunit..." Read More
Programme taken: Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Management with Marketing (Top-up)
Royal Holloway, University of London 1st Class Honours Graduate (2020)
In comparison to other universities, Royal Holloway, University of London is a member of the University of London (UOL) federation and offers the opportunity to achieve a direct Honours Degree with Distinction. The University also offers dual specialisation programmes, allowing me to study for two majors instead of one, giving me a competitive edge over my peers. This was the best of both worlds, so I opted to study a Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Management with Marketing (Top-up) Degree programme with RHUL.
I liked how the texts provided in this programme reflect current business and marketing trends, enabling me to comprehend industry-relevant theories, business models and practices. Our group projects were industry-focused instead of academic-focused, honing our creative thinking, and we were taught to consider what potential clients would like instead of what our professors would want to see. In a way, I felt that the classroom simulated an actual working environment and that the various group assignments allowed me to learn to work with people of different backgrounds, who would bring different insights to the team, similar to how we would work with diverse colleagues in the working world.
Another benefit of this programme is that it is based on the UK's curriculum, meaning that its context is international and not limited to just Singapore. This opens your eyes to the global trends and equips you with insights of the different business landscapes around the world.
Studying this Degree programme has allowed some of my new clients and business associates/partners to form a better impression of me. For example, when I am consulted on certain matters, the Degree title on my business card gives them the confidence to be more receptive to my business proposals. I have managed to achieve a 20% pay increment from my previous sales position to a new role that I have applied for in the same company.
Cheong Yuen Thim
Manager of Air Export Operations for Cargo, Dnata Singapore Pte Ltd
"Birmingham City University is my educational provider of choice as it is recognised as a Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning. I strongly believe that, with its renowned branding and dedicated teaching staff, I am able to excel and ignit..." Read More
Programme taken: Bachelor of Arts (Honours) International Business (Top-up)
Birmingham City University is my educational provider of choice as it is recognised as a Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning. I strongly believe that, with its renowned branding and dedicated teaching staff, I am able to excel and ignite my creativity in learning. Also, I am deeply passionate about the Major in International Business that is offered by BCU. The programme's syllabus is comprehensive, and the lecturers are specialised in their area of expertise.
The study schedule at BCU fits my current work and personal lifestyle. The classes are after my office hours on weekdays, and the weekends are free for me to spend time with family while also revising and catching up on my studies. The study schedule of 3 days of continuous study with the following week off fits perfectly and is awesome!
The programme's lecturers have introduced me to the theoretical side of the modules, as well as to practical approaches for applying these theories into action in the real world. They have also posited that the world is ever-changing and that continuous improvisation is important for success in the future. Globalisation is the key, encompassing Global + Localisation.
I chose to work first and study later. However, I realised that, in my current role and for future promotion opportunities, a paper qualification from a recognised educational provider like BCU is necessary to jumpstart my career again. I believe that it is never too late to do so, and it has been a joyful journey with BCU at Kaplan!
Jenny Sim
Client Adviser, Finance Industry
"University College Dublin, 1st Class Honours Graduate (2020) Before I decided to enrol with University College Dublin (UCD), I had done research on several other universities. When I spoke to a UCD consultant, I was quite impre..." Read More
Programme taken: Bachelor of Business Studies (Honours) in Marketing (Top-up)
University College Dublin, 1st Class Honours Graduate (2020)
Before I decided to enrol with University College Dublin (UCD), I had done research on several other universities. When I spoke to a UCD consultant, I was quite impressed with the University's rankings, and I like the fact that some of its lecturers are flown in from the university to teach here.
Throughout the course, we had numerous group assignments and had to work with different people. I feel that this helps to reinforce skills that are relevant to both group and individual work. In a way, it prepares us to work in a team setting that is relevant to the workforce. Studying this programme has helped me qualify for a role I was looking for, despite having to juggle caring for my son, spending time with my family and studying. I appreciate the soft skills learnt through the group assignments.
Overall, I had a great learning experience thanks to my lecturers and peers, and I enjoyed my time at UCD. This course has been the highlight of my experience, and I have made good friends throughout the course. I also appreciate that the campus location is centrally located.
Kannan LK
Senior Executive, Service Industry
"It has been a life goal of mine to achieve a Postgraduate Degree. I believe that this Master of Business Administration Degree I've obtained, would help enhance my leadership skills to lead a team. The knowledge gained from this Degree programm..." Read More
Programme taken: Master of Business Administration
It has been a life goal of mine to achieve a Postgraduate Degree. I believe that this Master of Business Administration Degree I've obtained, would help enhance my leadership skills to lead a team.
The knowledge gained from this Degree programme's modules have taught me what the industry best practices are and how to apply various techniques to my own leadership style. I also appreciate how the programme gave me the opportunity to network with people from various industries and career paths, and I would say that this was the best part of the programme. From a management and leadership perspective, I am now equipped with the knowledge to better practice my leadership qualities in both my career and personal life. In addition to enhancing my knowledge, I have acquired different perspectives on leadership.
Juggling work and study was a challenge. However, I believe that anyone in a management position should take up this Postgraduate Degree programme.
Ng Li Pin
Assistant Manager, a Charitable Organisation
"University College Dublin, 2nd Class Honours Graduate (2020) As a working adult, choosing the right university to enrol with is a massive undertaking as there are many factors to take into consideration. University College Dubl..." Read More
Programme taken: Bachelor of Business Studies (Honours) in Human Resource Management (Top-up)
University College Dublin, 2nd Class Honours Graduate (2020)
As a working adult, choosing the right university to enrol with is a massive undertaking as there are many factors to take into consideration. University College Dublin (UCD), Ireland's largest university, is ranked within the top 1% of higher education institutions globally* and ranked high in the world for Graduate Employability, which meant it undoubtedly topped my list.
What attracted me to choose UCD's Bachelor of Business Studies (Honours) in Human Resource Management (Top-up) Degree programme was its mode of delivery and assessment methods, as well as the possibility of completion within 18 months, which suited my busy schedule.
This programme has equipped me with the skills to manage stakeholders from different cultures and backgrounds, especially in today's globalised and diverse workplace. Furthermore, it helped me stay relevant in this challenging business environment.
Upon completing my programme, I managed to progress in my career and land my current role as an Assistant Manager. I would recommend UCD as the quality of the lecturers exceeded my satisfaction and because the classes are conducted in a block manner, make it easier for working students to plan around it.
*Times Higher Education 2020
Lim Wan Xuan
HR Executive, Fintech Industry
"Royal Holloway, University of London, 1st Class Honours Graduate (2020) On top of the HR knowledge I apply in my current job, I am also passionate about International Business. Therefore, I chose to study with a Bachelor of Sci..." Read More
Programme taken: Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Management with International Business (Top-up)
Royal Holloway, University of London, 1st Class Honours Graduate (2020)
On top of the HR knowledge I apply in my current job, I am also passionate about International Business. Therefore, I chose to study with a Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Management with International Business (Top-up) Degree programme with Royal Holloway, University of London as it offered an opportunity for me to expand my knowledge about different business management practices in various countries and widen my career path by not limiting myself to a single specialisation. Also, RHUL is highly regarded for its Business and Management faculty.
I feel that the RHUL and Kaplan lecturers who taught us are meticulous and patient. They always provide their full support to us and will spend time after class to explain to us and answer our queries until we understand concepts. They also use real-life examples and share their experiences with us, allowing us to better understand specific modules or topics and how to apply them in our work.
Time management and self-discipline are important lessons I've learned studying this programme part-time, resulting in me being able to perform my job more effectively and efficiently within a tight timeline. Upon completing this programme, I found a new job as an HR Executive and received a 20% salary increase as a result.
Teo Lishi
"University College Dublin, First Class Honours Graduate (2020) I opted to enrol with University College Dublin as it is recognised worldwide, and its programme structure is customised for full-time working professionals like my..." Read More
Programme taken: Bachelor of Business Studies (Honours) in Logistics and Supply Chain Management (Top-up)
University College Dublin, First Class Honours Graduate (2020)
I opted to enrol with University College Dublin as it is recognised worldwide, and its programme structure is customised for full-time working professionals like myself.
This programme has given me the exposure to other functions of supply chain, and I have thus developed interests in areas outside of my current job scope, such as project management and lean management. This has expanded my employment opportunities as I am more willing and ready to take on new responsibilities.
The knowledge I gained from the programme also encourages me to think out-of-the-box and find better ways to improve my productivity at work. Through better understanding of the rationale behind practices in the workplace, it is easier for me to identify the bottlenecks and close the gaps in them.
Overall, this programme is very part-timer friendly. The coursework is more manageable, and the duration is shorter as compared to other schools. Therefore, it is extremely suitable for those who wish to pursue further studies while holding a full-time job.
Wai Hui Ying
Sales Consultant, Ricoh (Singapore) Pte Ltd
"As I was already studying for a Kaplan Diploma in Commerce then, I aimed to take up a Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Business Administration (Top-up) Degree programme to continue my learning and development. This assignment-based course includes si..." Read More
Programme taken: Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Business Administration (Top-up)
As I was already studying for a Kaplan Diploma in Commerce then, I aimed to take up a Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Business Administration (Top-up) Degree programme to continue my learning and development.
This assignment-based course includes six classes per subject, with a deadline of a month for each assignment. As a part-time student, it was quite reasonable for me as there was enough time to complete the assignments. Being assignment-based meant I had more time to prepare, and I could still enjoy a work-life balance even during my studies.
I feel that this Degree qualification has been crucial for my career advancement and I am grateful for choosing BCU to study my Degree with. It was a challenge to be a part-time student, but it made me more confident in speaking and writing English, and even making friends! It has also improved my performance in my Sales Consultant job as well!
I'm thankful that BCU accepted me as their student, and I'm proud to be a First Class Honours graduate.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Play With Our Site Dog, Goldie!
Hello, So, I'm Milla, I love sims and horses and I breed Anglo Arabs+ Akhal Tekes. If you're wondering, why Piper Bonita? Well, Piper is my little Westie cross Coton de tulear dog and I thought her name would fit well in a title :) Unfortunately, I do not own any real life horses, though I do enjoy riding. Another note, I'm also a dog lover so don't be surprised if I start wittering on about dogs and agility xD. This is my first website :D I do now own 2 websites though, this one and Piper Bonita Kennels . I have a 7 year old sister who also loves dogs and horses.
I speak- English, Brazilian Portuguese ( can't write it though) and some french.
Here I will be posting lots of pictures for fun :D. None of the horses on this site are real, and nor is the equestrian center, it's all made up in game :) Personally, my favorite horse was Domino cause he's so pretty <3 And English Springer Spaniels are my absolutely favorite dog breed! :D And I love Arabs :) Well there you go, info suits the title xD Also, I will be honest, I've been playing Sims since I was 8 or 7... xD But I only played Sims 2 up until last year (2011) when pets came out... I've tried playing Sims 2 recently but it's just so boring without proper horses!


Business Performance Management - Acxius Strategic Consulting, LLC.
Rethink yesterday's strategies - for tomorrow's successes – "Measure Performance"
Business Performance Management is not a one-time deal, instead it is an evolving, continuous, ongoing process - part of the inherent daily effort of today's business leaders. It's all about "connecting the dots", leveraging the resources an organization already has, measuring performance, and generating the innovative strategies necessary for continued improvement and thus achieve "Success".
The biggest challenge which most organizations face today is embracing change initiatives, such as Performance-based Management which requires the commitment and leadership of senior management, technology and performance management process throughout the organization, and clear strategic plans.
While this and other activities are happening in most smart organizations, business performance management has evolved from a simple collection of "Key Performance Indicators" (KPI's), which helps senior business leaders map and monitor their strategic plans – to be the fundamental requirement for achieving success and remaining competitive in today's market.
Effective enterprise business performance encompasses the process, methodology, metrics and technologies for an enterprise to - measure, monitor and manage business performance from each of its distinct business entities using a holistic approach. Some of the Best Practice solutions are – alignment and measurement of Organizational initiatives around KPI, Dashboard and KPI, Business Process Improvement and Continuous M-M-M (monitor, measure and manage). Our robust, proven Business Performance Management Practice delivers this vital component. Find out how we can help you resolve your organization's business performance management challenges – and take your business to the next level in the process.


build analytical building models to account for the three dimensional response of earthquake resistant structures including seismic torsion.
capacity design principles in the design of reinforced concrete members.
Lectures, handouts, OHP presentations. Examples of damage to real structures due to strong earthquakes. Examples laboratory tests of structural members under cyclic loading to simulate seismic response. Use of the computer program SAP2000 (student version) for the threedimensional analysis of earthquake resistant structures.
Introduction to Eurocode 2 – Design of concrete structures (including seismic actions), D. Beckett & A. Alexandrou.
The module deals with practical earthquake engineering dynamics to estimate the expected loads in earthquake resistant structures. It also covers fundamental issues of seismic design of concrete structures.


Aldo Gliozzi takes over from Piero Maccanti in the direction of AssoconciatoriThe Tanner Association of Santa Croce sull'Arno renews its leadership and greets Piero Maccanti, who has been in office since 1994.
Piero Maccanti leaves the leadership of the Tanner Association of Santa Croce sull'Arno, after having guided it for 25 years. Now the helm passes to Aldo Gliozzi, assistant manager since 2001 and who is in the associative field since 1997.
The new director, 50 years old, has been in office since February 1st and comments on what he defines as a 'continuity' rotation: "I thank the Presidency and the Council members for their trust. On the basis of the experience gained from those who preceded me, we will face a lot of work to do, strengthening the support to associated tanneries in particular on issues of current interest such as circular economy, professional training and sustainability at 360 degrees".
International certification, collaboration, sustainability and an important project for the 2019 Design na Pele tradeshow, in collaboration with an Italian company. Here's just a few of the points touched upon in this interview with Rafael Andrade of CICB.
A long-term vision focused on efficiency, quality, and guarantees for customers and society as a whole guided the creation of the Brazilian Leather Certification of Sustainability (CSCB).
Talent Shoe 2018: under-25s from all over Europe awarded for their creativity. Thus does the footwear sector gather ideas from the young generations on shoes and on the shoe factories of the future.


At some point during childhood you were probably entertained with the fantastic tales of an eerie neighborhood house rumored to be haunted. Or perhaps you were the one propagating those rumors. Children, though, aren't considering that any stigma attached to such a house due to the frightening stories may affect the owner's ability to sell or rent the house at reasonable prices. It may also lead unwitting buyers into a tangled web of supernatural folklore and ghost hunting visitors. As unfortunate as this may be, let's hope for the sake of humanity that younger children today are still telling ghost stories without first calculating any future economic risk.
Georgia is a caveat emptor (or "buyer beware") state, which means sellers generally have fewer disclosure obligations than sellers in other states. However, neither owner nor agent can deny or mislead a prospective buyer if they ask certain questions, such as those regarding the topics of murder or death. While Georgia generally doesn't impose an obligation to inform prospective buyers of stigma or rumor attached to property, other states have more interesting rules. The most colorful example of this is from New York, which also happens to be where the Amityville House is located.
The Village of Nyack lies on the banks of the Hudson River about 30 miles north of Manhattan. This part of the lower Hudson Valley is an epicenter of paranormal folklore and was often the setting of author Washington Irving's many stories. In fact, Nyack sits across the Hudson River from Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow, the setting of Irving's The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.
As is often the case, these stories led to a legal battle. Soon after Jeffrey Stambovsky entered into a contract to purchase the property in 1990, he was aghast to find that the house had a reputation for being haunted. Being from Manhattan, he wasn't aware of the local folklore surrounding the house. He must have also missed the May 1977 issue of Reader's Digest.
Mr. Stambovsky attempted to back out of the contract, but a state court in Manhattan dismissed his case. That's fortunate for us because it led to a spirited opinion by Justice Rubin of the New York Appellate Court. After finding that Mr. Stambovsky "hadn't a ghost of chance" in a fraudulent misrepresentation claim against the seller, Justice Rubin ruled that Mr. Stambovsky could seek to rescind the contract and recover his down payment ($32,000). Here, the court drew a distinction between the buyer being able to seek damages at law (fraudulent misrepresentation) and the buyer being able to seek a return to their original state through equity (rescission of contract).
So be careful before you embark on a multi-decade endeavor to convince the public that your house is haunted. But then again, there's probably someone out there looking for a good haunted house.
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STREET LIGHT RECOVERY -- UPDATE (October 2019)
City crews are working diligently to repair, re-energize and reactivate fire-damaged street lights. As requests are received from residents to re-energize lights at specific locations, City crews will investigate and attempt to repair and re-energize the lights.Unfortunately, certain street lights cannot be immediately repaired and turned back on due to various circumstances -- the following information provides the latest streetlight restoration status update by street and/or neighborhood area:
Hidden Valley: Over the past few months, city crews repaired and re-energized 38 lights in the Hidden Valley neighborhood, with three remaining lights waiting on PG&E to complete their work.
Rincon Ridge: Crews were able to reactivate 40 lights throughout various parts of the neighborhood. Preparation work has been completed on an additional 30 viable street lights waiting on delivery of the acrylic globes, which are expected to arrive by mid-October. As the streetlights are repaired and reactivated, the high-pressure sodium fixtures are being replaced with more efficient LED fixtures. Unfortunately, some of the street lights in the area were damaged beyond repair and will require complete replacement of the pole, wiring, fixture and globe.
Crown Hill and adjacent cul-de-sac streets: 47 street lights have been activated.
Fir Ridge and South Ridge: The City has put a contract out to bid that includes approximately 40 street light replacements of wooden poles destroyed in the fire.
Parker Hill Road: City crews are focused on re-energizing streetlights.
Skyfarm: The unique carriage fixtures located in Skyfarm that were damaged during the fires have proven difficult to replace. Staff are actively working with a vendor to test and confirm functionality and appropriate fit of potential replacement options for the damaged carriage fixtures.
Coffey Park: The street light infrastructure system design is complete for Coffey Park and the City has put a contract out to bid. The light poles and fixtures are on hand and ready for installation once the contractor is selected and begins construction. The existing temporary light poles will be removed once the replacement poles are installed and energized, which is expected to be completed June 2020.
STREET LIGHT RECOVERY -- UPDATE (June 2019)
Over 500 city-owned street lights were damaged during the Tubbs Fire. Staff has been working closely with PG&E to re-energize both individual and groups of streetlights when requested by residents and where possible, due to confirmation that the electrical infrastructure is intact. Where the infrastructure is not intact, the City has established a phased recovery prioritization process to rebuild, re-energize, and where necessary, to redesign the system.
Post-fire recovery prioritization has been strategically assessed based on immediate need for citizen's health and safety. Restoring water quality to the affected advisory area was assessed as the highest priority, and the City worked closely with State and Federal regulatory agencies for a year to replace the damaged water delivery system, lifting the water quality advisory in the fire-impacted Fountaingrove neighborhoods on October 11, 2018.
Beginning in the Summer of 2018, and due to the significant number of rebuilding permits issued in the Coffey Park neighborhood, staff began coordinating closely with PG&E working to rebuild and redesign the street light service connections to ensure that street lighting is restored as residents begin to move back into their rebuilt homes. Since PG&E needed to replace their entire underground system, they installed overhead poles with street lights to provide service to the properties in the rebuild process. During the initial phase of the street light recovery project, PG&E severed a majority of the existing street light service connections in the Coffey Park area. City staff worked with PG&E to rectify the service point connections; however, follow-up inspections found many missing street light service points and missing conduit, allowing for only a small percentage of street lights to be energized. Once the City has completed restoring service connections and replacing damaged street light hardware, PG&E will then begin removing the temporary overhead lights. This work is well underway.
PG&E has now begun working in both the Fountaingrove and Hidden Valley neighborhoods to replace and repair their damaged infrastructure. This has allowed City staff to conduct a detailed investigation of damaged service lines and equipment, which wrapped up early April. That investigation provided staff with a clear understanding of the level of damage caused to the underground electrical system as well as the poles, fixtures and globes. With this information, staff has begun working to restore groups of street lights where the underground infrastructure is intact. In many cases, PG&E has de-energized service lines throughout Fountaingrove due lack of activity on many lots and over the past year they have been working with the City on a case-by-case basis to energize individual street lights. Based on the recent investigation, PG&E and the City will be able to restore more street lights in the Fountaingrove and Hidden Valley neighborhoods in the coming weeks, with crews restoring 45 street lights this week; 15 having been repaired and energized in Fountaingrove and 30 repaired in Hidden Valley awaiting PG&E to energize the service lines.
Due to the significant number of disasters nationwide that resulted in damaged street lights and recent tariffs placed on steel, delivery time for new street light poles is exceeding 16 weeks. Staff proactively purchased over 200 cobra-head style poles and fixtures in November that arrived into the Corporation Yard last week. A majority of these are scheduled to be installed in Coffey Park with the others slated for areas in Fountaingrove and Hidden Valley that had these pole and fixture types. The City will not be reinstalling wood pole carriage lights due to their susceptibility of burning during an urban wildfire. Therefore, staff has identified and selected a metallic version of the carriage light in an effort to balance improving long term durability with the original aesthetic of the community. New fixtures and globes are currently on order for the post-top style fixtures that are located throughout most of Fountaingrove. Staff is utilizing existing stock to address as many of those locations where the underground infrastructure is still intact. Based on the anticipated material delivery timelines and aside from those areas that had wooden street light poles, we anticipate being able to restore a majority of the damaged street lights by Fall of this year.
A key component of this work has been the coordination and project development with CalOES and FEMA. While the project description was easily determined, the financing authority and eligible FEMA reimbursement has been extremely complicated and is still outstanding.
Residents may request a street light be evaluated for viable re-energization by contacting the City Street Light Hotline 707-543-4305. For accuracy and efficiency, when reporting an outage, it is recommended that the street light pole number located on the front of the pole facing the street be provided.
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The Wilson administration's war on Russian Bolshevism
By Jeremy Kuzmarov
Did we declare war upon Russia
when we took a hand in the game
I know that we hopped onto Prussia
And Austria got the same.
But still I have no recollection
Of breaking with Russia, I swear
And cannot help making objection,
To having our boys over there
What quarrel have we with that nation?
Just how did it tread on our toes?
— "What About Bringing Them Home," poem by Michigander George Smith, 1919.[1]
"Why are you fighting us American? We are all brothers. We are all working men. You American boys are shedding your blood away up here in Russia and I ask you for what reason? My friends, and comrades, you should be back home for the war with Germany is over and you have no war with us. The co-workers of the world are uniting against capitalism why are you being kept here, can you answer that question? No. We don't want to fight you. But we do want to fight the capitalists and your officers are capitalists."
— Bolshevik orator in forests near Kadish in northern Russia, January 1919, site of a major battle.[2]
"The Time You Sent Troops to Quell the Revolution"
Soldiers and sailors from many countries, including the U.S., parade in front of the Allied Headquarters Building, Vladivostok, Russia, Sept. 1918 (National Archives photo)
The United States invasion of Russia remains a hidden dimension of U.S. policy in the Great War, marking the beginning of a long Cold War. In August 1918, three months prior to the Armistice, the Wilson administration sent several platoons of U.S. soldiers into Russia to aid in the overthrow of the new Bolshevik government, which had come to power in the October Revolution of 1917. The operation was carried out alongside British, French, Canadian and Japanese forces in support of White Army counter-revolutionaries whose generals were implicated in wide-scale atrocities, including pogroms against Jews. This "Midnight War" was carried out illegally, without the consent of Congress. The Commanding General in Siberia, William S. Graves thought that his mission was to protect a delegation of Czech troops and the Trans-Siberian railway and to serve as a mediator. He was disappointed to learn that in fact the United States was enmeshed in another country's civil war and came to oppose the whole operation. In his memoirs, he expressed "doubt if history will record in the past century a more flagrant case of flouting the well-known and approved practice in states in their international relations, and using instead of the accepted principles of international law, the principle of might makes right."[3]
The National World War I museum in Kansas City has only a tiny backroom display devoted to the U.S. intervention in Russia. The display claims that American soldiers in Archangel "found themselves fighting the Bolshevik Red Guards as well as the anti-bolshevists," which is inaccurate. A separate discussion of Siberia claims that U.S. soldiers performed guard duty and protected the railways from Bolshevik forces and that they "followed Wilson's policy of non-aggression closely, only fighting small-scale but fierce actions when provoked, resulting in 170 American dead."[4] These comments do not properly capture the nature of the war, with no mention at all of the legion of atrocities that were committed or General Graves' dissent.
In his classic two-volume history of the Cold War, Denna Frank Fleming wrote:
For the American people, the cosmic tragedy of the intervention in Russia does not exist, or it was an unimportant incident, long forgotten. But for the Soviet people and their leaders the period was a time of endless killing, of looting and raping, of plague and famine, of measureless suffering for scores of millions – an experience burned into the very soul of the nation, not to be forgotten for many generations if ever. Also, for many years, the harsh Soviet regimentation could all be justified by fear that the Capitalist power would be back to finish the job. It is not strange that in an address in New York, September 17, 1959, Premier Khrushchev should remind us of the interventions, "the time you sent the troops to quell the revolution," as he put it.[5]
These comments suggest that the U.S. invasion carried out at the end of World War I helped poison U.S.-Russian/Soviet relations and contributed significantly to the outbreak of Cold War hostilities. It is thus another manifestation of the folly of American intervention in the Great War, since without a U.S. troop presence in Europe, the invasion of Russia would have been impossible.
U.S. intervention in Russia
The Bolshevik drive to nationalize industry and seize foreign assets was ideologically and economically anathema to the United States, which in 1917 held investments of over $658.9 million in the country, up from $26.5 million in 1913. Historian William Appleman Williams noted that almost all products of American industry were sold in Russia. Baldwin locomotives and U.S. Steel made the Trans-Siberian railway and Chinese eastern railways "in all [their] essentials." The House of J. P. Morgan had given "great impetus to the rise of direct investments" after helping set up the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce in 1916. International Harvester, which controlled the Russian market for agricultural machinery, even requested through the U.S. ambassador for the intervention of the Tsarist government to break a strike. On the eve of the revolution, Dean E. F Gray of the Harvard Business School considered "Russia an inviting field for American business enterprise," which the Bolshevik takeover threatened.[6]
The Russian revolution unfolded in two phases. In February 1917, the Tsar was overthrown and Aleksander Kerensky established a liberal provisional revolutionary government. It was deeply unpopular because Kerensky kept Russian forces fighting in the Great War on the side of the Allies when they had begun to mutiny, and refused to meet the demand for land and wealth redistribution. Following a counter-revolutionary putsch by Lavr Kornilov, whom the New York Times heralded as "the strong man who would deliver Russia from her tribulations," the Bolsheviks seized the Winter Palace in November 1917 led by Leon Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin, who envisioned the creation of a classless utopian society.[7]
Horrified by the Bolsheviks, American liberals, as Christopher Lasch detailed in The American Liberals and the Russian Revolution (1962), were enthusiastic about Kerensky's bourgeois revolution because it removed a symbol of Russia's political backwardness and chief stumbling block to America's effective participation in the Great War on the side of the Allies. The February revolution, Lasch notes, "purified the allied cause," enabling its supporters to conceive of it better without reservations as a "conflict between the principle of democracy and the principle of autocracy," as The Springfield Republic declared.[8]
To keep Russia in the war, the Wilson administration extended tens of millions in credits for armaments and military supplies to Kerensky's government, with J.P. Morgan also raising money in direct support of his cause. The influential diplomat George Kennan Sr., author of an exposé of the Tsarist criminal justice system that depicted Russia in the darkest of possible light, lost patience with Kerensky because of his unwillingness to undertake a thorough purge of the opposition. Kennan hoped for the emergence of a "strong man" who would forcibly suppress every trace of radicalism in Russia. He lamented the Bolsheviks' strong urge for peace, fearing they would use their popularity in ending the war to proceed with their "crazy plan" for "turning Russia upside down with the proletariat on top."[9]
Secretary of State Robert Lansing, a corporate lawyer married to the daughter of Secretary of State John Foster (making him the uncle of John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles) was similarly skeptical of Kerensky, not because he was "incompetent, inefficient and worthless," as British General Alfred Knox considered him, or failed to "reach down roots into the life of Russia," as Raymond Robins, director of a Red Cross mission, recognized, but because he "compromised too much with the radical element of the revolution." Like Kennan Sr., Lansing considered Bolshevism a "despotism of ignorance" that is born of the mob, a menace that could trigger social unrest "throughout the world." Lansing asked rhetorically, "because wealth unavoidably gravitates toward men who are intellectually superior and more ready to grasp opportunities than their fellows, is that a reason for taking it away from them or for forcing them to divide with the improvident, the mentally inferior and the indolent?"[10]
Lansing's viewpoint reflected an ingrained class prejudice among America's foreign policy elite driving conservative, anti-radical policies. Charles S. Crane, another influential adviser to President Wilson who later urged FDR to support Nazi Germany as a "bulwark of Christian culture," spoke of the "futility of revolution as a means of progressing and the fearful disaster that may overtake a state and all of its citizens if it does not progress in orderly fashion."[11]
Parents and friends of U.S. soldiers sent to Russia circulated a petition in early 1919 declaring that the U.S. expedition could not be justified on military or humanitarian grounds (Bentley Historical Library, Univ. of Michigan)
The Wilson administration initially justified sending troops from the European theatre of the First World War into Russia as an extension of the war against Germany. Edgar Sisson, the Petrograd representative of the Committee on Public Information, a propaganda agency set up to promote U.S. involvement in the war, produced a series of 68 documents purporting to prove that Lenin and Trotsky were German agents. Later, however, these were proven to have been a fabrication. When the U.S. Senate issued a resolution on June 23, 1919, requesting Wilson to inform them of the reasons for sending U.S. troops to and maintaining them in Siberia, Wilson responded that the purpose was to "save Czech armies which were threatened with destruction by hostile armies" protect the Trans-Siberian railway, and to "steady any efforts of the Russians self- defense" and promote "law and order."[12] Wilson, as we now know, was lying as he was covertly supporting White generals while U.S. soldiers were involved in counter-revolutionary operations.[13]
When the Bolsheviks withdrew from the war, the military campaigns continued with backing from prominent intellectuals, moderate labor leaders like Samuel Gompers who considered the Bolsheviks to have "used every means to throttle freedom by joining Germany in its efforts to enslave the world," and business executives like R.D. McCarter, president of Westinghouse and an associate of future president Herbert Hoover who considered armed intervention "absolutely necessary… as a prerequisite for building grain elevators…refrigerator plants and cars…railway improvements and new railways."[14]
Raymond Robins, chairman of the Progressive Party Convention in 1916, became a dissenting voice urging accommodation alongside William Boyce Thompson, the head of a Red Cross mission who argued that the Bolsheviks "expressed sentiments that are common to ninety percent of the population of Russia." State Department envoys William Bullitt and William Buckler reported to President Wilson the Soviets' willingness to compromise on foreign debt and protection of existing enterprise and to offer amnesty to Whites (counterrevolutionaries) and cease foreign propaganda if peace were to be secured. Recognizing that "revolutions never go backward," Robins proposed an economic program designed to tie the Soviet economy to that of the U.S., persuading Lenin to exempt the International Harvester Company, Singer Sewing Machine Company, and Westinghouse Brake Company from his nationalization decree. For these efforts, he was recalled and shadowed by agents of the new Federal Bureau of Investigation, a victim of the mounting anticommunist hysteria of the first Red Scare.[15]
Robins nevertheless influenced congressional anti-imperialists like Senators William Borah (R-ID), Robert LaFollette (R-WI), and Hiram Johnson (R-CA). Johnson wondered whether in attempting to destroy Bolshevism, the Wilson administration was bent on putting "the Romanovs [back] on the throne? Do we seek a dictator for this starved land?" he asked. "I warn you of the policy, which God forbid this nation should ever enter upon, of endeavoring to impose by military force upon the various peoples of the earth the kind of government we desire for them and they do not desire for themselves."[16]
At one point, President Wilson had acknowledged that the October revolution was a "desperate attempt on the part of the dispossessed to share in the bounty of industrial civilization" and that the Russian people had grown impatient with the slow pace of reform, though he fretted about the revolutionary effort to "make the ignorant and incapable mass dominant in the world." The only remedy for "class despotism in Petrograd," as Wilson and Lansing saw it, was for a "strong commanding personality to arise … and gather a disciplined military force [capable of] restoring order and maintaining a new government."[17]
The White counterrevolution
Great hope in fulfilling this role was placed with the Admiral Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak, a famed Arctic explorer and commander of the Russian Black Sea Fleet who was known for a rash temper that often led him "beyond the limits of the law." James Landfield of the State Department was among those "greatly heartened" by the November 1918 coup Kolchak launched, with British backing, in Omsk, Siberia, believing that at last real military power might emerge in Russia that could "restore orderly existence."[18] Wilds P. Richardson, commander in Northern Russia, claimed that "the Russian mind generally speaking [was] several hundred years behind the mind of Western Europe and the United States in the matter of free or democratic government and that [it would] take some generations to develop it."[19]
Declaring himself "Supreme Ruler of Russia," Kolchak received thousands of machine guns, hand grenades, and explosives from the allied stock. His cause was championed by, among others, Winston Churchill, the New York Times, the U.S. Consul General in Irkutsk, and J.P. Morgan.[20] The Omsk group, however, represented the "minority and ancient imperialists who were obstinately impervious to the new Russia flaming in revolution against age long abuses and tyrannies," as a lieutenant in the 339th Infantry put it. According to Gen. Graves, "Kolchak did not possess sufficient strength to exercise sovereign powers without the support of foreign troops."[21] His generals included a Baron (Roman Fyodorovich von Ungern-Sternberg) who claimed to be a descendent of Attila the Hun.[22]
The American ambassador to Japan, Rowland Morris, reported that all over Siberia under Kolchak's rule, there was an "orgy of arrests without charges; of executions without even the pretense of a trial; and of confiscations without the color of authority. Panic and fear has seized everyone. Men support each other and live in constant terror that some spy or enemy will cry 'Bolshevik' and condemn them to instant death." Among those killed were former members of the constituent assembly, and railroad workers who had struck for higher wages. In Ekaterinburg, where the Bolsheviks executed Czar Nicholas II and his family, Kolchak allowed Cossacks to massacre at least two thousand Jews, part of a larger wave of pogroms.[23]
Unconcerned about these atrocities, President Wilson set up a "little war board" to expedite arms shipments to Admiral Kolchak. He provided an estimated $50 million in military support through Kerensky's former ambassador to the United States, Boris Bakhmetev, who controlled over $200 million in assets. Since he was using the Russian embassy as a channel for aid, Wilson did not have to request funds from Congress, and could keep it hidden from the press and the American people. Historian Robert Maddox wrote that "by conserving and augmenting the embassy's resources, the Wilson administration established what amounted to an independent treasury for use in Russia … [which was] immune from prying congressman. The ambassador of the Russian people had now become the quartermaster for the Kolchak regime."[24] In short, the "Midnight War" was waged by executive power – setting an early precedent for today's imperial presidency.
To keep the Bolsheviks at bay, the State Department established an intelligence apparatus, headed by an American businessman of Greek-Russian extraction, Xenophon Kalamitiano, which infiltrated Soviet controlled territory and promoted anti-Bolshevik propaganda. Under Herbert Hoover, the head of the American Relief Administration (ARA), who had liquidated his business holdings in Russia just before the revolution, humanitarian aid was positioned to assist the anti-Bolshevik cause.[25]
The intervention in Russia was formative in the development of covert action. Two major figures in the history of American intelligence, "Wild" Bill Donovan, a Wall Street lawyer and future director of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), and John Foster Dulles, whose brother Allen later headed the Central Intelligence Agency, served as military intelligence officers, with Donovan undertaking undisclosed missions in Siberia. He concluded that the "time for intervention had past [as] we were a year too late," though "we [could] prevent a shooting war [next time] if we take the initiative to win the subversive war."[26]
One of Donovan's colleagues, Major David P. Barrows, who went on to become president of the University of California, cultivated close relations with a Manchurian detachment headed by Cossack Ataman Gregori Semonoff, who, according to Barrows, "was capable of great severity" towards the Bolsheviks, whom he had "devoted his life to destroying."[27] A decorated veteran of the Tsarist and Kerensky armies nicknamed "the Destroyer," Semonoff allegedly set up "killing stations," boasting that he could not sleep at night if he did not kill somebody that day. In Trans-Baikal, according to Graves, his men shot the men, women, and children of an entire village as if they were hunting rabbits. U.S. Army intelligence estimated that Semonoff was responsible for 30,000 executions in one year, which earned him promotion by Kolchak to the rank of Major General.[28]
Another Kolchak deputy, Ataman Ivan Kalmykoff, roamed the Amur territory robbing, burning, raping, and executing hundreds of Russian peasants without trial, including two Red Cross representatives and sixteen Austrian musicians who allegedly housed a Bolshevik one night. Lt. Colonel Robert Eichelberger said Kalmykoff's "actions would have been considered shameful in the middle ages."[29] Gen. Graves referred to Kalmykoff as a "notorious murderer" and "the worst scoundrel" he had ever seen. He compared him unfavorably with Semonoff since he "murdered with his own hands," while Semonoff "ordered others to kill."[30] Third on the brutality scale was General S. N Rozanoff, who would execute the male population and burn down villages that resisted Kolchak incursions.[31]
Major General William Graves (center) and staff In Russia, circa 1918 (National Archives photo)
Congressional hearings in early 1919 ignored the White terror, which Gen. Graves predicted would "be remembered by, and recounted to, the Russian people for [the next] fifty years." Instead, the Congressional hearings depicted "Soviet Russia as a kind of bedlam inhabited by abject slaves completely at the mercy of an organization of homicidal maniacs [the Bolsheviks] whose purpose was to destroy all traces of civilization and carry the nation back to barbarism," as historian Frederik Schuman summarized. Drawing on these hearings, the press became filled with screaming headlines, claiming the Bolsheviks had even nationalized women. Graves, however, wrote in his memoirs that he was "well on the side of safety" in saying that "the anti-Bolsheviks killed 100 people in Eastern Siberia to every one killed by the Bolsheviks."[32]
A Texan with experience fighting in the Philippines and with the Pershing mission in Mexico, Graves had gone into Siberia believing his mission was to uphold Soviet Russia's neutrality and protect the Trans-Siberian railway. He became disheartened at how America's allies applied the word "Bolshevik" to "most of the Russian people," including peasants opposed to the Kolchak coup who were "kicked, beaten and murdered in cold blood by the thousands." This damaged the prestige of the "foreigner intervening" while serving as a "great handicap to the faction the foreigner was trying to assist."[33] Turning against the war, Graves was hounded by the Bureau of Investigation as a security risk when he came back. According to historian Benson Bobrick, "in the whole sad debacle, he may have been the only honorable man."[34]
Graves had conducted an investigation which found that Kolchak would force young men into the army and if any resisted, would send troops into their village to torture men beyond military age through methods like cutting out their finger nails, knocking out their teeth or breaking their legs and then murder them.[35] Ralph Albertson, the YMCA Secretary with the Army in Archangel said that wide-scale executions by Kolchak's forces created "Bolsheviks right and left…. When night after night, the firing squad took out its batches of victims, it mattered not that no civilians were permitted on the streets as thousands of listening ears [could] hear the rat-tat-tat of the machine guns, and every victim had friends who were rapidly made enemies of the military intervention."[36]
Albertson wrote that, while he had heard many stories of alleged Bolshevik atrocities that told of rape, torture and the murder of priests, the only Bolshevik atrocity about which he had any authentic information through the entire expedition was "the mutilation of the bodies of some of our men who had been killed in the early days of Ust-Padenga [where an entire U.S. platoon was wiped out]." American prisoners of war were well treated and released with the exception of two men who died in a Soviet hospital. Sgt. Glenn Leitzell described how he was allowed to walk around the nearest city dressed in Russian overcoats and fur caps and encouraged to attend a club where he was "harangued in English on Marxist doctrine and the evils of capitalism" and then rewarded with plates of hot soups and horsemeat steak."[37]
Allied atrocities
Referring to them as "John bolo" or "bolos," a euphemism for wild men, American and British troops pioneered the use of nerve gases designed to incapacitate and demoralize the Red Army, and, according to Albertson, "fixed all the devil traps we could think of for them when we evacuated villages." He noted that we "shot more than thirty prisoners in our determination to punish these murderers. And when we caught the Commissioner of Borok, a Sargent tells me, we left his body in the street, stripped with sixteen bayonet wounds."[38]
A U.S. lieutenant mans a machine gun in northern Russia (photo by John Wilson, Bentley Historical Library)
According to Lt. John Cuhady, American soldiers let loose their firepower upon the "massed Bolsheviks, felling them like cattle in a slaughter pen." On the day of the World War I armistice, Toulgas on the Northern Dvina river where Leon Trotsky led the Bolshevik defense was turned into a "smoking, dirty smudge upon the plain," as Capt. Joel Moore, Lt. Harry Meade and Lt. Lewis H. Jahns described it in an eyewitness account.
Given three hours to vacate, the authors describe a "pitiful sight" in which the inhabitants of Toulgas turned "out of the dwellings where most had spent their whole simple, not unhappy lives, their meagre possessions scattered awry on the grounds." With their houses engulfed by roaring flames, "the women sat upon hand-fashioned crates wherein were all their most prized household goods, and abandoned themselves to a paroxysm of weeping despair, while the children shrieked stridently, victim of all the realistic horrors that only childhood can conjure." Sad as the situation was, the authors wrote, when "we thought of the brave chaps whose lives had been taken from those flaming homes, for our casualties had been very heavy, nearly one hundred men killed and wounded, we stifled our compassion and looked on the blazing scene as a jubilant bonfire."[39]
Such dehumanization in war and desire for revenge would go on to spawn the 'atrocity producing environment" that characterized the War in Vietnam and other Cold War conflicts.[40] Moore, Meade and Jahns' history spotlights the "enormous" and "terrific" Red Army losses under bursts of "murderous" shelling and "dreadful trench mortars" that could shower the enemy at eight hundred yards with a "new kind of hell." The British contingent had many First World War vets who had been gassed or wounded and were prone to "homicidal excesses" along with the Japanese.[41] A Canadian platoon from rural Saskatchewan included "unpremeditated murderers who had learned well the nice lessons of war and looked upon killing as the climax of a day's adventure." They committed gratuitous acts with Americans such as closing a school for the storage of whiskey, and threw peasants out of their homes, looted personal property, stole rubles from dead Bolsheviks, and ransacked churches.[42]
British General Edmund Ironside said he was "overpowered by the smell" upon visiting the Archangel prison; suspected Bolsheviks were crowded into dank cells sometimes sixty to a room, with the windows sealed and baths closed.[43] Ralph Albertson concluded that the "spoliation of scores of Russian villages and thousands of little farms and the utter disorganization of the life and industry of a great section of the country with the attendant wanderings and sufferings of thousands of peasant folk who had lost everything but life, was but the natural and necessary results of an especially weak and unsuccessful military operation such as this one was."[44]
In Southern Soviet Russia, the British deployed tanks and bombed enemy transport vehicles, bridges, towns, and villages; for the first time, they deployed gas bombs that caused respiratory illnesses (one victim had his eyes and mouth turn yellow and then died). The British were supporting viciously anti-Semitic Whites under the command of General Anton Denikin. Winston Churchill, then a minister in Lloyd George's government, urged Denikin to prevent the massacre of Jews in "liberated" districts not out of concern for the Jews but because they were powerful in England and could impinge on his political career. He stated in 1953 that the day would yet come when "it will be recognized… throughout the civilized world that the strangling of bolshevism at birth would have been an untold blessing to the human race."[45]
Historian John T. Smith reports on the bombing of Grozny on February 5, 1919, with incendiaries that ignited a large fire. He later discusses the RAF's bombing of Tsaritsyn (Stalingrad) on the Volga, which had been defended by a Soviet committee led by the future dictator Joseph Stalin and Marshal Georgy Zhukov, Deputy Supreme Commander during the Second World War. Allegedly a DH9 airplane dropped a huge missile on a building where eighty Soviet commissars were meeting, all of whom were killed.[46] Such incidents would remain seared in the minds of Soviet leaders, shaping a deep distrust for the West as the Cold War developed.
Coming mostly from Michigan ("Detroit's Own") and rural Wisconsin, American soldiers had to fight in frigid temperatures (40 below zero) without proper clothing or boots and against a motivated and disciplined enemy that adopted effective camouflages in the snow. Over four hundred "doughboys" died, hundreds more were wounded, and one committed suicide. The Americans were disdainful mostly of Soviet society and culture. They considered Soviet Russia a "great international dump" and "land of infernal order…and national smell." One wrote that he would "rather be quartered in hell."[47]
Tommy Thompson told a reporter in the 1950s that he remembered Siberia as a cold and dirty place where he did not know who to trust.[48] Lt. Col. Charles Payne referred to Archangel as "the most god forsaken hole on Earth. People are filthy and seemed starved to death." Capt. Joel Moore stated that "every peasant could be a Bolshevik. Who knew? In fact, we had reason to believe that many of them were Bolshevik in sympathy."[49] Lt. Montgomery Rice pointed out that the Bolsheviks were "inspired men even if their rifles were foul with rust, their clothing worn to rags, their bodies sour with filth, or their cheeks sunken from malnutrition." Silver Parrish who had worked in the Ohio coal mines and as a dye setter in Detroit, wrote in his diary that he could not understand why the Americans were "fighting men of Russia plucked from their own coal mines and factories…. The majority of the people here are in sympathy with the Bolos and I don't blame them."[50]
Fighting with U.S. munitions captured from the Tsar's armies, the Bolsheviks adopted guerrilla methods centered on disrupting the local infrastructure and cultivating popular support in villages, from which guerrillas could carry out ambushes and sneak attacks on invading forces at night.[51] According to Moore, the bolsheviks were assisted by "a system of espionage of which we could never hope to cope."[52]
"The Battle Hymn of the Republic" sung by U.S. troops, adapted to the Russian conflict, made a joke of the quagmire: "We came from Vladivostok, to catch the Bolshevik. We chased them o'er the mountains and we chased them through the creek. We chased them every Sunday and we chased them through the week. But we couldn't catch a gosh darn one." The song continued: "The bullets, may whistle, the cannons may roar, don't want to go to the trenches no more. Take me over the sea, where the Bolsheviks can't get me. Oh my, I don't want to die, I want to go home."[53]
Another poem "In Russia's Fields" was modeled after the famous First World War poem "Flanders Field." It read:
In Russia's fields, no poppies grow, There are no crosses row on row, To mark the places where we lie, No larks so grayly singing fly, As in the fields of Flanders…We are the dead. Not long ago, we fought beside you in the snow, and gave our lives, and here we lie, though scarcely knowing reason why, like those who died in Flanders."[54]
At least fifty American soldiers deserted, including Anton Karachun, a coal miner originally from Minsk who had emigrated to the U.S. and took up a post with the Red Army in Sunchon.[55] A Judge Advocate General report cited by Albertson specified that an unusually large number American soldiers were convicted by court-martial of having been guilty of self-inflicted wounds. Private Bill Henkelman, who painted car bodies at Detroit's American auto trimming company before being drafted into the army, was court-martialed and charged with treason after issuing an ultimatum to his regimental commander for withdrawal. At his trial, he ripped open his shirt to show lice, dirt and that he was half-starved, and stated to the brass "none of you have lice or go hungry."[56]
Lieutenant John Cudahy of the 339th regiment noted: "war shears from a people much that is gross in nature, as the merciless test of war exposes naked, virtues and weaknesses alike. But the American war with Russia had no idealism. It was not a war at all. It was a freebooter's excursion, depraved and lawless. A felonious undertaking for it had not the sanction of the American people."[57]
The Grand Rapids Herald reported on the U.S. mutiny, April 12, 1919 (Bentley Historical Library)
In February 1919, the British 13th Yorkshire regiment under a Colonel Lavoi refused orders to fight, which inspired mutiny in in a French company in Archangel. On March 30th, Company I in the 339th American infantry followed suit in refusing orders – asserting they had accomplished their mission defeating Germany and were now "interfering in the affairs of the Russian people with whom we have no quarrel." A truce directed to the Bolsheviks read: "We are combating you and fighting you only to stay alive. We support your desire to give up the crown and throw the tsarism down to the ground and we are ready to help you because its good for the working people."[58]
Colonel George Stewart allegedly told his men in response to the rebellion that he had "never been supplied with an answer as to why they were there himself, but that the Reds were trying to push them into the Black Sea and that they were hence fighting for their lives."[59] Though apparently satisfying, these remarks ran counter to the lies of the Wilson administration that the U.S. was only in Soviet Russia for defensive purposes and to safeguard war material and property.
Peter Kropotkin, the celebrated Russian writer, told a British labor delegation that progressive elements in the "civilized nations" should "bring an end to support given to the adversaries of the revolution" and refuse to continue playing the "shameful role to which England, Prussia, Austria and Russia sank during the Russian revolution." Kropotkin was an anarchist opposed to the Soviets undermining worker and peasant councils that initially supported the revolution, but he noted that "all armed intervention by a foreign power necessarily results in an increase in the dictatorial tendencies of the rulers…. [T]he natural evils of state communism have been multiplied tenfold under the pretext that the distress of our existence is due to the intervention of foreigners."[60]
In the U.S., critics of the intervention were prosecuted under Alien and Sedition Acts passed under the Wilson administration that made it a crime to "willfully utter, print, write or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous or abusive language about the U.S. form of government, constitution, military or naval force or flag." Radical journalist John Reed and New York State Assemblyman Abraham Shiplacoff (the "Jewish Eugene V. Debs"), who said American troops were perceived by Russians as "hired murderers, the Hessians," were among those jailed. Others targeted were six Socialist-anarchist activists—Jacob Abrams, Jacob Schwartz, Hyman Rosansky, Samuel Lipman, Mollie Steimer, and Hyman Lachowsky—who were beaten, imprisoned, and deported for distributing antiwar leaflets condemning Wilson's hypocrisy and urging strikes in munitions plants. The Supreme Court upheld the ruling supporting their deportation.[61] Their case shows how intervention in Soviet Russia not only helped sow conflict abroad, but also resulted in the suppression of domestic civil liberties in a pattern that would extend through the Cold War.
Selective memory
It is ironic that we in the United States have always been led to fear a Russian invasion when Americans were in fact the original invaders – something the Russians have never forgotten. In May 1972 on a visit to the Soviet Union promoting détente, President Richard Nixon boasted to his hosts about having never fought one another in a war, a line repeated by Ronald Reagan in his 1984 State of the Union address. A New York Times poll the next year found that only 14 percent of Americans said they were aware that in 1918 the U.S. had landed troops in northern and eastern Soviet Russia, a figure probably even lower today.[62]
James Loewen in Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong found that none of twelve high school history textbooks he surveyed mentioned the "Midnight War." In two cases, the U.S. troop presence in Russia was mentioned but as part of U.S. strategy in the First World War and not as an effort to roll-back the Russian revolution.[63]
Deeper public awareness of history in the United States might force us to rethink the direction of our policies and the current slide towards renewed confrontation with Russia, and could enable us to see the world from its perspective, potentially opening possibilities for engagement. During the Second World War conferences, Stalin is said to have referred to the Wilson administration's intervention.[64] His policies were not consequently based on paranoia, but a real security threat. George F. Kennan, the father of the containment doctrine, was one of the few policy-makers to acknowledge the importance of the "Midnight War," though after he had been removed from any position of power. In 1960, Kennan wrote:
Until I read the accounts of what transpired during these episodes, I never fully realized the reasons for the contempt and resentment borne by the early Bolsheviki towards the Western powers. Never surely have countries contrived to show themselves so much at their worst as did the allies in Russia from 1917-1920. Among other things, their efforts served everywhere to compromise the enemies of the Bolsheviki and to strengthen the communists themselves [thus] aiding the Bolsheviks progress to power. Wilson said, "I cannot but feel that bolshevism would have burned out long ago if let alone."[65]
These latter comments remain debatable; however, it is clear that after sending troops to quell the revolution, Soviets would never again trust the U.S., predominantly for good reason. The intervention in Russia overall was another disastrous policy implemented by the liberal standard-bearer that lay bare once again the illusion that war could be "molded" and "controlled" to achieve a liberal purpose.
Bibliography: Kuzmarov, Jeremy. "The Wilson Administration's War on Russian Bolshevism." United States Foreign Policy History and Resource Guide website, 2018, http://peacehistory-usfp.org/ww1-russia.
Footnotes or endnotes: Jeremy Kuzmarov, "The Wilson Administration's War on Russian Bolshevism," United States Foreign Policy History and Resource Guide website, 2018, http://peacehistory-usfp.org/ww1-russia.
[1] In Godfrey J. Anderson, A Michigan Polar Bear Confronts the Bolsheviks: A War Memoir, edited and with an introduction by Gordon L. Olson (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdman's Publishing Co., 2010), 180-181.
[2] Harry J. Costello, Why Did We Go to Russia? (Detroit, MI: Harry J. Costello Publishing, 1920), 39.
[3] William S. Graves, America's Siberian Adventure 1918-1920 (New York: Peter Smith, 1941), 348. Haiti is another good example of the strong trampling the weak under the rubric of Wilsonian idealism. See Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1971).
[4] National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO.
[5] D. F. Fleming, "The Western Intervention in the Soviet Union, 1918-1920," New World Review, Fall 1967; D. F. Fleming, The Cold War and Its Origins, 1917-1960, Vol. 1 (New York: Doubleday, 1960); William Blum, Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1998), 8.
[6] William Appleman Williams, American Russian Relations 1781-1947 (New York: Rinehart., 1952), 52, 83, 84, 85.
[7] See John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, with an introduction by Granville Hicks (New York: New American Library, 1967); New York Times quoted in Christopher Lasch, The American Liberals and the Russian Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962), 54.
[8] Lasch, The American Liberals, 28, 29.
[9] Williams, American Russian Relations, 85; Richard Goldhurst, The Midnight War: The American Intervention in Russia, 1918-1920 (New York: McGraw Hill, 1978), 114. For Kennan's views on Russia, see David C. Engerman, Modernization from the Other Shore: American Intellectuals and the Romance of Russian Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 74.
[10] Lasch, The American Liberals, 130; Williams, 93. Lansing was staunchly pro-imperialist, believing it was "utterly untenable to hold that either Ireland or India should break away from the British empire."
[11] Lasch, The American Liberals, 131.
[12] "Message of the U.S. President of the United States in Response to a Resolution of the Senate agreed to June 23, 1919 – Inform the Senate of the Reasons for Sending U.S. soldiers to and maintain them in Siberia," White House, July 22, 1919, M917, Military Intelligence Division, Roll 1, RG 395, American Expeditionary Forces in Siberia, National Archives, College Park Maryland.
[13] Summary of the Staff of the Commander-in chief of the Russian Allied Armies Operating Against the Bolsheviks, October 27, 1918, RG 395, U.S. Army Overseas Operations, Historical Files of the Expeditionary Forces in Siberia, 1918-1920, M917, National Archives, College Park Maryland.
[14] Williams, American Russian Relations, 85, 150; Evans Clark, Facts and Fabrications About Soviet Russia (New York: The Rand School of Social Sciences, 1920), 21, 22, quoting Gompers and a letter of notables supporting military intervention.
[15] Williams, American Russian Relations, 98, 123; Carl J. Richard, When the United States Invaded Russia: Woodrow Wilson's Siberian Disaster (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012); David Foglesong, America's Secret War Against Bolshevism (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 98, 99.
[16] Richard, When the United States Invaded Russia, 67.
[17] Williams, American Russian Relations, 116.
[18] Walter Lippmann and Charles Merz, "A Test of the News" New Republic, August 4, 1920, 19, 20; Williams, American Russian Relations, 116; Lasch, The American Liberals, 160; George Stewart, The White Armies of Russia: A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention (New York: The McMillan Company, 1933), 241-242.
[19] "The Report of General Wilds P. Richardson," in Detroit's Polar Bears: The American Russian Expeditionary Forces, 1918-1919 (Frankenmuth, MI: Polar Bear Publishing Company, 1985), 12-13. Richardson compared the Russian mind to the "Oriental mind" which explained "why Russians are discontented with the democracy they find in the United States."
[20] Williams, American Russian Relations, 171; Clifford Kinvig, Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia, 1918-1920 (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2006).
[21] John Cudahy, Archangel: The American War with Russia (Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1924), 64; Graves, America's Siberian Adventure, xxi. Arthur Bullard of the State Department advised Colonel House that Kolchak was "surrounded and dependent on the support of reactionary elements" whose principle of government was the "reconquest of former grafts."
[22] Stewart, The White Armies, 301.
[23] Goldhurst, The Midnight War, 153; Graves, America's Siberian Adventure, 227, 236, 265-266; Stewart, The White Armies, 180; Col. John Hall, With the Die Hards in Siberia (London: 1920). Exemplifying his anti-Semitism, Kolchak claimed 60 liaison officers and translators with the American embassy were Jews and had influenced American policy.
[24] Goldhurst, The Midnight War, 192-195; Foglesong, America's Secret War Against Bolshevism, 70, 71; Robert J. Maddox, The Unknown war with Russia: Wilson's Siberian Intervention (San Rafel, CA: Presidio Press, 1977), 83. The "little" war board was headed by Bernard Baruch of the War Industries Board, Vance C. McCormack, head of the War Trade Board, and Edward N. Hurley, chairman of the U.S. Shipping board.
[25] David Foglesong, America's Secret War Against Bolshevism (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 108, 114, 231-232. Hoover was Chairman of the Board and Joint Manager of a Zinc Corporation in Russia. See Gerry Docherty and Jim McGregor, Prolonging the Agony: How the Anglo-American Establishment Deliberately Extended World War I by Three and a Half Years (Walterville, OR: Trine Day, 2018).
[26] Foglesong, America's Secret War Against Bolshevism, 127. Capt. John A. Gade, a naval intelligence officer who proposed the blueprint for the OSS, went on a secret mission to organize anti-Bolshevik governments in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
[27] Gibson Bell-Smith, "Guarding the Railroad, Taming the Cossacks: The U.S. Army in Russia, 1918-1920," Prologue Magazine, National Archives, 34, 4, Winter 2002, https://www.archives.gov.
[28] Graves, America's Siberian Adventure, 241, 246; Richard, When the United States Invaded Russia, 89-94; Goldhurst, The Midnight War, 80; Jamie Bisher, White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian (New York: Routledge, 2006). After the war, Semonoff took refuge in Manchuria where he became a kingpin of in one of the century's most diabolical criminal enterprises, the extortion, prostitution and narcotics syndicate run by Japanese intelligence and the Kwantung army, which paved the way for the Japanese invasion and enslavement of Manchuria.
[29] Richard, When the United States Invaded Russia, 91; Bisher, White Terror, 100, 101. At one point, Kalmykoff, who earned the nickname "Ataboy kill 'em off" bombed a schoolhouse, leaving a member of the U.S. 27th regiment to carry what was left of the schoolchildren away in a coffee sack to bury them. Stewart, The White Armies, 314. Historian D. W Fleming referred to the white reign of terror as among the worst mass killings the world had ever seen, eclipsed only later by the Nazi holocaust.
[30] Graves, America's Siberian Adventure, 90.
[31] Ibid., 214-215; Goldhurst, The Midnight War, 237.
[32] Graves, America's Siberian Adventure, 108; Clark, 16. Some of the headlines included: "Red Agitators from the city potent in Russia—Atrocities to Young Girls"; "Describe horrors Under Red Rule – R.E. Simmons and W.W. Welsh Tell Senators of Brutalities of Bolsheviki – Strip Women in the Streets"; "People of every class except the scum subject to violence by mob"; "Senators hear Breshkovskaya 'grandmother of the revolution' sure Lenin and Trotsky are German agents – sees Russia in utter ruin – Moscow looted by Reds." Hearings were held in the House of Representatives, Committee on Military Affairs, American Troops in Siberia, Hearings on H Con. Res. 30 Making Rules to Return All American Soldiers from Countries with Which We Are at Peace," 66th Congress, 1st session, 1919 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1919).
[33] Graves, America's Siberian Adventure, xiii, 101.
[34] Robert L. Willett, Russian Sideshow: America's Undeclared War, 1918-1920 (Washington, D.C.: Potomoc Books, 2003), 268; Benson Bobrick, East of the Sun: The Conquest and Settlement of Siberia (London: Heinemann, 1992), 398.
[35] Guy Murchie Jr. "AEF's Strange Adventure," The Chicago Tribune, April 2, 1939, 4 in World War I Museum Archive, Kansas City Missouri, Russia collection. After the war, Kolchak tried to escape with $300 million of the Imperial Treasury and Gold, though was captured by the Bolsheviks and executed.
[36] Ralph Albertson, Fighting Without a War: An Account of Military Intervention in North Russia (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920), 71.
[37] E.M Halliday, The Ignorant Armies, foreword by S.L.A. Marshall (New York: Award Books, 1964), 159. The book was reprinted as When Hell Froze Over (New York: I Books, 2000, reprint 1958).
[38] Albertson, Fighting Without a War, 85-88; Goldhurst, The Midnight War, 94, 225. The term bolos foreshadowed the use of the term gooks in the Korean and Vietnam Wars.
[39] Capt. Joel H. Moore, Lieut. Harry H. Mead, Lieut. Lewis E. Jahns, The History of the American Expedition Fighting the Bolsheviki: Campaigning in North Russia 1918-1919 (Nashville: The Battery Press, 2003, orig. 1920), 109; Cuhady, 142, 153. Silver Parrish wrote that he took sixteen enemy prisoners and killed two, then his men "burned the village [Toulgas] and my heart ached to have the women fall down at my feet and grab my legs to kiss my hand and beg me not to do it. But orders are orders—and I was in command of the fifteen men who went across that field so I done my duties." Willett, Russian Sideshow, 86.
[40] The term atrocity producing environment is used by Robert Jay Lifton in Home from the War: Vietnam Veterans Neither Victims nor Executioners (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), a case that has parallels to Russia as the U.S. was in both cases fighting popularly backed revolutionary forces and backing an unpopular regime or force dependent on foreign aid.
[41] Moore, Mead, Jahns, The History of the American Expedition Fighting the Bolsheviki, 40, 58, 108, 128; Dennis Gordon, Quartered in Hell: The Story of the American North Russia Expeditionary Force 1918-1919 (Missoula, MT: The Doughboy Historical Society, 1982), 67-68; Sylvian G. Kindall, American Soldiers in Siberia (New York: Richard R. Smith, 1945), 11.
[42] Cudahy, Archangel, 52; Albertson, Fighting Without a War, 85-88.
[43] Halliday, The Ignorant Armies, 203.
[44] Albertson, Fighting Without a War, 85-88.
[45] Perry Moore, Stamping out the Virus: Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War 1918-1920 (Altgen, PA: Schiffer Military History, 2002), 101; Kinvig, 226, 232, Halliday, The Ignorant Armies, 284.
[46] John T. Smith, Gone to Russia to Fight: The RAF in South Russia 1918-1920 (Gloucestershire, UK: Amberley, 2010), 51, 97, 107; Miles Hudson, Intervention in Russia, 1918-1920: A Cautionary Tale (South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Press, 2004), 143.
[47] "The Creation of Russia," in Gordon, Quartered in Hell, 302.
[48] "Recalls Massacre in Siberia," Kansas City Star, undated, World War I Museum Archive, Kansas City MO, George Jensen Papers.
[49] Detroit's Own Polar Bears, 78; and Michael Phillips, "The One Time American Troops Fought Russians Was at the End of World War I," Wall Street Journal, November 9, 2018.
[50] Willett, Russian Sideshow, 212; Norman Saul, War and Revolution: The United States and Russia, 1917-1921 (University Press of Kansas, 2001), 315; Halliday, The Ignorant Armies, 13, 43; and Phillips, "The One Time American Troops Fought Russians Was at the End of World War I."
[51] Goldhurst, The Midnight War, 213.
[52] Detroit's Own Polar Bears, 78.
[53] Maddox, The Unknown war with Russia, 102-103; and Phillips, "The One Time American Troops Fought Russians Was at the End of World War I."
[54] Moore, Mead. Jarns, The History of the American Expedition Fighting the Bolsheviki, 298; Gordon, Quartered in Hell, 304.
[55] Willett, Russian Sideshow, 203.
[56] Albertson, Fighting Without a War, 45; Willett, Russian Sideshow, 122.
[57] Cudahy, Archangel, 29, 30. A graduate of Harvard and University of Wisconsin law school, Cudahy was scion of a wealthy meat packing family and a Democrat disillusioned with the war. Later he served as ambassador to Poland, Ireland, Belgium, and Luxemburg where he continued to express antiwar views.
[58] Phillips, "The One Time American Troops Fought Russians Was at the End of World War I."
[59] Willett, Russian Sideshow, 45, 46; Costello, Why Did We Go to Russia? 76-79; Gordon, Quartered in Hell, 178, 216.
[60] Kropotkin quoted in Moore, Mead, Jahns, The History of the American Expedition Fighting the Bolsheviki, 247-248. Kropotkin further worried about the development of a "bitter sentiment [in Russia] with respect to the Western nations…that will be utilized some day in future conflicts."
[61] Richard Polenberg, Fighting Faiths: The Abrams Case, the Supreme Court, and Free Speech (New York: Viking Press, 1987); Zosa Szajkowski, "Double Jeopardy—The Abrams Case of 1919," American Jewish Archives, April 1971. Jacob Schwartz died from an ailment exacerbated by his treatment by police, which he likened "to the Spanish Inquisition and the blackest page of man's brutality to man." Schwartz in a letter claimed the police stopped at nothing – "from tearing hair to pulling the tongue; from black jacks to the leg of a chair was used on us because we would not speak." Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes offered an eloquent dissent against the Supreme Court ruling supported by Louis Brandeis on grounds of the right to free speech. He would not weigh in on whether military intervention was actually legal, and dissent against it hence justified.
[62] Fighting the Bolsheviks: The Russian War Memoir of Private 1st Class Donald E. Carey, U.S. Army, 1918-1919, ed. Neil Carey (Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1997), x; Foglesong, 7.
[63] James Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong (New York: Touchstone Books, 2007), 16; National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO.
[64] Maddox, The Unknown war with Russia, 138.
[65] George F. Kennan, Russia and the West Under Lenin and Stalin (Boston: Little & Brown, 1960), 117; Linda Killen, The Russia Bureau: A Case Study in Wilsonian Diplomacy (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983), 130; Richard, When the United States Invaded Russia, 174.