The Arctic Ocean is warming at two to three times the global rate and is experiencing accelerated ice loss with a historical minimum reached in the summer of 2012 (Parkinson and Comiso, 2013). Furthermore, it is predicted to be free of ice during the summer as early as 2050 (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2014). Due to the higher solubility of CO2 in cold waters, polar regions are particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification by anthropogenic CO2 (Shadwick et al., 2013). The Arctic Ocean is characterized by very low concentrations of pCO2 < 200 μatm in the spring and early summer due to high net primary productivity (Takahashi et al., 2002; Vaquer-Sunyer et al., 2013). However, increased atmospheric pCO2 is expected to reach values ≥1,000 μatm by 2,100 (Meehl et al., 2007; United States Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA], 2013), while enhanced air-sea fluxes with decreasing ice cover (Bates et al., 2006) will result in increased pCO2 uptake in Arctic water, with thresholds for carbonate saturation states predicted to be reached as early as 2020 (Popova et al., 2014).
Previous experimental studies have shown, that warming (beyond a threshold of 5°C) triggers a decrease of phytoplankton biomass and net primary production in the Arctic (Holding et al., 2013; Coello-Camba et al., 2015). This will favor an increase of bacterial growth which is translated in excess community respiration over gross primary production (Holding et al., 2013). Then, a major effect of warming produce changes in the plankton carbon flow pattern, enhancing bacterial processing of DOC (and resulting increased CO2 production). This has been confirmed by many other experimental studies (e.g., Wohlers et al., 2009). In addition, experimental and in situ results point out that CO2 increase may fertilize planktonic primary producers in the European Arctic Ocean (Engel et al., 2013), however, the effect is temperature dependent (Beardall et al., 2009). Recently, Coello-Camba et al. (2014), Holding et al. (2015) and Sanz-Martin et al. (2018) showed that CO2 has a fertilizing effect on primary production at lower temperatures but that effect become negligible at increasing temperatures. These drivers act in opposite directions, with CO2 enhancing primary production while temperature affecting primary production negatively (Keys et al., 2018). A positive effect of increasing temperature and pCO2 on marine bacterial communities is also observed, favoring their growth as a consequence of selecting different more active phylotypes (e.g., Lindh et al., 2013; Piontek et al., 2013).
Furthermore, it has also been assessed that the increases of bacterial production (BP) due to warming, triggers greater bacterial carbon transfer to higher trophic levels rather than the flux of dissolved organic carbon from bacteria lysed by viruses (Lara et al., 2013; Maranger et al., 2015). This could be due to the observed success of lysogeny respect to lysis in warming conditions (Lara et al., 2013). Nevertheless, there is still limited information available on the interacting effect of increasing CO2 concentrations and temperature on mortality (grazing due to protists vs. rate of lysed bacteria by viruses) and even less knowledge of its effects on the viral life style (lytic versus lysogeny). Based in the above information in our study, we will expect after applying these two stressors on the whole microbial planktonic community, an increase of BP mainly at higher temperatures, followed by an increase of grazing rates by protists. Bacterial mortality rates due to viruses, will depend on lytic -lysogenic infection cycle, where according to Jiang and Paul (1994), lysogenic infection should prevail over lytic production in oligotrophic conditions with low BP, while lytic infection should increase when BP is high.
Here, we examined the responses of phytoplankton biomass and heterotrophic microbial communities, including viruses, to the concurrent changes in warming and CO2 increase, attempting to discriminate whether they may have a direct or synergistic effect. To unravel the interactive effect of both temperature and CO2, we used experimental 20 L microcosms to assess the changes of phytoplankton and heterotrophic microbial abundances and processes (BP and mortality) in water from a high-Arctic fjord (Svalbard). We continuously bubbled CO2 (ranging from 135 to 2318 μatm) in three controlled temperature treatments (1, 6, and 10 °C). The chosen range for temperature covered the projected increases plus 2–3°C expected in the Arctic fort the coming century (ACIA, 2004). For CO2 the low range was chosen much lower than present day CO2 concentrations, as pCO2 in Arctic waters is often undersaturated compared to pCO2 in the atmosphere, and it is not uncommon to find values of 150 ppm. The high range was not necessarily selected, but just consequence of controlled CO2 increase plus respiration inside the mesocosms resulting in a high range. While it is far from expected concentrations by the end of the century (United States Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA], 2013) it is also an experimental extreme case scenario, which is interesting to determine overall trends.
Then, under these experimental conditions we evaluated the relationship between phytoplankton biomass (i.e., chlorophyll a concentration, and phototrophic pico/nanoflagellates abundance) and BP, and its fate (i.e., grazing on bacteria by protists, rates of bacterial lysis) as well as viral infection type (lytic vs. lysogeny). Finally, in order to confirm the consistency of our experimental results we compared the BP obtained at increasing pCO2 and temperature with available field data (from the Greenland Sea and North of Svalbard; Boras et al., 2010) and pCO2 data from Alvarez (unpublished) during the ATOS-I cruise.
Seawater for the experiment was collected on June 23, 2010 just outside of Isfjorden Svalbard (78.0826° N, 13.4734° E) aboard R/V Viking Explorer. Seawater was pumped on board from a depth of 1–2 m (salinity: 33.50; temperature: 1.41°C), filtered through 200 μm in order to avoid large zooplankton and distributed in 60 L carboys previously treated with 0.1 N HCl for at least 48 h and thoroughly rinsed with seawater from the same sampling site. Seawater from different carboys (60 L) was pooled together in larger tanks (280 L) and transferred to acid-washed 20 L clear polycarbonate NalgeneTM bottles, which served as the experimental microcosms. The experiment was conducted in a temperature regulated cold room (set at 4.5 ± 1°C) at the University Center in Svalbard (UNIS), Longyearbyen. The experimental design consisted of six replicated 20 L microcosms of three levels of temperature treatments (1, 6, and 10°C), a total of 18 microcosms, into which we constantly bubbled CO2 gas (Supplementary Figure S1). The eighteen 20 L bottles were submerged in nine 280 L tanks where experimental temperature was regulated by a temperature control unit (PolyScience 9600 series, precision 0.1°C) and held stable over the 13 experiment days (1°C: 1.8 ± 0.4°C; 6°C: 6.7 ± 0.7°C; 10°C: 10.3 ± 0.5°C). Afterward, the 6 microcosms replicates for each temperature treatment were divided in half, receiving bubbled air from two sets of mass flow controllers (Aalborg GFC17), (Supplementary Figure S1), which regulated a mixing ratio of gasses (CO2 + air mixture). Each of the two mass flow controllers was split into 3 tubes for each temperature treatment, and each of which was split again into 3 to accommodate each microcosm replicate in each temperature treatment. This allowed for 2 groups of three true replicates in each temperature treatment (Supplementary Figure S1). In each of the two groups of triplicates for each temperature treatment we tried to establish "Low" and "High" CO2 treatments. However, the mean (±SE) pCO2 along the duration of the experiment in the "Low" CO2 treatment was: 358.9 ± 38.9 μatm at 1°C, 640.5 ± 60.2 μatm at 6°C, and 559.4 ± 69.1 μatm at 10°C; whereas in the "High" CO2 treatment, was: 1127.5 ± 93.4 μatm at 1°C, 986.4 ± 228.5 μatm at 6°C, and 1014 ± 217.7 μatm at 10°C. Due to this high variability in pCO2 for "Low" and "High" conditions, pCO2 was treated as a continuous variable with a gradient-basis design (Holding et al., 2015), ranging from 135 to 2318 μatm, and temperature as a fixed variable. This allowed to perform analyses of covariance to determine interactions between CO2 and temperature.
Ambient air was collected via aquarium pumps, stripped of CO2 by passing through soda lime columns, and mixed with CO2 gas before it was delivered to the microcosms via impermeable Tygon tubing. Microcosms were aerated with air-CO2 mixture continuously via 5 mm diameter PTFE tubing. Airflow was adjusted using Hoffman clamps so as to avoid introducing turbulence to the microcosms; bubble size was manually controlled to be no larger than approximately 7 mm diameter (for more details see Holding et al., 2015). All plasticware used for bubbling directly into the microcosms was previously cleaned with HCl and thoroughly rinsed with seawater. Finally, the set up was completed with two fluorescent light tubes per tank (200 μmol photons s-1 m-2 determined using a 4π LI-193 LI-COR radiation sensor) providing a continuous 24 h light environment, thereby simulating the Arctic summer natural conditions.
Total hydrogen ion (pHT) concentration of the seawater was measured spectrophotometrically using the indicator dye m-cresol purple (Sigma-Aldrich), according SOP6b, while total alkalinity (TA) was determined using open-cell titration following the SOP3b from Dickson et al. (2007). TA and pHT measured at standard temperature and pressure, along with nutrient concentrations were used as input in the CO2SYS (Pierrot et al., 2006) program to calculate output carbon parameters (pHT, pCO2 in μatm, and tCO2 μmol kg-1), which were standardized to the average tank temperatures measured each day (for more details, see Holding et al., 2015).
During the ATOS-I cruise, pCO2 was determined using a high-precision (±1 μatm) non-dispersive infrared gas analyzer (EGM-4, PP-systems), averaging measurements at 1 min recording interval. The closed gas stream flowing through the gas analyzer was previously equilibrated with the sampled surface seawater using a gas exchange column (MiniModule 1.25 × 9 Membrane Contactor, Celgard). Temperature was measured in the continuous system just before the EGM-4 and in the seawater inlet and corrected accordingly. Before entering the gas analyzer, the gas stream was circulated through a Calcium Sulfate column to avoid interferences from water vapor. The gas analyzer was calibrated, in this cruise, using two dry standards: pure nitrogen (0.0 μatm CO2) and a gas mixture of CO2 and N2 containing a CO2 molar fraction of 541 μatm, from Carburos Metalicos (Barcelona, Spain), which revealed an accuracy of ±2 μatm in the determinations of pCO2.
From each microcosm, subsamples for chlorophyll a (Chla) concentration were collected daily. A volume of 50 ml was taken for each microcosm, subsequently filtered through Whatman GF/F filters and extracted using 90% acetone for 24 h, after which the concentration was measured fluorometrically following Parsons et al. (1984).
Subsamples of 2 ml were collected daily for viral abundance from each microcosm, fixed with glutaraldehyde (0.5% final concentration), refrigerated, quick frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80°C as described in Marie et al. (1999) and Brussaard (2004). Counts were made using a FACSCalibur flow cytometer (Becton and Dickinson) with a blue laser emitting at 488 nm. Samples were stained with SYBR Green I and run at a flow rate ranging from 0.061 to 0.077 ml min-1. Samples of 150 ml for bacteria and protists abundance were collected from each microcosm at 0, 2, 4, 5, 8, 11, and 13 days for bacteria, and at 0, 5, 8, 11, and 13 days for pico/nanoflagellates. Subsamples of 10 and 20 ml for bacteria and pico/nanoflagellate (phototrophic and heterotrophic) abundance, respectively, were fixed with glutaraldehyde (1% final concentration), filtered through 0.2 and 0.6 μm black polycarbonate filters, respectively, and stained with DAPI (4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) (Porter and Feig, 1980) to a final concentration of 5 μg mL-1 (Sieracki et al., 1985), and counted by epifluorescence microscopy (Olympus BX40-102/E, at 1,000×). Pico and nanoflagellates showing red-orange fluorescence and/or plastidic structures in blue light (B2 filter) were considered phototrophic forms (PF), while colorless flagellates showing yellow fluorescence were counted as heterotrophic pico/nanoflagellates (HF). Finally, 100 ml samples were fixed with acidic lugol (2% final concentration) to estimate ciliate abundance and the abundance of the phagotrophic dinoflagellate Gyrodinium sp. Aliquots of the fixed samples (50-100 ml) were sedimented for 24–48 h before enumeration. Both the ciliates and Gyrodinium sp. were counted in an inverted microscope (Zeiss AXIOVERT35, at 400×).
BP = Leu × CF [μg C L-1 d-1], where Leu is the 3H-leucine incorporation (pmol L-1 d-1), and CF is the conversion factor (1.5 kg C mol Leu-1) (Kirchman, 1993).
Measurements of lytic viral production (LVP), lysogenic viral production (LysoVP), bacterial mortality due to protists (grazing rates, GZ) and viruses (bacteria lysed by viruses, BLV) were done at the beginning (only for GZ) and at 5, 8, and 13 days of the experiment for all treatments. Bacterial mortality due to protists was evaluated following the fluorescent-labeled bacteria (FLB) disappearance method (Sherr et al., 1987; Vázquez-Domínguez et al., 1999). Eighteen 1.5-L sterile bottles were filled with 0.5-L aliquots of seawater from each of the experimental microcosms. For each temperature treatment, we added an extra bottle filled with 0.5 L, 0.2 μm filtered water (grazer-free water) as a control. Then for each temperature treatment we obtained two group of triplicates, where each microcosm was bubbled with CO2 from the corresponding mass flow system (Supplementary Figure S1). Each bottle was inoculated with FLB at 20% of the natural bacterial concentration. The FLB were prepared with a culture of Brevundimonas diminuta1 following Vázquez-Domínguez et al. (1999). Bottles were incubated in the tanks in the dark (covered with a black plastic bag) for 48 h at the same experimental temperature as the corresponding microcosms. To assess the bacterial and FLB abundance, samples were taken at the beginning and at the end of the grazing assay. Abundances of bacteria and FLB were assessed by epifluorescence microscopy as explained above. Natural bacteria were identified by their blue fluorescence when excited with UV radiation, while FLB were identified by their yellow–green fluorescence when excited with blue light. Control bottles showed no decrease in FLB at the end of the incubation time. Grazing rates of bacteria were obtained according to the equations of Salat and Marrasé (1994), for details see Lara et al. (2013).
To gather a large enough water volume to measure viral production and rate of lysed bacteria by viruses, we pooled together 0.5 L subsamples from each of the two triplicates for each temperature treatment submitted to the corresponding bubbling of CO2. We used the virus-reduction approach (Weinbauer et al., 2002; Wilhelm et al., 2002). Briefly, the 1.5-L subsamples were prefiltered through a 0.8 μm pore size cellulose filter (Whatman), and then concentrated by a spiral-wound cartridge (0.22 μm pore size, VIVAFlow 200), obtaining 50 ml of bacterial concentrate. Virus-free water was collected by filtering 0.5 L of seawater using a cartridge of 30 kDa molecular mass cutoff (VIVAFlow 200). A mixture of virus-free water (150 ml) and bacterial concentrate (50 ml) was prepared and distributed into four sterile Falcon plastic tubes. Two of these tubes were kept without any manipulations as controls, whereas in the other two, mitomycin C (1 μg mL-1 final concentration, Sigma) was added as the inducing agent of the lytic cycle. All Falcon tubes were incubated in the dark for 12 h inside the tanks at the same temperature as the microcosm. Samples for viral and bacterial abundances were collected at time zero and every 4 h of the incubation, fixed with glutaraldehyde (0.5% final concentration) and stored as described for viral abundance. Viruses and bacteria from the viral production experiments were counted by FACSCalibur flow cytometer (Becton and Dickinson), following Gasol and Del Giorgio (2000) and Brussaard (2004), respectively.
The number of viruses released by the bacterial cell (burst size, BS) was estimated from viral lytic production measurements, such as in Middelboe and Lyck (2002) and Wells and Deming (2006). The estimated BS ranged from 9 to 500 (168 ± 42) viruses per bacterium. These high values of BS are comparable to the ones observed by TEM in Arctic waters by Steward et al. (1996). Rate of lysed cells was determined as previously described by Weinbauer et al. (2002), and Winter et al. (2004). Briefly, an increase in viral abundance in the control tubes represents lytic viral production (LVP), and the difference between the viral increase in the mitomycin C treatments (total viral production, VP) and LVP gives the LysoVP. As part of the bacteria could be lost or increase during the bacteria concentration process, the LVP and LysoVP were multiplied by the bacterial correction factor to compare both viral production values from different incubation tubes. This factor was calculated by dividing the in situ bacterial concentrations by the T0 bacterial abundances in both viral production measurements (Winget et al., 2005) and ranged between 0.9 and 19.8. We then calculated the rate of bacteria lysed by viruses (BLV, cells mL-1 d-1) by dividing LVP by the burst size (BS), as described in Guixa-Boixereu (1997). The BLV was used to calculate bacterial losses by viruses as a percentage of the bacterial standing stock (BA). BABLV = (BLV ∗ 100)/BA0 (% d-1), where BA0 is the initial bacterial abundance in situ.
When necessary, data were log-transformed to meet normality and homoscedasticity assumptions of the test used. We averaged the microbial abundances from the six triplicates to describe its changes over time, since we did not find significant differences between the 2 groups of true replicates when applying a T-test. Then, we tested the differences of each microbial abundances (covering the whole experiment, and for each week, separately) among the three temperatures by one-way ANOVA analyses. Regression analysis was used to describe: (i) the relationships among heterotrophic microbial processes (BP, bacterial mortality due to protists and viruses, and viral lytic and lysogenic production) covering the whole range of pCO2 for each temperature individually; and (ii) the relationships among microbial parameters (processes and abundances) from the corresponding triplicates temperature treatments and CO2 bubbling. General linear models were used to determine the possible interactions of pCO2 and temperature on heterotrophic microbial processes. A 95% confidence intervals for the relationship between pCO2 and BP were also estimated. All analyses were performed with the JMPTM and the statistical software R© (Version 3.4.3, 2017).
Abundances of microorganisms along the experiment for the three temperature treatments showed similar dynamics over the 1st week, while the main differences were detected after day 6 through the end of the experiment (Figures 1B–H and Supplementary Table S1). Chlorophyll a (Chla) concentration, presented significant differences across temperatures, over the first as well as in the 2nd weeks (Figure 1A and Supplementary Table S1). Bacterial abundance did not vary too much among the three temperature treatments (Figure 1B p > 0.05 and Supplementary Table S1), although, we detected occasionally higher values in the 6° than in the 1 and 10°C treatments after day 5 up to day 11, while opposite trends in Chl a concentration were observed in the 6 and 10°C treatments. Viral abundance displayed rather similar values across treatments for most of the duration of the experiment. Nevertheless, during the 2nd week we detected significantly higher viral abundance at 6°C (Figure 1C p < 0.0001 and Supplementary Table S1), whereas bacterial abundance displayed opposite high and low values at 1 and 6°C at the end of the experiment. Consequently, the increase of viruses and decrease of bacteria at 6°C, during the 2nd week, lead a VBR also significantly higher at 6°C (Figure 1D, p < 0.05). Phototrophic (PF) and heterotrophic (HF) pico/nanoflagellate abundances followed similar trends increasing at the end of the experiment in the 6°C treatment. Both PF and HF showed significantly higher values in the 6° than in the 10 and 1°C treatments during the 2nd week (Figures 1E,F and Supplementary Table S1). Abundances of ciliate and Gyrodinium sp. displayed an opposite trend than PF and HF over time. During the 2nd week, both of them showed significantly higher values at 1°C (Figure 1G, p < 0.005, Figure 1H, p < 0.001) than at the two other temperatures. Indeed, ciliates and Gyrodinium sp. abundances, strongly declined at 6 and 10°C at the end of the experiment, suggesting predation effects at these higher temperatures (Figures 1G,H).
Figure 1. Dynamics overtime of chlorophyll a concentration (A); bacterial abundance (B); viral abundance (C); VBR (viral bacteria ratio) (D); phototrophic pico/nanoflagellate (E); heterotrophic pico/nanoflagellate (F); ciliate abundance (G); Gyrodinium abundance (H). Each point represents the averaged ±SE of six replicate values for each variable at different temperature treatments.
In summary, our results showed that the abundances of viruses, heterotrophic and phototrophic pico/nanoflagellates increased at the 6°C treatment from the middle to the end of the experiment (Figures 1C,E,F), while Chl a was greatest at 1°C during the whole experiment (Figure 1A). And, ciliates and Gyrodinium sp. abundances increased rapidly at the higher temperature treatments (6 and 10°C) only to decline at the end of the experiment maintaining higher abundances only at the lowest temperature (Figures 1G,H).
Bacterial production increased along the experiment for all treatments, reaching the highest values in the 10°C treatment (Figure 2A). Thus, BP varied from 0.8 μg C L-1 d-1 at temperature = 7.7°C and pCO2 = 246.6 μatm to 13.0 μg C L-1 d-1 at temperature = 10.4°C and pCO2 = 2318.3 (μatm (Supplementary Table S2), increasing with temperature (n = 32, R2 = 0.18, p = 0.02) and pCO2 (n = 33, R2 = 0.41, p < 0.0001). Analysis of covariance revealed that BP increased significantly with pCO2 in the 6°C, and 10°C treatments but with a steeper slope at 10°C (Figure 3A and Table 1). It was further revealed that the effect of pCO2 on BP was stronger than the effect of temperature (Table 2).
Figure 2. Dynamics over time of bacterial production (BP) (A); bacterial grazing rates (B); bacterial mortality rates due to viruses (C); viral lytic and lysogenic production at 1°C (D), 6°C (E), and 10°C (F). Circles and squares, represents the averaged ± SE of each of the two groups of triplicate values for each variable submitted to different temperature treatments and exposed to the corresponding CO2 concentration.
Figure 3. Relationship between increasing pCO2 and BP (A), Lysogenic viral production (LysoV P) (B), percentage of bacterial losses by protists (%BAGZ, d-1) (C). Each point represents the averaged ±SE of each one of the two triplicates values for each variable submitted to different temperature treatments. Empty symbols correspond to variables that did not show significant relationships, and full symbols correspond to variables that showed significant relationships for the different temperature treatments.
Table 1. Regression relationships for the natural log transformed bacterial production (BP, μg C mL-1 d-1), percentage of bacterial removed by grazing (%BAGZ, d-1), and lysogenic viral production (LysoVP, viruses mL-1 d-1) to the natural log transformed pCO2 (μatm) for each temperature treatment (1, 6, and 10°C).
Table 2. Analysis of covariance models relating natural log transformed bacterial production (BP, μg C L-1 d-1), percentage of removed bacteria by protists (%BNGZ), and lysogenic viral production (LysoVP, virus mL-1 d-1) to the covariate pCO2, and temperature treatments as well as the interaction between temperature and pCO2.
Bacterial mortality rates due to protists and viruses responded opposite each other. Grazing rates (GZ) tended to increase along the experiment in the 6 and 10°C treatments (Figure 2B), while this trend was not evident for the rates of lysed bacteria (BLV, Figure 2C). Although, not statistically significant both processes showed an opposite trend (Supplementary Figure S2). Furthermore, GZ presented higher values than BLV, except for two cases at temperature = 9.9°C and at pCO2 ( = 902.3 μatm, and at temperature = 2.3°C and at pCO2 = 1382.3 μatm (Supplementary Table S2 and Supplementary Figure S2). Whereas, grazing rates and BLV were independent of pCO2 and temperature (p > 0.05), the percentage of bacteria removed by grazers was negatively and positively related to pCO2 at 1°C and at 6°C, respectively (Table 1 and Figure 3C), and in the covariance analyses, the interaction between pCO2 and temperature had a positive effect on the percent of bacteria grazed by protists (Table 2).
Lytic viral production (LVP) tended to increase at 1°C along the experiment (Figure 2D) and was maintained or decreased at day 13 for the other two temperatures (Figures 2E,F and Supplementary Table S2). LVP exceeded LysoVP in 12 out of 18 cases (Supplementary Table S2), from 2 up to 15 times (Figures 2D–F and Supplementary Table S2), and was independent of pCO2 and temperature (p > 0.05). However, in the remaining four cases LysoVP exceeded lytic viral production up to 6 times. LysoVP displayed increasing values throughout the experiment at 10°C (Figure 2F) while decreasing at 1°C (Figure 2D). In addition, LysoVP was significantly positively related to increasing pCO2 (pCO2: n = 13, R2 = 0.52, p < 0.005), but when examining the relationship between LysoVP and pCO2 at different temperatures, this was only significant for the 10°C temperature treatment (Figure 3B and Table 1). Analyses of covariance showed that LysoVP was significantly affected only by pCO2 (Table 2).
Here, we use regression analyses to describe the relationship between different microbial variables. Thus, how changes of phytoplankton affected BP, and changes of BP influence other microbial processes. So, we obtained that BP was not significantly related with Chl a concentration, that tend to decrease at the 6 and 10°C treatments with respect to the 1°C treatments, where BP increased (Figure 1B and Supplementary Table S2). Whereas, BP significantly respond to changes of abundances of phototrophic pico/nanoflagellates (PF, mainly Pyramimonas sp.), mainly when considering all of the temperature treatments (Figure 4A and Table 3), though significant trends were observed in the 1 and 6°C treatments, and not at all for 10°C. Notice that the 1°C treatment had the strongest response (Figure 4A and Table 3). Next, changes of viral lytic and lysogenic production were significantly related to variations of BP across temperature treatments (Figures 4B,C and Table 3). However, LysoVP was significantly related with BP in the 6°C and at 10°C treatments (Figure 4C and Table 3). Finally, bacterial mortality rates (by grazing and viral lysis) significantly responded to variations of bacterial abundance across all temperature treatments, but when considering them separately this relationship was only significant for the 6°C treatment (Figures 4D,E and Table 3).
Figure 4. Relationship between: BP and phototrophic pico/nanoflagellates (PF) (A); lytic viral production (LVP) and BP (B); lysogenic viral production (LysoVP) and BP (C), bacteria lysed by viruses (BLV) and bacterial abundance (BA) (D); grazing rates on bacteria (GZ) and BA (E). The black line corresponds to the regression line for the whole experimental data set, and color lines show the significant regressions between different variables. Each point represents the averaged ± SE of each of the two groups of triplicate values for each variable submitted to different temperature treatments and exposed to the corresponding CO2 concentration. Full and empty symbols represent the same as in Figure 3.
Table 3. Regression analyses between ln bacterial production (BP, μg C mL-1 d-1) and ln phototrophic pico/nanoflagellate (PF, cells mL-1), ln lytic viral production (LVP, virus mL-1 d-1) and ln BP; ln lysogenic viral production (LysoVP, virus mL-1 d-1) and ln BP; ln grazing rates on bacteria (GZ, cells mL-1 d-1) and ln bacterial abundance (BA, cells mL-1); ln bacteria lysed by viruses (BLV, cells mL-1 d-1) and ln BA, covering the whole temperature (ALL) and for each temperature treatment (1, 6, and 10°C).
One of the main limitations of experimental studies such as this one is to simulate projected changes that will occur over large timescales. A common concern is that short-time manipulations cannot simulate properly the effect of long-term adaptation likely occurring in natural systems and are therefore biased. However, with our experimental approach we did not pretend to mimic nature, indeed we used the experiment as a tool to help interpret how the microbial plankton could respond to environmental stressors. Furthermore, it must be noticed that, Arctic communities already experience large abrupt seasonal changes that are not experienced by many temperate oceanic communities, including rapid seasonal warming. Available sea surface temperature data from NOAA's Climate Prediction Center2 corresponding to the last 2 decades for the study area (Svalbard Isfjorden) show an annual variation of 6–7°C, ranging from approximately 1–7°C, very similar to the values detected in situ in the North of Svalbard (-1.2–7°C) (Boras et al., 2010, ATOS-I cruise). Thus, the temperature range selected for this experiment (1–10°C) encompassed the range of temperatures experienced by the local plankton community over the year plus 2–3°C increase. Then, this increase will cover the projected range of temperatures expected in the Arctic Ocean in the coming century (ACIA, 2004).
Experiments attempting to control pCO2 in Arctic plankton communities have shown this to be an inherently difficult task (e.g., Torstensson et al., 2012; Engel et al., 2013) because the experimental subject, i.e., plankton community, contributes to variation in pCO2. Even in the field, Arctic plankton communities have been shown to drawdown pCO2 by as much as 200 ppm during the spring plankton bloom (Holding et al., 2015). Hence, active plankton growth would deplete CO2 faster than mass flow controllers would be able to restore target values, leading to large downward fluctuations, when high concentrations of CO2 were applied. Likewise, periods of high respiration, particularly under high temperature, led to elevated CO2 even if low concentration of CO2 is bubbled, along to the increase in pCO2 due – for a given mass of CO2 present in the water – to warming alone. This could explain the high variability in pCO2 obtained within the two groups of triplicates in each temperature treatment (Supplementary Figure S1). That, precluded to establish "low" and "high" pCO2 fixed conditions and instead to treat pCO2 as a continuous variable with a gradient-basis design following Holding et al. (2015) at concentrations ranging from 135 to 2318 μatm. Whereas, the pCO2 range observed in the Arctic Ocean across the Greenland Sea and the North of Svalbard during the ATOS-1 cruise, was between 134 and 260 μatm (Alvarez, personal communication). Nevertheless, when examining the relationship between BP and pCO2 from data derived experimentally and in situ surface pCO2 and BP (Alvarez, unpublished results, Boras et al., 2010, respectively) within similar temperature ranges (≤7.0°C), both in situ and experimental data fall within the confidence limits of the experimentally derived relationship between BP and pCO2 (Figure 5). The consistency of this relationship considering both scenarios, revealed that CO2, directly or indirectly through phytoplankton, could have a strong influence on BP.
Figure 5. Combined BP and pCO2 data of both experiments (filled circles) and the summer ATOS-I cruise (open circles). Solid line represents the relationship of the experimental data from the 1 to 6°C temperature treatments [Log BP = –2.58 (±0.86) + 0.52 (±0.13) log pCO2; n = 21; R2 = 0.438; p < 0.003] and the dashed blue and red curves represent the 95% confidence limits for the regression equation and regression estimates, respectively.
Our experimental data show that warming (6°C and 10°C) at increasing pCO2 enhances BP in these Arctic waters. Indeed, we think that variations of primary producers subjected to increasing pCO2 and temperature probably contributed to changes in BP. As in the same experimental set up Holding et al. (2015) found that the effect of fertilization of CO2 did not increase further, beyond 6°C, with a steeper slope at 1°C (almost twice) than at 6°C. This is, that the higher temperatures of 10°C promoted a decrease of net primary production and increased respiration (Holding et al., 2013), due to phytoplankton taxa shifting from larger to smaller cell size cells (Coello-Camba et al., 2014) and the associated release of dissolved organic matter, favoring BP, as is shown in Morán et al. (2006). This fact, is also reflected by a lack of relationship at 10°C between BP and abundance of phototrophic pico/nanoflagellates (Figure 4A, i.e., Pyramimonas sp., Prasinophytes class; Coello-Camba et al., 2014). The PF are the main representative primary producers at the time of the experiment and significantly related with BP at 1 and 6°C (Figure 4A). The small Prasinophytes achieved high abundances at 6°C, in detriment of other taxa (Coello-Camba et al., 2014), only to decrease again at 10°C (Figure 1E), as was also described in a previous experiment by Lara et al. (2013) in Svalbard, where the most abundant genus was Micromonas sp. This fact agrees with the finding of Lovejoy et al. (2007), and Vaqué et al. (2008) when in the Arctic Ocean, blooms of picoprasinophytes and/or Micromonas were observed during spring and summer. With respect to the increase of BP, Davidson et al. (2016) showed that the Antarctic heterotrophic bacterial communities were more active and diverse at higher CO2 concentrations, which was attributed to the increase in compounds from phytoplankton for bacterial to growth (Piontek et al., 2013). Also, Lindh et al. (2013) in mesocosms experiment done in the Baltic Sea, and Keys et al. (2018) in the English-channel found that the increase of BP derived from changes of bacterial communities, favoring different phylogenetic types when subjected to warming and acidification.
Next, changes in BP production in these Arctic waters, were expected to be propagated to other microbial processes, such as viral lytic production and lysogeny, and bacterial mortality rates. Although, we are not aware of any other experimental study combining the effect of increasing pCO2 together with warming on bacterial losses by protists or viruses to compare with, there are several studies describing these effects of warming and/or pCO2 separately on these bacterial mortality. During our experiments grazing rates at different temperature treatments slightly increased after the 5th day at 6°C (Figure 2B). This effect of warming on bacterial mortality was also observed as in experimental as well as in situ samples of Antarctic marine communities (Vaqué et al., 2009; Sarmento et al., 2011) and Arctic waters (Lara et al., 2013). On the other hand, it is also described that low in situ temperature in high latitudes constrained the growth of heterotrophic protists on bacteria and phytoplankton (Rose and Caron, 2007). Furthermore, we also observed that bacterial mortality due to grazing was almost always higher than that caused by viral lysis, mainly at 6°C (Figures 2B,C). These results agree with other studies both, in situ where Maranger et al. (2015) reported a stronger temperature-control on grazing rates compared to bacterial lysis rates in a pan-arctic study, as well as in warming controlled experiments (Lara et al., 2013). In contrast, Vaqué et al. (2017) showed that BP and mortality rates due to viruses were more sensitive to temperature than grazing activity in Antarctic regions.
Regarding the effect of pCO2 on viral lysis rates, Larsen et al. (2008) and Brussaard et al. (2013) reported that the activity of virioplankton on phytoplankton did not show a clear response to increasing pCO2 in an Arctic mesocosm experiment. Danovaro et al. (2011) suggested that viral abundance responses maybe mediated by the effects of pH and consequently to pCO2 on the host organisms: bacteria, archaea, protists and metazoan. Indeed, the rate of lysed bacteria in our experiment seems to be mainly dependent on the host communities (Figure 2D) rather than directly on pCO2 and/or temperature. While percentage of removed bacteria by protists seems to be affected by both temperature and pCO2 (Table 2).
It is described that lysogeny should be the dominant viral life strategy in oligotrophic systems (Jiang and Paul, 1994; Danovaro et al., 2011, and references therein) as is the case in Isfjorden at the sampling time, which is characterized by low temperature (1.4°C), low phytoplankton Chla (0.6 ± 0.06 μg L-1), low bacterial abundance (2.2 ± 0.4∗105 cell mL-1) and low BP (1.7 μg C L-1 d-1) (Figures 1A,B and Supplementary Table S2). However, our results showed more lysis at low than at high temperature treatments. Indeed, in our experiment lysogeny significantly increased as pCO2 increased at 10°C in parallel with BP (Table 1 and Figures 2A,F). In addition, lysogeny was significantly related with BP at 6 and at 10°C temperature treatments, and not at all at 1°C (Figure 4C and Table 3). These results agree with the proposed Piggyback-the–Winner model by Knowles et al. (2016) where lysogeny should be even more successful than the lytic cycle when bacterial hosts are growing well. Here, we suspected, as is shown in Lindh et al. (2013) that warming and increased CO2 will promote the selection of specific bacterial communities, responsible for high BP. And, Knowles et al. (2016) assume that viruses "exploit" their hosts (that are presumably highly active bacteria) through lysogeny instead of killing them, making it advantageous for both of them; the prophage is propagated to the new bacteria generation, protects the host for a new viral infection (Levin and Lenski, 1983) and predation by grazers (Brüssow, 2007). Furthermore, in the 1°C treatment, where we detected lower BP than at higher temperatures, the lytic cycle was more important than lysogeny (Figures 2A,D–F). The observations of more cases of lysogeny at warmer than at the lower temperature treatments, and its increase at increasing BP suggests a decreasing flow of bacterial carbon entering in a dissolved phase via the viral shunt (lysed bacteria), thereby favoring the microbial loop (grazing on bacteria). This indicates an enhancement of heterotrophic biomass and processes relative to phototrophic processes with warming, as previously reported, based on temperature manipulations described by Holding et al. (2013) and Lara et al. (2013).
Our experimental results provide evidence that possible future changes in pCO2 and temperature in the Arctic Ocean may lead to increased bacteria production, probably triggered by changes in primary producers that will be propagated to other microbial activities. The increasing pCO2 and temperature is additive in the case of BP, and their effect on the relative flow of bacterial carbon through grazers (protists) depends on their interaction. Next, the increase of BP enhanced lysogeny more than viral lysis, which will create changes in the carbon fluxes within the microbial food web, evidenced by the higher bacteria mortality rates due to protists than to viruses. While the current debate on the responses of the Arctic to the expected changes of temperature and pCO2 are focused only on primary production, our experiments suggest that increased heterotrophic BP, and decreased phytoplankton biomass, in a warmer more acidic Arctic, may lead to a reduced net community production, which will be translated in a weakening CO2 sink capacity of the Arctic plankton community. However, there is a need of more experimental and field studies that will encompasses different seasonal situations and long time period to corroborate these poor expectations.
DV and EL designed and coordinated this study, collected samples for viruses, bacteria and protists, performed mortality experiments, analyzed the results, and wrote the manuscript. JA designed and implemented the whole experimental set up, responsible for bacterial abundance and production measurement. JH helped in the data analyses and in the elaboration of the manuscript. ES collaborated in the setup of the experiments, in the daily sampling, and in the lab. IH helped in the implementation of the CO2 bubbling system. AC-C collaborated in sampling, in the chlorophyll a determination and phytoplankton cells count. MA contributed with CO2 data from ATOS-I cruise. SA coordinated the phytoplankton study and sampling, its analysis and identification. PW was the PI of the ATP project, making possible the use of facilities in UNIS (Sbalvard) to carry out the experiments, and added valuable advice to the study. CD coordinator of the ATP project (CSIC), provided a creative environment and added constructive criticisms throughout the study revising and editing the manuscript. All authors commented and discussed the obtained results, and suggested improvements on the manuscript.
This study was funded by the project Arctic Tipping Points (ATP, contract #226248) in the FP7 program of the European Union. EL was supported by a grant from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.
We thank R. Gutiérrez and I. Garcia-Zarandona for help in the lab, the crew of the RV "Viking Explorer" for helping with sampling, E. Halvorsen for logistic support, and The University Centre in Svalbard, UNIS, for hospitality.
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Parsons, T. R., Maita, Y., and Lalli, C. M. (1984). A Manual of Chemical and Biological Methods for Seawater Analysis. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Pierrot, D., Lewis, E., and Wallace, D. W. R. (2006). MS Excel Program Developed for CO2 System Calculations. ORNL/CDIAC-105a. Oak Ridge: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center.
Sherr, B. F., Sherr, E. B., and Fallon, R. D. (1987). Use of monodispersed, fluorescently labeled bacteria to estimate in situ protozoan bacterivory. App. Environ. Microbiol. 53, 958–965.
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Copyright © 2019 Vaqué, Lara, Arrieta, Holding, Sà, Hendriks, Coello-Camba, Alvarez, Agustí, Wassmann and Duarte. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


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Luigi Ghirri, the Absolute Fascination of the Image
Posted on July 14, 2014	by Emiliano Cavicchi
| Photography & Perception |
Luigi Ghirri, the Absolute Fascination of the Image where Geography meets Photography into the spheric World and going over, towards Infinite
History & Soft Elegance "England has History, but America has Geography" suggests English artist Neil Gaiman, in an interview on his multi-award novel 'American Gods' [1]. I personally believe also that Geography influences History. Like thousands of years ago, when an exceptional first 'global net' was possible by the specific geography of Mediterranean Sea, that permitted to populations around it to avoid lands distance by sailing, and expanding in this way Culture and Technology.
Among many, two words just came etymologically from that world: Geography ('γῆ', 'earth', 'γραφία', 'writing':'description of the Earth'), and Photography, ('φῶς', 'light' and 'γραφή', 'drawing': 'drawing with light'). Both of them from ancient Greek, they have been destined to cross often each other, as in the perfect example of the National Geographic: the magazine has always been strictly tied to progress of Photography, as with Color already in its pages from 1910, before the first Eastman Kodak color film 'Kodachrome' in 30ies. But also before the 70ies Color recognition in the Art world of some Western photographers like William Eggleston in first, and, over the Atlantic, of another pioneer from a small European town..
"..Perhaps it was that soft elegance [of Kodak's Kodachrome film] that inspired the legendary Italian photographer Luigi Ghirri's unique style when he first began taking pictures of his surroundings in the early 1970s.." writes Hanne Christiansen [2], about reissued first Ghirri's book 'Kodachrome' (originally of 1978) by MACK Books editions of London, in 2012. Luigi Ghirri (born in Scandiano, Italy, 1943 – Reggio Emilia, Italy, 1992) is one of the most influential European photographers of '900. A concrete curiosity for the world around us and an interest for the conceptual side of act of 'Looking', move his elegant, suspended urban visions and modern landscapes. During last years, the inclusion of Kodakchrome in 2004 by Martin Parr in 'The Photobook: A History, Vol. 1′, Phaidon ed., started a renovate world interest, with his first English monograph out in 2008 ('It's Beautiful Here, Isn't It..', Aperture Foundation ed.), and the book 'Casa Ghirri' by Francois Halard (Keherer Verlag ed., 2013), portraying his studio in Ronconcesi village.
Various museums held his works (i.e. Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; Museo della Fotografia Contemporanea, Milan; Bibliotèque Nationale, Paris; MOMA in New York), and this July has two shows of Ghirri in USA and Europe: at Matthew Marks Gallery in Los Angeles, (just closed the July 12th, following their previous April 2013 show in New York), and in Reggio Emilia, Italy, until July 27, with a majestic retrospective "Luigi Ghirri 'Pensare per Immagini' Icone Paesaggi Architetture" ("Luigi Ghirri 'Thinking Images' Icons, Landscapes, Architectures", curated by Francesca Fabiani, Laura Gasparini, Giuliano Sergio), presenting over 300 original and new printed images and much more, previously in 2013 first at MAXXI museum in Rome, then moved in Brazil.
"Open up yer eyes an' ears an' yer influenced. An' there's nothing you can do about it", Ghirri used to say, quoting Bob Dylan [3], and also: "Not at photography school, studio, or photojournalist agency, instead my experience born by generally looking for the Image around me, and by an endless passion, a bit naive, just straight pulsing for the Art world" [4]. At the end of 60ies after Technical Institute, Luigi Ghirri does not attend University starting to work as surveyor in Modena town, and regularly meeting Conceptualist artists of the area, whose he photographs the performance, installations, but also adding images in their works.
While Pop-Art was exploding in USA, Conceptualism movement in Italy was developing an extreme 'de-construction' of Photography medium and a new role for it, felt as quick, mechanical, authorial but not 'orthodox' Art. Important exhibitions are then visited by Ghirri in Parma and Modena towns: the photographic metalinguistic research of Italian Ugo Mulas in Verifiche (1970-1972), the New Photography Usa show (1971), Dorothea Lange (1972), and especially, the one of Farm Security Administration (1975).
Holiday travels at end of 60s and first 70s by Luigi Ghirri and family in France, Netherland, Switzerland and Northern Italy, become then the first source of a large body of images for his present and future researches. Switching from 35mm films to a medium format, Ghirri starts not photographing specific themes but glimpses of life and of places visited, as a minimal urban diary. A bit as Lee Friedlander, yet in color and with a certain 'style': a kind of wonder, simplicity, first-time view, recalling to myself, the Italian poet Giovanni Pascoli (1855-1912) and his 'Poetica del Fanciullino' ('Poetic of the little Child'), where he theorized to look at the everyday world as children do, with no specific knowledge, just discovering it deeply by first feelings.
More systematically, Ghirri then begins to organize photographic researches focusing on the contemporary environment and its identity's transformations. His first exhibition organized by a local photo-association in the hotel hall 'Canalgrande' of Modena (1972) permits him to meet Art critic of Parma University, Massimo Mussino, casually stopped there. Two years later Ghirri is invited to exhibit at 'Il Diaframma' gallery in Milan, successful show connecting him to larger public of artists and critics.
World seen by Space "In 1969 the newspapers published the photograph taken from the spaceship traveling to the moon. This was the first photograph of the entire Earth.. -Ghirri writes in the introduction of Kodachrome– ..The image that man had pursued for centuries was presented for our view; [..] the only image that contained all other images of the world: graffiti, frescoes, paintings, writings, photographs, books, films. It was at once the representation of the world and all representations of the world". This photo is for Ghirri the 'starting point' of his Photography [5], and it marks a cultural change too: after centuries of Geography drawings, now it is time for chemical Photography to show us the same and a New Geography of the Earth and over.
Intended as a 'collection' of the personal works and first commissions of the fertile period of 1970-1978, Kodachrome is self-produced, with low budget and the title is an homage to the film that has democratized Photography for mass public. Throughout 92 photographs Ghirri shows the world he sees around himself: surrealistic, vivid, traduced in images sometimes exaggerated, sometimes reduced to basic geometrical shapes, as in 'Riva di Tures, 1977'. Results are not just 'photomontages': in the current advertising society "extensively reality is transformed into a colossal photograph and the montage has already taken place at that very moment" explains Ghirri always in Kodachrome.
Omnipresent but often ignored, urban hieroglyphs emerge alive from the stratified complexity of human/artificial/natural things around us, by what Ghiiri calls 'fotosmontaggio', the process of de-assembling the space by images. Photography gets back to be elementary exploration / decodification of the space. And he seems disappeared behind camera, refreshing the 'Looking': there is no self-analysis, Cartier-Bresson's 'decisive moment' or self-centered point of view, but a certain distance, and absence of ethic or historical judgement, trying instead to unveil the reality by a 'pure' view.
Photograph with an advertising cardboard shape girl (Reggio Emilia, 1972) is a juxtaposition of different visual elements, but maybe also it is a new 'scene' that Ghirri's unconscious-eye saw suddenly on the way: 'platonic idea' of a seductive, 60ies look girl strangely appearing and smiling at him in open air, captured by his camera. Over the document, a photo can be a projection/record of what someone deeply perceives/sees from outside, instead of what is 'physically' in front of, recording the constant dialogue among the subconscious and the world.
New Geography During 70s and over, Ghirri's various works focus different themes. The project 'In Scala' (1977-78) shows Rimini's touristic park 'Italia in miniatura' (featuring scale models of the main Italian monuments), getting aware on how people look and perceive landscape/space: now we can see the well famous icons of a nation just at our feet, as in the photo of the Earth from Space. It is specifically and sociologically Italy, but virtually it can be with every nations.
This 'New Geography' looks to point the different 'geographic imaginary' of today: "All the routes have been marked, the only possible journey now seems to be within the sphere of signs and images, therefore there is the cancellation of the real experience" explains Ghirri [6] and 'Week-end' (1973) pushes the concept of Journey to extreme consequences. The work (artist-publication in few samples) is compiled by photos reproducing cuts and details of different maps in an Atlas book, enlarged until the photo shows real size page details. Photography visually can evoke instead showing, translating act of 'Seeing/Imaging' with 'act of Knowing/Living' an experience, spotting the gap between imagining a place and once who gets really there, cutting a frame of the world, and thinking about what is left off, as Ghirri writes in Kodachrome.
So 'Infinito' (1974, English: 'Infinite', 'with no-end'), a two panels installation assembling 365 photos of the sky made by Ghirri every day in a year always from different locations, is the try to show the impossible: but the metaphor of sky with its absence of limits, and the use of Time, in a number (365) meaning the entirety of a solar year, gives to us an idea to feel it. Photography is the meeting point of Reality and Imaginary, by memory, image and imagination.
Aesthetic Experience With the increase of fame and respect (in 1975 he becomes Discovery of the year' for 'Time-Life' photography magazine, then he is part of 'Photography as Art, Art as Photography' festival in Kassel, Germany), Luigi Ghirri can dedicate to full-time photographer activity. Various assignments follow in the 80ies, like LP covers for music labels (over classical artists, also for Italian cult punk-band CCCP or songwriter Lucio Dalla), Polaroid International invite to increase the Amsterdam research company collection (1980), commissions by French Minister of Culture photographing Versailles (1985), then in New York for Bulgari, and campaigns for Ferrari and for administrative regions in Italy. Tirelessly, Ghirri pursues too an activity of publisher, critic and curators, opening in 1977 with few friends the small house editions 'Punto&virgola' active until 1982: the first birth is Kodakchrome's book, which follows a handful of Western photographers books and essays on Photography.
Also personal projects feel this literally opening of the horizon. The still closed entrances in photos of buildings/stores doors at end of 70s (recalling the deep influence of Eugene Atget) open to images of 'soglie', 'inquadrature naturali' ('gateways', 'natural frames'), like the beach horizon with a wood rectangular white frame of an empty (kind of 'soccer door') advertising structure at center in 'Marina di Ravenna, 1986', from the book 'Il profilo delle Nuvole' [The Clouds profile], Milano, Feltrinelli ed., 1989.
Ghirri seems having metabolized the past 'cancellation of the real experience'. It is the return to a more terrestrial conception of travel, on the road, like in 'Paesaggio italiano' ('Italian landscape', book with photos from projects and commissions among 1980-1989), Milano, Electa ed., 1989: horizons and cuts of churches, piazzas, interiors, gas-stations, bars in the outskirt and over, these visions are filled by a strong sense of the space, of its visual emotions, and the sensations evoked. "Melancholy is the road sign for an effaced geography, it is the feeling of distance that separates us from a potential simple world" says Ghirri [7]. But also mystery and loneliness, or wonder, are intertwined with nature and humans landscapes, in a beautiful but anti-classic view which regenerate the iconographic Italian panoramas, like the sudden powerful light shaping one water-street of Venice (Venezia, 1987), much closer to Caravaggio painting then traditional Canaletto works.
Photographing is like an aesthetic experience, where the exploration of the space is fully guided by a feeling of atmosphere and suggestion. 'Aesthetic' again goes back to the roots of its original ancient Greek meaning: αἰσθητικός (aisthetikos, "esthetic, sensitive, sentient"), which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι (aisthanomai, "I perceive, feel, sense").
Last Roll Among 1989 and 1990, on the peak of his success, Luigi Ghirri experiences also to teach Photography classes about his personal practice at University of Reggio Emilia (published then in his posthumous book 'Lezioni di Fotografia', Quodilibet, 2010). Two years later, unexpectedly, he died at his home in Reggio Emilia for heart attack. Last series taken on roll by him was depicting the decaying houses of the fertile land of Po Valley, in the northern Italian province where Ghirri had lived and worked most of his life.
Now the Public Library of Reggio Emilia town in Italy, the Biblioteca Panizzi, houses his archive of negatives, slides and publications, following the will of himself expressed in 1990. This vast visual 'Imaginary Geography' is today the boundless legacy of him.
"The work of photographer […] I believe is much more like drawing up a geographic map, than following a straight line [..A map..] where in established rules yet, everyone can find the own road" [8] – Luigi Ghirri
Author: Emiliano Cavicchi http://emilianocavicchi.com/
REFERENCES / LINKS / BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Sentences in black in the essay reflect personal thoughts on Photography or on Ghirri photography by Author, otherwise quotes are referred, or numbered as follow:
[1] – http://bookstimeandsilence.blogspot.it/2009/04/american-gods-neil-gaiman.html
[2] – http://www.dazeddigital.com/photography/article/16236/1/luigi-ghirri
[3] – Luigi Ghirri, 'Niente di antico sotto il sole, scritti e immagini per un'autobiografia', a cura di Paolo Costantini e Giovanni Chiaramonte, Torino, SEI, 1997
[4] – Luigi Ghirri, 'Lezioni di fotografia', Macerata, Barbaro Quodlibet, 2010
[6] – Luigi Ghirri, 'Atlante' (Atlas), Charta, Milan, 1999
[7] – Luigi Ghirri, 'Un cancello sul fiume' (A Gate over the River), published in the exhibition catalogue for the Milan Triennale, eds. Vittoro Magnano Lampugnani and Vittoria Savi, Electa, Milan, 1988, pp. 87–94
Life and works informations on Luigi Ghirri are from:
– 'Luigi Ghirri, Pensare per immagini', catalogue for the MAXXI exhibition in Rome, Milan, Electa, 2013
– Luigi Ghirri, 'Lezioni di fotografia', Macerata, Barbaro Quodlibet, 2010
– Massimo Mussino, 'Luigi Ghirri', Milan, Federico Motta Editore, 2001
'Kodachrome' book on MACK editions:
– http://www.mackbooks.co.uk/books/44-Kodachrome.html
Luigi Ghirri exhibition in Matthew Marks Gallery (April 19 – July 12, 2014):
– http://www.matthewmarks.com/los-angeles/exhibitions/2014-04-19_luigi-ghirri/
A bibliography of books and articles on Luigi Ghirri from Matthew Marks Gallery web-site:
– http://www.matthewmarks.com/new-york/artists/luigi-ghirri/bibliography/
Luig Ghirri anthology at 'Fondazione MAXXI' museum in Rome (24 April – 27 October, 2013)
– http://www.fondazionemaxxi.it/2012/12/14/luigi-ghirri-pensare-per-immagini/?lang=en
Luigi Ghirri retrospective in 'Festival della Fotografia Europea' (May 2 – July 27, 2014):
– http://www.fotografiaeuropea.it/fe2014/exhibition-luigi-ghirri/
On-line archive of Luigi Ghirri in Biblioteca Panizzi (in Italian):
– http://panizzi.comune.re.it/Sezione.jsp?idSezione=292
Archive of Luigi Ghirri in Ronconcesi town (in Italian/English):
– http://www.archivioluigighirri.it/
About Emiliano Cavicchi
Born in Rome, Italy. Graduated in Journalism (2004), he approached Photography by passion for traveling, focusing on personal projects and commissions in Documentary field. Since 2006 he participates in exhibitions (i.e. 'Brooklyn Artillery Art Fair', New York, 2009; 'Bursa Photo Fest', Turkey, 2011; 'Human Flows', U.K., 2013; 'The Russian Moment - 20 world's leading photographers expedition in Russia, July 2013', Saint Petersburg, 2013). Docked by chance in New York City for a while, he had opportunity to be Teaching Assistent in International Center of Photography (2009-2010) and from 2013 he is a contributor of the ICP Library Blog.
View all posts by Emiliano Cavicchi →
This entry was posted in artists' books, Exhibitions, International, Visual Research and tagged Biblioteca Panizzi, Casa Ghirri, CCCP, color photography, Conceptualism, Emiliano Cavicchi, Epica Etica Etnica Pathos, François Halard, Geography, Kodachrome, Luigi Ghirri, MACK Books, Matthew Marks Gallery, William Eggleston. Bookmark the permalink.
7 Responses to Luigi Ghirri, the Absolute Fascination of the Image
интернет магазин lg says:
искал в гугле интернет магазин lg, нашел ваш блог Luigi Ghirri, the Absolute Fascination of the Image | International …, спасибо!
Emiliano Cavicchi says:
Coming Soon | Among various new publications, two books of Luigi Ghirri are scheduled as forthcoming books in 2015, by MACK Editions:
Luigi Ghirri 'Niente di Antico sotto il Sole' (originally 1997)
Luigi Ghirri 'Colazione sull'Erba' (originally 1974/75)
http://www.mackbooks.co.uk/comingsoon/
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| Luigi Ghirri: The Complete Essays 1973-1991 (August 2015) |
Published in English for the first time, by MACK editions, this volume of essays contains 68 texts written by Luigi Ghirri between 1973 and 1991, where he approachs the subjects at the core of his photographs – themes of identity, time, memory, vision, representation, and sense of place – talking also about the works of Jacques-Henri Lartigue, Walker Evans, William Eggleston, Robert Adams, John Gossage, weaving in references to a plethora of musicians, writers, architects and painters alike. Link to the MACK book page here
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honton-induction.com says:
Danke für euren hilfreichen Artikel.
Ich lese schon seit Längerem auf eurem interessanten Blog.
Und gerade musste mich mal zu Wort melden und "Danke" sagen.
Macht genauso weiter, freue mich bereits jetzt schon auf die nächsten Artikel
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This webinar will focus on the key teaching and learning shifts that occur in successful personalized learning settings over time, including how these shifts can help improve students' college and career readiness. Participants will learn about the specific skills teachers and students use in many personalized learning settings, the key shifts in instructional planning and delivery, and the ways in which personalized learning settings can help students develop transferable skills and competencies over time. This webinar will feature both national experts and local leaders from districts implementing personalized learning approaches.


We have developed a particular expertise in the supply of poultry products over recent years, not only to offer more variety of choice to our traditional retail butchery customers but to meet ever increasing demand from specialist butchers and wholesalers serving the catering sector.
Flavoured – Garlic, Herbs, etc.
With such a limited shelf life, freshness is an all important consideration for any butcher buying chicken products … and, therefore, a major factor in choosing a supplier. So it's reassuring to know that we receive all our supplies daily from established quality sources both in the UK and throughout Europe, carefully selected to provide the finest quality in every grade. We can supply trussed and untrussed whole chickens in a full range of sizes (usually in batch quantities of 6-8 birds per box), either fresh or frozen depending on individual customer preferences.
We also supply a complete range of cuts such as legs, drumsticks, thighs and wings, with chicken fillets by far our most popular range with customers in every region. These are supplied in either gas flushed 10kg boxes, each containing 2 trays of approximately 25 fillets per tray – the ideal choice for immediate counter display direct from the box – or, if you prefer, you can choose the value price option of vacuum packing.
Turkey isn't just for Christmas … so for the assurance of all year quality, we source the vast majority of our supplies from Italy as the recognised European centre of excellence for turkey production and primal cut processing. While demand for whole fresh or frozen turkeys is always high, we find that the increasing preference amongst our customers these days is for breasts only which we supply in vacuum packed quantities of 4 double breasts per box.
We pride ourselves on our record for meeting every customer need. So whenever you have the need to source specialist poultry such as Quail, Geese, Guinea Fowl or Barbary and Gressingham Duck, it's good to know you can count on Dalziel to deliver with a normal turnaround time of just 48 hours.


Kaunas, the country's second-largest city and the third-largest in the Baltics, is well worth a visit while on a Lithuania holiday. Kaunas is what you'd mostly expect from a Baltic city – with a charming, medieval Old Town, a plethora of churches, galleries and museums, and plenty of cafés and restaurants serving strange local delicacies – but it also retains a sense of individuality and offers a fascinatingly distinct cultural and historical experience.
There are a glut of museums and galleries exhibiting the region's unique folk and military history such as the intriguing Military Museum of Vytautas the Great and Devil's Museum. Architectural highlights include the magnificent Baroque Rotuses aikste Town Hall, the elaborate Gothic Perkunas House and the Art Deco buildings of the New Town area.
Kaunas is also very serious about its culture and there's plenty here for lovers of the arts; the Kaunas Philharmonic gives regular performances and the Musical Theatre often has a decent programme of operas and musicals, while the town is also hosts cultural events throughout the year, such as the Pazaislis Classical Music Festival and Kaunas Jazz Festival.


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Q: Does BIOS automatically load an interrupt table? I have seen programs like bootloaders which make interrupts like int 10, int 13, and so on. Obviously these entries didn't always exist, so did BIOS load them? If so, which interrupts are loaded by BIOS? Also, is it okay to overwrite these entries? By the way, this whole thing is Intel x86.

A: Yeah BIOS loads its own Interrupts table when the system is booted, being more specific, only when it is in real mode, called IVT (Interrupt vector table). It is localised in very first KB of RAM memory.
Now your question which interrupts are loaded by BIOS?
well it is totally dependent on BIOS manufacturer, When the concept of BIOS interrupts was first introduced. A lot of manufacturers decided to implement 1000s of BIOS Calls. But few of them becomes very much standard and is included in all BIOS. Few of them are listed below
0x10 --> Video
0x13 --> Disk
0x14 --> Serial Port
0x16 --> Keyboard

Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS_interrupt_call#Interrupt_table
IDT in Protected mode is a counterpart of IVT which tells the CPU where is ISR located in RAM.
Overwriting IVT in real mode is okay till you point it to right location else it will generate triple fault and reset the CPU.

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Museum Of Abraham Lincoln In Springfield
2019-02-16T19:14:07-05:00https://images.c-span.org/Files/ea1/20190216192119003_hd.jpgThe Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum opened in 2005 with. stop in their "2019 LCV Cities Tour" in.
The first major Experince Museum, the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Museum is the largest presidential museum with over 50,000 square feet devoted to state-of-the-art full-immersion exhibits, special effects theaters and original artifacts.
May 17, 2019 · All I can say is WOW! This museum has so many wonderful displays and interactive features that can be enjoyed by the whole family. You can see Lincoln's actual top hat and Mary Todd Lincoln's wedding dress.
Dec 21, 2016 · Abraham Lincoln believed in the ideal that everyone in America should have the opportunity to improve his/her economic and social condition. Lincoln's life was the embodiment of that idea. We know him as the sixteenth president but he was also a spouse, parent, and neighbor who experienced the.
SPRINGFIELD — Voters in the Land of Lincoln have selected the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield as the state's top museum. It was followed by the Field Museum and the.
. a modern-day man holding the Gettysburg Address will be on display in front of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library.
Why you should know her: Pat Woods, an English teacher at Petersburg PORTA High School, won the Governor's Award at Illinois.
The official Tumblr page for the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield, IL Open daily from 9am-5pm Website Twitter Facebook Instagram
The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Museum suffers from the same problems as most similar places: it tries simultaneously to educate and entertain. Typically.
Facts about Abraham Lincoln. Here are some quick and interesting facts about Abraham Lincoln: He was born on February 12th 1809, and died April 15th 1865 at the age of fifty six.
Sam Wheeler, state historian of Illinois at the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, poses for a portrait in Springfield, Ill. (Neeta Satam for Here & Now) A scene depicting President.
Boston Tea Party Slogans Everyday clothing and party frocks hang from suspended white and brass pipe. and special for men and women. The brainchild of Boston natives Jessica Knez (formerly a buyer for Bergdorf Goodman) and. Indeed, this campaign season has been a lesson in just how conservative the Democratic Party actually is. Hence Clinton's unofficial campaign slogan of "no we can. the party
With Abraham Lincoln's birthday upon us. so I focused my attention to all things music as we toured his home and the Lincoln Museum. Short answer? If he were alive today, he'd probably be one of my.
After stints at the Peoria Riverfront Museum and in front of Tribune Tower in Chicago, an outsize sculpture of Abraham.
SPRINGFIELD, Ill. (AP) _ A visit to the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield is fun and educational. But spooky? On the night of Oct. 21, the museum will turn into a haunted.
SPRINGFIELD, IL — A museum in Springfield has been named the state's top museum. Voters selected the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum as the top museum in Illinois, The State.
History Of Christianity Podcast Jan 25, 2019 · If Bob Seidensticker, New Atheist author of the Cross Examined blog, knows anything about the Middle Ages, he knows they were bad. According to Seidensticker, this was a period in which "Christianity was in charge" and learning and reason suffered as a result. But this is not the only Christian tragedy. Sri Lankan authorities. CT asked Poobalan,
May 13, 2019 · News about Abraham Lincoln. Commentary and archival information about Abraham Lincoln from The New York Times.
Civil Disobedience In American History Salt March, also called Dandi March or Salt Satyagraha, major nonviolent protest action in India led by Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi in March–April 1930. The march was the first act in an even-larger campaign of civil disobedience Gandhi waged against British rule in India that extended into early 1931 and garnered Gandhi widespread support among the Indian populace and considerable worldwide.
IN the minds of a group of Illinois citizens, something must quickly be done to protect the surroundings of the Springfield home of Abraham Lincoln — the only house he ever owned — because the.
Image Date Photographer Location Technique Owner Notes 1846 or 1847 : Nicholas H. Shepherd Springfield, Illinois: Daguerreotype, quarter plate: Library of Congress This daguerreotype is the earliest confirmed photographic image of Abraham Lincoln.It was reportedly made in 1846 by Nicholas H. Shepherd shortly after Lincoln was elected to the United States House of Representatives.
You can't make it through Springfield without passing some Lincoln lore, and it's displayed especially well at the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum. Even non-Lincoln-buffs rave about.
May 2, 2017. Visiting the Abraham Lincoln historic sites in Springfield, Illinois. Abraham Lincoln Home 426 South Seventh Street, Springfield, IL 62701. Visit to the Exchange Hotel Civil War Hospital Museum in Gordonsville · The Ghosts.
As Illinois celebrates the 210th birthday of favorite son Abraham Lincoln, officials with the Springfield presidential museum created in his honor hope to keep important artifacts from being sold to.
Plot summary. The first act of the film covers Lincoln's early life as a storekeeper and rail-splitter in New Salem and his early romance with Ann Rutledge, and his early years as a lawyer and his courtship and marriage to Mary Todd in Springfield. The majority of the film deals with Lincoln's presidency during the American Civil War and culminates with Lee's surrender and Lincoln's.
. toward a $9.2 million debt owed for 1,400 Lincoln artifacts purchased a decade ago for the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield, Illinois. The museum's fundraising.
The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library Foundation (ALPLF) (Springfield Illinois) is a not-for-profit organization supporting the exhibits and programs of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum (ALPLM). Join us by making a tax-deductible gift to support the Museum and Library.
When Benjamin and Helen Dodge Edwards made their home a center of Springfield's early social and political life, they attracted Abraham and Mary Lincoln as occasional visitors.
The (Springfield) State Journal-Register reports the 19-ton sculpture named "Return Visit" will be located in front of the.
As someone who was born and raised in Lincoln, it was a no-brainer that I visit the Abraham Lincoln Museum and tomb during a recent trip to Springfield, Illinois. The central Illinois town of 120,000.
Order Of American Presidents note the lowering of standards on the explicit order of the American president himself. Governments with questionable records. A complete list of all United States presidents in chronological order, with birth and death dates and links to related content." An executive order issued by President Trump and a separate action taken by the US Commerce Department could "cut the Chinese.
Life Liberty And Pursuit Of Happiness Declaration Of Independence A Declaration for Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness Download MP3 (Right-click or option-click the link.). This is Rich Kleinfeldt. And this is Sarah Long with THE MAKING OF A NATION, a VOA Special English program about the history of the United States.Today, we continue the story of the American Revolution against Britain in the late 1700s. that among
May 02, 2019 · Abraham Lincoln died on April 14, 1865, but his memory is alive and well in his former home of Springfield, Illinois. So much so that one resident saw the late president's face while doing.
SPRINGFIELD, Ill. — This is for anyone who wants to tell the world about Abraham Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield is welcoming new volunteers at a Feb. 1.
WBEZ reports that the crown jewel of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library. who sought to establish its historical provenance: The Springfield, Ill., museum had maintained that Lincoln gave the.
We all know Lincoln as the statesman, an accomplished orator who is. His house in Springfield, IL is the embodiment of his life as a private man, father, and.
Now the foundation that runs the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield may be forced to let the market decide, after announcing that the hat and other Lincoln artifacts could.
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Q: displaying data from table columns in the view I am able to display information from my table for the user who submitted the data. I can't seem to setup how to display ALL users information from the table.
index.html.erb:
#This gives undefined local variable or method 'bio'. bio.content works on the user page if signed in and shows data from the user only.

<%= bio.content.all %>

bio_controller.rb:
            def show
            @bio= User.all
        end

user_controller.rb:
  def show
    @bio = current_user.bio.build

Can someone help show me what exactly I am missing so that I can show all bio information from the database, instead of only being allowed to show data of the signed in user from their profile.

A: You need @bio.content.all in the view. And you probably want to structure it with some HTML:
if @bio
   @bio.content.all.each do |b|
      <!-- some HTML to show the `b` record -->
   end
end


Even from a young age, Glenn Fedale Jr. knew how to make profits go through the roof.
"When I was like 9 or 10, I started buying sodas at the local market," Fedale recalled. "I'd get a pack of 12 for $3.00, and I'd sell them for 50 cents each in front of my house. I'd make a $3.00 profit, and that was big money for me."
"Clothes were always hand-me-downs from older cousins. Sneakers were always worn till they had holes in them," he said.
Yet it was this lack that drove Fedale to want more.
"I always wanted to develop a freedom from financial worry. ... I was always coming up with something new to make money," said Fedale, whose personal net worth is currently estimated at $60 million.
Well before Fedale's profits went through the roof, though, he went onto the roof—literally.
When he was about 12, Fedale started cleaning gutters. "I was making $25 dollars a house, and I could do three houses a day. Sometimes I'd have to lug that giant ladder half a mile or more to get to the house, but as long as I'd make $75 that day, I didn't care," he said.
At 14, Fendale said he went to work for his uncle John, who had a small roofing company. He said the job was brutal, working all day during the summer in over 100-degree heat, tearing off roofs and putting them back on. However, there was one thing that did appeal to Fedale: his uncle's lifestyle.
"He had a decent house, a motorcycle, a truck, and he was doing maybe one job a week and sometimes not at all during the winter months. I thought if I could get more people under me, then maybe I can have even more money. Maybe ... have a lifestyle that was even better than his."
When Fedale was 18, he started night school at Delaware Technical Community College, where he studied accounting and business management. He worked during the days roofing, while supplementing his income on weekends cleaning hospital floors. "I just wanted to get ahead. There's nothing more uncomfortable than just getting by. And so to get ahead, you got to try harder than anyone around you," he said.
After working for D. Shinn, a commercial roofing company, for four years, Fedale decided it was time to start his own business.
"I had worked my way up through the ranks, so I knew all aspects of the operations," he explained. "I was scouting jobs, doing the blueprint takeoffs, ordering material, finding the labor, setting the cranes up. … All this stuff, and I got the real know-how on how to bid on jobs and make a profit."
With D. Shinn he was doing mostly commercial work, but for his own business, he decided to start out by turning instead to the residential market. His first client: his girlfriend's mom, now his mother-in-law.
"I can remember the endless hours he worked from sunup to late in the night sometimes, and the off night he was compiling estimates, typing them up and mailing them out as well as billing for the business," said his wife, Laura, adding, "He was always working on something to further his business."
The first year was challenging, working long hours to drum up business and struggling to get paid. But it was worth it—Fedale's sweat equity generated roughly $350,000 in gross earnings for the first year.
After the first year, the company consistently grew 20 percent or better annually. By its fifth year, the company was earning roughly $4 million. Today the earnings figure has reached $16 million and is still growing, Fedale said.
That success has allowed Fedale to expand his investing beyond the roofing business and grow his net worth to $60 million.
"As you develop more, you see more opportunities arise," he said. "There's an excitement to watching a new business grow, whatever the business. It's a new challenge, and you never know what doors will open next."
Starting in the early 2000s, Fedale began investing in real estate—he had 20 rental properties by 2008 and now has more than 150 rental and commercial properties. He said roughly half of his $60 million net worth is from real estate, 30 percent is from the roofing business, and the rest is spread across a number of additional investments he has made.
A family man with three kids, Fedale counsels his own children on the art of the hustle that has served him since he was a kid selling soda cans and cleaning gutters and hospital floors.
"I tell my kids to work harder and smarter than anyone around you. Whatever it is you're interested in, just don't set limits. Always strive to do better and you will," Fedale said.
Tune in Wednesday nights at 10 p.m. for "Blue Collar Millionaires" on CNBC.


Modern and sophisticated, they create an almost magical picture depth and elegance. Acrylic glass prints are break-proof, glossy and cleaning friendly.
Thanks to invisible french brackets, unframed acrylics seem to float on your walls. They are perfect for minimalistic interiors.
All the characteristics of the artwork are intensified when mounted under glossy acrylic glass. The colors are more vivid and there is a great sense of depth. We use the ¼" (6 mm) thickness: The higher-end, maximum effect of presence.
No need to worry about fingerprints or blemishes. A microfiber cloth and household cleaner can be used to clean these prints and are perfect for public spaces and other high traffic areas.
Framed acrylic prints result in beautiful artwork framed in a contemporary, luxurious manner.


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January and February May be the Best Months in 2023 to get the Full $7500 Clean Vehicle Tax Credit
Posted on January 2, 2023 by Leslie Zebrowitz
January and February may be the best months to buy that new EV. With fewer limitations on qualification for the tax credit that apply before March, it may be worth checking to see if you can purchase your desired model now when the full $7500 tax credit is more likely to be available.
January and February
Right now and continuing beyond March, there are tax credits of up to $7500 for clean vehicle purchases (electric or fuel cell) that are assembled in North America. The Internal Revenue Service has a list of vehicles that manufacturers have determined meet the assembly criterion starting January 1, 2023. Eligible again are all Teslas and all GM vehicles, which had been previously excluded after reaching the federal sales cap. You can also check the assembly point on the vehicle information label affixed to each vehicle at the dealerships, or by entering the vehicle identification number (VIN) at Electric Vehicles with Final Assembly in North America.
Other restrictions on the tax credit include a price cap on purchased vehicles (MSRP $80,000 for SUV, truck, or van and $55,000 for other vehicles) and a purchaser income cap (Modified AGI <$150K if filing individually; <$300K if filing jointly; and <$225K for head of household).
Rule Changes in March
Beginning in March, vehicles must meet additional criteria for "critical mineral mining" and battery manufacturing in order to be eligible for the tax credit. Buyers who meet the rules for January and February can get $3750 if an EV also meets critical mineral mining requirements and/or $3750 if the EV meets certain battery manufacturing requirements, for a total of up to $7500. The details of these new criteria will be released in March.
Incentives for Hybrid Vehicles
Whereas vehicles that are fully powered by battery or fuel cell are eligible for a $7500 tax credit, the credit allowed for plug in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) depends on battery size, the minimum being 7 kilowatt hours of battery capacity for a credit of $3751.
Incentives for Used EVs
Also new in 2023 are tax credits for used clean vehicle purchases, and these are not subject to the battery requirements that will take effect in March.
Leslie Zebrowitz is co-chair of the Newton EV Taskforce, an organization whose mission is to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions by encourage Newton citizens to switch to all-electric driving and renewable energy. You can reach her at [email protected].
Published in: Businesses • Energy Efficiency • Live Greener • Take Action • Transportation


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Mario de Benito (Taravilla, província de Guadalajara, 25 de setembre de 1958) és un músic espanyol, compositor de bandes sonores. Va començar fent música pop amb els grups Trópico de Cáncer el 1985 i Trabesura el 1989. Va debutar al cinema el 1990 amb el director i productor Eduardo Campoy (A solas contigo). La seva música s'ha distingit per l'ús freqüent de sintetitzadors. Ha compost la banda sonora de le sèries Los ladrones van a la oficina (1993-1997), A las once en casa (1997-1998), La casa de los líos (1997-2000) o Manos a la obra (2001).

Fou nominat als Premis ATV 2002 per la banda sonora de Cuéntame i el 2004 al Goya a la millor cançó original per Cosa de brujas'.' El 2011 va compondre la banda sonora de No habrá paz para los malvados, amb la qual va guanyar el premi a la millor música a les Medalles del Cercle d'Escriptors Cinematogràfics de 2011 i fou nominat al Goya a la millor música original.

Filmografia (parcial)
 Los ladrones van a la oficina (1993-1997)
 La leyenda de Balthasar el castrado (1996)
 A las once en casa (1997-1998)
 La casa de los líos (1997-2000)
 Manos a la obra (2001)
 Dama de Porto Pim (2001)
 El deseo de ser piel roja (2002)
 La caja 507 (2002)
 Cuéntame (2002)
 La vida mancha (2004)
 Cosa de brujas (2004)
 Un franco, 14 pesetas (2006)
 No habrá paz para los malvados (2011)
 El ángel de Budapest (2011)

Referències

Persones de la província de Guadalajara
Compositors castellanomanxecs

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Home � Eco-friendly Footwear , Footwear Blog , Handbags , Rothy's Footwear , Shoe Blog , Shoeography , Sustainable Footwear , Women's Shoes � Rothy's Footwear Launches New Line of Sustainable Handbags
Rothy's Footwear Launches New Line of Sustainable Handbags
Shoeography | Friday, March 13, 2020 | 0 comments
Increasingly, companies are looking for ways to reduce their carbon footprint, including those in the fashion industry. Rothy's Footwear is one of those fashion brands using sustainable practices and they've become one of the most popular eco-friendly shoe brands, selling loafers, sneakers, ballet flats, and more. Meghan Markle is one of their most enthusiastic customers: she was seen wearing Rothy's shoes in 2018 while traveling to Australia and in 2019 to Africa, accompanied by Prince Harry. Globally, there are about 400 million entrepreneurs, but few have received honors such as Footwear News's Brand of the Year Award -- one of Rothy's many accolades. Currently, Rothy's is expanding into handbags made of plastic recovered from oceans.
Rothy's has incorporated sustainable practices into its manufacturing process. In most manufacturing, coatings serve two main purposes: they protect and they decorate. Rothy's shoes protect your feet stylishly while at the same time using an eco-friendly approach to making its products. To make shoes, the company skips virgin materials and instead makes the uppers of its shoes from recycled water bottles. According to the company's website, Rothy's has used more than 50 million plastic water bottles that would have otherwise ended up in landfills.
To make shoes from recycled plastic, Rothy's uses small flakes from bottles, creates beads from applying pressure to those flakes, and makes the beads into threads, creating a proprietary knit fabric called recycled PET or rPET. The fabric is produced by factories in China that are owned and operated by Rothy's. The company has a patent on its 3D knitting machines, which produce no waste. The machines allow for the programming of sizes and shapes. Each product is put together by hand so that mistakes are minimized. Some of Rothy's shoes feature a combination of this plastic-thread fabric and merino wool that is sheared without harm to the sheep and processed in Italy by mills using eco-friendly practices.
Rothy's uses additional eco-friendly techniques in manufacturing its shoes. Rubber made without carbon and vegan leather-like materials are used in their outer soles. Foam made from natural castor oil and additional recycled materials go into making their inner soles.
Rothy's also recently launched its version of the Mary Jane flat. The version familiar to most of us is cut low and features straps over the instep, suggesting a doll's shoe. Rothy's has put its own mark on the Mary Jane by adding a large bow. Reviewers report that Rothy's Mary Jane flats are comfortable, stylish, and ideal for spring. The shoes come in a number of colors, including sapphire, cinnamon, and the intriguingly-named wildcat.
And now Rothy's is using sustainable practices to make the first-ever line of eco-friendly handbags. In the years after 1940, the creation of man-made polymers grew exponentially. Since this time, companies have tried to use plastics in different ways. For its part, Rothy's is using plastic waste taken from oceans to create handbags, working in tandem with a company that gathers plastic from 30-mile stretches along coastlines. The recycling process is very similar to that of other plastic items, except that plastic found in oceans has been weakened by saltwater. The same knit fabric and knitting process that is used to make the shoes are also used to manufacturer the handbags. Rothy's creates a fiber from ocean plastic and other recycled plastic; this fiber meets the same high standards as the plastic Rothy's uses to make shoes. Its durability even allows the handbags to be machine washable.
Rothy's new offerings include a $350 handbag, a $275 tote bag, a $175 crossbody, and a $95 clutch purse with a magnet that allows it to attach to the tote. They also include a line of three boxes ($65 to $125) that zip up, perfect for stashing smaller items like makeup or cell phone chargers. These bags are available in navy, bright red, sage green, gray, and camouflage, and a number feature the company's classic stripe so that shoes can be matched to the bags. The launch of the new handbag line will involve advertising in New York City on billboards, subways, posters, and digital newsstand ads.
Although its factory is in China, Rothy's is not worried about the impact of coronavirus on manufacturing. The factory received approval for reopening and no employee has been diagnosed with the illness. Should coronavirus affect manufacturing (for example, if workers did test positive for the virus), Rothy's first concern would be the well-being of its employees and would then notify customers of any delays in bringing the bags to stores.
The fact that Rothy's owns its own factory is in part what will allow the company to offer this new product line. When the bags hit the marketplace, the company wants to hear from customers about what they like and what they don't like. This will let Rothy's increase production of its most popular handbags and decrease production of less popular items.
Don't expect Rothy's to become one of those companies that sell anything and everything. The launch of the handbag line is intended to grow Rothy's brand and appeal to its existing customer base. It does not indicate that the company will begin making a wide range of products. Quality, sustainability, customer loyalty, and customer demand are crucial to Rothy's success.
Some are concerned about the fact that products made from recycled plastic don't address the broader question of whether we should be using plastic at all. Rothy's is concerned with this question, too. As a result, they have hired a Head of Sustainability, who will weigh business decisions against what's right for the planet.
Rothy's is an example of how eco-friendly practices can be hugely profitable while significantly lowering a company's impact on the environment. Rothy's expansion of its brand is an exciting development for its many loyal customers, who want to feel good about their purchases and look stylish at the same time.
Category: Eco-friendly Footwear, Footwear Blog, Handbags, Rothy's Footwear, Shoe Blog, Shoeography, Sustainable Footwear, Women's Shoes


Daily updates to the baby feed. We got home, which was much more exhausting than expected, and while we haven't quite figured out how to settle in "comfortably" we are settling in. Visitors are welcome if you want to come over to visit, just give us a call.


"Sky in a Box." 2014. Installation with projection of stop-motion clouds. From the group show, "Cognizant." Quimby Gallery, Lyndonville, VT. December, 2014.
I created "Sky in a Box" after reading "The Poetics of Space," by Gaston Bachelard. Here, I am continuing an exploration of concept of the screen, the frame, space, and time. The stop-motion of cloud movement is projected from within the bureau. Various iterations of this piece allow the viewer to open the box, which contains infinite sky.