The number of individuals participating in athletic activities is continually increasing, whether these individuals are highly competitive athletes or weekend sports enthusiasts. [1, 2] Stress fractures of the femoral neck are uncommon injuries (see image depicted below). In general, these injuries occur in 2 distinct populations, (1) young, active individuals with unaccustomed strenuous activity or changes in activity, such as runners or endurance athletes, and (2) elderly individuals with osteoporosis.  Elderly individuals may also sustain femoral neck stress fractures; however, hip fractures are much more common and are often devastating injuries.
Classification of femoral neck stress fractures.
Femoral neck fractures in young patients are usually caused by high-energy trauma. These fractures are often associated with multiple injuries and high rates of avascular necrosis and nonunion. Results of this injury depend on (1) the extent of injury (ie, amount of displacement, amount of comminution, whether circulation has been disturbed), (2) the adequacy of the reduction, and (3) the adequacy of fixation. Recognition of the disabling complications of femoral neck fractures requires meticulous attention to detail in their management.
Stress fractures of the femoral neck are uncommon, but they may have serious consequences. Markey reported that femoral neck fractures comprise 5-10% of all stress fractures. Certain groups of athletes, including long-distance runners who suddenly change or add activities, appear to have a higher prevalence of femoral neck stress fractures compared with the general population.
Plancher and Donshik reported a prevalence rate of at least 10% for ipsilateral femoral shaft fractures, of which 30% are missed on the initial presentation.  Brukner reported that women have a higher rate of stress fractures than men, with relative risks ranging from 1.2 to 10 for similar training volumes.  Training errors are the most common risk factors, including a sudden increase in the quantity or intensity of training and the introduction of a new activity.
Prevention of osteoporosis is key to reducing these numbers, as osteoporosis remains the single most important contributing factor to hip fractures. The prevalence of hip fractures, regardless of location, is highest among white women, followed by white men, black women, and black men.
Koval and Zuckerman noted the age-adjusted incidence of femoral neck fractures in the United States is 63.3 cases per 100,000 person-years for women and 27.7 cases per 100,000 person-years for men.  Femoral neck fractures in elderly patients occur most commonly after minor falls or twisting injuries, and they are more common in women. In addition, Joshi et al noted stress fractures of the ipsilateral femoral neck as a rare consequence of total knee arthroplasty.  Influencing factors are correction of a significant knee deformity and inactivity before the total knee arthroplasty.
The exact incidence of femoral neck stress fractures is not known. Volpin et al reported a rate of 4.7% in 194 Israeli military recruits.  Zahger et al reported a higher rate of femoral neck stress fractures in Israeli female military recruits.  Insufficiency fractures are more common in females secondary to osteoporosis.
The femoral aspect of the hip is made up of the femoral head with its articular cartilage and the femoral neck, which connects the head to the shaft in the region of the lesser and greater trochanters. The synovial membrane incorporates the entire femoral head and the anterior neck, but only the proximal half of the posterior neck. The shape and size of the femoral neck vary widely.
Crock standardized the nomenclature of the vessels around the base of the femoral neck. The blood supply to the proximal end of the femur is divided into 3 major groups. The first is the extracapsular arterial ring located at the base of the femoral neck. The second is the ascending cervical branches of the arterial ring on the surface of the femoral neck. The third is the arteries of the ligamentum teres.
A large branch of the medial femoral circumflex artery forms the extracapsular arterial ring posteriorly and anteriorly by a branch from the lateral femoral circumflex artery (see images shown below). The ascending cervical branches ascend on the surface on the femoral neck anteriorly along the intertrochanteric line. Posteriorly, the cervical branches run under the synovial reflection toward the rim of the articular cartilage, which demarcates the femoral neck from its head. The lateral vessels are the most vulnerable to injury in femoral neck fractures.
Posterior view of the extraosseous blood supply to the femoral head.
Anterior view of the extraosseous blood supply to the femoral head.
A second ring of vessels is formed as the ascending cervical vessels approach the articular margin of the femoral head. From this second ring of vessels, the epiphyseal arteries are formed. The lateral epiphyseal arterial group supplies the lateral weight-bearing portion of the femoral head. The epiphyseal vessels are joined by the inferior metaphyseal vessels and vessels from the ligamentum teres.
Femoral neck fractures frequently disrupt the blood supply to the femoral head (see images below). The superior retinacular and lateral epiphyseal vessels are the most important sources of this blood supply. Widely displaced intracapsular hip fractures tear the synovium and the surrounding vessels. The progressive disruption of the blood supply can lead to serious clinical conditions and complications, including osteonecrosis and nonunion.
Grade I is an incomplete or valgus impacted fracture.
Grade II is a complete fracture without bone displacement.
Grade III is a complete fracture with partial displacement of the fracture fragments.
Grade IV is a complete fracture with total displacement of the fracture fragments.
Frandersen et al concluded that clinically differentiating the 4 grades of fractures is difficult. Multiple observers were able to completely agree on the Garden classification in only 22% of the cases. Hence, classifying femoral neck fractures as nondisplaced (Garden grades I or II) or displaced (Garden grades III or IV) is more accurate. See the illustration depicted below.
Femoral neck fractures are usually intracapsular. The femoral neck has essentially no periosteal layer; hence, all healing is endosteal in origin. The synovial fluid bathing the fracture may interfere with the healing process. Angiogenic-inhibiting factors in synovial fluid can inhibit fracture repair. These factors, along with the precarious blood supply to the femoral head, make healing unpredictable and nonunions fairly frequent.
Bone is a dynamic tissue, which continually reacts to stressful events. According to data from Maitra and Johnson, stress fractures result from an imbalance between bone resorption and bone deposition during the host bone response to repeated stressful events.  Most cortical stress involves tension or torsion; however, bone is weaker in tension and tends to fail by fracturing along a cement line.
Maitra and Johnson went on to report that tension forces promote osteoclastic resorption, whereas compressive forces promote an osteoblastic response.  With repeated stress, new bone formation cannot keep pace with bone resorption. This inability to keep up results in thinning and weakening of cortical bone, with propagation of cracks through cement lines, and, eventually, the development of microfractures. Without proper rest to correct this imbalance, these microfractures can progress to clinical fractures, the sine qua non of overuse.
Devas, in 1965, classified stress fractures into 2 types that differ radiologically and have different clinical outcomes.  The first is the tension stress fracture, which results in a transverse fracture directed perpendicular to the line of force transmitted in the femoral neck and originates at the superior surface of the femoral neck. This fracture pattern is at increased risk for displacement. These fractures carry a risk for further advancement of the fracture line superiorly and eventual displacement, leading to nonunion and avascular necrosis. Hence, early diagnosis and treatment are essential.
The second type is a compression type of femoral neck stress fracture, which has evidence of internal callus formation on radiographic images. The fracture is usually located at the inferior margin of the femoral neck without cortical discontinuity. This fracture pattern is thought to be mechanically stable. The compression fracture occurs mostly in younger patients, and continued stress does not usually cause displacement. The earliest radiographic evidence of a compression stress fracture is usually a haze of internal callus in the inferior cortex of the femoral neck. Eventually, a small fracture line appears in this area, and it gradually scleroses.
Fullerton and Snowdy described a femoral neck stress fracture classification with the following 3 categories  : (1) tension, (2) compression, and (3) displaced, as depicted below. Tension fractures occur on the superolateral aspect of femoral neck and are at high risk for displacement. Compression fractures are similar to those described by Devas, which occur on the inferomedial aspect of the femoral neck and have a low risk for displacement.
Several theories have been developed to explain the mechanisms of femoral neck stress fractures and the biomechanics of the hip. Nordin and Frankel described the biomechanics of the hip. The load on the femoral neck can exceed 3-5 times the body weight when an individual is walking or running. Gravity acts on the center of the body mass, which results in torque on the medial aspect of the hip joint. This torque is counterbalanced by the contraction of the gluteus medius and minor. The total load on the femoral head is the sum of the forces producing these 2 torque forces. Then, these forces on the femoral head are transmitted through the femoral neck to the shaft, which create a significant amount of stress on the femoral neck as a result of compression and bending.
Minimal tension or compressive strains have been confirmed to occur in the superior aspect of the femoral neck during a normal single-leg stance. When tension increases, the inferior aspect of the femoral neck takes over the burden of damping the forces of compression. When a patient bends forward, stress is induced on the superior aspect of the femoral head; however, counter traction of the abductor muscles also occurs. Hence, if the gluteus medius muscle is fatigued, the strain is placed entirely on the superior aspect of the femoral neck. This strain can predispose patients to femoral neck stress fractures. If the abductor muscles fatigue and are unable to provide normal tension, the tensile stress in the femoral neck increases.
Muscle fatigue has been implicated as a contributing factor in the development of stress fractures. Muscle imbalance leads to changes in the application of stress across the femoral neck that may exceed the bone's capability to respond appropriately to stress. Muscle fatigue secondary to repetitive activity can decrease its shock-absorbing capacity so that higher peak stresses occur in the femoral neck. This can lead to gait abnormalities, which, in turn, can alter the body's center of gravity and change the patterns of stress placed on the femoral neck.
In the 1960s, Frankel proposed that femoral neck fractures occur in the presence of a high ratio of axial load to bending load. Altered muscle balance may also increase the risk of a hip fracture. Another theory is that a fall onto the hip with a direct blow to the greater trochanter may generate an axial force along the neck, creating an impaction fracture. The combination of axial and rotational forces has also been proposed as a mechanism.
The miserable malalignment syndrome combines femoral neck anteversion, genu valgum, increased Q-angle, tibia vera, and compensatory foot pronation that may not allow individuals to compensate for overuse. Leg-length discrepancy may also predispose individuals to injuries by creating an unequal distribution of stress and tension across the hip joint.
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Quinn SF, McCarthy JL. Prospective evaluation of patients with suspected hip fracture and indeterminate radiographs: use of T1-weighted MR images. Radiology. 1993 May. 187(2):469-71. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Blomfeldt R, Tornkvist H, Ponzer S, Soderqvist A, Tidermark J. Internal fixation versus hemiarthroplasty for displaced fractures of the femoral neck in elderly patients with severe cognitive impairment. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005 Apr. 87(4):523-9. [Medline].
Stappaerts KH. Early fixation failure in displaced femoral neck fractures. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 1985. 104(5):314-8. [Medline].
Scheck M. The significance of posterior comminution in femoral neck fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1980 Oct. 152:138-42. [Medline].
Heetveld MJ, Raaymakers EL, van Eck-Smit BL, van Walsum AD, Luitse JS. Internal fixation for displaced fractures of the femoral neck. Does bone density affect clinical outcome?. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005 Mar. 87(3):367-73. [Medline].
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Wang F, Zhang H, Zhang Z, Ma C, Feng X. Comparison of bipolar hemiarthroplasty and total hip arthroplasty for displaced femoral neck fractures in the healthy elderly: a meta-analysis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2015 Aug 28. 16:229. [Medline].
Nattiv A, Kennedy G, Barrack MT, Abdelkerim A, Goolsby MA, Arends JC, et al. Correlation of MRI grading of bone stress injuries with clinical risk factors and return to play: a 5-year prospective study in collegiate track and field athletes. Am J Sports Med. 2013 Aug. 41(8):1930-41. [Medline].
Arnold WD. The effect of early weight-bearing on the stability of femoral neck fractures treated with Knowles pins. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1984 Jul. 66(6):847-52. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Askin SR, Bryan RS. Femoral neck fractures in young adults. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1976 Jan-Feb. 114:259-64. [Medline].
Barnes R, Brown JT, Garden RS, Nicoll EA. Subcapital fractures of the femur. A prospective review. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1976 Feb. 58(1):2-24. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Blickenstaff LD, Morris JM. Fatigue fracture of the femoral neck. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1966 Sep. 48(6):1031-47. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Blomfeldt R, Tornkvist H, Ponzer S, Soderqvist A, Tidermark J. Comparison of internal fixation with total hip replacement for displaced femoral neck fractures. Randomized, controlled trial performed at four years. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2005 Aug. 87(8):1680-8. [Medline].
Bray TJ, Smith-Hoefer E, Hooper A, Timmerman L. The displaced femoral neck fracture. Internal fixation versus bipolar endoprosthesis. Results of a prospective, randomized comparison. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1988 May. 230:127-40. [Medline].
Delamarter R, Moreland JR. Treatment of acute femoral neck fractures with total hip arthroplasty. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1987 May. 218:68-74. [Medline].
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Fairclough J, Colhoun E, Johnston D, Williams LA. Bone scanning for suspected hip fractures. A prospective study in elderly patients. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1987 Mar. 69(2):251-3. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Figved W, Opland V, Frihagen F, et al. Cemented versus uncemented hemiarthroplasty for displaced femoral neck fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2009 Jan 7. epub ahead of print. [Medline].
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Haidukewych GJ, Rothwell WS, Jacofsky DJ, Torchia ME, Berry DJ. Operative treatment of femoral neck fractures in patients between the ages of fifteen and fifty years. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004 Aug. 86-A(8):1711-6. [Medline].
Karanicolas PJ, Bhandari M, Walter SD, Heels-Ansdell D, Guyatt GH. Radiographs of hip fractures were digitally altered to mask surgeons to the type of implant without compromising the reliability of quality ratings or making the rating process more difficult. J Clin Epidemiol. 2009 Feb. 62(2):214-223.e1. [Medline].
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Sessions about employer details:Companies usually send HR teams to the location. But rather than HR, real team of employees should reach the premises to explain about the company policies and culture. Candidates are going to have a chance to meet this team to know about the job profiles and projects. It is the imperative of the company to train their employees for conducting such sessions during the recruitment process. If you give a PPT then also it won it give you clear picture about what the company and other details. The company should provide such interactions of existing employees and students.
Create impression about your organization:If the students are never heard about the company in their 4 to 5 years of academic time then the company should try to explain about it. The company needs to build its recognition on campus drivesby participating in events such as, critiquing student resumes, academic or cultural events that are held. Recall the sessions that how many of you company has delivered lectures in that institute. Students will appreciate your contribution towards the knowledgeable sessions at their premises and it's a great opportunity to build your brand by contributing towards student education.
Internships:Offeringinternship jobswill promote students with real time experience. They will promote your company with word of mouth and serves as campus ambassadors to promote the organization when they return to college.
presentations by group of people:There is a considerable gap between industry and academics. This gap can be filled with the lectures from expertise company professionals in collaboration with academic curriculum. Companies need to take special care while preparing such kind of lectures and work with faculty and college administrators.
Collaborate with faculty:Companies need to connect with trainers /faculty and offer small case studies from industry best practices as part of study. Sponsor some faculty for some research or study programmes to be conducted during the undergraduate or graduate programmes.


View Louise C Abrams's full profile on US Identify to connect online or by mailing a letter, making a phone call, sending an email, and more. US Identify profiles enable you to reconnect with people from your past, find long lost family, or learn about people in your life now.
French: Renowned fighter. Feminine of Louis.


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text:
"British Bitcoin" ICO proceeds despite political storm
An ICO outside of financial oversight organizations' jurisdiction? Any investment's a gamble…
17 May 2018 | 89 Shares
@Joe__Hybrid
joe@hybrid.co
Michelle Mone (C) waits for the start of the State Opening of Parliament in the Houses of Parliament in 2017. Source:AFP PHOTO / POOL / Stefan Rousseau
Since the boom and ensuing fall in cryptocurrency prices around Q4 2017 to Q1 2018, the media seems to have gone quiet about currencies based on a publicly-distributed ledger. Instead, the business community has turned its focus to other uses for blockchain.
A new investment company based in the UK has begun to leverage an Ethereum based platform into the oft-closed world of investment, with the emergence of Equi Capital. The new company is a joint venture between partners (in business and private life) Michelle Mone and Doug Barrowman, both of whom have proven track records in running businesses.
Barrowman is one of the UK's richest men (valued at over £1 billion) and his partner, Mone, was the founder and driving force behind the Ultimo bra company, which is currently winding up its UK operations after a Sri Lankan takeover three years ago.
Equi Capital opens a pre-public ICO today and is offering discounts on its tokens of 40 percent for early buyers. Token holders will be able to contribute to the company's investment opportunities via the Ethereum-based platform, which is due to launch with a web interface next month.
After the success of last year's inaugural Riviera Water Bike Race, Her Serene Highness, Princess Charlene of Monaco will be hosting the second annual Riviera Water Bike Challenge this June. Equi Capital is proud to sponsor Riviera Water Bike Challenge this year. #EQUI #RWBC2018 pic.twitter.com/xa5g25xxek
— EQUI Capital (@Equi_Capital) May 10, 2018
A pre-sale at the beginning of March asked supporters for a minimum investment of US$100,000, but the ICO is not available to US-based investors, where the regulations surrounding ICOs mean Equi Capital's offering would fall foul of the authorities.
In the UK, the company's activities do not fall under the regulation of Financial Conduct Authority, which some of its competitors certainly do. The FCA provides at least a modicum of protection for investors, although, of course, investments are always speculative.
Michelle Mone was given a seat in the UK's upper chamber by the then Conservative Prime Minister, David Cameron, and entered the House in 2015. John Mann, a Labour member of the House of Commons's Treasury Select Committee, has criticised Barrowman & Mone's company, saying, "You would be better going off to the bookies than investing in this scheme."
Investment opportunity types have not been announced in great detail, but the company's marketing materials mention real estate and new technology companies: specifically two opportunities, one in "Big Data," the other in online gaming.
As #Bitcoin and #cryptocurrency continues to become more and more viable by the week, one #lingerie #tycoon and her #billionaire boyfriend have recently sold out 50 #Dubai developments for Bitcoin. SOLD OUT Buying homes with Bitcoin is becoming more and more common. #Ultimolingerie tycoon #MichelleMone and her billionaire boyfriend, #DougBarrowman initially put 50 of their 1,300 developments, located in Dubai's Science Park, up for sale with #Bitcoin — and it didn't take long for them to get gobbled up. "We've sold all out," Barrowman told #Business Insider. "Some bought ones and twos, and one individual bought ten."
A post shared by Alt Coin 101 (@altcoin101) on Feb 11, 2018 at 10:26am PST
The investment vehicle will act as a conduit between fiat currencies and cryptocurrencies, with those wishing to trade will be able to buy into the scheme in Ethereum, sterling or US dollars.
EQUI Capital launched in the third quarter of 2017 and raised USD$7 million USD after the project's private pre-sale, which opened in February this year. With a minimum ante of US$100,000, the maximum number of individuals registering interest is therefore 70.
The company is working with ICO management consultants CoinFabric and Blockchain Advisory to guide the investment platform's foray into blockchain-powered trading. Both companies are based in California.

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Zuwera Mohammed Ibrahimah (born 27 July 1970) is a Ghanaian politician. She is a member of the National Democratic Congress (NDC). She is the member of parliament for the Salaga South Constituency in the Savannah Region of Ghana. She was the first woman in the Salaga area to be elected as a member of parliament in the fourth republic.

Early life and education
Ibrahimah was born on 27 July 1970 to late Kuntundawura, Alhaji Mohammed Zublilah Ibrahimah of Kpembe, who was a former principal and rector of Tamale Polytechnic, now Tamale Technical University and Adisah Nassamu Ibrahimah.

She hails from Kpembe in the Northern part of Ghana. She spent her childhood in Winneba where she started basic education. She had her secondary education at the Tamale Senior High School and later in Nigeria where her father was then serving as lecturer at the Adu Bayero University in Kano, Nigeria. She holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in Management Studies from the University of Cape Coast from 1998 and a post Graduate Diploma in Community Development, from Trent University in Canada. She also holds a Master of Arts (MA) degree in Communication Studies from the school of communication studies, University of Ghana from 2006 as well as completing an Executive Master of Business Administration (EMBA) in Marketing from the University of Ghana Business School in 2007.

She obtained her master's degree in Diplomacy and International Trade Business (Diplomacy) from University of East Anglia in the UK in 2012. She is currently on her thesis project in pursuit of a PhD in Media and Communication from the Goldsmiths College, University of London in the United Kingdom.

Career
Ibrahimah has worked in different sectors especially in community development planning, administration and diplomacy. Prior to entering politics, she was the deputy director of the Information Services Department.

She worked as a project officer in the three Northern Regions (Upper East Region, Upper West Region and Northern Region) on the Small Town Water Supply Systems project and also as a project officer with the Catholic Relief Services on the Quality Improvements in Primary school programme in the Northern Regions as well.

Ibrahimah worked as a consultant on the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP) by WHO/UNICEF in Ghana. She also worked respectively as the country Manager of the Association of Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA) and the country Representative of the Discovery Channel Global Education Partnership.

In the field of diplomacy she worked as the Minister-Counsellor and Head of Information and Public Relations of the Ghana High Commission, London.

Politics

Parliamentary bid
In August 2019, she contested for the National Democratic Congress primaries for Salaga South Constituency and won as the candidate to represent the party in the December 2020 Elections.

Zuwera Ibrahimah garnered 472 votes to win the election against Ibrahim Dey Abubakari, a former two-term member of parliament for the constituency, Ahmed Saaka Shaibu Dan and Lukman Jawula who had 260, 116 and 1 votes respectively.

Ibrahimah won the 2020 parliamentary elections for Salaga South Constituency to make history as the first female member of parliament for Savannah Region. She won after polling 20,525 votes representing 49.5% against the incumbent member of parliament Salifu Adam Braimah of the New Patriotic Party who also doubled as the Savannah Regional Minister, who had 19,086 votes representing 45.90%.

Member of Parliament
Ibrahimah was sworn in as Member of Parliament representing the Salaga South Constituency in the 8th Parliament of the 4th Republic of Ghana on 7 January 2021. As of 7 January 2021, she is one of the 40 women and the only one from the Savannah Region who are representing their respective constituencies in the 8th Parliament. She serves as a member on the Foreign Affairs Committee and the Appointments Committee of Parliament.

References

External links

 Zuwera Ibrahimah, GhanaMPs Profile

Living people
National Democratic Congress (Ghana) politicians
Ghanaian MPs 2021–2025
21st-century Ghanaian women politicians
University of Cape Coast alumni
People from Northern Region (Ghana)
Trent University alumni
University of Ghana alumni
Alumni of the University of East Anglia
Tamale Senior High School alumni
1970 births

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Cycling through time at Florence House
Residents at Florence House took part in a national cycling competition during September, with one resident winning gold for her efforts.
The competition organise rs delivered a specialist exercise bike to the home which allowed residents to cycle through some special places from their lives via TV screens.
Agnes Cameron won gold for cycling a grand total of 40km. Agnes said: "It's done my legs good! There is no pain anymore, I used to get pain in my legs but now the pain has gone, which I believe is done to using the bike."
Residents could pick which part of the world they wanted to be shown on the screens for them to "ride through". Together they explored scenes from their lives, from Norfolk all the way to Australia. The bike was specially modified to support cycling for those with weaker lower limbs.
Agnes also said: "I really enjoyed it, so much fun and lovely scenery! It has made walking a bit easier, my joints are less stiff."
Philip Smith, manager at Florence House, said how lovely it had been to watch the residents smile and gasp as they were able to take in the beauty of God's creation as they cycled.
All together the residents - with some help from staff at Florence House - cycled a grand total of 149km. Congratulations team!
Updated: 7th November, 2019
Author: Alexandra Davis
Older caregivers save the government £23 bn a year but pay with their own health
Family caregivers over 80 years of age are saving the government £23 billion a year. They are the army of unpaid carers looking after family members, providing 23 billion hours of unpaid care a year.
Children's school achievements almost doubled in a project involving older people
In these days when experts talk about the importance of bringing the generations together, Downshall primary school in Essex has shown how it's done, resulting in extraordinary benefits for both the children and the older people involved.
There is no ageism in the Ancient of Days
A recent survey found that employees over 50 are scared to admit it for fear their age will count against them, and two in five believe their age will bar them from promotion or pay rises. But there's no ageism in the Ancient of Days.
All About Dementia - Cardiff
Louise Morse is joined by other speakers to talk on the topic of Dementia.
Two 'Excellence' Awards at Bethany – and an entrance to Heaven
There were double celebrations at our Bethany home in Plymouth as the Local Authority's Social Services, Bridget Buckley, presented it with two 'Excellence' awards.
Onward Christian soldier
Great-grandfather Bob Seare thought his ministry years were behind him. But he is busier than ever...
Taking the gospel to Britain's care home congregations
Croydon pastor Felix Appiah is urging Elim churches to join him in winning souls for Christ by ministering in care homes.
This is how we want all frail older people to be cared for
After a report on older people dying while waiting for care, Louise Morse shares our vision for fulfilled living in later life.
Leonora gift day raises thousands
This year's gift day at Leonora Home has raised thousands of pounds for Pilgrims' Friend Society work in Chippenham.
The best Christmas gift for people with dementia is your visit
The revised booklet, Visiting a Person with Dementia, offers support and practical advice for visiting those you love who have dementia this Christmas.
How the church can be leading the way in end of life care.
Brand new home to be built in Chippenham
We're pleased to introduce Middlefields House, a state-of-the-art residential home in Chippenham.
Pilgrim Home Brighton to close
It is with regret that we have announced plans to close our Pilgrim Home, Brighton.
Brand new resource for worshipping with older people
We've launched a brand new resource to help churches and Christians as they explore ways of worshipping with older people.
Join our mission to help the elderly thrive.
Find out what Christian retirement and independent living can really look like in one of our housing schemes.
Finborough Court, Great Finborough, Suffolk
Finborough Court is a Christian care home which supports residents to live fulfilled lives in their later years, providing excellent, personalised care which supports our residents to flourish in older age.
Milward House, Tunbridge Wells
Milward House is a lovely Christian home situated in a conservation area about half a mile from the centre of the historic spa town of Tunbridge Wells, close to the Green Flag Awarded Dunorlan Park.
Interested in older people? Our staff say the work can be demanding, but is rewarding and fulfilling.
Royd Court, Mirfield, West Yorkshire
Royd Court was purpose designed and built as the Society's first extra care housing scheme in 2007, offering 'care ready' retirement apartments in a Christian community.
Shottermill House, Haslemere, Surrey
Shottermill House is modern Christian care home about two miles from the centre of the charming market town of Haslemere, situated in a pleasant residential area with its own landscaped gardens.
Emmaus House, Harrogate
Emmaus House is a lovely Christian care home, set in a lovely Yorkshire stone building in the beautiful spa town of Harrogate, overlooking the award-winning Valley Gardens.
Evington Home, Leicester
Backing on to Evington Park, the Evington home is tucked away in the corner of a quiet residential area. It is about three miles from Leicester city centre, and a pleasant, level walk from Evington village.
Bethany Christian Home, Plymouth
Bethany Christian Home is said to be a 'home away from home'. With extensive views over the city and Plymouth Sound and boasting a beautifully landscaped south-facing garden, Bethany offers 24 residential care places in en-suite rooms.
After a report on older people dying while waiting for care, Louise Morse shares our vision for fulfilled living in later life. Read more
Why Christian care makes a difference
Sylvia Clovey, Marketing and Communications Manager at Pilgrims' Friend Society, shares why Christian care makes a difference in later life. Read more
Author: Sylvia Clovey


text:
Drums of Dead er den eneste tegneserie, der nogensinde er udgivet med Abe Sapien fra Hellboy-serien. Tegneserien er udgivet af Dark Horse Comics, som også udgiver Hellboy. Tegneserien er kun udkommet på engelsk. Den blev senere udgivet i B.P.R.D.: Hollow Earth and Other Stories.

Handlingen i tegneserien

Kilder/henvisninger

Se også
 Abe Sapien
 Hellboy tegneserierne, som Abe Sapien også er med i
 Hellboy filmen
 Hellboy, Abe Sapiens kollega.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Dark Horse-hjemmeside

Tegneserier fra USA


text:
Iranian military chief visits Chinese Naval Base Shanghai
TEHRAN, Sep. 13 (MNA) – Chief of Staff of the Iranian Armed Forces Major General Mohammad Hossein Bagheri paid a visit to Chinese Naval Base Shanghai as part of his three-day visit to the East Asian country.
Major General Mohammad Hossein Bagheri, who arrived in China for a three-day visit on Wednesday at the invitation of his Chinese counterpart, paid a visit to Chinese Naval Base Shanghai on Thursday morning.
During the visit to the Chinese Naval Base Shanghai, the Iranian military chief took a look at the naval equipment and the vessels stationed at the base.
KI/IRN83473452
Mohammad Hossein Bagheri
Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces
Iran-China Cooperation
We will witness significant development in Tehran-Beijing relations: Iran military chief
Visit of Iran military chief to Chinese Naval Base Shanghai
Iran ready to firmly defend its interests in Persian Gulf: Maj. Gen. Bagheri
Iran ready to share experiences with China's Ntl. Def. Uni.
Chinese military chief officially welcomes chief of Iranian Armed forces
Maj. Gen. Bagheri arrives in China
"Enemies have found out Iran has capability, readiness and determination to face them"


Ardee Concert Band plays for President – twice!
You can't be in two places at the one time but Ardee Concert Band members managed it last Saturday when they played for the President, not once but twice!
When the President arrived at the Ardee Parish Centre on Saturday morning for "The Gardai in the Community" event organised by Superintendent Ray Brennan of the Ardee Garda District, five young members performed as the President walked into the main hall. They were Robert Finegan, Darren Kirk, Liam Taaffe, Simon Cox and Killian Byrne and they played an impressive saxophone quintet arrangement of the Radetsky March.
A mad dash was then made by Robert, Darren and Liam to Tallanstown to join the other 40 members of the Ardee Concert Band who were invited by Tallanstown Tidy Town committee to celebrate the unveiling of a special plague by the President marking Tallanstown's great win in the 2010 Tidy Towns competition.
The band, conducted by Harry Kelly, entertained the large crowd until Mary McAleese arrived at 12 noon when the they played the Presidential Salute. As the special commemorative plaque was unveiled, the band played a rousing Fanfare. The President spent some time meeting the people of Tallanstown while the band played a further programme. Great credit to the Tallanstown Tidy Towns committee who organised a fantastic day and provided refreshments for all who attending this special day.
There is no time to rest for the band as they will perform in a concert tilted "Music of the Movies" in The Executive Pavilion at Punchestown Race Course on Saturday, May 21st with the Nas na Ri singers under the baton of Ardonian, Alan Kelly, a member of the band and conductor of the choir.
On 24th, 25th and 26th of May, sixty-four members will sit the Grade Examinations of the Royal Irish Academy of Music due to be held in the Bohemian Centre.
The Bohemian Centre, home of Ardee Concert Band, was abuzz on Thursday night last, 5th May, as Mums and Dads and family members came to hear the next generation of the band perform. The evening started with a performance by the current Recorder Group, conducted for the evening by Sean O Brien, one of their instructors.
The band holds annual grade examinations through the Royal Irish Academy of Music. Kevin Reilly, MC for the night, explained that last year, 50 students sat examinations and had excellent results. Six band members received distinctions, this means 90% or above. Dermot Murray, band secretary, presented these certificates and congratulated the students on their achievements.
The band also wanted to mark the fabulous win of the Ardee Concert Youth Band at the National Band Championships on April 9th last when they took first prize in Section 4. The Youth Band conductor John Gaynor made the presentation of medals to all who performed on the day and also to Alex Clinton who unfortunately broke his collarbone a day or two beforehand. It was felt that Alex worked very hard and had improved so much that he deserved his medal.
"It was a great social evening," says Fiona Reilly PRO, "it was lovely for the families to hear their children's progress and to get together in such a relaxed atmosphere. " Tea and cakes were served afterwards to all who attended, organised by some of the ladies on the committee.


There are many attractions to keep you entertained in Blackpool.
Blackpool Pleasure Beach is the UK's favourite amusement park, with over 100 rides and attractions, spectacular shows and it's the most ride intensive park in the UK.
Home to the steel mega-coaster that is the Big One, the UK's only Nickelodeon Land and the world's first Wallace & Gromit ride, Thrill-O-Matic, Blackpool Pleasure Beach is full of world firsts.
Family thrills and memories that will last a lifetime are assured at Blackpool Pleasure Beach and there is plenty to keep all ages amused. Nickelodeon Land is home to 12 amazing rides, a whole host of Nickelodeon characters themed around the world's number one children's entertainment channel. With its colourful, park-like atmosphere, Nickelodeon Land is the perfect place to hang out and meet popular Nick characters.
Enjoy the new Red Arrows SkyForce. This 72ft high, 12-seat white-knuckle ride will take you on a 360-degree tour of the skies and sits in the shadow of the world famous Big One rollercoaster. Stepping into your very own Red Arrows cockpit, you take control of the plane and spin, glide and take formation in your very own display.
Red Arrows SkyForce will have you spinning, swirling and exciting the senses while your fellow pilots take control of their own flights before touching down and checking out a dedicated a Red Arrows shop, which will feature exclusive merchandise and souvenirs designed for Blackpool Pleasure Beach.
Sandcastle Waterpark is the UKs Largest Indoor Waterpark. The Waterpark features over 18 slides and attractions including water slides, fun pools, wave machine, lazy river, water chutes, burger bars, snack bars, arcades, swim shop and much much more. So, if you're looking for things to do in Blackpool and fancy a great day out make sure you visit the Sandcastle Waterpark. The Sandcastle Waterpark is opposite the Pleasure Beach on the seaside of the promenade.
Blackpool Tower is another great day out, with the tower circus, the walk of faith, aquarium, jungle Jim's and zap zone, the Blackpool Tower Dungeon's, the Blackpool Tower Spectacular glass-floored Skywalk. Also there is the Blackpool Tower Ballroom with dancing every day, and many shows and competitions through out the season.
Funny Girls is only a short 2 minute walk from the hotel, and offers an amazing brilliant night out, and is not to be missed.
All Blackpools bars and night clubs are all within walking distance of the hotel, and offer you a fun packed night out.


text:
Hackers Steal $40M in Bitcoin From Binance
By Nathaniel Mott
Binance revealed on May 7 that hackers stole 7,000 bitcoin--which is worth nearly $41 million at the current exchange rate--in a single transaction. The company said the hackers also compromised API keys, two-factor authentication codes and "potentially other info."
Here's the good news: Binance said its users won't have to bear any of the costs of this attack. It plans to use the Secure Asset Fund for Users (SAFU) it established in July 2018 to "cover this incident in full." That fund contains 10% of all of Binance's trading fees. Binance said it was set aside "to offer protection to our users and their funds in extreme cases." A $40 million theft qualifies.
Binance added that the hackers were only able to access its "hot wallet," which is Bitcoin storage that's connected to the Internet, as opposed to "cold storage" that is kept offline to make sure the owner's funds aren't vulnerable to attacks like the one discovered on Tuesday. That hot wallet contained just 2% of the exchange's Bitcoin holdings; the remaining 98% should easily cover the cost of this errant transaction.
The attack was said to be fairly sophisticated. Binance said it found evidence of phishing, viruses and possibly other forms of attack. It plans to conduct a security review that it expects to complete within one week. In the meantime, it's suspended all deposits and withdrawals but will continue to allow trades on its platform so its users "may adjust [their] positions if [they] wish" despite the hack.
So far as incidents involving cryptocurrency go, this one appears to have been fairly mild, despite the amount stolen. Binance users shouldn't have to worry about their holdings, which is something that can't be said of many other setbacks. Whether it's hacking, fraud, or some other incident, these problems usually end up costing people who use these exchanges. Let's hope that's not just wishful thinking.
Nathaniel Mott
Freelance News & Features Writer
Nathaniel Mott is a freelance news and features writer for Tom's Hardware US, covering breaking news, security, and the silliest aspects of the tech industry.
How to Check Your CPU Temperature
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Nvidia Tegra X1 Lives: Nintendo Reportedly Beefing Up Switch Production


HONOLULU — The Hawaii Department of Transportation (HDOT) advises Oahu motorists that the H-3 Freeway will be closed in the Honolulu-bound direction between the Likelike Highway Underpass and the Halawa Interchange beginning Saturday, Nov. 21, from 7 p.m. through 7 a.m. Sunday, Nov. 22, for routine tunnel cleaning and maintenance at the Harano Tunnel and Hospital Rock Tunnel.
Electronic message boards will be displayed to notify motorists of the closure. City and County buses and emergency vehicles have been notified and will be allowed through the work zone.


text:
Q: how to exit from a shell script in correct way using a function i want to exit from a shell script. it is a function that i call in a another function
i do this:
exit_script()
{
    if [[ $? -eq 0 ]] ; then
        echo "exit from script with success"
        exit
    else
        echo "exit with error..."
        exit
    fi
}

Is this correct to put "exit" or I must put an exit status after "exit" like "exit 1"?

A: exit without an argument uses the exit status of the preceding command. That's OK for the first case, but in the second case you should be exiting with a non-zero exit status (1 is OK for non-specific errors), not the 0 you get from the preceding echo.
exit_script()
{
    if [[ $? -eq 0 ]] ; then
        echo "exit from script with success" >&2
        exit  # or exit 0, if you want to be specific
    else
        echo "exit with error..." >&2
        exit 1
    fi
}

You probably want the messages to go to standard error, but if not, just remove the >&2 that I added to each call to echo.
If you want to exit with the same exit status that you are testing, you'll need to save it first.
exit_script()
{
    status=$?
    if [[ $status -eq 0 ]] ; then
        echo "exit from script with success"
    else
        echo "exit with error..."
    fi >&2
    # Now you can just make one, all-purpose call to exit
    exit $status
}

A: Exit will copy the exit status of the last command called unless you provide it with an explicit value. In your case, Both exits will return success because the echos were successful.

A: exit status should be 0 on successful execution and non-zero if there were any errors.
Also note that when there are no parameters to exit,the exit status of the script is the exit status of the last command executed in the script (previous to the exit).

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


I have been having such a fun time putting together P's first Easter basket! I have been shopping in advance so I can ship things from Etsy and know they will get here in time. Below are some things P will be waking up to and enjoying on Easter morning. Since I won't be filling it with candy just yet I had to get creative!
I really enjoy supporting small businesses (especially mom's who stay at home and run their own shops) and that's why I would love to introduce you guys to Emily! The amazing gal behind the Etsy shop, Frankie & Lulu. I thought all of her products were so dang cute I was having a hard time on deciding which item to purchase for P's Easter basket.
I mean who wouldn't? But here is the fun part - because Emily is so awesome and you all are so awesome. We have teamed up to do a giveaway right in time for this little blue birdie to hatch her way into your Easter basket!
So enter below to win, giveaway will end on Friday at midnight with the winner announced on Monday, March 9th!
I completely agree, Easter basket has been so much fun! That birdie is PRECIOUS!
Those rattles & teethers are adorable!!! Liam was a huge fan of the "If I were..." books. I may suggest getting the duck one too; it was his absolute favorite!
How fun!! Love the stuff you've picked - it's all so adorable!
How adorable! These are such cute finds!


This Rose Leatherette Luggage Tag is both sophistication and fashionable! Made with Faux Leather, this luggage tag is seamlessly designed to embody luxury and extravagance. Personalize this leather piece to promote your company/brand or to give as a personal gift to a friend or family member. Its unique leather touch will be sure to keep your recipient's luggage looking classy and professional in and out the airport!
Laser is very precise and is able to achieve fine details and lines. This method is best when imprinting on wood and metal substrates.


text:
Institutions (singular: institution) are humanly devised structures of rules and norms that shape and constrain individual behavior. All definitions of institutions generally entail that there is a level of persistence and continuity. Laws, rules, social conventions and norms are all examples of institutions. Institutions vary in their level of formality and informality.

Institutions are a principal object of study in social sciences such as political science, anthropology, economics, and sociology (the latter described by Émile Durkheim as the "science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning"). Primary or meta-institutions are institutions such as the family or money that are broad enough to encompass sets of related institutions. Institutions are also a central concern for law, the formal mechanism for political rule-making and enforcement. Historians study and document the founding, growth, decay and development of institutions as part of political, economic and cultural history.

Definition
There are a variety of definitions of institutions. These definitions entail varying levels of formality and organizational complexity. The most expansive definitions may include informal but regularized practices, such as handshakes, whereas the most narrow definitions may only include institutions that are highly formalized (e.g. have specified laws, rules and complex organizational structures).

According to Wolfgang Streeck and Kathleen Thelen, institutions are in the most general sense "building blocks of social order: they represent socially sanctioned, that is, collectively enforced expectations with respect to the behavior of specific categories of actors or to the performance of certain activities. Typically, they involve mutually related rights and obligations for actors." Sociologists and anthropologists have expansive definitions of institutions that include informal institutions. Political scientists have sometimes defined institutions in more formal ways where third parties must reliably and predictably enforce the rules governing the transactions of first and second parties.

One prominent Rational Choice Institutionalist definition of institutions is provided by Jack Knight who defines institutions as entailing "a set of rules that structure social interactions in particular ways" and that "knowledge of these rules must be shared by the members of the relevant community or society." Definitions by Knight and Randall Calvert exclude purely private idiosyncrasies and conventions.

Douglass North argues that institutions are "humanly devised constraints that shape interaction". According to North, they are critical determinants of economic performance, having profound effects on the costs of exchange and production. He emphasizes that small historical and cultural features can drastically change the nature of an institution. Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson agree with the analysis presented by North. They write that institutions play a crucial role in the trajectory of economic growth because economic institutions shape the opportunities and constraints of investment. Economic incentives also shape political behavior, as certain groups receive more advantages from economic outcomes than others, which allow them to gain political control. A separate paper by Acemoglu, Robinson, and Francisco A. Gallego details the relationships between institutions, human capital, and economic development. They argue that institutions set an equal playing field for competition, making institutional strength a key factor in economic growth. Authors Steven Levitsky and María Victoria Murillo claim that institutional strength depends on two factors: stability and enforcement. An unstable, unenforced institution is one where weak rules are ignored and actors are unable to make expectations based on their behavior. In a weak institution, actors cannot depend on one another to act according to the rules, which creates barriers to collective action and collaboration.

Other social scientists have examined the concept of institutional lock-in. In an article entitled "Clio and the Economics of QWERTY" (1985), economist Paul A. David describes technological lock-in as the process by which a specific technology dominates the market, even when the technology is not the most efficient of the ones available. He proceeds to explain that lock-in is a result of path-dependence, where the early choice of technology in a market forces other actors to choose that technology regardless of their natural preferences, causing that technology to "lock-in". Economist W. Brian Arthur applied David's theories to institutions. As with a technology, institutions (in the form of law, policy, social regulations, or otherwise) can become locked into a society, which in turn can shape social or economic development. Arthur notes that although institutional lock-in can be predictable, it is often difficult to change once it is locked-in because of its deep roots in social and economic frameworks.

Randall Calvert defines institution as "an equilibrium of behavior in an underlying game." This means that "it must be rational for nearly every individual to almost always adhere to the behavior prescriptions of the institution, given that nearly all other individuals are doing so."

Robert Keohane defined institutions as "persistent and connected sets of rules (formal or informal) that prescribe behavioral roles, constrain activity, and shape expectations." Samuel P. Huntington defined institutions as "stable, valued, recurring patterns of behavior." I

Avner Greif and David Laitin define institutions "as a system of human-made, nonphysical elements – norms, beliefs, organizations, and rules – exogenous to each individual whose behavior it influences that generates behavioral regularities." Additionally, they specify that organizations "are institutional elements that influence the set of beliefs and norms that can be self-enforcing in the transaction under consideration. Rules are behavioral instructions that facilitate individuals with the cognitive task of choosing behavior by defining the situation and coordinating behavior."

All definitions of institutions generally entail that there is a level of persistence and continuity. Laws, rules, social conventions and norms are all examples of institutions. Organizations and institutions can be synonymous, but Jack Knight writes that organizations are a narrow version of institutions or represent a cluster of institutions; the two are distinct in the sense that organizations contain internal institutions (that govern interactions between the members of the organizations).

An informal institution tends to have socially shared rules, which are unwritten and yet are often known by all inhabitants of a certain country, as such they are often referred to as being an inherent part of the culture of a given country. Informal practices are often referred to as "cultural", for example clientelism or corruption is sometimes stated as a part of the political culture in a certain place, but an informal institution itself is not cultural, it may be shaped by culture or behaviour of a given political landscape, but they should be looked at in the same way as formal institutions to understand their role in a given country. The relationship between formal and informal institutions is often closely aligned and informal institutions step in to prop up inefficient institutions. However, because they do not have a centre, which directs and coordinates their actions, changing informal institutions is a slow and lengthy process.

According to Geoffrey M. Hodgson, it is misleading to say that an institution is a form of behavior. Instead, Hodgson states that institutions are "integrated systems of rules that structure social interactions."

Examples
Examples of institutions include:
 Family: The family is the center of the child's life. The family teaches children cultural values and attitudes about themselves and others –  see sociology of the family. Children learn continuously from their environment. Children also become aware of class at a very early age and assign different values to each class accordingly.
 Religion: Some  religion is like an ethnic or cultural category, making it less likely for the individuals to break from religious affiliations and be more socialized in this setting. Parental religious participation is the most influential part of religious socialization—more so than religious peers or religious beliefs. See sociology of religion and civil religion.
 Peer groups: A peer group is a social group whose members have interests, social positions and age in common. This is where children can escape supervision and learn to form relationships on their own. The influence of the peer group typically peaks during adolescence however peer groups generally only affect short term interests unlike the family which has long term influence.
 Economic systems: Economic systems dictate "acceptable alternatives for consumption", "social values of consumption alternatives", the "establishment of dominant values", and "the nature of involvement in consumption".
 Legal systems: Children are pressured from both parents and peers to conform and obey certain laws or norms of the group/community. Parents' attitudes toward legal systems influence children's views as to what is legally acceptable. For example, children whose parents are continually in jail are more accepting of incarceration. See jurisprudence, philosophy of law, sociology of law.
 Penal systems: The penal systems acts upon prisoners and the guards. Prison is a separate environment from that of normal society; prisoners and guards form their own communities and create their own social norms. Guards serve as "social control agents" who discipline and provide security. From the view of the prisoners, the communities can be oppressive and domineering, causing feelings of defiance and contempt towards the guards. Because of the change in societies, prisoners experience loneliness, a lack of emotional relationships, a decrease in identity and "lack of security and autonomy". Both the inmates and the guards feel tense, fearful, and defensive, which creates an uneasy atmosphere within the community. See sociology of punishment.
 Language: People learn to socialize differently depending on the specific language and culture in which they live. A specific example of this is code switching.  This is where immigrant children learn to behave in accordance with the languages used in their lives: separate languages at home and in peer groups (mainly in educational settings). Depending on the language and situation at any given time, people will socialize differently. See linguistics, sociolinguistics, sociology of language.
 Mass media: The mass media are the means for delivering impersonal communications directed to a vast audience. The term media comes from Latin meaning, "middle", suggesting that the media's function is to connect people. The media can teach norms and values by way of representing symbolic reward and punishment for different kinds of behavior. Mass media has enormous effects on our attitudes and behavior, notably in regards to aggression. See media studies.
 Educational institutions – schools (preschool, primary/elementary, secondary, and post-secondary/higher –see sociology of education)
 Research community – academia and universities; research institutes – see sociology of science
 Medicine – hospitals and other health care institutions – see sociology of health and illness, medical sociology
 Psychiatric hospitals (history)
 Military or paramilitary forces –  see military sociology
 Industry – businesses, including corporations – see financial institution, factory, capitalism, division of labour, social class, industrial sociology
 Civil society or NGOs – charitable organizations; advocacy groups; political parties; think tanks; virtual communities

In an extended context:

 Art and culture (See also: culture industry, critical theory, cultural studies, cultural sociology)
 The nation-state – Social and political scientists often speak of the state as embodying all institutions such as schools, prisons, police, and so on. However, these institutions may be considered private or autonomous, whilst organised religion and family life certainly pre-date the advent of the nation state. The Neo-Marxist thought of Antonio Gramsci, for instance, distinguishes  between institutions of political society (police, the army, legal system, etc.), which dominate directly and coercively—and civil society (the family, education system, etc.).

Social science perspectives
While institutions tend to appear to people in society as part of the natural, unchanging landscape of their lives, study of institutions by the social sciences tends to reveal the nature of institutions as social constructions, artifacts of a particular time, culture and society, produced by collective human choice, though not directly by individual intention. Sociology traditionally analyzed social institutions in terms of interlocking social roles and expectations.  Social institutions created and were composed of groups of roles, or expected behaviors.  The social function of the institution was executed by the fulfillment of roles.  Basic biological requirements, for reproduction and care of the young, are served by the institutions of marriage and family, for example, by creating, elaborating and prescribing the behaviors expected for husband/father, wife/mother, child, etc.

The relationship of the institutions to human nature is a foundational question for the social sciences.  Institutions can be seen as "naturally" arising from, and conforming to, human nature—a fundamentally conservative view—or institutions can be seen as artificial, almost accidental, and in need of architectural redesign, informed by expert social analysis, to better serve human needs—a fundamentally progressive view.  Adam Smith anchored his economics in the supposed human "propensity to truck, barter and exchange".  Modern feminists have criticized traditional marriage and other institutions as element of an oppressive and obsolete patriarchy. The Marxist view—which sees human nature as historically 'evolving' towards voluntary social cooperation, shared by some anarchists—is that supra-individual institutions such as the market and the state are incompatible with the individual liberty of a truly free society.

Economics, in recent years, has used game theory to study institutions from two perspectives.  Firstly, how do institutions survive and evolve?  In this perspective, institutions arise from Nash equilibria of games.  For example, whenever people pass each other in a corridor or thoroughfare, there is a need for customs, which avoid collisions.  Such a custom might call for each party to keep to their own right (or left—such a choice is arbitrary, it is only necessary that the choice be uniform and consistent).  Such customs may be supposed to be the origin of rules, such as the rule, adopted in many countries, which requires driving automobiles on the right side of the road.

Secondly, how do institutions affect behaviour?  In this perspective, the focus is on behaviour arising from a given set of institutional rules.  In these models, institutions determine the rules (i.e. strategy sets and utility functions) of games, rather than arise as equilibria out of games. Douglass North argues, the very emergence of an institution reflects behavioral adaptations through his application of increasing returns. Over time institutions develop rules that incentivize certain behaviors over others because they present less risk or induce lower cost, and establish path dependent outcomes. For example, the Cournot duopoly model is based on an institution involving an auctioneer who sells all goods at the market-clearing price.  While it is always possible to analyze behaviour with the institutions-as-equilibria approach instead, it is much more complicated.

In political science, the effect of institutions on behavior has also been considered from a meme perspective, like game theory borrowed from biology. A "memetic institutionalism" has been proposed, suggesting that institutions provide selection environments for political action, whereby differentiated retention arises and thereby a Darwinian evolution of institutions over time.  Public choice theory, another branch of economics with a close relationship to political science, considers how government policy choices are made, and seeks to determine what the policy outputs are likely to be, given a particular political decision-making process and context. Credibility thesis  purports that institutions emerge from intentional institution-building but never in the originally intended form. Instead, institutional development is endogenous and spontaneously ordered and institutional persistence can be explained by their credibility, which is provided by the function that particular institutions serve.

Political scientists have traditionally studied the causes and consequences of formal institutional design. For instance, Douglass North investigated the impact of institutions on economic development in various countries, concluding that institutions in prosperous countries like the United States induced a net increase in productivity, whereas institutions in Third World countries caused a net decrease. Scholars of this period assumed that "parchment institutions" that were codified as law would largely guide the behavior of individuals as intended.

On the other hand, recent scholars began to study the importance of institutional strength, which Steven Levitsky and María Victoria Murillo define in terms of the level of enforcement and sustainability of an institution. Weak institutions with low enforcement or low sustainability led to the deterioration of democratic institutions in Madagascar and the erosion of economic structures in China. Another area of interest for modern scholars is de facto (informal) institutions as opposed to de jure (formal) institutions in observing cross-country differences. For instance, Lars Feld and Stefan Voigt found that real GDP growth per capita is positively correlated with de facto, not de juri, institutions that are judicially independent. Scholars have also focused on the interaction between formal and informal institutions as well as how informal institutions may create incentives to comply with otherwise weak formal institutions. This departure from the traditional understanding of institutions reflects the scholarly recognition that a different framework of institutional analysis is necessary for studying developing economies and democracies compared to developed countries.

In history, a distinction between eras or periods, implies a major and fundamental change in the system of institutions governing a society.  Political and military events are judged to be of historical significance to the extent that they are associated with changes in institutions.  In European history, particular significance is attached to the long transition from the feudal institutions of the Middle Ages to the modern institutions, which govern contemporary life.

Theories of institutional emergence
Scholars have proposed different approaches to the emergence of institutions, such as spontaneous emergence, evolution and social contracts. In Institutions: Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Douglas North argues that institutions may be created, such as a country's constitution; or that they may evolve over time as societies evolve. In the case of institutional evolution, it is harder to see them since societal changes happen in a slow manner, despite the perception that institutional change is rapid. Furthermore, it's important to understand that institutions change incrementally because of how embedded they are in society. North argues that the nature of these changes is complicated process because of the changes in rules, informal constraints, and the effectiveness of enforcement of these institutions.

Levitsky and Murillo explore the way institutions are created. When it comes to institutional design, the timeframe in which these institutions are created by different actors may affect the stability the institution will have on society, because in these cases the actors may have more (or less) time to fully calculate the impacts the institution in question will have, the way the new rules affect people's interests and their own, and the consequences of the creation of a new institution will have in society. Scholars like Christopher Kingston and Gonzalo Caballero also pose the importance of gradual societal change in the emergence of brand new institutions: these changes will determine which institutions will be successful in surviving, spreading, and becoming successful. The decisions actors within a society make also have lot to do in the survival and eventual evolution of an institution: they foster groups who want to maintain the set of rules of the game (as described by North), keeping a status quo impeding institutional change. People's interests play an important role in determining the direction of institutional change and emergence.

Some scholars argue that institutions can emerge spontaneously without intent as individuals and groups converge on a particular institutional arrangement. Other approaches see institutional development as the result of evolutionary or learning processes. For instance, Pavlović explores the way compliance and socio-economic conditions in a consolidated democratic state are important in the emergence of institutions and the compliance power they have for the rules imposed. In his work, he explains the difference between wealthy societies and non-wealthy societies; wealthy societies on one hand often have institutions that have been functioning for a while, but also have a stable economy and economic development that has a direct affect in the society's democratic stability. He presents us with three scenarios in which institutions may thrive in poor societies with no democratic background. First, if electoral institutions guarantee multiple elections that are widely accepted; second, if military power is in evenly equilibrium; and third, if this institutions allow for different actors to come to power.

Other scholars see institutions as being formed through social contracts or rational purposeful designs.

Theories of institutional change

Origin of institutional theory

John Meyer and Brian Rowan were the first scholars to introduce institutional theory to inspect how organizations are shaped by their social and political environments and how they evolve in different ways. Other scholars like Paul DiMaggio and Walter Powell proposed one of the forms of institutional change shortly after: institutional isomorphism. There were three main proposals. The first one is the coercive process where organizations adopt changes consistent with their larger institution due to pressures from other organizations which they might depend on or be regulated by.
Such examples include state mandates or supplier demands. The second one is the mimetic process where organizations adopt other organizations' practices to resolve internal uncertainty about their own actions or strategy. Lastly, it is the normative pressure where organizations adopt changes related to the professional environment like corporate changes or cultural changes in order to be consistent.

In order to understand why some institutions persist and other institutions only appear in certain contexts, it is important to understand what drives institutional change.
Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson assert that institutional change is endogenous. They posit a framework for institutional change that is rooted in the distribution of resources across society and preexisting political institutions. These two factors determine de jure and de facto political power, respectively, which in turn defines this period's economic institutions and the next period's political institutions. Finally, the current economic institutions determine  next period's distribution of resources and the cycle repeats. Douglass North attributes institutional change to the work of "political entrepreneurs", who see personal opportunities to be derived from a changed institutional framework. These entrepreneurs weigh the expected costs of altering the institutional framework against the benefits they can derive from the change. North describes the institutional change as a process that is extremely incremental, and that works through both formal and informal institutions. North also proposes that institutional change, inefficiencies, and economic stagnations can be attributed to the differences between institutions and organizations. This is because organizations are created to take advantage of the opportunities created by institutions and, as organizations evolve, these institutions are then altered. Overall, according to North, this institutional change would then be shaped by a lock-in symbiotic relationship between institutions and organizations and a feedback process by which the people in a society may perceive and react to these changes. Lipscy argues that patterns of institutional change vary according to underlying characteristics of issue areas, such as network effects. North also offers an efficiency hypothesis, stating that relative price changes create incentives to create more efficient institutions. It is a utilitarian argument that assumes institutions will evolve to maximize overall welfare for economic efficiency.

Contrastingly, in Variation in Institutional Strength, Levitksy and Murillo acknowledge that some formal institutions are "born weak," and attribute this to the actors creating them. They argue that the strength of institutions relies on the enforcement of laws and stability, which many actors are either uninterested in or incapable of supporting. Similarly, Brian Arthur refers to these factors as properties of non-predictability and potential inefficiency in matters where increasing returns occur naturally in economics. According to Mansfield and Snyder, many transitional democracies lack state institutions that are strong and coherent enough to regulate mass political competition. According to Huntington, the countries with ineffective or weak institutions often have a gap between high levels of political participation and weak political institutions, which may provoke nationalism in democratizing countries. Regardless of whether the lack of enforcement and stability in institutions is intentional or not, weakly enforced institutions can create lasting ripples in a society and their way of functioning. Good enforcement of laws can be classified as a system of rules that are complied with in practice and has a high risk of punishment. It is essential because it will create a slippery slope effect on most laws and transform the nature of once-effective institutions.

Many may identify the creation of these formal institutions as a fitting way for agents to establish legitimacy in an international or domestic domain, a phenomenon identified by DiMaggio and Powell and Meyer and Rowan as "isomorphism" and that Levitsky and Murillo liken to window dressing. They describe the developing world institutions as "window-dressing institutions" that "are often a response to international demands or expectations." It also provides an effective metaphor for something that power holders have an interest in keeping on the books, but no interest in enforcing.

The dependence developing countries have on international assistance for loans or political power creates incentives for state elites to establish a superficial form of Western government but with malfunctioning institutions.

In a 2020 study, Johannes Gerschewski created a two-by-two typology of institutional change depending on the sources of change (exogenous or endogenous) and the time horizon of change (short or long). In another 2020 study, Erik Voeten created a two-by-two typology of institutional design depending on whether actors have full agency or are bound by structures, and whether institutional designs reflect historical processes or are optimal equilibriums.

Institutions and Economic Development
In the context of institutions and how they are formed, North suggests that institutions ultimately work to provide social structure in society and to incentivize individuals who abide by this structure. North explains that there is in fact a difference between institutions and organizations and that organizations are "groups of people bound by some common purpose to achieve objectives." Additionally, because institutions serve as an umbrella for smaller groups such as organizations, North discusses the impact of institutional change and the ways in which it can cause economic performance to decline or become better depending on the occurrence. This is known as "path dependence" which North explains is the idea of historical and cultural events impacting the development of institutions over time. Even though North argues that institutions due to their structure do not possess the ability to change drastically, path dependence and small differences have the ability to cause change over a long period of time. For example, Levitsky and Murillo stress the importance of institutional strength in their article "Variation in Institutional Strength." They suggest that in order for an institution to maintain strength and resistance there must be legitimacy within the different political regimes, variation in political power, and political autonomy within a country. Legitimacy allows for there to be an incentive to comply with institutional rules and conditions, leading to a more effective institution. With political power, its centralization within a small group of individual leaders makes it easier and more effective to create rules and run an institution smoothly. However, it can be abused by individual leaders which is something that can contribute to the weakening of an institution over time. Lastly, independence within an institution is vital because the institutions are making decisions based on expertise and norms that they have created and built over time rather than considerations from other groups or institutions. Having the ability to operate as an independent institution is crucial for its strength and resistance over time. An example of the importance of institutional strength can be found in Lacatus' essay on  national human rights institutions in Europe, where she states that "As countries become members of GANHRI, their NHRIs are more
likely to become stronger over time and show a general pattern of isomorphism regarding stronger safeguards for durability." This demonstrates that institutions running independently and further creating spaces for the formation of smaller groups with other goals and objectives is crucial for an institution's survival.

Additionally, technological developments are important in the economic development of an institution. As detailed by Brian Arthur in "Competing Technologies, Increasing Returns, and Lock-in by Historical Events," technological advancements play a crucial role in shaping the economic stability of an institution. He talks about the "lock-in" phenomenon in which adds a lot of value to a piece of technology that is used by many people. It is important for policymakers and people of higher levels within an institution to consider when looking at products that have a long term impact on markets and economic developments and stability. For example, recently the EU has banned TikTok from official devices across all three government institutions. This was due to "cybersecurity concerns" and data protection in regards to data collection by "third parties." This concern regarding TikTok's growing popularity demonstrates the importance of technological development within an institutional economy. Without having an understanding of what these products are doing or selling to the consumers, there runs a risk of it weakening an institution and causing more harm than good if not carefully considered and examined by the individual actors within an institution. This can also be seen in the recent issue with Silvergate and money being moved to crypto exchanges under the SEN Platform institution, which has led the bank to "delay the filing of its annual report due to questions from its auditors." Additionally, they lost many crypto clients the next day allowing the bank's stock price to fall by 60% before it stabilized again. These examples demonstrate the ways in which institutions and the economy interact, and how the well being of the economy is essential for the institution's success and ability to run smoothly.

Institutional persistence
North argues that because of the preexisting influence that existing organizations have over the existing framework, change that is brought about is often in the interests of these organizations. This is because organizations are created to take advantage of such opportunities and, as organizations evolve, these institutions are altered.

This produces a phenomenon called path dependence, which states that institutional patterns are persistent and endure over time. These paths are determined at critical junctures, analogous to a fork in the road, whose outcome leads to a narrowing of possible future outcomes. Once a choice is made during a critical juncture, it becomes progressively difficult to return to the initial point where the choice was made. James Mahoney studies path dependence in the context of national regime change in Central America and finds that liberal policy choices of Central American leaders in the 19th century was the critical juncture that led to the divergent levels of development that we see in these countries today. The policy choices that leaders made in the context of liberal reform policy led to a variety of self-reinforcing institutions that created divergent development outcomes for the Central American countries.

Though institutions are persistent, North states that paths can change course when external forces weaken the power of an existing organization. This allows other entrepreneurs to affect change in the institutional framework. This change can also occur as a result of gridlock between political actors produced by a lack of mediating institutions and an inability to reach a bargain. Artificial implementation of institutional change has been tested in political development but can have unintended consequences. North, Wallis, and Weingast divide societies into different social orders: open access orders, which about a dozen developed countries fall into today, and limited access orders, which accounts for the rest of the countries. Open access orders and limited access orders differ fundamentally in the way power and influence is distributed. As a result, open access institutions placed in limited access orders face limited success and are often coopted by the powerful elite for self-enrichment. Transition to more democratic institutions is not created simply by transplanting these institutions into new contexts, but happens when it is in the interest of the dominant coalition to widen access.

Natural selection
Ian Lustick suggests that the social sciences, particularly those with the institution as a central concept, can benefit by applying the concept of natural selection to the study of how institutions change over time. By viewing institutions as existing within a fitness landscape, Lustick argues that the gradual improvements typical of many institutions can be seen as analogous to hill-climbing within one of these fitness landscapes. This can eventually lead to institutions becoming stuck on local maxima, such that for the institution to improve any further, it would first need to decrease its overall fitness score (e.g., adopt policies that may cause short-term harm to the institution's members). The tendency to get stuck on local maxima can explain why certain types of institutions may continue to have policies that are harmful to its members or to the institution itself, even when members and leadership are all aware of the faults of these policies.

As an example, Lustick cites Amyx's analysis of the gradual rise of the Japanese economy and its seemingly sudden reversal in the so-called "Lost Decade". According to Amyx, Japanese experts were not unaware of the possible causes of Japan's economic decline. Rather, to return Japan's economy back to the path to economic prosperity, policymakers would have had to adopt policies that would first cause short-term harm to the Japanese people and government.  Under this analysis, says Ian Lustick, Japan was stuck on a "local maxima", which it arrived at through gradual increases in its fitness level, set by the economic landscape of the 1970s and 80s. Without an accompanying change in institutional flexibility, Japan was unable to adapt to changing conditions, and even though experts may have known which changes the country needed, they would have been virtually powerless to enact those changes without instituting unpopular policies that would have been harmful in the short-term.

The lessons from Lustick's analysis applied to Sweden's economic situation can similarly apply to the political gridlock that often characterizes politics in the United States. For example, Lustick observes that any politician who hopes to run for elected office stands very little to no chance if they enact policies that show no short-term results. Unfortunately, there is a mismatch between policies that bring about short-term benefits with minimal sacrifice, and those that bring about long-lasting change by encouraging institution-level adaptations.

There are some criticisms to Lustick's application of natural selection theory to institutional change. Lustick himself notes that identifying the inability of institutions to adapt as a symptom of being stuck on a local maxima within a fitness landscape does nothing to solve the problem. At the very least, however, it might add credibility to the idea that truly beneficial change might require short-term harm to institutions and their members. David Sloan Wilson notes that Lustick needs to more carefully distinguish between two concepts: multilevel selection theory and evolution on multi-peaked landscapes. Bradley Thayer points out that the concept of a fitness landscape and local maxima only makes sense if one institution can be said to be "better" than another, and this in turn only makes sense insofar as there exists some objective measure of an institution's quality. This may be relatively simple in evaluating the economic prosperity of a society, for example, but it is difficult to see how objectively a measure can be applied to the amount of freedom of a society, or the quality of life of the individuals within.

Institutionalization

The term "institutionalization" is widely used in social theory to refer to the process of embedding something (for example a concept, a social role, a particular value or mode of behavior) within an organization, social system, or society as a whole. The term may also be used to refer to committing a particular individual to an institution, such as a mental institution. To this extent, "institutionalization" may carry negative connotations regarding the treatment of, and damage caused to, vulnerable human beings by the oppressive or corrupt application of inflexible systems of social, medical, or legal controls by publicly owned, private or not-for-profit organizations.

The term "institutionalization" may also be used in a political sense to apply to the creation or organization of governmental institutions or particular bodies responsible for overseeing or implementing policy, for example in the welfare or development.

See also

 Academic institution
 Actor analysis
 Base and superstructure
 Cultural reproduction
 Dispositif
 Historical institutionalism
 Ideological state apparatus
 Institute
 Institutional abuse
 Institutional economics
 Institutional logic
 Institutional memory
 Institutional racism
 Institutionalist political economy
 Linkage institution
 List of oldest institutions in continuous operation
 State, Nation, country, Sovereign state

References

Further reading

 Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1966), The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Anchor Books, Garden City, NY.
 Chang, Ha-Joon (ed.) (2007), Institutional Change and Economic Development, Anthem Press.
 Greif, Avner (2006), Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade, Cambridge University Press,
 North, D. C. (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
 Schotter, A. (1981), The Economic Theory of Social Institutions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
 Gielen, P. (ed.  2013), Institutional Attitudes. Instituting Art in a Flat World. Valiz: Amsterdam.
Whyte, William H., The Organization Man, Doubleday Publishing, 1956. (excerpts from Whyte's book)
 "Social Institutions," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Comparative politics
Political science terminology


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