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Atlantic Memorial Park / Canadian Battles (cont.)
World War 2 Engagements
"What a miserable, rotten hopeless life… an Atlantic so rough it seems impossible that we can continue to take this unending pounding and still remain in one piece… hanging onto a convoy is a full-time job… the crew in almost a stupor from the nightmarish of it all… and still we go on hour after hour."
Frank Curry of the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) wrote these words in his diary aboard a corvette in 1941, during the Battle of the Atlantic, a battle that would be called the longest of the Second World War. During the darkest days of the war, thousands of Canadians in the RCN, the Canadian Merchant Navy, and the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) faced perilous conditions that many of us can only imagine. The following account tells a tale of incredible bravery and sacrifice which all of us have a duty not only to remember but to pass along to future generations.
HMCS Brantford covered with ice, February 1944
The Battle of the Atlantic – The First
From the very outset of hostilities in the Second World War in 1939, the Atlantic supply route from North America to the United Kingdom was threatened. Eventually gaining control of the entire coast of Europe, from the northern tip of Norway to the Pyrenees, the Germans set out from every harbour and airfield in western Europe to sever the lifelines to Britain.
For six long years the RCN, the Canadian Merchant Navy and the RCAF were central participants in what was to be known as the Battle of the Atlantic.
The sea lanes of the North Atlantic formed a grim battleground. Navigation was hazardous, and sailors in the navy and merchant marine died not only from enemy attack, but from exposure and accidents in the fog and winter gales. Nor was protection sufficient to prevent heavy losses. There were too few naval vessels and maritime patrol aircraft available, as well as a severe lack of training and modern equipment and technology.
In 1939, Canada possessed only a few dozen Canadian-registered merchant ships, six destroyers, five small minesweepers, two training vessels, and a single squadron of modern military flying boats. No one would have predicted that, from this tiny beginning, Canada's forces would go on to play a large and significant part in the Atlantic war, and that the Canadian Merchant Navy would carry cargoes around the world.
Convoy assembled in the Bedford Basin, Halifax N.S., April 1942.
Bridging the Atlantic was the key to strategic supply, and it was in maintaining the Atlantic lifeline that Canadian naval and air personnel played an increasingly vital role. To transport safely the vast amounts of goods and troops that were needed, ship movements had to be organized and controlled. In August 1939, Canadian-registered merchant ships and ships in Canadian ports passed from the control of their owners into the control of the RCN, which would determine routes and departures. Shipping on the more important and vulnerable routes was placed in convoy as the best means to regulate traffic and provide protection from both sea and air.
On September 16, 1939, the first convoy set out from Halifax for the United Kingdom, closely guarded by HM cruisers Berwick and York and by the Canadian destroyers St. Laurent and Saguenay. Soon, two convoys a week were sailing from Halifax. Slow convoys were also sailing from Sydney Harbour. By the end of 1939, some 410 ships in 14 HX convoys had crossed the Atlantic. Escort work would remain the RCN's chief responsibility for the duration of the war. It was difficult and dangerous work and Canadians shared in the worst hardships experienced in the war at sea.
The Early Battles
In April 1940, the war in Europe took an ominous turn as German troops without warning seized Denmark and launched an invasion of Norway. In only a few weeks the Germans had conquered Denmark and Norway and isolated Sweden.
On May 10, Germany launched its blitzkrieg against Holland, Luxembourg, Belgium and France. With German troops pressing from all sides, the Allied troops in Europe were forced to the Channel at Dunkirk with the sea as the only hope of escape. On June 22, 1940, France surrendered, and Britain and its dominions stood alone against a formidable enemy.
A lifeboat from a torpedoed merchant ship coming alongside HMCS Red Deer off Halifax, 1942.
Although the United Kingdom proved victorious in the Battle of Britain and managed to stave off Hitler's planned invasion, it remained under siege. London, many British cities and the English Channel ports were bombed unmercifully, and the U-boats, using their brand new bases in France, attacked convoys and independently-routed ships almost at will. The U-boats picked off solo ships and stragglers and made bold, single-handed attacks on convoys. These young aces, the German elite, raced each other for tonnage sunk. German naval commanders later referred to the period July to September 1940 as "the happy time."
In September of 1940, for the first time, U-boats began using the so-called "wolf-pack" tactics. At night, groups of U-boats (often as many as six and sometimes more) attacked convoys sailing from North America to Britain. The results were calamitous. As many as 20 per cent of a convoy's heavily-laden cargo ships were sunk.
Meanwhile, the blitz on London went on night after night to shatter its enormous port. The Channel was closed to shipping by October and all Atlantic convoys were rerouted north of Ireland to Liverpool and the Clyde in Scotland. Even this route was seriously threatened and four RCN destroyers, which had been stationed in British waters after France was invaded, strove to fend off submarine attacks while rescuing survivors of torpedoed merchant ships.
The shipping losses were staggering and British shipyards were heavily committed to naval construction. Great Britain could not produce new merchant ships at the pace needed to replace those being lost and turned to the United States and Canada. In the face of the urgent need, Canada embarked on a massive shipbuilding program. However, before these ships could come off the assembly lines, the Atlantic war grew more desperate.
Torpedo explosion damage to port lower side of hull of SS Fort Camsun.
The War Intensifies – 1941
With the approach of the spring of 1941, the enemy stepped up the scale of attack. In June alone, more than 454,000 tonnes of shipping were lost to U-boats.
Although the Royal Navy was able to assert its superiority over the German surface fleet, the menace from German submarines mounted. The U-boats concentrated at weak points in the naval defenses of the Allies. Ships were lost because their escorts had reached the limits of their endurance and had to turn back.
Destroyer crew preparing lines for oiling at sea, November 1942.
To counteract this menace, new types of vessels were constructed and scientists worked desperately to design new methods of locating and destroying the U-boats. Canada's fleet was augmented by several new types of vessels, of which the corvette was the most famous. Designed on the pattern of a whaler, it was 63 metres long, displaced 935 tonnes and had a maximum speed of 16 knots. They could be produced quickly and cheaply and had the ability to out maneuver a submarine. However, corvettes were known as "wet ships." They had been designed for coastal patrols and were pressed into transatlantic service only because there was nothing else available. As the seas broke over them, salty water seeped through seams, hatches and ventilators. They were intolerably crowded and living conditions on board for a crew of some 60 sailors were terrible. Nevertheless, these small ships were invaluable in the anti-U-boat war. Of the 123 corvettes that served in the RCN, ten were lost to enemy action.
As enemy U-boats began to probe farther west, the British countered by establishing new bases for ships and aircraft in Iceland and Newfoundland. The Newfoundland bases would become a Canadian responsibility. On May 31, 1941, Commodore Leonard Murray, RCN, was appointed commander of the Newfoundland Escort Force reporting to the British Commander-in-Chief, Western Approaches. A few days later, the first Canadian corvettes joined his command. In June, Canadian destroyers in British home waters returned to serve with the Newfoundland force. By July, the Newfoundland Escort Force totaled 12 groups of Canadian and British warships and was escorting convoys as far as 35 degrees west.
Supermarine flying boat of the RCAF escorting convoy, April 1941.
The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), meanwhile, had been flying patrols over Newfoundland's waters and coasts since 1939 and the first maritime patrol squadron had been stationed at Gander since 1940. Reinforced by other RCAF squadrons, it now provided air support to the Newfoundland Escort Force and was an integral part of the RCAF's Eastern Air Command. In the eastern Atlantic, the convoys were guarded by the Royal Air Force (RAF) Coastal Command which included RCAF squadrons. At this time, however, aircraft lacked the range to cover the central part of the Atlantic ocean, an area that became known as the "Black Pit" because of the heavy losses the U-boats were often able to inflict there.
The Campaign Moves to North American Waters
Although officially neutral, the United States had become increasingly involved in the war at sea. In September 1941, Canadian naval forces came under American "coordinating supervision." This arrangement replaced control by the British commander-in-chief, based in England, with an American commander who was much closer to the situation in the western Atlantic. However, when the United States officially entered the war in December 1941 following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, many of the American ships were withdrawn from the North Atlantic to meet burgeoning U.S. commitments elsewhere. This, unfortunately, weakened the Atlantic anti-submarine defenses.
Personnel handling torpedo in HMC dockyard, Halifax.
As winter storms began to batter the convoys, marine casualties from causes other than enemy action also rose steadily.
In January 1942, the Battle of the Atlantic shifted to the Canadian and American seaboards where Admiral Karl Dönitz, head of German U-boat forces, suspected shipping would be poorly protected. The Canadian navy, however, now with more than two years experience in organizing convoys, immediately began to sail shipping in defended groups. Often the only protection available was a single armed yacht. It worked. The U-boats soon shifted their main offensive to the U.S. coast and the Caribbean where ships were still sailing alone.
It became another "happy time" for U-boat commanders as the U-boats wreaked havoc along the American coastline.
Survivors of torpedoed merchant ship aboard HMCS Arvida,
St. John's, Nfld., September 1942.
Night after night submarines rose to the surface and picked off merchant ships at will, many of them silhouetted against the undimmed lights of the shoreline. From January to July 1942, nearly 400 ships were sunk for the loss of only seven U-boats. Through the spring of 1942, the U.S. Navy gradually built up a convoy system, but was dependent on Canadian help. Canadian escorts, reinforced by some Royal Navy ships, escorted much of the transatlantic shipping from New York north. This was the Triangle Run, in which the Canadian escort groups shuttled convoys between New York or Boston, Halifax, and the eastern part of Newfoundland, where the Canadian and British mid-ocean escort groups took over the run to the British Isles. Other Canadian warships assisted the British and Americans in protecting the valuable tanker traffic from the Caribbean.
While the RCN and RCAF had been able to limit losses off Nova Scotia and Newfoundland during the first half of 1942, there was still a very large vulnerable area: the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The huge commitments on the ocean shipping routes, moreover, left very few aircraft and almost no warships to defend this inland sea. On the night of May 11, the freighters SS Nicoyaand SS Leto were torpedoed off the Gaspé Peninsula. The war was suddenly right at home and in sight of shore.
Once again, the navy organized convoys and the air force kept as many aircraft overhead as they could. These efforts made the great strain on the forces nearly unbearable but the U-boats continued to take a toll. The constricted shipping routes, the many deep-water hiding places, and the virtual blindness of underwater detection equipment in the complex waters of the Gulf and river seemed to make tested defense methods ineffective. By early October, seven U-boats had sunk two naval escorts and 19 merchant vessels in the Gulf and river. Then, on October 14, the ferry Caribou was sunk just 64 kilometres short of her Newfoundland destination. Of 237 passengers, 136 men, women and children perished.
Anti-submarine grenade launched into the air by the corvette HMCS Pictou during submarine attack, March 1942.
The disaster seemed to confirm the wisdom of the navy in its decision a few weeks before to close the Gulf to overseas shipping. The immediate cause for this development had been yet another plea from Britain for more Canadian escorts for yet another new commitment — to support the Allied invasion of North Africa. These ships could only be provided by reducing the force in Canadian waters, and the naval presence in the Gulf was scaled back because of the problems encountered in defending against the U-boats. Paradoxically, the German records now available show that the Canadian air force and navy operations had by October almost completely discouraged the U-boats. The hit on Caribou had been a tragic piece of good luck for a U-boat that had almost given up the hunt in the Gulf.
The Grimmest Period
While taking on the new responsibilities on the North American coast and in the Mediterranean, the RCN also maintained a major presence on the transatlantic run between Newfoundland and Northern Ireland. Moreover, they were often responsible for the slowest convoys, the ones most likely to fall victim to U-boat attacks. During the summer and fall of 1942, as Dönitz scaled back the offensive in Canadian and U.S. waters because of improved defences there, he concentrated large numbers of submarines in the mid-Atlantic. Despite bombing raids on German construction yards and bases, the U-boat force increased. In the fall of 1942, with nearly 300 submarines available—over ten times as many as at the outbreak of war—Dönitz was able to send 20 or more against a single convoy.
Map indicating Merchant Ship Losses in the Atlantic from Jan 1, 1942 to July 31, 1942.
At first, the Canadian groups held their own, but as the size of the "wolf packs" increased and winter storms swept the Atlantic, several convoys escorted by the RCN suffered heavy losses. Canada's navy had expanded rapidly. By late 1942, the RCN had 16,000 members serving in 188 warships, a number that was still too few for the enormous commitments. The strain told in the performance of the Canadian groups, which could not be reinforced adequately or supplied with the latest weapons or advanced training programs. The RCAF's Eastern Air Command did its best to help the beleaguered convoys pushing its aircraft to the limits. The Canadian airmen achieved outstanding results on several occasions, destroying and damaging U-boats 500 miles and more out in the Atlantic. They did not, however, have the latest "very-long-range" aircraft needed to reach the dreaded "Black Pit" where the U-boats could attack in relative freedom.
The Battle of the Atlantic reached its climax in March 1943; in that month, the U-boats sent 108 Allied ships—569,000 tonnes of vital shipping—to the bottom. These figures were lower than in November 1942, but what was so disturbing was that 85 of the ships lost had been in convoy or straggling and most had been sunk in the North Atlantic. The only glimmer of hope lay in the success of the air and naval escorts in exacting a toll of 16 U-boats.
The Tide Turns
The U-boat success threatened the war plans of the western alliance. Dependable delivery of troops, equipment and supplies were vital to build up forces for the liberation of Europe. An all-out Allied effort, especially by the British, against the submarines was needed. In May 1943, outstanding defense of convoys compelled Dönitz to change his U-boat strategy in the North Atlantic.
This was not, however, the end of the U-boat menace. Dönitz still had more than 200 submarines, and German industry and science was rapidly replacing losses and providing improved equipment. The RCN continued its rapid expansion, but now with better equipment and improved ships. For example, large Canadian-built frigates, unlike the little corvettes, were expressly designed for trans-ocean escort. The RCAF's Eastern Air Command also received better aircraft in the last half of 1943, including very-long-range Consolidated Liberator bombers that could—and did—make patrols right across the Atlantic, helping to close the "Black Pit."
In addition, three RCAF anti-submarine bomber squadrons had been organized in the Royal Air Force's Coastal Command to carry out patrols from Great Britain. Many RCAF personnel also served in British anti-submarine squadrons. Thus the RCAF, like the RCN, had a major presence across the whole Atlantic. Other technological developments helped the Allied cause as well, with new weapon, radar and code-breaking developments contributing to the turning of the tide against the U-boats.
A Consolidated VLR Liberator provides air-cover for a transatlantic convoy.
Both Canadian services took on an increased share of convoy defense in the North Atlantic to release British warships and aircraft to prepare for the Allied invasion of France. During the last months before the Normandy invasion, the RCN assumed responsibility for all North Atlantic escort. Canada's now very substantial and capable anti-submarine fleet and air squadrons also played a prominent part in protecting the Allied invasion fleet as it crossed the English Channel. Canadian air and naval units were among the most successful among the Allied forces in finding and destroying U-boats during and after the invasion.
Yet, the U-boat fleet continued to launch new offensives. New snorkel technology, for example, enabled the submarines to operate continuously underwater and allowed them to hover close off the entrances to British and Canadian ports. Although the U-boats were unable to regain the initiative, they had significant successes until the very end of the war. A stealthy snorkel U-boat sank the minesweeper HMCS Esquimalt just off the entrance to Halifax harbour on April 16, 1945.
The Achievement
Canada's role in the Battle of the Atlantic was large and significant. Starting from a tiny base of ships, aircraft and personnel, and an infrastructure of meager proportions, Canada became one of the foremost Allied powers in the Atlantic war. By 1942, Canada was able to carry a major share of the defense of North American waters and, at the same time, was Britain's principal partner in the defense of trans-ocean convoys. By 1944, Canadian forces had developed the strength and capability to provide a significant contribution to the British and Americans in other theatres of the war.
Painting by Harold Beament. There She Goes.
Canada's Merchant Navy Veterans bore much of the brunt of the war in the Atlantic. Many of the sailors aboard merchant vessels had survived the mines and submarines of the First World War and chose to sail again, some two decades later. They sometimes sailed in rusty old ships, but more often in highly inflammable tankers or in freighters loaded with ammunition. With each voyage the odds of survival seemed to grow longer. Still, voyage after voyage, men who had been torpedoed or had seen ships go down about them, sailed and sailed again.
The most important achievement of the war in the Atlantic was the more than 25,000 merchant ship voyages made from North American to British ports under the escort of Canadian forces. These vessels delivered approximately 165 million tonnes of cargo to sustain the United Kingdom and made possible the liberation of Europe. In the process, Canadian warships and aircraft sank, or shared in the destruction of some 50 U-boats.
Beginning the war with a mere 13 vessels and 3,500 personnel, the Royal Canadian Navy grew to become, for a brief time at least, the third largest of the Allied navies. At war's end, the RCN comprised 373 fighting ships and more than 110,000 members, including 6,500 women who served in the Women's Royal Canadian Naval Services. The principal Canadian anti-submarine forces at that time included 261 sea-going escorts (Bangors, corvettes, frigates and escort destroyers). Hundreds of other craft—Fairmile launches, tugboats, coastal tankers and the other kinds of transports—protected Canadian waters, serviced the fleet and kept the bases running. All but a handful of the RCN ships, moreover, were built in Canada—an accomplishment of critical importance to the Allied cause. During the dark years of 1941 and 1942, when Canadian production came on stream, the larger Allies simply had no other source of escorts.
Hull 130 the Windermere Parkand hull 131 the Mount Bruce Park
being completed at dockside.
The RCAF's Eastern Air Command reached a peak strength of 21,233 personnel, including 1,735 members of the Women's Division, at the end of January 1944. Of this total, more than 1,200 were air crew. The rest managed the bases, communications, navigation systems and other services needed to operate multi-engine aircraft over the vast expanse of the northwest Atlantic. At this same time, nearly 2,000 RCAF air crew were serving in both Canadian and British squadrons of the Royal Air Force Coastal Command.
The main objective of Canada's Atlantic forces was always the protection of shipping. The outcome of the war was dependent on the success of the Atlantic convoys—on the merchant ships reaching the United Kingdom.
In 1939, Canada had only 38 ocean-going merchant ships averaging little over 6,000 dead weight tonnes (DWT), with a total of about 290,000 tonnes and manned by approximately 1,450 Canadian seamen. Following the outbreak of war, captured enemy ships and ships of occupied nations were added to the roster. There was also a large Canadian Lake fleet, and in the desperate wartime situation even they became ocean-going vessels. Yet, over the course of the next six years, the wartime world's fourth largest merchant navy would emerge, almost all of it built in Canadian shipyards.
Frigate HMCS Swansea, January 1944.
The number of ships that poured from Canada's shipyards during the war was extraordinary. In fact it was described by an official of the British Ministry of War Transport as "remarkable," "astonishing" and "magnificent." From the first delivery in December 1941 to shortly after war's end in 1945, Canada produced three hundred fifty-four 10,000 tonne DWT cargo ships; forty-three 4,700 tonne DWT cargo ships; and six 3,600 tonne DWT cargo ship. Simultaneously, they turned out astonishing numbers of naval vessels; 281 escort ships (destroyers, corvettes, frigates), 206 minesweepers, 254 tugs and 3,302 landing craft.
The remarkable achievement by the Allied shipyards was an important reason for the turn of the tide in the Battle of the Atlantic. By mid-1943, it was clear that no matter how many merchant ships German U-boats still could send to the bottom, torpedoing could no longer outpace the production of new ships.
Escorting captured German U-190 submarine from Bay Bulls
to St. John's, Nfld., June 1945
The Cost of War
With this expanded participation came a high cost. Approximately 2,000 members of the RCN were killed, all causes and theatres combined, the vast majority in the Battle of the Atlantic—752 members of the RCAF died in maritime operations as a result of enemy action and flying accidents in the unforgiving environment. The Book of Remembrance for the Merchant Navy lists by name nearly 1,600 Canadians and Newfoundlanders, or those who served on ships of Canadian or Newfoundland registry. It includes the names of eight women. Many other Canadians, whose names are unknown, were lost serving on ships of Allied merchant marines.
Those who fought in the Battle of the Atlantic achieved and sacrificed much in their efforts to help bring peace and freedom to the people of Europe. These combatants were among the more than one million men and women who served in Canada's armed forces during the Second World War. More than 42,000 Canadians gave their lives in the war. Canada recognizes the sacrifices and achievements of all the Canadians, like those who fought in the Battle of the Atlantic, who accomplished so much and left such a lasting legacy of peace.
The Battle of the Atlantic was a pivotal struggle that was won, just in time, with massive help from Canada—from its navy, its airmen, its merchant marine and from its civilian population.
A Victoria Cross, the British Empire's highest gallantry medal, was posthumously awarded to a member of the RCAF for his courageous leadership during the Atlantic campaign. Flight Lieutenant David Hornell, of Mimico, Ontario, was pilot of a Canso amphibian aircraft which came across a surfaced U-boat north of the Shetland Islands in June 1944. Although his aircraft had been hit by anti-aircraft fire, and was burning and vibrating violently as a result, Hornell managed to destroy the submarine and land the aircraft on the water, where it soon sank. Having only one small dinghy among the eight of the plane's crew, Hornell gave up his seat in the raft to a wounded crew member. Two Canadians died of exposure, and the rest were rescued 21 hours after crash-landing. Hornell, blind and exhausted, died shortly after his rescue.
When Canada entered the conflict on September 10, 1939, the RCAF was our country's smallest military service. By the end of the war, we had the fourth-largest air force of the Allied powers. Approximately 250,000 brave men and women served in the RCAF, many of them with Bomber Command.
In the early years of the Second World War, Germany had invaded much of continental Europe. The Allies needed time to build the massive resources that would be required to liberate the conquered countries but that didn't mean the fighting there had stopped.
They turned to an air campaign, bombing tactical and strategic targets in Germany and occupied Europe to reduce the enemy's military and industrial capacity. The bomber campaign caused considerable damage to German resources and was an important contribution to the final push for victory in the Second World War.
The men who served in Bomber Command faced some of the most difficult odds of anyone fighting in the war. For much of the conflict, the regular duration for a tour of duty was 30 combat sorties. The risks were so high, however, that almost half of all aircrew never made it to the end of their tour. Despite the heavy losses, Bomber Command was able to maintain a steady stream of aircraft flying over U-boat bases, docks, railways and industrial cities in Germany, as well as enemy targets in occupied Europe from Norway to France.
Life as a bomber aircrew member was difficult. Usually seven men flew in a typical four-engined bomber like the Halifax and the Lancaster. These men worked together under great pressure on their night sorties. Take-offs were often tense, with a roaring aircraft loaded with tons of bombs and more than 6,000 litres of highly-flammable aviation gasoline racing down the runway. At high altitudes, the aircrew shivered in sub-zero temperatures, their oxygen masks sometimes freezing up. German fighters waited for them in the night skies over Europe and powerful searchlights and flak batteries guarded their targets, turning the skies into a hail of shrapnel. Evading the enemy defenses made for challenging flying that sometimes caused aircraft to go into a spin, while the pilot fought for control. Escape from a damaged plane was difficult and many of the Canadians who survived being shot down over enemy territory would become prisoners of war.
Women also played a role in Bomber Command. Members of the RCAF Women's Division (WD) were stationed in England during the war years. While women did not serve in combat roles, they did perform important support work on the ground like being coding technicians, operating radios and plotting aircraft positions.
By the end of the Second World War, No. 6 Bomber Group had carried out more than 40,000 sorties. Approximately 8,000 decorations for bravery were awarded to its members. There were exceptional acts of courage that would earn two Canadian airmen – Pilot Officer Andrew Mynarski and Squadron Leader Ian Bazalgette – the Victoria Cross, our highest honour for military valour.
During the Second World War, Canada had a population of only about 11 million people. Yet, from that relatively small population, more than one million men and women would join the military to fight for peace and freedom. There were many roles in which a Canadian could serve in uniform during the Second World War but few held as much risk as the Air Force's Bomber Command. All told, some 55,000 of its Allied airmen, including approximately 10,000 Canadians, would lose their lives in training accidents, in the skies over Europe or in prisoners of war camps.
D-Day and the Battle of Normandy
By the spring of 1944, Germany had occupied France and much of the European continent for almost four years. A narrow stretch of water, the English Channel, was all that separated the German forces from Great Britain.
An Allied raid on the French coast at Dieppe in August 1942 had resulted in heavy losses, particularly for Canada, but by 1944 the Allies had made strong gains against German troops in both Italy and the Soviet Union.
The Allies knew they would have to defeat Germany in Western Europe to win the war and decided to mount a major campaign for 1944. Planning lasted more than a year, taking great effort and involving many elements. Ground, sea and air forces rehearsed endlessly to make sure their timing and coordination was perfect. Great numbers of troops, boats, tanks, supplies and equipment were gathered in total secrecy in southern England. Portable docking facilities were built for the supply ships to off-load their cargoes in the days after the Allies had landed. A long flexible pipe, called "Pluto," (Pipe Lines Under The Ocean) was even built to carry fuel under the sea from England to Normandy, the region of northwestern France where the Allies would come ashore.
Even with all these preparations, the Normandy campaign would be very difficult. The shores of Northwest Europe were littered with German land mines, barbed wire, heavy artillery batteries and machine-gun nests. There were also anti-tank walls, shelters constructed of thick concrete, anti-aircraft guns and many other types of defensive positions. For these reasons, the coastline from Denmark to the south of France was known as "Fortress Europe."
For the Allied offensive to be successful, harbours along the continent's coastline would have to be secured for the many transport ships that would be needed to ferry food, medical supplies, weapons and fresh troops after the initial landings. As well, Allied armies would continue to need "Pluto" to help transport the fuel needed to liberate occupied Europe.
An Allied defeat on the beaches of Normandy would have meant certain disaster as there would be no way to remove troops to safety. But if the landings succeeded, the Allied forces would finally gain that all-important foothold in western Europe and a chance to liberate France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark from German occupation.
On Land, Be Sea, In the Air
Allied aircraft paved the way for the landings, bombing the coastal defense in the months leading up to the attack. On June 6, 1944—D-Day—a massive Allied force crossed the English Channel to engage in Operation Overlord. Their destination: an 80-kilometre stretch of the heavily-defended coast of Normandy. There were five landing zones, given special code names: Juno Beach (Canada); Gold Beach (United Kingdom); Sword Beach (United Kingdom and France); and Utah Beach and Omaha Beach (United States).
Seven thousand vessels of all types, including 284 major combat vessels, took part in Operation Neptune, the assault phase of the D-Day offensive. Destroyers and supporting craft of the Royal Canadian Navy did their part and shelled German targets while many Royal Canadian Air Force planes were among the 4,000 Allied bombers (plus some 3,700 fighters and fighter bombers) which attacked the German beach defenses and inland targets.
More than 450 Canadians parachuted inland before dawn on June 6 and engaged the enemy. A few hours later, some 14,000 Canadian troops began coming ashore at Juno Beach in the face of enemy fire. Their mission: to establish a beachhead along an eight-kilometre stretch fronting the villages of Courseulles-sur-Mer, Bernières-sur-Mer, and Saint Aubin-sur-Mer. Once secure, the troops would push inland to capture the city of Caen, an important communications centre for the Germans.
A Hard-Won Victory
Many Canadian soldiers in the Normandy campaign were young and new to battle, but their courage and skill meant they often helped lead the Allied advance against a determined enemy. Canadians soon captured three shoreline positions on D-Day and established themselves near the village of Creully, but this was to be only the beginning of the struggle to liberate France. Savage fighting in Normandy continued and grew even more intense as Canadian forces faced powerful German Panzer tank divisions in the struggle for Caen.
Through the summer of 1944, the fighting continued through choking dust and intense heat. The conditions were terrible and the enemy was ruthless, but the troops moved forward. Canadians played an important role in closing the "Falaise Gap" in mid-August as the Germans finally retreated in the face of the Allied offensive. On August 25, 1944, Paris was liberated by the Allies, bringing the Normandy campaign officially to a close.
Against difficult odds, the Canadians advanced against the best troops the enemy had. Victory in the Normandy campaign, however, would come at a terrible cost. Three hundred and forty Canadians were killed on Juno Beach on D-Day alone and the Canadians would suffer the most casualties of any division in the British Army Group during the Battle of Normandy. More than 5,000 made the ultimate sacrifice, losing their lives, and lie buried in a place far from their homes and loved ones. Others returned home with injuries to body and mind that they carry to this day.
Victory in Normandy would be only the beginning of many months of hard fighting on the ground in Western Europe. Canadians would play an important role in the offensives that would finally defeat the Germans and end the war in this part of the world.
The brave Canadians who served in the Normandy Campaign were among the more than one million men and women who served in the cause of peace and freedom during the Second World War.
The Dieppe Raid
Fallen soldiers amid damaged tanks and landing craft on the beaches of Dieppe.
Canada's experiences in times of war have been marked by great triumphs but also by harsh setbacks. The Dieppe Raid during the Second World War was one of the darkest chapters in our country's military history but it was also marked by great courage and helped lead to important lessons being learned.
By the summer of 1942, the Second World War had been raging for almost three years and things looked grim; Nazi Germany had pushed east deep into the Soviet Union, enemy forces were advancing in North Africa and u-boats were making the Atlantic a deadly place for Allied shipping. The British Isles were the only Allied holdout after the Germans had invaded and occupied much of Western Europe in 1940. The continent's west coast was studded with enemy troops, machine guns, artillery, barbed wire, concrete pillboxes and offshore obstacles. It truly was on its way to becoming "Fortress Europe."
Why Raid Dieppe?
Many factors contributed to the decision to mount a large raid into occupied Europe in 1942. The Soviet Union was pressuring the Allied forces to open a second front in Western Europe. The Allies, however, needed more time to build up their military resources before undertaking such a massive effort. They felt that a large raid on the coast of France, however, could force the Germans to divert more of their military resources away from the Soviet Union and also help in the planning for the full-scale Allied assault that would eventually have to take place.
Canadian soldiers had been training since the outset of the war in 1939 and, except for the Battle of Hong Kong, had yet to see significant action. There was political pressure at home to finally get the Canadians into battle, as well as impatience within the army itself.
Dieppe is a resort town situated at a break in the cliffs along the northwest coast of France and was selected as the main target of the raid partially because it was within range of fighter planes from Britain. The Allies' plan was to launch a large-scale amphibious landing, damage enemy shipping and port facilities, and gather intelligence on German defenses and radar technology. Recent research has suggested that the desire to capture a top secret Enigma code machine and accompanying code books was also an important factor in mounting the raid.
"Operation Jubilee"
The Dieppe Raid, code-named "Operation Jubilee," saw more than 6,000 men come ashore at five different points along a 16 kilometre-long stretch of heavily defended coastline. Four of the attacks were to take place just before dawn at points east and west of Dieppe, while the main attack on the town itself would take place half an hour later. The raiding force was made up of almost 5,000 Canadians, approximately 1,000 British commandos and 50 American Army Rangers.
Things immediately went wrong for the landing force on the eastern flank. They encountered a small German convoy and the ensuing firefight alerted the enemy. The soldiers that came ashore at Berneval and Puys consequently were met with overwhelming fire and some of the heaviest Allied losses took place there.
Some objectives on the western flank were achieved and the enemy gun batteries at Varengeville were destroyed. In Pourville, the South Saskatchewan Regiment and the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders came ashore and pushed towards their goals. The mounting German resistance, however, would force them to withdraw with heavy losses.
Running behind schedule, the main force going ashore at Dieppe landed as daylight was breaking. The German troops, now alerted to the raid, cut down many Canadians as they waded in the surf. Nevertheless, many of our soldiers fought their way across the cobblestone beach to the relative protection of the seawall. The same cobblestones and seawall made it hard for the Allied tanks to move off the beach and the fierce enemy fire prevented engineers from clearing the way for them to push their way into the town.
Small groups from the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry and the Essex Scottish Regiment were able to fight their way into the bullet-swept streets of Dieppe. It was clear, however, that the raid could not continue and the retreat soon began. Trying to evacuate everyone, however, would mean the probable destruction of the Allied naval force. Through great courage, many men were taken off the beaches under heavy fire, but by early afternoon the last boat had departed. Left in a hopeless situation, the remaining Canadians were forced to surrender. The raid was over.
Soldiers about to head to shore during the Dieppe Raid.
Many acts of great courage took place during the Dieppe Raid and two Canadians would earn the Victoria Cross, our country's highest award for military valour. Lieutenant-Colonel Cecil Merritt earned the medal for courageously leading his men from the South Saskatchewan Regiment across the River Scie at Pourville in the face of heavy resistance. Once the regiment could go no farther, he then led a dangerous retreat that allowed most of the men to escape back to Britain. Merritt himself was captured and spent the rest of the conflict as a prisoner of war.
Honourary Captain John W. Foote, a chaplain with the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry, also earned a Victoria Cross. For eight hours, he continually braved enemy fire on the Dieppe beach to bring the wounded to first aid posts. When his own landing craft was about to leave, he intentionally stayed behind to be captured so that he could minister to the many men who were going to be taken prisoner.
1942 was one of the darkest periods of the Second World War. But the fact that the Allies had come ashore in occupied France gave the French people some hope and the Dieppe Raid let them know that they had not been forgotten.
While the losses were heavy and the raid did not meet most of its objectives, many historians feel that the lessons learned there played an important role in the success of later actions. For example, the Dieppe Raid and subsequent wartime beach assaults contributed to improvements in Allied amphibious landing techniques. While the cost of gaining this knowledge was steep, it likely saved many lives on the beaches of Normandy when the Allies returned to the shores of continental Western Europe to stay on D-Day, June 6, 1944.
Canadian soldiers captured at Dieppe.
The men who participated in the Dieppe Raid paid a great price. Of the 4,963 Canadians who embarked on the mission, only approximately 2,200 returned to England and many of those had been wounded. More than 3,350 Canadians became casualties, including a total of 916 who lost their lives as a result of the raid and approximately 1,950 more who were taken prisoner. A total of 210 British and American personnel also lost their lives.
Those who were captured faced especially harsh treatment in prisoner of war camps and most would remain in captivity for more than two-and-a-half years. As the end of the war neared, many of them also had to endure forced wintertime marches as the Germans moved the prisoners away from the advancing Allied forces who otherwise could have liberated them.
The Dieppe Raid also took a considerable toll on the ships and aircraft that supported the assault. August 19, 1942, saw the Allies' worst single day losses for aircraft of the entire Second World War, with 119 of their warplanes being shot down as they tried to protect the landing force.
The Canadians who fought in the Dieppe Raid were among the more than one million men and women from our country who served in uniform during the Second World War. The efforts of all of these brave Canadians helped the Allies eventually achieve victory. The sacrifices and achievements of those who gave so much to restore peace and freedom to the world will never be forgotten.
The Second World War began in 1939. Soon, much of Europe was under German control. In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union and vicious fighting broke out on the Eastern Front. By 1943 the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, asked for help from the other Allied leaders to ease the pressure of this attack. The Allies agreed to help and decided to use Italy (which was aligned with Germany) as a platform to attack enemy territory in Europe and help divert German resources from the Eastern Front. This effort became known as the Italian Campaign.
The Italian Campaign was an important military effort for Canada during the war. More than 93,000 Canadians, along with their allies from Great Britain, France and the United States, played a vital role. As they pushed from the south to the north of Italy over a 20-month period, Canadians faced difficult battles against some of the German army's best troops. They fought in the dust and heat of summer, the snow and cold of winter, and the rain and mud of the spring and fall.
Coming Ashore in Sicily
The Italian Campaign began with the Allied landings on the island of Sicily in the south of Italy. Canadian soldiers from the 1st Canadian Infantry Division and the 1stCanadian Armoured Brigade had an active and important role in this effort, code named Operation Husky.
It was a difficult task. Just getting men and equipment to the region was dangerous. Three ships carrying Canadian troops from Great Britain to Sicily for the attack were sunk by enemy submarines in early July 1943. Fifty-eight Canadians drowned and 500 vehicles and a number of guns were lost.
The operation began in the early morning of July 10, 1943 when Canadian and British troops came ashore along a 60-kilometre stretch of coastline near Pachino at the southern tip of Sicily. The Americans who also attacked that morning covered another 60 kilometres of the Sicilian coast. The assault was one of the largest seaborne operations in military history, involving nearly 3,000 Allied ships and landing craft.
The fighting in Sicily would last more than four weeks for the Canadians who would battle through hundreds of kilometres of difficult mountainous country. More than 2,300 Canadians became casualties, almost 600 of which were fatal.
Taking Sicily was important. It helped secure the Mediterranean Sea for Allied shipping and contributed to the downfall of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. The new Italian government surrendered to the Allies; however, the Germans were not prepared to lose Italy and seized control. The fall of Sicily cleared the way for the Allies' next step: landing in mainland Italy.
Liberating Mainland Italy
The Allies came ashore in mainland Italy on September 3, 1943. After losing Sicily, however, Germany was determined to hold the Italian mainland. To slow the Allied advance, the Germans took advantage of the mountainous landscape and turned the length of the Italian peninsula into a series of defensive positions which stretched from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Adriatic Sea. These defensive lines were well protected with machine gun nests, barbed wire, land mines, and artillery positions.
Canadians joined other Allied troops in what amounted to a painstaking crawl up the Italian mainland over poor roads and through challenging weather. One of the most difficult battles for the Canadian troops was the Battle of Ortona during the Christmas of 1943. Ortona was an ancient town of castles and stone buildings located on a ledge overlooking the Adriatic Sea. Its narrow, rubble-filled streets limited the use of tanks and artillery. This meant the Canadians had to engage in vicious street fighting and smash their way through walls and buildings—"mouse holing", as it was called. The Canadians liberated the town on December 28 after more than a week of struggle.
Fighting in the Italian Campaign continued as the Allies made their way north through many German defensive positions. Notable for Canada was the Battle in the Liri Valley, with the ensuing liberation of Rome by the American army on June 4, 1944. In the late summer and fall of 1944, the Allies broke through Germany's "Gothic Line" in the north. Fighting continued into the spring of 1945 when the Germans finally surrendered. Canadian troops, however, did not participate in the final victory of the campaign. By February 1945, they had been transferred to Northwest Europe to be reunited with the First Canadian Army. There they joined the Allied advance into the Netherlands and Germany to help finally end the war in Europe.
Canadian casualties in the Italian Campaign totaled more than 26,000, nearly 6,000 of which were fatal. Most of the Canadians who died in Italy are buried in the many Commonwealth war cemeteries there, or are commemorated on the Cassino Memorial, located in the Cassino War Cemetery south of Rome.
The brave Canadians who fought in Italy were among the more than one million Canadians who served during the Second World War. Coming from all walks of life, these Canadians accomplished much and sacrificed greatly in the fight for the rights and freedoms of others.
1st Canadian Division in action, Italy, December 1943.
For many Canadians, war is something that happens somewhere else, far away, and most of us have had no personal experiences of war. Today, however, the belief in freedom and fundamental human rights for all people is a part of our everyday life. We can be proud that Canadians continue to help defend these rights, at home and around the world. We honour Veterans when we learn about Canadians, past and present, who have served in the cause of peace and freedom.
The Liberation of Belgium
Vehicles of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division moving through Bockhoute, Belgium. October 18, 1944.
Canada played an important role in the liberation of Belgium during the Second World War. Our soldiers, sailors and airmen helped defeat the Germans and restore peace to the country after more than four years of occupation.
Germany occupied Belgium and most of Europe for much of the Second World War. The Germans transformed the continent into what came to be known as "Fortress Europe." Formidable defenses bristled along the coasts as the Germans watched and waited for the Allies' move to retake the continent. The Allies came ashore in Italy in 1943 and began to battle their way north. Then on June 6, 1944—D-Day—the opening move to free Europe from the west finally came in Normandy, France.
The Canadians Break Out
In the months following D-Day, the embattled Germans began to give way and the Canadians broke out north and east against the retreating German defenses. The First Canadian Army was tasked with securing the ports along the English Channel as they pushed their way up through coastal France and into Belgium and the Netherlands on their way toward Germany itself.
The Canadian advance held extra importance because the Allies were in need of a good port. They were still using the vulnerable temporary facilities they had constructed on the Normandy beaches to supply their forces. Ensuring that the flow of Allied men and materiel into the battle zone continued was vital.
Into Belgium
By early September of 1944, the First Canadian Army—with some British, Polish and other troops under their command—had liberated much of the French coast north of Normandy and pushed on into Belgium (although several fortified coastal towns in France would still have to be captured with great effort in the ensuing weeks). As the Canadian Army swept along the coast, they encountered abandoned V-1 (or "Buzz Bomb") launch sites. Knocking these powerful and terrible weapons out of action offered great relief to the people of southeast England, who were their primary targets, and gave the Canadians much satisfaction.
It seemed the German resistance was faltering in places and Allied hopes were high for a quick end to the war. Brussels, the capital of Belgium, was liberated in the first days of September. Some Belgian villages were empty of the enemy when Canadian soldiers got to them, and others had to be fought for in what were usually brief but costly affairs. Large parts of western Belgium were quickly liberated as the Germans marshaled their defenses in certain key areas. It was not always this fast, however, as the battle to cross the Ghent Canal was a bitter one.
The Battle of Scheldt
The first ports liberated in Northwest Europe were either too small or too damaged to solve the Allies' supply problems. Antwerp, a major port in Belgium, was taken relatively undamaged in early September. The problem was that it was 80 kilometres from the open sea. Between it and the English Channel lay the West Scheldt estuary, passing through parts of Belgium and the Netherlands that were still controlled by the Germans. In mid-September, the vital task of clearing the enemy from the Scheldt and allowing the Allies to make use of Antwerp fell largely to the First Canadian Army.
Much of the Battle of the Scheldt took place over flat and often flooded terrain that offered little cover for the advancing Canadians. Mud that stuck to men and machines, the many dikes and canals that had to be crossed, and an entrenched, battle-hardened enemy made the struggle to clear the area a mighty effort. Indeed, some of the toughest fighting of the war would be to cross the flat, wet, ditched terrain around the Leopold Canal in the north of Belgium.
Despite the challenges, the Allies persevered and the last German defenders were defeated by early November. The Scheldt was then cleared of mines and by late November Antwerp was finally opened to shipping. Interestingly, the first Allied ship to arrive was the Canadian-built freighter SS Cataraqui.
Many Veterans would tell the story of entire Belgian towns coming out to joyously greet the Canadian soldiers, showering them with flowers as they passed through in dogged pursuit of the retreating Germans.
However, victory in Belgium only came at a high cost. More than 6,000 Canadian soldiers would become casualties during the Battle of the Scheldt and more than 800 are buried in Belgium, having made the ultimate sacrifice in helping drive out the enemy and liberate the country. Others returned home with injuries to body and mind that they would bear for the rest of their lives.
The Canadians who helped liberate Belgium were true heroes, but these heroes were regular people—volunteers willing to fight for their country to uphold the basic human rights of others and to defeat the forces of tyranny. Our country and the world owe an everlasting debt of gratitude to these brave men and women who have achieved and sacrificed so much.
Next, World War 2 Engagements (cont.) – Post WW2
by Marconi Web Dev class (2018)


text:
HomeNewsTaunton Head heads 'down under'
Taunton Head heads 'down under'
Taunton School announces Headmaster, Dr John Newton, is leaving to take up a top position in Australia
TauntonSchool's Headmaster, Dr John Newton, has been appointed as Principal of Scotch College, one of the most prestigious schools in South Australia.
His Deputy Head, Lee Glaser, has been appointed as Interim Headmaster of Taunton School with effect from January 1st.
Chair of Governors, Mrs Jane Barrie, congratulated Dr Newton on his "impressive appointment to a school like Taunton with huge global ambitions and the capacity to meet them".
She added: "He has been an outstanding Headmaster during his ten-year tenure at Taunton School and the school has gone from strength to strength."
Looking to the future, Mrs Barrie described Mr Glaser as "a senior leader of outstanding ability and judgement".
She said: "Taunton School is in rude health with a distinctive educational provision, a national reputation and strong finances to enable long-term investment."
The Governors are aiming to appoint a permanent successor to Dr Newton from September 2015, by the end of the autumn term.
www.tauntonschool.co.uk

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
"""Implementation of KFAC which runs cov and inv ops asynchronously."""

from __future__ import absolute_import
from __future__ import division
from __future__ import print_function

import threading
# Dependency imports
import tensorflow.compat.v1 as tf

from kfac.python.ops import optimizer

_MAX_NUM_COV_INV_UPDATE_THREADS = 10

class AsyncInvCovUpdateKfacOpt(optimizer.KfacOptimizer):
  """Provides functionality to run cov and inv ops asynchronously.

  The update ops are placed on devices in a round robin manner. These ops are
  run asynchronously in the sense that the training op and cov and inv matrix
  matrix computations are run independently of each other. The cov and inv
  ops are run in background by threads.

  Example usage:
   opt = DedicatedInvCovUpdateKfacOpt(cov_devices=["/gpu:0"],
           inv_devices=["/gpu:1"])
   train_op = opt.minimize(loss)
   with tf.Session() as sess:
     opt.run_cov_inv_ops(sess)
     for _ in range(100):
       sess.run([train_op])
     opt.stop_cov_inv_ops(sess)
  """

  def __init__(self,
               cov_devices,
               inv_devices,
               num_cov_inv_update_threads=None,
               **kwargs):
    """Initializes AsyncInvCovUpdateKfacOpt.

    See the docstring for `KfacOptimizer` class (in optimizer.py) for
    complete list of arguments (there are many!).

    Args:
      cov_devices: Iterable of device strings (e.g. '/gpu:0'). Covariance
        computations will be placed on these devices in a round-robin fashion.
        Can be None, which means that no devices are specified.
      inv_devices: Iterable of device strings (e.g. '/gpu:0'). Inversion
        computations will be placed on these devices in a round-robin fashion.
        Can be None, which means that no devices are specified.
      num_cov_inv_update_threads: `int`, Number of parallel computations of
        inverse and covariance ops. If a value is not passed then the number of
        threads will be set to half of length of number of ops to run
        asynchronously (Capped at `_MAX_NUM_COV_INV_UPDATE_THREADS`).
        (Default: None)
      **kwargs: Arguments to `KfacOptimizer` class.
    """
    self.next_op = None
    self._coord = None
    self._num_cov_inv_update_threads = num_cov_inv_update_threads
    self._threads = None
    super(AsyncInvCovUpdateKfacOpt, self).__init__(
        placement_strategy="round_robin", **kwargs)

  def _make_ops(self, update_thunks):
    return [thunk() for thunk in update_thunks]

  def apply_gradients(self, grads_and_vars, global_step=None, name=None):
    cov_update_thunks, inv_update_thunks = self.make_vars_and_create_op_thunks()
    apply_grads = super(AsyncInvCovUpdateKfacOpt,
                        self).apply_gradients(
                            grads_and_vars=grads_and_vars,
                            global_step=global_step,
                            name=name)
    self._set_up_op_name_queue(
        self._make_ops(cov_update_thunks + inv_update_thunks))
    return apply_grads

  def run_cov_inv_ops(self, sess):
    """Starts threads to run covariance and inverse ops."""
    self._coord = tf.train.Coordinator()
    self._threads = [
        threading.Thread(target=self._run_ops, args=(
            (sess,)
        )) for _ in range(self._num_cov_inv_update_threads)
    ]
    for t in self._threads:
      t.start()

  def _run_ops(self, sess):
    """Runs the covariance and inverse ops.

    Each thread gets the next op name to run from the shared dataset that is
    created in `_set_up_op_name_queue` method. The opname is mapped to the
    op which is run in thread context.

    Args:
      sess: `tf.Session` instance.
    """
    while not self._coord.should_stop():
      next_op_name = sess.run(self._next_op_name).decode("ascii")
      next_op = self._ops_by_name[next_op_name]
      sess.run(next_op)

  def stop_cov_inv_ops(self, sess):
    """Signals coordinator to stop and waits for threads to terminate."""
    self._coord.request_stop()
    self._coord.join(self._threads)

  def _set_up_op_name_queue(self, ops_to_run):
    """Sets up a queue of op names.

    Convert the names of ops to run to tensors and creates a dataset of names.
    The op name tensors in the Dataset are repeated indefinitely. Running
    `self._next_op_name` returns the name of the next op to execute.

    Args:
      ops_to_run: `List` of ops to run asynchronously.
    """
    self._num_cov_inv_update_threads = self._num_cov_inv_update_threads or max(
        int(len(ops_to_run) / 2), _MAX_NUM_COV_INV_UPDATE_THREADS)
    self._ops_by_name = {op.name: op for op in ops_to_run}
    op_names = tf.convert_to_tensor(list(sorted(op.name for op in ops_to_run)))
    op_names_dataset = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices(op_names).repeat()
    self._next_op_name = op_names_dataset.make_one_shot_iterator().get_next()

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Emiliano () foi um oficial romano do , ativo durante o reinado do imperador Valeriano . Sabe-se que em 259 teria sido nomeado cônsul anterior com Pompônio Basso. Por certo tempo associou-se este indivíduo ao Númio Emiliano Destro descrito como procônsul da Ásia numa inscrição (CIL II, 4512) descoberta em Barciano, na Hispânia Citerior, porém recentemente considera-se que este governador é o prefeito pretoriano homônimo do final do .

Ver também

Bibliografia

Romanos antigos do século III
Oficiais de Valeriano
Cônsules do Império Romano

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Question: Do Square Videos Work on Pinterest?
To answer the question: Do Square Videos Work on Pinterest?
The answer, right now, is that Pinterest does not support a square video. Alas. I certainly hope that they support all sizes and shapes of videos very soon.
By the way, YouTube does accept the square video format but YT makes it fit within their standard shape, so the video ends up having two strips of black on either side of the video.
Check out a video of Snoopy and the Peanuts Gang enjoying a starry night via Vincent Van Gogh.
Question: Do Tall and Thin Videos Work on Pinterest?


text:
Simeon "Simi" Hamilton (born May 14, 1987) is an American, former cross-country skier, who competed between 2000 and 2021.. Hamilton attended Middlebury College from 2005 to 2009, during which time he competed for its ski team, individually earning several All-American NCAA Championship results. It was announced on 29 January 2010 that Hamilton qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics. Hamilton competed in the 15 kilometer freestyle, 1.5 kilometer classic sprint, and 4x10km relay races. He paced all Americans in the field in the 1.5 kilometer sprint by advancing to the medal rounds and finishing 29th of 96 competitors. In the relay, Hamilton pulled away from the Estonian skier in the anchor leg to secure a 13th-place finish.

On December 31, 2013, Hamilton won Stage 3 of the 2013–14 FIS Tour de Ski, a 1.5 kilometer freestyle sprint. In doing so, he became the first American male skier to win a World Cup race since Bill Koch won the Sarajevo 30 km in February 1983. On December 19, 2015, Hamilton placed second in the World Cup freestyle sprint in Toblach.

He announced his retirement from cross-country skiing in March, 2021.

Since 2019, Hamilton is married to fellow U.S. cross-country teammate Sophie Caldwell.

Cross-country skiing results
All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).

Olympic Games

World Championships

World Cup

Season standings

Individual podiums
 1 victory – (1 )
 4 podiums – (2 , 2 )

References

External links

1987 births
American male cross-country skiers
Cross-country skiers at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Cross-country skiers at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Cross-country skiers at the 2018 Winter Olympics
Tour de Ski skiers
Living people
Middlebury College alumni
Olympic cross-country skiers of the United States


Beach City Bugle: Fan Theory: White Pearl: Off Colored Or Mistreated?
Fan Theory: White Pearl: Off Colored Or Mistreated?
Hiatus time means theory time! So what is up with White Diamond's Pearl? What do you think happened to her?


← A second letter to Janie in el cielo. . .
Remember that dream I told you about John Denver? How when I woke up from the dream, I felt lighter—and like I had finally met him, talked to him, and told him how much I loved his music? You said, "how do you know you didn't really meet him?" You were open to that possibility…relating on another level…another plane. I think that is what's happening here…and you will dream about her, Dad. I know that.
I had forgotten your John Denver dream and I love you for jogging my memory. That's not the only reason I love you, of course. I love you because you are my daughter, but don't swoon over that—society demands that I love you and besides, you're just one of three such entities, so don't go thinking that I love you more than the others and if you do believe that, don't mention it to the others (shades of your grandmother Hester!).
Just as an aside, I feel that we should find something to substitute for the word plane as used in your comment, given the facts surrounding John Denver's death—remember? He was piloting a homemade aircraft when he crashed in Pacific Ocean waters rather than landing in California. Bummer!
And while we are on the subject of planes, check out this web site: sweeticedtea.wordpress.com. As an Alabama-born person having lived in Louisiana and South Texas for a considerable number of years, you should appreciate the work of the women at that site—not even your years of living perilously close to the Mason-Dixon Line, that cultural boundary that separates the Yankee Northeast and Dixie, the Southern United States, has corrupted your Southern upbringing—check out that site and enjoy!
Word Press tagged this as spam and relegated it to the garbage dump. At first glance I agreed with Word Press and almost—almost, mind you—rejected it. However, something held my attention so I checked out the http://sweeticedtea.wordpress.com/2010/12/28/tuesday-tip-christmas-light-storage/ site for no other reason than to find out what those two women are selling. As nearly as I could determine they aren't selling anything, at least not specifically on that site. I realize that through other links a viewer may be enticed to buy something, and I can accept that, but as for the basic site, sweeticedtea.wordpress.com, I will follow it with all the southern passion with which I was born, and which I have managed to enhance over the considerable number of years I have lurked in this realm. I recommend sweeticedtea.wordpress.com to any and all, even those on the wrong side of the political spectrum. So there—that's my story and I'm sticking to it!


Easily install Dropbox app for Windows 10 PC, 8.1 or 7 so that you can share photos, docs, videos, and files with others or for yourself.
Install Telegram app for Windows 10 PC, 8.1 or 7 so that you can video chat and instant message your friends and family for free.
Install & download Media Player Gold for your PC. Play any video format including .MKV, DVDs, .AVI, .MP4, .FLV. You can also stream YouTube videos.
Try Facebook App on Windows 7, 8.1 and Windows 10. Get Facebook messenger to chat with your friends and free video calling.
Download Essential Anatomy 3 for Windows 7, 8.1 & Windows 10. Easily learn and navigate through the entire human body in 3D.


text:
2963 ac Cow Creek
Contact for Price • 2,963 acres
Located just 11 miles southwest of Brackettville, the majority of this ranch is high fenced an offers a unique blend of highly productive fields, rangeland and native brush which will impress any livestock producer or sportsman. 2 irrigation wells are permitted for a total of 2,940 acre feet of water annually and service 2 irrigation pivots with the capability to irrigate over 530 acres currently. Water troughs and earthen tanks are strategically placed throughout the property to insure efficient water availability to wildlife and domestic livestock. Wildlife species include White-tailed Deer, Quail, Turkey and Dove.
Brackettville, TX • Kinney County
Rancho Agua Grande
$100,000,000 • 17,132 acres
The 17,132-acre Rancho Agua Grande, located 25 miles northwest of Uvalde where South Texas, West Texas and the Hill Country meet, is one of largest live water ranches for sale in Texas. Year-round Live Oak Creek, fed by more than 30 springs, bisects the ranch from north to south for about seven miles. The line between Uvalde and Kinney counties is on a similar north-south axis. The shady pecan bottom along the creek stands in contrast to the rugged hills and deep canyons that characterize the transitional landscape. The ranch is home to Boiling Mountain, the highest peak in Uvalde County, and Salmon Peak, the highest point in Kinney County. Because three eco regions converge on the Rancho Agua Grande, the vegetation is diverse ranging from pinon pines to live oaks and mesquites, huisache, guajillo and black brush. Its a feast for human eyes and a natural buffet for wildlife. Live Oak Creek is a calling card for the ranches native and exotic wildlife. They gather to drink and loaf under the trees making it easy to view some of the more than 40 species of game from around the globe that roam the property. Its possible to see kangaroos, camels, zebras, gemsbok, sable, water buffalo, white bison, Iranian red sheep, scimitar-horned oryx and water bucks just to name a few in a single afternoon. Whitetails, turkey, dove and a limited population of quail are native to the ranch. More than 50 miles of high-fence encircle the perimeter keeping the desirable managed wildlife inside and the free-ranging game out. With the rich, abundant diversity of wildlife, its no wonder that Rancho Agua Grande is considered one of the nations premier hunting destinations. Currently, its run as an exclusive commercial hunting operation, and as such has served as the backdrop for numerous high-profile hunting shows. The ranch is managed under an MLDP Level 3 permit and features 30+ feeders and hunting blinds located to make the most of the extended season. Because both banks of Live Oak Creek are within the ranches borders, the access is completely controlled and completely private. The only tubers, kayakers or anglers enjoying the crystalline, rock-bottomed stream will be those you invite. The creeks flow is slowed and pooled by 10 dams strategically placed along its route. Numerous lakes, some large enough to jet ski on, dot the landscape. Catfish, bass and bream swim in the clear water. The groundwater is as plentiful as the surface water and there are many water wells distributed over the ranch. In an arid climate, water has long been the lands most highly valued asset. Native Americans relied on the life-giving water as evidenced by the numerous undisturbed Indian mounds and middens located in close proximity to the creek. Lumbering dinosaurs pressed tracks into once soft mud that hardened protecting the imprint from the ravages of time. The limestone hills are pocked by caves including some that cut deeply beneath the earth and invite exploration. After a long day of adventures, the 6,000 square foot lodge with its antique bar, dance floor and bandstand is the perfect place to relax. With a capacity of 250 people, the lodge is also an ideal site for events such weddings, meetings or reunions. An additional 2,300 square foot of covered porches accommodate an even larger party. The lodges expansive main room is bookended by massive fireplaces that stretch from the floor to the vaulted log ceiling that soars 34 feet above. A game loft features a pool table, darts, poker and Big Buck Hunter, a popular arcade game. Guests will enjoy their stays in one of the eight antique cabins dating to the mid-19th century. These cabins were transplanted from the mountains of Kentucky where pioneering families called them home. The cabins have been restored and updated so they meet the most discriminating standards for modern convenience and rustic elegance. Most include a Jacuzzi tub, a kitchenette and a spacious living room and can sleep three to six guests depending on the cabins size and arrangement. Other residences include the managers house and the cooler house, both of which are three bedroom/one bath cabins. Numerous equipment sheds, storage buildings as well as a meat processing room with a walk-in cooler round out the ranchs infrastructure. A blacktop road runs from the main entrance to the main compound. Access is ensured by a permanent easement. For those who prefer the convenience of air travel, Rancho Agua Grande has a 5,800 foot x 70 foot instrument marked, painted and lighted runway that is completely surrounded by a high-fence ensuring that the airstrip is always clear. Jet fuel is available in Uvalde, which is 25 minutes away by car. Rancho Agua Grande is the place for people who appreciate superlatives. Its ideally suited for a commercial hunting destination, a corporate retreat, an events center or an enviable private ranch open only to family and friends. Within its fences, everything is possible . To see the unique splendor and unlimited potential of the Rancho Agua Grande for yourself, contact Howard W. Hood at (830) 739-3815. The ranch is available for $100 million.
Howard Hood
Bracketville, TX • Kinney County
5700 ac Back Porch Ranch
Back Porch Ranch is situated in the Texas Hill Country, approximately two and a half hours west of San Antonio or one-hour east of Del Rio. Starting with a blank slate, the current owners have spent the last 13 years transforming the property into what it is today, a first-class Texas hunting and recreational getaway. Opportunities to entertain are endless with the Back Porch at Elk Lodge, sitting in the Saloon, the African Palapa or on the skeet deck with your friends. With many miles of ranch roads and scenic views, you never tire of the beauty and wildlife. Land: The Ranch is comprised mostly of exceptional Texas Hill Country that has been sculpted and improved by the select removal of many acres of cedar, leaving a park like setting on the rolling hills. Several species of Oak are found plus elm, sycamore, mesquite, Texas persimmon and other species native to the area. Several wet weather creeks traverse the Ranch adding to the allure and holding water in pools which are a magnet to the game. Another feature of the Ranch is Indian Mountain, at 2118 ft, a prominent local landmark and the highest point in the area, which is visible for miles. Valleys and fields dot the landscape and are accessible by improved ranch roads throughout. A 4000' paved and hi-fenced runway has just been completed for your convenience. Adjoining ranches are most like size with the eastern and southern neighbor being 50,000+ acres. Wildlife: The wildlife on the Ranch have been heavily managed since purchase. Driving through the Ranch you will see both native and exotic game which include whitetail, axis, black buck, spring buck, oryx, aoudad, dove and Rio Grande turkey. The Ranch has never been commercially hunted and use has been limited to family, friends and hunts donated to several conservation groups. These include National Wild Turkey Federation, Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, Texas Wildlife Association and others. RMEF has auctioned off donated hunts to the Ranch for world class Rio Grande Turkey for the last 10 years. The Ranch is mostly hi-fenced with some small sections being strategically left low fenced. Improvements: The improvements on Back Porch Ranch are so vast it is hard to find a place to start. The Owners Home: Incredible views abound from the recently remodeled hill-top rock construction home. 3 Master Suites, 4 baths, the Main Master Suite features a copper tub and huge walk-in shower. Other features include large kitchen, stone fireplace in the living-room, wrap-around porches, multi-level deck with jacuzzi, and large palapa carport. The Elk Lodge: Rock construction hunting lodge reminiscent of hunts gone by. Great room with stone fireplace and cathedral ceiling, nine bedrooms, 4 baths, commercial kitchen, media room, office and utility room. Covered porches, huge rock patio with firepit, grills, and waterfall with flowing creek in a park-like setting. One step onto the relaxing back porch and you will see where this ranch got its name. The Saloon: 10,000 Sq Ft newly constructed- The Saloon has 12 individual high quality lockers for hunters, custom antique saloon bar with dual TVs, refrigeration, beer taps, storage, entertainment stage, 25' shuffleboard table, mesquite furniture, merchandise room that resembles an old jail, and 2 restrooms. Commercial Kitchen with 2 side by side fridges and a walk-in cooler. Trophy Room with Wine Grotto and taxidermy from all over the world plus murals painted by award winning artist, Calvin Carter. Outside is landscaped with lantern-lined walkways which provide access to the Elk Lodge and African Palapa. African Palapa: Stone fireplace, and bar area with wet bar and refrigeration, completely furnished overlooking a beautiful oak covered creek bottom. Other improvements: Managers home, 4/2 Three Hunters cabins, 1/1 with bunk beds Skeet Deck / Palapa with 2 skeet throwers Rifle Range / Palapa-range has targets up to 300 yards Equipment Barn-partially enclosed and fully covered Livestock pens and Barn Feed Silo-23 tons Game Processing area with walk-in cooler/freezer Ponds that hold water year around 20 water wells, most with electric submersible pumps 17 Atascosa Wildlife hunting blinds with 14 protein and 19 corn feeders 4,000' paved runway, hi-fenced All Ranch equipment and vehicles Most furnishings, and most wildlife taxidermy
, TX • Kinney County
B-B Ranch
$2,628,450 • 1,947 acres
Located in the transitional zone between the Rio Grande Plains and the Edwards Plateau, this ranch provides a unique blend of the Hill Country and South Texas. An excellent water system, abundant free-ranging native and exotic big game, turkey, quail and dove make this an excellent hunting ranch.
Grand View Ranch
Contact for Price • 490 acres
490 ± Acres Turnkey hunting destination with hunting camp that sleeps 6-8 Three Edwards wells Year-round supplemental feeding program High-fenced on back side with low-fencing on sides and front Whitetail bucks scoring between 140" and 160" Dove flyaway zone with hundreds of dove spotted in season Elevations over 1,300-feet in some areas Outstanding brush recognized by Texas Parks and Wildlife


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Home News Breaking News Rabbinic Group Slams Harris and Warren for Supporting Race-Baiting Al Sharpton
Rabbinic Group Slams Harris and Warren for Supporting Race-Baiting Al Sharpton
The Coalition for Jewish Values (CJV), representing over 1000 traditional rabbinic leaders in matters of public policy, today said statements of support for Rev. Al Sharpton from Senators (and Presidential candidates) Kamala Harris and Elizabeth Warren reflected "great insensitivity" towards the Jewish community. Following an attack on Sharpton from President Donald Trump, Harris claimed that Sharpton "has spent his life fighting for what's right and working to improve our nation," while Warren said he "has dedicated his life to the fight for justice for all."
Sharpton played a major role in the Crown Heights riots of 1991, which led to the murder of a young rabbinic student from Australia. Despite the violence Sharpton further inflamed Antisemitic passion, delivering a speech which referred to the Hatzolah ambulance service, a Jewish volunteer group which serves all New Yorkers, as "an apartheid ambulance service in the middle of Crown Heights," starting chants of "No Justice – No Peace" and leading a march in which protesters displayed anti-Semitic signs and burned the Israeli flag.
Just a few years later, Sharpton led protests against a Jewish-owned business in Harlem, calling the Jewish owner a "white interloper" in the neighborhood. One of the protesters later entered with a gun, shooting several customers and murdering seven employees by fire-bombing the store. Sharpton expressed disdain for the Jewish community by threatening to fight: "If the Jews want to get it on, tell them to pin their yarmulkes back and come over to my house."
"In their haste to condemn the President," said Rabbi Yaakov Menken, Managing Director of the CJV, "two Senators, both of whom are candidates for the President's job, described a man who instigated Antisemitic marches and even murder as spending 'his life' fighting for 'justice' and 'to improve our nation.' It is hard to imagine a person with any sensitivity towards the Jewish community making such a statement."
"The way these Senators have glossed over Sharpton's racist and Antisemitic past would and should never happen with a white racist," added Rabbi Steven Pruzansky, Eastern Regional Vice President of the CJV. "The process itself, and the moral double standard implied, are both repugnant."
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Elijah Cummings July 30, 2019 at 7:54 pm
Please remove this article as it's racist in it of itself. I'm very concerned about backlash against the African-American community by those white shirted Orthodox Jews. I'm also very concerned about Matzav.com's censoring of its readers comments.
4 כולערריעס July 31, 2019 at 7:45 am
גייט צוריק פון ווי דו קומעסט .
Y.H. July 30, 2019 at 8:01 pm
Let's not forget Tawana Brawley
Leave a Reply to Y.H. Cancel reply


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Protest against citizenship law: Detained Jamia university students released
WION Web Team New Delhi Dec 16, 2019, 09.15 AM(IST)
JNU students holding protest at Delhi Police Headquarters, ITO, over Jamia Millia Islamia university incident. Photograph:( ANI )
The midnight protests carried out by students in front of Delhi Police Headquarters was also called off by the students.
Jamia Millia Islamia University students, who were detained following a protest against Citizenship Amendment Act, have been released from Kalkaji and New Friends Colony (NFC) police stations on Monday, news agency ANI reported quoting Delhi Police.
"All students detained from Kalkaji and New Friends Colony have been released," said Delhi Police PRO MS Randhawa.
"Delhi police appealed the protesters to end their protest buses have also been arranged to drop the protestors. Injured students will also be released after treatment said Delhi Police in a statement," a statement released by the Delhi Police said.
The students of Jamia Millia Islamia and Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) had staged a protest at the police headquarters earlier on Sunday after the action by Delhi Police against students at Jamia University.


Reservations and enquiries can be made online, by phone or email. Please ensure that our staff are made aware of any special requests or requirements at the earliest opportunity and we will do our best to help.
Please ask when making your booking and we can let you know the best place to park and access to the property. We will be delighted to collect your luggage from your car and deliver it to your room.
Our reception staff will be able to advise you about room facilities and access to bedrooms and public areas of the hotel. Please note that due to the Listed nature of the building we unfortunately do not have ground floor rooms or lift facilities in the main building. If you need a walk-in shower our reservations team are able to talk you through the options available.
Assistance dogs are welcome and no charge is made. Large print menus can be provided on request.
We have tried to include as much accurate detail as possible in our Accessibility Statement and we welcome your feedback, in order to continuously improve upon the information we give.


Creating an entirely new and modern take on the Ferrari sports prototype concept is both an ambitious and complex undertaking.
But it was in this spirit, and with very specific input from the client, that the new Ferrari one-off, the P80/C, was conceived. The Ferrari Styling Centre, under the direction of Flavio Manzoni, and the engineering and aerodynamics team worked hand-in-glove with the client, sharing principles and visions in order to create a new "Hero Car" with an absolutely unique and authentic soul.
The P80/C thus set the Ferrari Styling Centre an ambitious target; to develop a new kind of product that simply did not exist in the current Ferrari range: a sports prototype inspired by the cars that essentially wrote their own styling rules becoming, in the process, famous icons that, although conceived as track cars, also went on to influence a whole series of elegant road cars.
A case in point is the very close relationship between, for instance, the Dino 206 S racing car and the production Dino 206/246 GT. Both versions share a common DNA despite having a different styling lexicon - Ferrari racing elements appear in the case of the former while the latter have the more sober, refined lines of the road cars.
The decision was made to use the 488 GT3 chassis as a basis, not only for its performance, but also for its longer wheelbase (+50mm compared to the 488 GTB) which allowed more creative freedom. With respect to the Ferrari 488's classic layout in which the cockpit tends to be placed centrally, the GT chassis allowed the designers to emphasis a cab forward-effect in which the rear is elongated, lending the car a more aggressive, compact character. This was one of the cornerstones of the P80/C's styling from the early stages of the design process.


text:
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        {
            //this.QuotePrefix = "~";
            //this.QuoteSuffix = "~";
        }

        public new static string QuoteIdentifier(string s)
        {
            return Instance.QuoteIdentifier(s);
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        }

        internal override string QuotePrefix
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            return Instance.QuoteCompoundIdentifier(s);
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        internal static ALinq.SqlClient.SqlIdentifier Instance
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            get
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                return instance;
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        }

    }
}


text:
FAM Leadership
FAM Champion
Projects Funded
With anger and grief over the murders of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Ahmaud Arbery, Tony McDade, and too many others, the Foundation for the Advancement of Midwifery unequivocally affirms that Black Lives Matter. We also affirm that Black Mamas Matter and acknowledge that racism and violence harm maternal health. We uplift the lives of Amber Rose Isaac, Erica Garner, Shalon Irving, and all the mothers we have lost due to racism.
We offer our words of action to support the development of a long overdue conversation about how to walk into a space of healing justice through practicing deliberate intention to acknowledge the feelings of anger, pain, and trauma surrounding the events happening in the Black community. As an organization that supports, uplifts, and amplifies racial justice, we are calling in those who seek to make a difference and serve Black communities. Racism is a public health crisis. We must work together to actively dismantle racism in our society, in our health care systems, and in midwifery.
The Foundation for the Advancement of Midwifery commits to being an anti-racist organization as central to our mission for improving maternal and child health through midwifery. Midwifery and obstetrics in the United States, like all of our institutions, are built on a legacy of racism. We uplift the work and legacy of the Grand midwives. We uplift the lives of Anarcha, Betsey, and Lucy, the mothers of American gynecology. We uplift the Black midwives, midwifery students, and aspiring midwives who serve their communities and still face discrimination and structural barriers to the profession due to racism today. The midwifery profession in the U.S. today is disproportionately white, yet we so urgently need Black midwives whose holistic, culturally relevant, and community-based care promotes healthy outcomes. Justice requires us to build an equitable and high quality maternity care system that values the lives, dignity, and health of Black mothers and their families.
FAM commits to continuing to invest in equity in midwifery education and in the midwifery profession. FAM supports the work of grassroots and community-based organizations founded by and for Black and Indigenous midwives and communities and are proud to uplift such grantees past and present: National Black Midwives Alliance, Birth From The Earth, Birthing People Foundation, Commonsense Childbirth, Center for Indigenous Midwifery, Changing Woman Initiative, Uzazi Village, Mamatoto Village, Ancient Song Doula Services.
To be anti-racist is a journey that must be persistent and purposeful. We must always strive to learn and do better, as individuals and collectively. For further reading and learning, we are sharing a list of anti-racist resources assembled by esteemed author and poet Cleo Wade: https://www.cleowade.com/antiracism
The National Black Midwives Alliance membership drive is still open. Not a Black midwife? Join as an ally member to support advocacy, education, and mentorship. Blackmidwivesalliance.org
ICYMI, we would also like to share, again, FAM's April post about how we are operationalizing equity. Read Operationalizing Equity at FAM.
All of us at FAM
Black Lives Matter2020-06-042020-06-05https://formidwifery.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/logo.pngFoundation for Midwiferyhttps://formidwifery.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/blacksquare.jpg200px200px
2020 Grant Announcements & Letter from FAM Executive Director Tamara Wrenn: Birthing Resilience
Letter from FAM Executive Director Tamara Wrenn Birthing Resilience As a result of the pandemic and the ongoing racial injustice, our nation has been hit with unprecedented challenges. For those who suffer at the hands of injustice, poverty, and racism on a daily basis it was just another series of unfortunate events. Like many, the FAM leadership team watched […]Read More
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Everyone deserves a midwife. Make a one-time gift or become a monthly donor to sustain FAM's impact on research, public education, advocacy, and birth equity.
P.O. Box 744, Harriman, NY 10926-0744 The Foundation for the Advancement of Midwifery (FAM) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization seeking to improve maternal and child health by funding projects that advance midwifery as the gold standard for North American maternity care through research, public education, advocacy, and health equity initiatives.
© Copyright 2017, The Foundation for Advancement of Midwifery, All Rights Reserved. Website sourced and handcrafted from local materials by DIF Design.
Operationalizing Equity at FAMNews
Newsletter: July 2020 Issue of GenerationsNews


The Academy of Medical Royal Colleges welcomes The Chancellor of the Exchequer's announcement of a a tax on sugary drinks.
It called for just such a move in its Measuring Up report published in 2013. Excessive consumption of sugary soft drinks has long been known to be a significant contributor to the the growing levels of obesity in the UK.


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