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The neutrino, also referred to as the electron neutrino, is the lightest and smallest of any elementary particle that has been discovered thus far. It was first proposed by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 and then detected in experiments in 1956. It is an electrically neutral particle that is found in the weak force, nuclear reactions (such as the process in stars) and some particle collisions. The majority of neutrinos found on Earth originate from the Sun, referred to as solar neutrinos. In fact, billions of neutrinos pass through an area the size of a human fingernail each second. Neutrinos are incredibly small, and because they are neutral and not attracted to particles, they rarely hit another particle in an atom. They can pass through the entire Earth without any collision.
A strange property of the neutrino (ve) is the ability to oscillate to become larger and increase mass. It can become a muon neutrino (vu) or a tau neutrino (vt). Both of these larger particles are still neutral and belong to the neutrino family. The three neutrinos are also a part of the lepton family of particles, which include the electrically charged electrons (electron, muon electron and tau electron).
Credit: J-PART
In energy wave theory, the neutrino is the likely candidate for a single wave center, which makes it the fundamental particle that creates other particles. Other particles are made from a collection of wave centers (K) in a particle, similar to how atomic elements are formed from a collection of protons in a nucleus. A single wave center reflecting spherical, longitudinal waves to create standing waves would look like this:
Neutrino – Standing Waves of Energy from a Single Wave Center
Neutrino Oscillation and Decay
Neutrino oscillations have been found in nature. The neutrino may oscillate to become a larger muon neutrino and a muon neutrino can become a tau neutrino. This occurs naturally as trillions and trillions of neutrinos arrive on Earth from the Sun. As it was found using the Longitudinal Energy Equation from the wave constant form of the equations:
The neutrino has a particle count of 1
The muon neutrino has a particle count of 8
The tau neutrino has a particle count of 20
The reason that neutrinos are found to oscillate is that the chance of 20 or less neutrinos randomly merging may occur in nature – kinetic energy traveling from the Sun. This is consistent with neutrino experiments.
The reason other particles do not oscillate naturally is because they require higher energies to form. Particles with higher particle counts (more than 20) require high-energy experiments such as particle accelerator labs to generate the kinetic energy to combine and form particles. This is consistent with particle accelerator experiments.
Neutrino and the Lepton Family
It is proposed that leptons are slightly more stable, and hence found in nature, because of geometric configurations that are similar to protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus. The neutrino family would be relatively stable at these proposed geometric structures (left side of the figure below). At particle counts of 1 (neutrino), 8 (muon neutrino) and 20 (tau neutrino), they are possibly symmetric tetrahedrons, which means they may have no charge if the two tetrahedrons spin in opposite directions. This leaves the possibility of discovering more neutrinos, especially one with a particle count of 2 (K=2), given the similarity of particle counts to the magic number sequence in atomic number counts seen in elements. It would have a rest energy around 110 eV. By comparison, the particle counts for other leptons (electron, muon electron and tau electron) are shown in the right side of the figure. The electron family may also be tetrahedral structures, but non-symmetric. Therefore, as the particle spins, it creates the transverse wave found in the magnetic force.
Comparison to Atomic Elements
If neutrinos can oscillate up to a count of 20 (tau neutrino), then what about the other arrangements? For example, why are neutrinos with particle counts of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 not found? The next neutrino that is found is the muon neutrino with a particle count of 8. Wave centers centers must be at the nodes of standing waves to be stable and the other geometric arrangements likely do not lead to this stability.
As described in the calculations of particles, leptons appear at the same magic numbers found in atomic elements. The numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 are special in the atomic world because a combination of the stability of these atoms when their nucleons contain these numbers (number of protons or neutrons). The magic numbers align with the orbital shells and how electrons fit within the orbit surrounding the nucleus. Nuclear binding energy levels are found to be higher in these numbers.
Credit: Hyperphysics
Magic Numbers in Atomic Elements
Proof of the energy wave explanation for the neutrino is the calculations and explanation of:
Neutrino oscillation – see above
Neutrino energy – see below
Muon and tau neutrino energies – see calculations page
Neutrino Energy – Calculation
The calculation of the electron neutrino's energy assumes spherical volume (V) and a radius (r) of one wavelength before standing waves transition to traveling waves. It also assumes that wave amplitude (A) is longitudinal from three dimensions (cubed) and it decreases with the square of the distance. The Longitudinal Energy Equation is used with a single variable – particle count (K) to calculate rest energy. For the neutrino, there is one wave center (K=1).
Neutrino – Geometry
Equation: Longitudinal Energy Equation
K=1
Result: 3.83E-19 joules (kg m2/s2)
Comments: Using the equation and wave constants, the result is 3.83E-19 joules or 2.39 eV. This is on the high-end of the neutrino's expected range (~2.2 eV), but the neutrino's exact energy is still being determined in experiments.
Previous: Particle Creation and Decay
Next: Electron


Alison Gemmill, an assistant professor in the department of family, population and preventive medicine at Stony Brook School of Medicine, published a study with other researchers that reveals an increase in opioid-associated deaths among pregnant women and women who recently gave birth.
Opioid abuse has become a national epidemic, with the number of opioid-related deaths per year increasing roughly four times from 2002 to 2017. The study's researchers wanted to see if the crisis is related to the increase in maternal mortality in recent years.
The study showed that the opioid-related mortality rate of pregnant and postpartum women roughly tripled from 2007 to 2016. Additionally, the number of opioid-related deaths among all pregnancy-associated deaths has more than doubled in percentage. An increasing share of these deaths had been due to heroin or synthetic opioids, rather than methadone or non-heroin natural opioids. Synthetic opioids are entirely artificially made whereas natural opioids are derived from opium leaves.
The opioid-related mortality rate increased more dramatically for pregnant Caucasian women than for pregnant African-American women, according to the study.
"Again, we believe this reflects trends found in the general population. In another study, we note that the U.S. white population saw a sharp rise in opioid-related deaths from the mid-1990s to about 2010 while opioid-related deaths in the black population remained fairly stable over this time," Dr. Mathew Kiang, an author of the study and postdoctoral research fellow at the Stanford University School of Medicine's Center for Population Health Sciences, wrote in an email.
Currently, there are steps being taken to address this problem.
"There is a lot of attention being paid now to making sure we are not giving excessive number of opioid prescriptions to patients and that we are managing things on alternative ways, looking at other methods of managing pain," Dr. David Garry, the director of the maternal-fetal medicine at Stony Brook Medicine, said.


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We salute the people of Wales for defending freedom, for nurturing beautiful singers, for caring about their history, land, and language and for loving their poets.
All who love Magna Carta, and live better for it -- which would be all of us living in the Anglosphere -- owe the Welsh a debt. In 1212 and 1215, Welsh rebellions helped to undermine the power of King John and establish Magna Carta.
In turn, Magna Carta returned Welsh hostages to their families.
But this was not the end.
For the next seven hundred and fifty years, the Welsh gave back to Britain and the world by helping to fight and win battles for liberty and fair play and with their explorations and discoveries.
St David was said to have urged his followers to 'do the little things in life'. The little things in life, if loving, are really the big things, and they shine beyond time.


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Q: sed remove '.' only in part of string I may be missing something basic here. I want to remove all the '.'s between the &'s in the following string. What regex should I be using in my sed?
**&v15.0&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15.03.15&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15.01.16.01&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15.000.155.123.125&** something.anything abc.deg

to be modified to:
**&v150&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v150315&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15011601&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15000155123125&** something.anything abc.deg

There can be any number of '.'s withing the &'s, and I do not want the '.'s outside the &'s to be modified.
Thanks for your help.

A: try this oneliner:
awk -F'&' '{gsub(/\./,"",$2)}1' file

if you really want to do it with sed, and you have Gnu sed, you could do:
sed -r 's/([^&]*&)([^&]*)(&.*)/echo "\1"$(echo "\2"\|sed "s#\\.##g")"\3"/ge' file

test the sed line:
kent$  echo "**&v15.0&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15.03.15&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15.01.16.01&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15.000.155.123.125&** something.anything abc.deg"|sed -r 's/([^&]*&)([^&]*)(&.*)/echo "\1"$(echo "\2"\|sed "s#\\.##g")"\3"/ge'
**&v150&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v150315&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15011601&** something.anything abc.deg
**&v15000155123125&** something.anything abc.deg

A: Using regular sed (also non-GNU) try:
sed -e :a -e 's/\(&.*\)\.\(.*&\)/\1\2/; ta' file

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