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China debt crunch
China's struggling Tianqi Lithium to get $1.4bn from Australian deal
Company sells almost half its stake in world's largest mine for EV material
A lithium mine operated by SQM in Chile. Tianqi Lithium has been under pressure from a heavy debt load since acquiring a minority stake in SQM two years ago. (Photo by Nozomu Ogawa)
KENJI KAWASE, Nikkei Asia chief business news correspondent December 9, 2020 12:19 JST Updated on December 9, 2020 16:56 JST | China
HONG KONG -- Tianqi Lithium, a Chinese lithium producer struggling to meet heavy debt repayment obligations, said it had reached agreement to sell almost half of its interest in the world's largest mine for the mineral now prized by electric vehicle producers.
The Shenzhen-listed company is selling a 49% stake in the investment vehicle holding its stake in the mine at Greenbushes, Western Australia for $1.4 billion to IGO Ltd.
Investors welcomed the news of debt relief, disclosed in a Shenzhen Stock Exchange filing late Tuesday night, pushing up Tianqi's shares on Wednesday by their daily trading limit of 10% to 32.51 yuan. The shares ultimately closed up 5.9% at 31.30 yuan.
Australia's IGO confirmed the deal in a filing to the Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney. The company will indirectly gain a 24.99% interest in Greenbushes and a 49% stake in a lithium hydroxide plant that Tianqi is building in Kwinana, Western Australia.
Tianqi's interest in the Greenbushes mine, held via Tianqi Lithium Energy Australia, or TLEA, will be diluted to 26.01% from 51%. The mine is under a joint venture with Albemarle, an American chemical company, which owns the remaining 49%.
Trading in IGO shares has been suspended since Tuesday.
The deal comes as relations between China and Australia are at a new low. Tianqi said in its filing to the Shenzhen exchange that the deal though needs approval from regulators in Beijing and Canberra, along with London, where TLEA is incorporated. Tianqi also needs to win support for the deal from its banks, it noted.
"The transaction will provide relief for Tianqi in its current liquidity crunch," said James Shi, a distressed debt analyst at Reorg Research.
He believes partial repayment of the company's debt "should give comfort to its existing lenders, along with the fact that at the end of the day, the post-transaction entity TLEA will still be consolidated on Tianqi's books, and the lithium concentrates will still be shipped to Tianqi's factory in China to process, as Tianqi still owns priority rights of purchase from Greenbushes."
Lithium is a key ingredient for batteries used to power everything from smartphones to electric vehicles. With Beijing pushing hard to develop China's EV sector, Tianqi and peer Ganfeng Lithium have built up global supply networks.
This has made Tianqi one of the largest lithium miners in the world, but it has been under pressure from a heavy debt load since acquiring a minority stake in Chilean competitor SQM for $4.06 billion two years ago before lithium prices tumbled.
The Chengdu-based company financed most of that deal through a $3.5 billion U.S.-dollar-denominated loan from a syndicate led by state-owned Citic Bank. Of that amount, $1.884 billion was due originally at the end of November, but the company and the consortium tentatively agreed last week to extend the deadline to Dec. 28, with Tianqi agreeing to pay outstanding interest by Dec. 10.
In addition to Citic Bank, the lending syndicate includes Industrial & Commercial Bank of China, China Minsheng Bank and French banks BNP Paribas and Societe Generale.
Jiang Weiping, founding chairman of Tianqi, said in a statement that its new partnership with IGO was a result of "an extensive global search." He welcomed the transaction as it "facilitates a recapitalization of our balance sheet that will position us strongly for the expected recovery of in the lithium sector."
In the same statement, Peter Bradford, IGO managing director and chief executive, said the deal is "genuinely transformational" for the Australian company, which handles nickel, copper, cobalt and gold. The deal with Tianqi will add lithium to its portfolio.
Even though a default has been averted for the time being, Moody's Investors Service said last week that it considered that the syndicate's extension constituted a "missed payment default." It further downgraded Tianqi's credit rating by a notch to Caa2 from Caa1 while maintaining a negative outlook.
"The downgrade reflects our concern that the absence of a satisfactory resolution on the term loan restructuring could lower recovery prospects for creditors," said analyst Gerwin Ho then. "The current situation could also lead to an acceleration of payments relating to the company's other obligations and impact its operations."
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Exploring the causal and effect nature of EQ-5D dimensions: an application of confirmatory tetrad analysis and confirmatory factor analysis
Thor Gamst-Klaussen ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8497-85021,
Claire Gudex2 &
Jan Abel Olsen1,3
The relationship between the various items in an HRQoL instrument is a key aspect of interpreting and understanding preference weights. The aims of this paper were i) to use theoretical models of HRQoL to develop a conceptual framework for causal and effect relationships among the five dimensions of the EQ-5D instrument, and ii) to empirically test this framework.
A conceptual framework depicts the symptom dimensions [Pain/discomfort (PD) and Anxiety/depression (AD)] as causal indicators that drive a change in the effect indicators of activity/participation [Mobility (MO), Self-care (SC) and Usual activities (UA)], where MO has an intermediate position between PD and the other two effect dimensions (SC and UA). Confirmatory tetrad analysis (CTA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were used to test this framework using EQ-5D-5L data from 7933 respondents in six countries, classified as healthy (n = 1760) or in one of seven disease groups (n = 6173).
CTA revealed the best fit for a model specifying SC and UA as effect indicators and PD, AD and MO as causal indicators. This was supported by CFA, revealing a satisfactory fit to the data: CFI = 0.992, TLI = 0.972, RMSEA = 0.075 (90% CI 0.062–0.088), and SRMR = 0.012.
The EQ-5D appears to include both causal indicators (PD and AD) and effect indicators (SC and UA). Mobility played an intermediate role in our conceptual framework, being a cause of problems with Self-care and Usual activities, but also an effect of Pain/discomfort. However, the empirical analyses of our data suggest that Mobility is mostly a causal indicator.
Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) instruments comprise items that relate to various aspects of health and functioning. Previous research has attempted to classify the items included in these instruments as being causal or effect indicators of HRQoL [1]. Effect indicators (also called reflective indicators) can be seen as manifestations of an underlying construct. Thus, a change in the construct will lead to, or drive, a change in the effect indicators. In contrast, causal indicators (also called formative indicators) drive a change in the construct. There is evidence to suggest that symptoms have a strong causal component that drives a change in other items [2, 3]. The research into the causal nature of various HRQoL items has been limited to disease-specific instruments. No studies have investigated causal relationships in generic preference-based measures of HRQoL, commonly referred to as health state utility (HSU) instruments [4], which have an important role in cost-effectiveness analyses that are increasingly being used to aid policy decisions. Based on theoretical models, and methodological lessons from previous research, this paper seeks to fill a knowledge gap by identifying a causal pattern in the most widely applied HSU instrument, the EQ-5D [5,6,7]. The causal pattern of items in the cancer-specific EORTC QLQ-C30 instrument has been investigated in three studies. Using applied graphical methods and cross-tabulation of response frequencies, Fayers et al. found strong evidence that physiological symptom items (e.g. nausea, memory problems, shortness of breath) were causal, while items such as poor concentration, irritability, and feeling tense were likely to be effect indicators [2]. Boehmer and Luszczynska applied confirmatory factor analysis and found satisfactory fit for a model with both causal indicators (symptoms e.g. fatigue, pain) and effect indicators (e.g. physical, role, cognitive, social, and emotional functioning) [3]. It was noted that physical functioning and pain might be intermediate types of indicators. Using eight EORTC QLQ-C30 items, Bollen et al. provided an example of confirmatory tetrad analysis (CTA) and concluded that symptom items (e.g. shortness of breath, problems sleeping, lack of appetite) should be treated as causal indicators, while global health status and quality of life should be treated as effect indicators [8].
Factor analysis is a common psychometric approach to investigate the relationship between items and unobserved constructs, which is one technique in structural equation modelling (SEM) used for scale design and validation. However, factor analysis usually depends on a set of homogenous items and is often not appropriate if both causal and effect items are present [2]. However, other SEM techniques incorporate causal paths to model the relationship among different types of items [9, 10]. Confirmatory tetrad analysis may be the best empirical approach for determining if items should be treated as causal or effect indicators [8]. This paper is the first to apply CTA in HSU instruments.
The aims of the current paper were: first, to develop a conceptual framework for causal and effect relationships among the five dimensions of the EQ-5D instrument based on theoretical models of HRQoL, and second, to test this framework using data on EQ-5D-5L from six countries (N = 7933). More knowledge on the causal pattern is useful for at least two reasons: i) it provides a better understanding of the relative importance of the five health dimensions as reflected in the preference-based value sets, and; ii) it provides insights into the discussion on whether and how the QALY might be extended, e.g. by expanding the descriptive system to include additional symptom items (causal) or functioning items (effect).
A conceptual framework for EQ-5D dimensions
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the Wilson and Cleary model [11] are two recommended models for conceptualizing the relationships between dimensions in HRQoL instruments. The ICF provides a standard language and framework for describing health and health-related states and comprises two parts, each with two components [12]. Part 1 refers to functioning and disability and consists of (a) body functions and structures, and (b) activities and participation. Part 2 refers to contextual factors incorporating (a) environmental factors, and (b) personal factors. Body functions refer to physiological and psychological functions of body systems (e.g. symptoms such as pain or anxiety), while activity refers to the execution of a task or action (e.g. self-care), and participation refers to involvement in a life situation (e.g. work). The EQ-5D-3L was classified in an ICF framework [13] using linking rules [14]. Its five dimensions were classified into two ICF components, such that pain/discomfort (PD) and anxiety/depression (AD) were linked to the ICF component of body functions, while mobility (MO), self-care (SC), and usual activities (UA) were linked to the ICF component of activity and participation.
The ICF has considerable overlap with the Wilson and Cleary model [15, 16] that depicts dominant causal pathways between five levels of health outcomes: biological and physiological factors, symptoms (corresponding to the ICF component of body functions and defined as the patient's perception of an abnormal physical, emotional or cognitive state), functioning (corresponding to the ICF component of activity and participation), general health perceptions, and overall quality of life. The Wilson and Cleary conceptual model has been empirically validated in populations with different health conditions [17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24].
Based on these models, we propose the following causal pattern between the 5 EQ-5D dimensions. Firstly, the "symptom" dimensions of pain/discomfort (PD) and anxiety/depression (AD) were assumed to be primarily causal indicators, and the "activity/participation" dimensions of mobility (MO), self-care (SC), and usual activities (UA) to be effect variables, i.e. PD and AD cause changes in the HRQoL construct that are manifested as changes in MO, SC, and UA. Physiological symptoms such as pain and discomfort are clear drivers of activity/participation items and influence walking and self-care [25, 26] and daily activities [27]. Such symptoms are likely to be unidirectional, as it is unlikely that a change in mobility or self-care would alter the level of pain experienced. We assume a predominantly causal link between AD and activity/participation (MO, SC and UA), though with AD having less influence on MO (i.e. walking) than on SC and UA, as depressive symptoms explain only a small portion of the variability in mobility scores [28]. Anxiety and depression can cause disability by worsening other symptoms or by leading to limitations in activity, e.g. lack of interest in self-care [29] and activities of daily living [30]. It was noted, however, that emotional well-being may be bidirectional [2, 15], because physical symptoms, impairments, activity limitations, or participation restrictions can cause anxiety and/or depression [29].
Secondly, we assume mobility (MO) to be both cause and effect in nature, e.g. pain/discomfort (PD) can cause limitations in MO, which in turn can cause changes in SC and UA. This places MO in an intermediate position between PD and the other two activity/participation dimensions [3, 31]. Temporal priority has further been indicated by a hierarchical onset of disability among elderly people, where problems with walking preceded problems with self-care (e.g. bathing and dressing) [32].
Thirdly, we consider self-care (SC) and usual activities (UA) as similar dimensions that tap into activities of daily living. However, SC is more specific in that it refers to washing and dressing, while UA has a wider scope and encompasses participation in educational, employment, and social activities. Based on this conceptual framework, a number of testable models were specified (see Figs. 1 and 2) to be explained further below.
An all-effect indicator model (Model 1) and two multiple indicator multiple cause (MIMIC) models (Model 2 & Model 3). Mobility [MO], self-care [SC], usual activities [UA], pain/discomfort [PD], anxiety/depression [AD]
Multiple indicator multiple cause (MIMIC) model. Mobility [MO], self-care [SC], usual activities [UA], pain/discomfort [PD], anxiety/depression [AD]
An online survey was administered in 2012 in six countries (Australia, Canada, Germany, Norway, UK, US) by a global panel company [33]. Respondents were initially asked if they had any of seven listed chronic diseases and to rate their overall health on a [0–100] visual analogue scale (VAS), where 0 represented the least desirable health and 100 represented the best possible physical, mental, and social health. Respondents qualified for the "healthy group" if they reported no chronic diseases and a VAS rating of overall health of at least 70. Respondents then completed several HRQoL instruments, including the EQ-5D-5L. Of the 7933 respondents, 6173 reported a chronic disease (arthritis, asthma, cancer, depression, diabetes, hearing loss, heart disease). For further details on respondent recruitment, see Richardson et al., 2012 [33].
Distribution of EQ-5D health states
Spearman's rank correlations were computed across the responses to the 5 EQ-5D dimensions. Frequency distributions of EQ-5D health states were used to examine the pattern of responses across the main distinction between symptoms (causes) vs activity/participation (effects). Two subscales were created with EQ-5D items: a Symptom subscale formed by summing the PD and AD level numbers (each from level 1 to 5), and an Activity/participation subscale formed by summing the MO, SC and UA level numbers. The relationship between the two subscales are illustrated with a graph, and descriptive statistics are provided in the Appendix.
Two model-testing procedures in SEM were used: confirmatory tetrad analysis (CTA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). While CTA is assumed to be the best empirical approach for determining whether items should be treated as causal or effect indicators [8], agreement between the two approaches would provide more confidence in our conceptual model than either one alone [34, 35]. While both procedures investigate the path directionality between items and an underlying construct, they both have unique features that are applicable for the current investigation. First, CFA enables testing of the hypothesised intermediate position of mobility between PD and the underlying construct, while CTA allows comparison of models that are not nested in the standard log-likelihood ratio (LR) test, but nested according to the implied vanishing tetrads (explained below).
Confirmatory tetrad analysis
CTA seeks to determine whether items of a latent variable should be treated as causal or effect indicators [34, 36]. While a parameter estimator such as maximum likelihood (ML) method is usually applied when testing general SEM, the CTA test does not estimate parameters, but only tests model fit using Chi-square (χ2). The CTA test statistic depends on the tetrads produced by a model. Following Bollen and Ting [36], consider a latent variable indicated by four observed items (×1 – ×4). The effect of the latent variable to the items can be written as Eq. 1:
$$ {x}_i={\lambda}_{i1}{\xi}_1+{\delta}_i $$
where δi is the random measurement error (disturbance) term with Ε (δi) = 0 for all i,, COV (δi, δj) = 0 for i ≠ j, and COV (ξ1, δi) = 0 for all i. The population covariances (σij) of the observed items are given as Eq. 2 below:
$$ {\upsigma}_{\mathrm{ij}}={\lambda}_{i1}{\lambda}_{j1}\phi $$
where σij is the population covariance matrix of i and j items, and ϕ is the variance of ξ1.
A tetrad is 'the difference between the product of a pair of covariances and the product of another pair among four random variables' (Bollen & Ting, 2000, p.5) [34]. Thus, the four observed items produce six covariances, which can be arranged into three tetrads using Kelley's notation [37], i.e.
$$ {\displaystyle \begin{array}{c}{\uptau}_{1234}={\upsigma}_{12}{\upsigma}_{34}-{\upsigma}_{13}{\upsigma}_{24}\\ {}{\uptau}_{1342}={\upsigma}_{13}{\upsigma}_{42}-{\upsigma}_{14}{\upsigma}_{32}\\ {}{\uptau}_{1423}={\upsigma}_{14}{\upsigma}_{23}-{\upsigma}_{12}{\upsigma}_{43}\end{array}} $$
where τijkl is the population tetrad that refers to σijσkl – σikσjl. If the tetrad equals to zero, that is τijkl = 0, it is referred to as a vanishing tetrad. Hence, if the four observed items were effect indicators, the model would imply three vanishing tetrads (i.e. all tetrads in Eq. 3 should equal to 0). Furthermore, vanishing tetrads implied by a model include redundant vanishing tetrads (i.e. any two of the vanishing tetrads in Eq. 3 would imply the third) [34]. Therefore, only two vanishing tetrads are non-redundant. Redundant vanishing tetrads should be excluded from the test. This exclusion makes covariance matrix of the tetrads that is part of the test statistic non-singular, and hence its inverse will exist. For a theoretical background on the tetrad, see [36].
Regardless of the number observed items, only four random variables (e.g. σ12, σ34, σ13 and σ24) are considered at a time, and this process is repeated for all combinations of the observed items. For every foursome of items, there are three possible vanishing tetrads. Considering an all-effect model with five observed variables (e.g. one item for each of the 5 EQ-5D dimensions), there will be five different combinations of four items, and each set will have three tetrads. Thus, the model would imply 15 vanishing tetrads. We could then test the hypothesis that H0: τ = 0 and H1: τ ≠ 0 based on sample data. If the vanishing tetrads implied by the model do vanish, it would produce a good fit of the model (a non-significant χ2 test), which would not reject the null hypothesis. If the test were highly significant, it would favour a causal indicator structure. However, if the χ2 test was 0 with 0 degrees of freedom, it would indicate an all-causal indicator model (as there are no model implied non-redundant vanishing tetrads with this structure) [8].
SEM models are traditionally referred to as nested when we constrain or free a set of parameters and conduct the LR test to statistically compare models. However, some models that are not nested in parameters can be nested in terms of vanishing tetrads. That is, models are nested 'if the model-implied non-redundant vanishing tetrads from one model are contained within the set of implied non-redundant vanishing tetrads from the other model' ([8], p.1532). When models are compared (i.e. nested), a χ2- difference test is formed, and a highly significant p-value would provide support for the model with fewest implied vanishing tetrads.
Three alternative models were developed for the CTA of EQ-5D dimensions (Fig. 1). Model 1 tested for any causal pattern, where all 5 EQ-5D items were treated as effect indicators, indicated by the arrows pointing away from the HRQoL construct. Models 2 and 3 are multiple cause multiple indicator (MIMIC) models: Model 2 tested whether symptom items (PD and AD) should be treated as causal indicators (indicated by the arrows pointing from the items to the HRQoL construct) and activity/participation items (MO, SC and UA) as effect indicators. Model 3 treated symptom items (PD and AD) and mobility (MO) as causal indicators, and SC and UA as effect indicators. A bootstrap tetrad test was used to minimize the problem of non-normality [38].
As explained above, an all-effect indicator model with the 5 EQ-5D items (Model 1) would imply 15 vanishing tetrads. However, a model specifying only the three activity/participation items as effect indicators (Model 2) would imply only nine vanishing tetrads (as a subset of the 15 vanishing tetrads). As illustrated in Bollen and Ting [34], this model implies nine tetrads as we always consider four random variables at a time, and any foursome of the items in Model 2 with 3 effect indicators would imply either three or one vanishing tetrads. Removing one causal indicator thus always leaves three items specified as effect indicators, whereas removing one effect indicator would always leave two items specified as effect indicators. A foursome that includes three or four effect indicators implies three vanishing tetrads (i.e. they are tetrad equivalent, which means they cannot be distinguished in terms of vanishing tetrads), while a foursome with two effect indicators implies only one vanishing tetrad. Considering Model 2 with three effect indicators and two causal indicators, the five subsets of four items would produce nine model-implied vanishing tetrads. That is, removing a casual indicator would imply three vanishing tetrads each (3 + 3). Removing an effect indicator would imply one vanishing tetrad each (1 + 1 + 1).
Following a similar procedure, Model 3 implies three vanishing tetrads. Note that a model with only one effect indicator has zero vanishing tetrads [34]. Both Model 2 and Model 3 could be compared with the all-effect indicator model with a nested CTA using χ2 difference test. If this test is highly significant, the model with the fewest vanishing tetrads would be favoured. In this scenario, the test is against the appropriateness of the additional vanishing tetrads implied by the all-effect indicator model. Note that models that are not nested in standard LR test can be nested in CTA. For instance, Model 3 in CTA has fewer vanishing tetrads than Model 2 and is therefore nested in Model 2. CTA is estimated using the Stata user command referred to as "tetrad" [39].
Confirmatory factor analysis
The models in Fig. 1 can be tested using CFA. Furthermore, a MIMIC model illustrated in Fig. 2 specified the hypothesized relationships among EQ-5D dimensions where MO has an intermediate position. (Due to the uncertain nature of AD and the investigation of reversed causality, alternative models were specified, not illustrated).
Maximum likelihood (ML) estimation is considered robust when using non-continuous data [40,41,42] or data that violate multivariate normality assumptions [43,44,45]. However, since ML can be affected by deviation from normality [46], bootstrap standard errors (with 1000 bootstrap draws) were used [47]. Model fit to data was examined using fit indices, i.e. the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), root-mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root-mean square residual (SRMR), Akaike information criterion (AIC) and sample-size adjusted Bayesian information criterion (SABIC). CFI and TLI values greater than 0.95, and SRMR less than 0.08 represent a well-fitting model [48]. While RMSEA less than 0.05 is considered to reflect a good fit [49], values as high as 0.08 reflect adequate fit [50]. AIC and SABIC are only meaningful when different models are compared, and models with the lowest values are those with the best fit.
Statistical analyses were performed in Stata version 14.0 (StataCorp LP), except the path analyses which were performed with Mplus version 6.11.
Respondent characteristics on age, sex, education, and disease groups are provided in Tables 4 and 5 in Appendix. The healthy respondents and those reporting chronic disease were similar on gender and education, but those with chronic disease were older, as could be expected. As shown in Table 1, the highest Spearman's rank correlation were between MO and UA (0.73), while the lowest were between AD and MO (0.26), indicating support for our conceptual model. The correlation between PD and SC was lower than that between PD and MO or UA.
Table 1 Spearman's rank correlations between the EQ-5D dimensions (N = 7933)
Table 2 shows the frequency distribution of EQ-5D-5L health states in terms of decrements in symptom items or activities/participation items. Excluding those who reported full health (health state 11,111), the most prevalent combinations were three health states that only had slight decrements in PD and/or AD, i.e. 11121 (slight pain/discomfort), 11122 (slight pain/discomfort and slight anxiety/depression), 11112 (slight anxiety/depression). These three accounted for more than one-third (34.9%) of all possible combinations of non-perfect health states. When all health states with decrements in symptoms without any decrements in activity/participation (i.e. MO + SC + UA = 3, PD + AD > 2) were included, 47% (3031 respondents) of the sample was covered. In contrast, only 1.5% (94) of all respondents reported decrements in activity/participation without any decrements in symptoms (i.e. MO + SC + UA > 3, PD + AD = 2), suggesting that symptoms precede problems with activity/participation. Figure 3 shows the relationship between increases in the summary score of the symptom items (from 2 to 10 on the horizontal axis) and the corresponding summary score of the activity/participation items (from 3 to 15 on the vertical axis). The corresponding data are shown in Table 6 in Appendix. The results indicate that increasing pain/discomfort and anxiety/depression is associated with increasing problems with mobility, self-care and usual activities, but the problems on these activity/participation items appear to lag after the symptoms. This supports the suggestion from Table 2 that symptoms precede problems with activity/participation.
Table 2 Distribution of EQ-5D-5 L health states showing frequency of symptoms (pain/discomfort and anxiety/depression) vs activity/participation (mobility, self-care, and usual activities)
Mean summary score of effect items (MO + SC + UA) vs summary score of symptoms (PD + AD). Mobility [MO], self-care [SC], usual activities [UA], pain/discomfort [PD], anxiety/depression [AD]
The results of the CTA for Model 1 (χ2 = 1500.00, df = 15), Model 2 (χ2 = 893.79, df = 6) and Model 3 (χ2 = 105.84, df = 3) revealed highly significant χ2 estimates (P < 0.0001). Model 3 clearly produced the lowest χ2 estimates, suggesting it to be the best model. Although the significant χ2 estimate indicates poor fit to the data, it is usual that χ2 estimates are significant in large samples [51]. A nested CTA test that compared Model 2 and Model 3 revealed a highly significant χ2 - difference (χ2 diff = 787.62, df = 6, p < 0.0001), indicating that the model with fewest vanishing tetrads (Model 3) is favoured.
The results of the CFA are presented in Table 3. Model 1 and Model 2 produced poor fit to the data, while Model 3 produced satisfactory model fit based on CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR. These results are in line with the finding from CTA that Model 3 produced a better fit than the first two models. Model 4 (only tested with CFA) produced a satisfactory fit similar to Model 3. However, the information criteria AIC and SABIC indicate that Model 3 is the preferred one.
Table 3 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) estimates (N = 7933)
An alternative model specifying AD as an effect indicator with SC and UA did not produce a good fit, either with CTA (χ2 = 927.93, df = 6, p < 0.0001) or CFA (CFI = 0.965; TLI = 0.922; RMSEA = 0.122; SRMR 0.026). Further models investigated other specifications of the interrelationships between the three causal indicators (MO, PD and AD) in Model 4, including PD causing AD (or reversed causality), PD causing AD and MO, and PD causing AD and MO including MO as a cause of AD. All these models had a poor fit compared to the chosen model (results not reported here). The main CTA and CFA analyses were performed using the full sample (N = 7933), and removing the 1530 respondents reporting full health (11111) produced similar results.
We developed a conceptual framework for an empirical investigation of the causal and effect nature of EQ-5D dimensions. Based on theoretical models of HRQoL, the dimensions were classified as either symptoms, and thus causal, variables (PD and AD), or activities/participation and thus effect indicators (MO, SC and UA) [2, 12, 15]. While SC and UA acted as effect indicators, MO, PD and AD appeared to be causal in nature, driving changes in SC and UA. Although MO could play an intermediate role as indicated in Fig. 2, the results suggest that MO is predominantly causal.
There are reasons to believe that the role of AD might vary depending on the severity of anxiety or depression. If moderate or severe (levels 3–5), AD could reflect more of a clinical symptom that may cause dysfunctions (MO, SC, UA) and typically requires treatment. If mild (level 2), it could reflect more subjective well-being, which may vary according to personality traits (e.g. optimist vs pessimist, or level of neuroticism) and thus acts more as an effect variable (in line with the finding that emotional well-being in EORTC was an effect variable) [3]. Further investigation into the various disease groups might have indicated that the causal nature of AD is disease-specific.
Our observation of a causal pattern across EQ-5D dimensions supports the need for preference weighting [2]. The EQ-5D-5L values sets based on population preferences in four western countries (Canada, England, Spain, the Netherlands) [52,53,54,55] reveal striking similarities in the relative importance of the five dimensions. The dimensions that our conceptual model classified as causal indicators (PD and AD) have similar preference weightings, and they are on average 50% stronger than each of the three effect indicators (MO, SC, UA), i.e. the sum of the weights of the two symptom dimensions equals the sum of the three functioning items. The basis for the two causal dimensions being more important to people than the three effect dimensions might be that people find it easier to adapt to functional impairments than to pain/discomfort and anxiety/depression.
The current findings may be useful when exploring additional dimensions that could act as 'bolt-ons' to the five core EQ-5D dimensions. While these five dimensions have proved relevant to patients across the spectrum of diagnoses and to the general population, the EuroQol Group has been experimenting to investigate whether additional dimensions such as vision, tiredness, or sleep could enhance the instrument's performance in some settings [56]. An interesting question is whether an HSU instrument like the EQ-5D should broaden its operationalization of the HRQoL concept in the direction of effect dimensions (e.g. social connections/network or general well-being) or in the direction of causal dimensions (e.g. vision or tiredness). Most quality of life instruments include both causal and effect indicators [57]. Causal indicators are important to measure because they affect HRQoL [2] and are often treated to avoid disruption of HRQoL. This is the rationale behind many healthcare interventions (e.g. treating arthritic pain to enable a person to continue working).
Some limitations should be acknowledged with respect to the data analyses presented here. The MIC study is based on respondents who have volunteered to participate, something which might lead to self-selection bias. Second, it is difficult to claim causality from cross-sectional data. Third, CTA is primarily intended to test for model misspecification, which does not necessarily mean that indicators are causal rather than effect indicators [35]. Future research should ideally apply panel data, which would provide better illustration of the expected temporal relationship between causal and effect dimensions.
Based on theoretical models of HRQoL, we develop a conceptual framework for causal and effect relationships among the five dimensions of the EQ-5D instrument. Empirical testing on EQ-5D-5L data from a large multinational survey provided supporting evidence that the EQ-5D comprises both causal variables (Mobility, Pain/discomfort, Anxiety/depression) and effect variables (Self-care and Usual activities).
AIC:
Akaike information criterion
CFA:
CFI:
Comparative fit index
CTA:
HRQoL:
HSU:
Health state utility
ICF:
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health
MIMIC:
Multiple cause multiple indicator model
ML:
Maximum likelihood
Pain/discomfort
RMSEA:
Root-mean square error of approximation
SABIC:
Sample-size adjusted Bayesian information criterion
SC:
Structural equation modelling
SRMR:
Standardized root-mean square residual
TLI:
Tucker-Lewis index
UA:
Usual activities
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The Research Council of Norway, grant number 221452, funded the preparation of this manuscript. The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, grant number 1006334, funded data collection in five countries (Australia, Canada, Germany, UK, and the US) while the University of Tromsø funded the Norwegian part. No parties involved in this study has any commercial interest.
Department of Community Medicine, UIT the Arctic University of Norway, 9016, Tromsø, Norway
Thor Gamst-Klaussen & Jan Abel Olsen
Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Claire Gudex
Division of Health Services, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, 0213, Oslo, Norway
Jan Abel Olsen
Thor Gamst-Klaussen
TGK analyzed and interpreted the data. CG and JAO were major contributors in writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Thor Gamst-Klaussen.
Data for this study were obtained from the multi-instrument comparison study which was approved by the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (Project numbers: CF11/1758–2,011,000,974 and CF11/3192–2,011,001,748).
CG is a member of the EuroQol Group. The other authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Table 4 Respondent characteristics
Table 5 Respondents by country and disease group
Table 6 Mean and standard deviation (SD) of Activity/participation scale for each value on symptom scale
Gamst-Klaussen, T., Gudex, C. & Olsen, J.A. Exploring the causal and effect nature of EQ-5D dimensions: an application of confirmatory tetrad analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Health Qual Life Outcomes 16, 153 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-018-0975-y
EQ-5D-5 L
Preference weights
Causal indicators
Effect indicators

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


It's time for another season of The Voice, which means time for me not to have a life because I'm too busy recapping two shows a week plus keeping up on all the in-season buzz and trying to cheer for Team Adam. Anywho, I've compiled a list of five things to look out for in season seven over at Starpulse. Don't miss the premiere tonight at 8 PM ET/PT on NBC!
Click here for my What To Watch For In The Voice Season 7 at Starpulse.


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'I am in my happy place': Jo Whiley talks radio, breaking artists and Britpop at Music Week Awards
May 10th 2019	at 12:08AM
Jo Whiley made her Music Week Awards debut as the star host of this year's ceremony at Battersea Evolution.
The Radio 2 presenter took over from Lauren Laverne – a winner on the night - for the 2019 edition of the biggest night in the industry calendar.
Here, you can read Whiley's awards speech, including her take on the industry in 2019, the Britpop years and her defiant reaction to the critics who took aim at the network's Drivetime experiment…
Good evening everybody. Lovely to be here with you, and I hope you enjoyed your dinner — just be thankful that we decided not to model the Music Week Awards menu on the Fyre Festival, and spared you a particularly sad-looking cheese sandwich.
It's a year of birthdays and anniversaries - Decca Records is 90 years old this year, Island Records is turning 60 and so is Music Week itself!
On to more recent history - many of you will have fought the Britpop wars and survived. Just. Hard to believe then, that Blur's Parklife and Definitely Maybe by Oasis were both released 25 years ago. As for the Stone Roses - their debut Album this year turned 30! How can that be? How old do you feel now?
Music Week was launched as Record Retailer in August 1959, when the British music industry was moving at such a breakneck speed that the magazine had to come out once a month. The first issue had a report on how sales of 78rpm records had taken a serious tumble over the previous two years, but the seven-inch 45rpm single was going great guns.
So you see, the format wars are nothing new, and now we have vinyl living side by side with streaming. 142 million albums or their equivalent were bought or streamed last year and that's an increase of 5% year on year, so we're still doing something right.
On the one hand, you've got Spotify floating on the stock exchange, now worth $30 billion. On the other hand, the album charts of the past year have been dominated by the return of old-school showbiz in the form of all those massive movie musicals and biopics. How many people here have had their school runs of the last year soundtracked by This is Me, A Million Dreams and Rewrite the Stars from The Greatest Showman - or have rediscovered a new love of Queen thanks to the juggernaut that is Bohemian Rhapsody? Singing at the top of their voices to something deeply uncool but actually hugely enjoyable. Also, let's not forget the phenomenal success of A Star is Born and still to come we have Elton's Rocketman, Bruce Springsteen film Blinded By The Light and next year Celine Dion. Music is the gift that just keeps on giving.
In terms of new music, I think we're in a pretty good place. There are some fantastic artists coming through right now, lots of great new people I've been playing on my show like Jade Bird, Sam Fender, Georgia, Dave, Billie Eilish, Angie Mahon, J.S. Ondara, Gang of Youths, Yola, and many more.
Right, let's move on to radio. Well, that was an interesting year! Chris Evans packed up his bags and took his hugely successful radio show off to Virgin without telling anyone he was taking his team, his co-presenters, his carfest north and south and even his jingles with him. Lots of big names moved around, Zoe Ball was crowned the Queen of Breakfast on Radio 2, Lauren Laverne was appointed the rightful heir of the 6 Music breakfast show and Greg James became the fresh Prince of Breakfast at Radio 1. Just about all the networks announced new schedules, various stations came on air, and for a few months, Radio 2 conducted a daring experiment by broadcasting live water torture every weekday between 5 and 8pm. I am, of course joking. But I do want to point something out. Forget the tabloid headlines, the trolls and the endless letters of complaints to the Radio Times. There's a lesson to be learnt here for anyone working in the media, whether you're a record company or a radio station. Underneath all the noise and chatter on social media and the tabloid sensationalism, never let fake news get in the way of the actual facts. In the same quarter that the brilliant Greg James breakfast show put on 250,00 listeners, the final RAJARs for Radio 2's Drivetime programme showed that we'd put on 280,000 listeners - something that people simply forgot to report. Funny that! Anyway, mission accomplished. Simon decided that he wanted us to consciously uncouple and off he went to Scala. Taking his Confessions with him.
As you'll all be aware, I am now back in my happy place. BBC Radio 2, Monday to Thursday 7 till 9 - just in case you didn't. The Evening Session, kind of. New music, live sessions, interviews with music legends. As fuck ups go - that's one of my better ones.
George Ezra went from strength to strength and proved that not all second albums have to be 'difficult', when Staying At Tamara's became the best-selling artist album of 2018. Already this year we've seen Tom Walker grab the biggest debut release of 2019 so far, and there was big success and critical acclaim for the English rapper Dave. And just to prove that it's a marathon and not a sprint, we've also had No. 1 albums for a few people who've paid some dues, shall we say, whether it's Michael Ball or Jack Savoretti or The Specials.
Ariana Grande came back and conquered the world again, so much so that the only person she seemed to be in competition with was herself. She became the first female artist in history to replace herself at the top of the UK singles chart when Break Up With Your Girlfriend, I'm Bored took over from 7 Rings... and then 7 Rings replaced Break Up With Your Girlfriend! So it was quite appropriate that her No. 1 album was called Thank U, Next.
You know how old you felt when I told you about Blur, Oasis and Stone Roses? Anyone remember buying Is This It by The Strokes? Remember when Jay-Z released The Blueprint, Gorillaz put out their first album and remember that lost night when you danced to Kylie Minogue's Can't Get You Out Of My head? Well - just to make you feel really really, REALLY old - this was the year that Billie Eilish was born. 2001! How are you feeling now? Billie has become the youngest female chart-topper in UK history with the album When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? She plays Glastonbury this year and has been moved from the John Peel tent to the Other stage because of anticipated demand.
And one more 2019 breakthrough artist I have to mention, of course, is Lewis Capaldi, who's won our hearts not only with his single Someone You Loved but his Instagram posts from hotel rooms which have given us a whole new insight into what it's like for an artist on the road – whether it's waving his wee willy winky at unsuspecting workmen in New York, or not having a toilet brush in LA.
The days of blowing your success on sex and drugs are officially over - this is a man who went down Hollywood Boulevard to buy a toilet plunger. In the words of Tom Walker - What A Time To Be Alive!
decca,
Radio 2,
Jo Whiley,
george ezra,
billie eilish,
Music Week Awards 2019
'Streaming is bringing in a new generation': Inside the rejuvenated classical sector
'They're passionate about the music': Bauer's Gary Stein talks Hits Radio breakfast show
Amazon Music is 'fastest growing streaming service'


Chrissy Teigen has posted the first picture of daughter Luna with her new baby brother, showing her as a doting big sister.
Chrissy Teigen has shared an adorable first photo of daughter Luna and her baby brother Miles.
The 32-year-old model and husband John Legend welcomed their second child into the world less than two weeks ago, and they had already predicted competition between the siblings.
But Chrissy's latest post on Instagram shows that there is only love between the pair as two-year-old Luna can be seen caring for her baby brother by handing him his pacifier in his crib.
The photograph is the first of the two children together and only the second picture of Miles to be released to the world since he made his entry into the world.
John previously joked daughter Luna sees her new baby brother as ''competition''.
The 'A Good Night' singer has admitted he's starting to ''remember'' what parenting a small tot is like, as he's already getting no sleep as he tends to his son.


Is volunteering in your plans for 2017?
AARP will provide free tax preparation for seniors and low income clients at 10 sites in AA County from Jan.–Apr. 2016. Volunteer tax counselors are needed to help prepare tax returns on computers at each of the sites. In addition, volunteer appointment takers and greeters are needed to schedule client appointments and assist clients at such sites. Tax training for volunteer preparers and client facilitators will be held on several dates from January 9-25, 2017; AARP membership is not required. For more information, contact Frank Winner at 410-647-3335 or [email protected]. Web: aarp.org.
The mission of this nonprofit organization is to maximize the independence of people with disabilities so they enjoy self-directed, productive lives. In carrying out our mission, ARI provides the resources, training, counseling and other assistance needed to enhance independence, productivity and quality of life, strengthen family support systems and assist people with disabilities in becoming integrated into the mainstream of life. We are searching for dedicated board and committee members, volunteer for special events, i.e. (creative cooking class, setting up and breaking down, assisting w/food prep and assisting consumers), and translators for ARI's publications for availability in different languages.. For more information, contact [email protected]. See web site at: www.arinow.org.
Helping to bring the people of the world together is exciting, interesting, and rewarding work. For more than 60 years AFS (formerly American Field Service) Volunteers have been building bridges of intercultural understanding and changing the way the world works through a variety of volunteer opportunities. AFS-USA is looking for volunteers on an ongoing basis to engage in local activities for exchange students from all over the world. Volunteers participate in many ways from helping at student orientation events, planning weekend activities, promoting AFS study abroad programs to local schools and even becoming host families for our students. For more information, contact Jennie Schmalzle at [email protected] or 800-876-2376. See website: www.afsusa.org.
This nonprofit membership club has weekly and organized special walking events that provide opportunities for exercise. The organization provides weekly walking events of 10KM & 5KM length on outdoor trails. It car pools to walk start points from the Melting Pot across from Annapolis Towne Center each Saturday leaving at 8:00 AM. For more information visit the website at: www.annapolisamblerswalk.com/ or contact Robert P. Schmick at [email protected] or 410-960-6226.
Aid Our Veterans is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization working to help homeless and out of work veterans of our military service, currently in the Mid-Atlantic area of the country. We supply hot meals, clothes, blankets, tents, and other supplies to those who are on the streets, until they are ready to seek help for themselves. We find work and place Veterans in need in those jobs. We offer training programs and workshops. We have a thrift store, donation center, and office at our Annapolis location offering a variety of volunteer opportunities for adults. We also attend many local events and need volunteers at our information and fundraising booths at such events. Volunteers have flexibility in scheduling service and any amount of time is appreciated. Veterans and their families are also encouraged to volunteer. For more information and to volunteer, contact Stephanie Smith at [email protected] or 443.852.3955; see website at: www.aidourveterans.org/.
Due to the generosity of schools, churches, and other organizations/agencies, the Anne Arundel County Food Bank, located on the old Crownsville hospital grounds, has received a mountain of donations that need to be sorted for distribution to local pantries and soup kitchens. This is a great group activity for volunteers. It's easy, fun, and even a little "therapeutic." Food can be sorted any week day from 9-3. Interested individual volunteers or groups of volunteers can call the Food Bank at 410-923-4255 to schedule this after-the-holiday support for the community.
The City of Annapolis is looking for volunteers who are familiar with downtown Annapolis for the City of Annapolis New Year Celebration 2017 on Saturday, December 31, 2016. Volunteer duties will vary and individuals must be people friendly. The Celebration begins at 3:00 p.m. at the Weems Whelan Field behind Maryland Hall and Bates Middle School with fireworks at 5:30 p.m. The Celebration continues at Susan Campbell Park starting at 8:00 p.m. until the fireworks at Midnight to ring in the New Year. If you are interested in helping with the City of Annapolis' annual New Year's Eve festivities, please contact Felicia Nolan, Special Projects Coordinator in the Office of the Mayor, at [email protected] or 410-263-7997.
At Habitat Chesapeake, volunteering is more than just a day on the construction site or at the ReStore warehouse. It is one of the many key pieces to building dozens of affordable homes and improving communities each year in Central Maryland. Along with the support of generous donations, volunteers allow the ReStore to profit, family partners to grow, the office to operate efficiently, and Habitat Chesapeake homes to be built. With a wide variety of volunteer opportunities available, you are able to choose the type of work you wish to contribute…See more at: habitatchesapeake.org/get-involved. For more information and to volunteer contact Matt Herzberg, Volunteer Engagement Manager at [email protected] or 410-366-1250 x111.
Hearts and Homes for Youth, Inc. is a private, non-profit foster care agency that ensures a safe and therapeutic environment for foster children to grow and thrive. Volunteering with Hearts and Homes for Youth provides an opportunity to work directly with youth. There are many kinds of volunteers that are needed to enhance the services provided by the professional staff and foster parent team including: Mentors, Tutors, Child Care Volunteers, Transporters, and Enrichment volunteers. For more information and to volunteer, contact Olu Bright at: [email protected] to schedule a time to come in and fill out paperwork, she will assist you in the volunteer application process. Once you've completed the full background check, you can begin volunteering. By giving your time to youth who have faced adversity, abuse, or neglect, you can change a life. You must complete a background check to become a regular volunteer. See website at: www.heartsandhomes.org.


The 9-hole Anderson's Homestead Golf Course in Dryden, ON is a public golf course that opened in 2006. Anderson's Homestead Golf Course measures 3080 yards from the longest tees. The course features 2 sets of tees for different skill levels.
The 9-hole Eagle's Landing Golf Course in Dryden, ON is a public golf course that opened in 1979. The greens are bent grass and the fairways are bluegrass.
The 9-hole Evergreen Golf Course in Dryden, ON is a public golf course that opened in 1998. Evergreen Golf Course measures 3000 yards from the longest tees. The greens are bent grass and the fairways are bluegrass.


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Peter Alexander From 'Today' Is Married to a Fellow Journalist, and They're Adorable Together
By Shannon Raphael
Ever since Matt Lauer was fired from the Today Show in 2017 after allegations that he had sexually harassed multiple women, the morning news show has been led by a team of mostly women, including co-hosts Savannah Guthrie and Hoda Kotb, and other contributors like Dylan Dreyer and Jenna Bush Hager.
But, on the weekends, Peter Alexander takes over the Today Show desk as one of the co-hosts — a job he earned in 2018. The journalist has been a fixture on NBC News for years, but much of his personal life is unknown to many of his fans.
Who is Peter Alexander's wife? Inside his private life, how he and his wife connected, and the family they created together.
Who is Peter Alexander's wife?
A California native, Peter graduated from Northwestern's prestigious journalism school in 1998. In 2002, he met Alison Starling, a recent graduate from the University of Florida, who was also pursuing a journalism career in Seattle. They reconnected eight years later before realizing that they were meant to be. In 2012, the two wed at the Newseum in D.C., an interactive museum centered on none other than the news.
Alison works for D.C.'s ABC affiliate, WJLA-TV as a lead anchor. The same year she married Peter, she also won an Emmy for her broadcasting work, which was followed by three other Emmy wins.
Peter and Alison have two daughters together.
Peter and Alison are the proud parents of two beautiful girls— Ava, who is 5, and Emma, who is 4. Their adorable kids are fixtures on each of their social media pages.
Though Peter is often working at the Today Show in New York City, he and Alison are based in D.C. Peter worked as a White House correspondent under Barack Obama's administration from 2012 to 2014, and he still occasionally reports as a correspondent.
In a cover story interview with Washington Family Magazine in 2016, Peter said that fatherhood has enabled him to grow when it comes to reporting stories. He also said that he's taken a step back from reporting in more dangerous environments for the sake of his girls.
Hey, hey! What's this I see? I thought this was a party. LET'S DANCE! 🥓 @TODAYshow @kevinbacon
A post shared by Peter Alexander (@peteralexandertv) on Oct 31, 2019 at 11:17am PDT
"I've probably covered my last warzone for the foreseeable future," he said. "As for perspective, juggling work and fatherhood has given me a much greater appreciation for all working parents. Similarly, my ability to empathize has grown dramatically since I became a dad. I feel the stories I'm telling much more deeply."
He also opened up about living in D.C. with his family, revealing his favorite (and least) favorite parts of the city. "I have a lot of early mornings in this job. Still, I never get tired of driving into the District at dawn and watching the sun rise behind the monuments," he added. "Least? Here, in D.C., you can't escape the 24-hour news cycle. Sometimes it feels as though you're living and breathing politics or media all day. Every so often, you just want to escape."
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Welcome to On the Marc Training, where we bring elite training straight to your doorstep. Founded in 2013, we have made our main focus on creating an affordable, convenient and comfortable environment for all people to exercise, offering programs for athletic performance, adult weight loss and weight gain, senior fitness and rehabilitation programs, as well as offering group training for athletic institutions and collegiate athletes. On the Marc training instructors are equipped with top on the line fitness equipment so they can provide you with the best training needed. We are open 7 days a week with multiple time slots throughout the day so that you may pick a time that fits with your scheduling needs, On the Marc Training prides itself in family flexible scheduling.
On the Marc Training sessions are taught by certified personal trainers all who have been put through a rigorous On the Marc Training education program prior to being let out in the field. In addition to being certified trainers most of our instructors have backgrounds of athletic careers at a high level. As former athletes we know what it takes to motivate yourself and others to build the body you want, On the Marc Training trainers are committed to helping others make working out a lifestyle change and enhancing your overall health and wellness.
Lack motivation? Who wants to sit in rush our traffic to make it to a crowed gym? On the Marc Training comes straight to you wherever you want to workout. We provide the best equipment with the most qualified trainers. Your level of fitness does not matter we cater to all fitness levels. With our individual programming and varying up the training routine we give you the greatest chance at getting the best results. Here at On the Marc Training we CARE about you and will do whatever it takes to help you achieve your goals.


text:
<?php
/**
 * /src/App/Controllers/Rest.php
 *
 * @author  TLe, Tarmo Leppänen <tarmo.leppanen@protacon.com>
 */
namespace App\Controllers;

// Application components
use App\Services\Rest as RestService;
use App\Entities\Base as Entity;

// Silex components
use Silex\Application;

// Symfony components
use Symfony\Component\HttpFoundation\Request;
use Symfony\Component\HttpFoundation\Response;
use Symfony\Component\HttpKernel\Exception\HttpException;
use Symfony\Component\Validator\Exception\ValidatorException;

// 3rd party components
use JMS\Serializer\SerializationContext;

/**
 * Abstract class that all basic REST controllers uses.
 *
 * @category    Controller
 * @package     App\Controllers
 * @author      TLe, Tarmo Leppänen <tarmo.leppanen@protacon.com>
 */
abstract class Rest extends Base implements Interfaces\Rest
{
    /**
     * Service object for current REST controller.
     *
     * @var RestService
     */
    protected $service;

    /**
     * Returns routes to connect to the given application.
     *
     * @param   Application $app
     *
     * @return  \Silex\ControllerCollection
     */
    public function connect(Application $app)
    {
        parent::connect($app);

        $this->exposeServices();

        return $this->controllers;
    }

    /**
     * Method to register all routes for current controller. Note that these are the default routes that are attached
     * to each of controllers which extend this abstract base controller.
     *
     * If you want to disable some of these just add this method to your controller and make necessary changes.
     *
     * @return void
     */
    public function registerRoutes()
    {
        $this->controllers->get('/', [$this, 'find']);
        $this->controllers->get('/{id}', [$this, 'findOne']);
        $this->controllers->post('/', [$this, 'create']);
        $this->controllers->put('/{id}', [$this, 'update']);
        $this->controllers->delete('/{id}', [$this, 'delete']);
    }

    /**
     * Returns all specified entities from database as an array of entity objects.
     *
     * @param   Request $request
     *
     * @return  Response
     */
    public function find(Request $request)
    {
        // Reserved parameters
        $criteria = (array)$request->get('criteria', []);
        $orderBy = (array)$request->get('orderBy', null);
        $limit = $request->get('limit', null);
        $offset = $request->get('offset', null);
        $populate = (array)$request->get('populate', []);
        $populateAll = array_key_exists('populateAll', $request->query->all());

        if (method_exists($this, 'beforeFind')) {
            $this->beforeFind($request, $criteria, $orderBy, $limit, $offset);
        }

        $entities = $this->service->find($criteria, $orderBy, $limit, $offset);

        if (method_exists($this, 'afterFind')) {
            $this->afterFind($request, $criteria, $orderBy, $limit, $offset, $entities);
        }

        return $this->makeResponse($entities, 200, $this->getSerializeContext($populate, $populateAll));
    }

    /**
     * Returns single entity object presenting given id value.
     *
     * @param   Request $request    Request object
     * @param   integer $id         Entity id
     *
     * @return  Response
     */
    public function findOne(Request $request, $id)
    {
        if (method_exists($this, 'beforeFindOne')) {
            $this->beforeFindOne($request, $id);
        }

        $entity = $this->service->findOne($id);

        if (method_exists($this, 'afterFindOne')) {
            $this->afterFindOne($request, $id, $entity);
        }

        if (is_null($entity)) {
            throw new HttpException(404, 'Not found');
        }

        return $this->makeResponse($entity);
    }

    /**
     * Creates new entity object to the database.
     *
     * @param   Request $request
     *
     * @return  Response
     */
    public function create(Request $request)
    {
        $data = json_decode($request->getContent());

        try {
            if (method_exists($this, 'beforeCreate')) {
                $this->beforeCreate($request, $data);
            }

            $entity = $this->service->create($data);

            if (method_exists($this, 'afterCreate')) {
                $this->afterCreate($request, $data, $entity);
            }
        } catch (ValidatorException $error) {
            throw new HttpException(400, $error->getMessage());
        }

        return $this->makeResponse($entity, 201);
    }

    /**
     * Updates specified entity data to database.
     *
     * @param   Request $request
     * @param   integer $id
     *
     * @return  Response
     */
    public function update(Request $request, $id)
    {
        $data = json_decode($request->getContent());

        try {
            if (method_exists($this, 'beforeUpdate')) {
                $this->beforeUpdate($request, $id, $data);
            }

            $entity = $this->service->update($id, $data);

            if (method_exists($this, 'afterUpdate')) {
                $this->afterUpdate($request, $id, $data, $entity);
            }
        } catch (ValidatorException $error) {
            throw new HttpException(400, $error->getMessage());
        }

        return $this->makeResponse($entity, 200);
    }

    /**
     * Method to delete specified entity from database.
     *
     * @param   Request $request
     * @param   integer $id
     *
     * @return  Response
     */
    public function delete(Request $request, $id)
    {
        if (method_exists($this, 'beforeDelete')) {
            $this->beforeDelete($request, $id);
        }

        $entity = $this->service->delete($id);

        if (method_exists($this, 'afterDelete')) {
            $this->afterDelete($request, $id, $entity);
        }

        return $this->makeResponse('', 204);
    }

     /**
      * Before lifecycle method for find method.
      *
      * @param   Request        $request
      * @param   array          $criteria
      * @param   null|array     $orderBy
      * @param   null|integer   $limit
      * @param   null|integer   $offset
      */
     public function beforeFind(
         Request $request,
         array &$criteria = [],
         array &$orderBy = null,
         &$limit = null,
         &$offset = null
     ) { }

     /**
      * After lifecycle method for find method.
      *
      * @param   Request        $request
      * @param   array          $criteria
      * @param   null|array     $orderBy
      * @param   null|integer   $limit
      * @param   null|integer   $offset
      * @param   Entity[]       $entities
      */
     public function afterFind(
         Request $request,
         array &$criteria = [],
         array &$orderBy = null,
         &$limit = null,
         &$offset = null,
         array &$entities
     ) { }

     /**
      * Before lifecycle method for findOne method.
      *
      * @param   Request $request
      * @param   integer $id
      */
     public function beforeFindOne(Request $request, &$id) { }

     /**
      * After lifecycle method for findOne method.
      *
      * @param   Request    $request
      * @param   integer    $id
      * @param   Entity     $entity
      */
     public function afterFindOne(Request $request, &$id, Entity $entity) { }

     /**
      * Before lifecycle method for create method.
      *
      * @param   Request   $request
      * @param   \stdClass $data
      */
     public function beforeCreate(Request $request, \stdClass $data) { }

     /**
      * After lifecycle method for create method.
      *
      * @param   Request    $request
      * @param   \stdClass  $data
      * @param   Entity     $entity
      */
     public function afterCreate(Request $request, \stdClass $data, Entity $entity) { }

     /**
      * Before lifecycle method for update method.
      *
      * @param   Request   $request
      * @param   integer   $id
      * @param   \stdClass $data
      */
     public function beforeUpdate(Request $request, &$id, \stdClass $data) { }

     /**
      * After lifecycle method for update method.
      *
      * @param   Request    $request
      * @param   integer    $id
      * @param   \stdClass  $data
      * @param   Entity     $entity
      */
     public function afterUpdate(Request $request, &$id, \stdClass $data, Entity $entity) { }

     /**
      * Before lifecycle method for delete method.
      *
      * @param   Request $request
      * @param   integer $id
      */
     public function beforeDelete(Request $request, &$id) { }

     /**
      * After lifecycle method for delete method.
      *
      * @param   Request    $request
      * @param   integer    $id
      * @param   Entity     $entity
      */
     public function afterDelete(Request $request, &$id, Entity $entity) { }

     /**
      * Helper method to make JSON response.
      *
      * @param   null|string|Entity|Entity[]    $data
      * @param   integer                        $statusCode
      * @param   null|SerializationContext      $context
      *
      * @return  Response
      */
     protected function makeResponse($data, $statusCode = 200, SerializationContext $context = null)
     {
         // Create new response
         $response = new Response();
         $response->setContent(
             (empty($data) && is_string($data)) ? '' : $this->app['serializer']->serialize($data, 'json', $context)
         );
         $response->setStatusCode($statusCode);
         $response->headers->set('Content-Type', 'application/json');

         return $response;
     }

    /**
     * Helper method to get serialization context for query.
     *
     * @param   array   $populate
     * @param   boolean $populateAll
     *
     * @return  SerializationContext
     */
    protected function getSerializeContext(array $populate, $populateAll)
    {
        $bits = explode('\\', $this->service->getRepository()->getClassName());

        // Determine used default group
        $defaultGroup = $populateAll ? 'Default' : end($bits);

        if (count($populate) === 0 && $populateAll) {
            $populate = array_map('ucfirst', $this->service->getAssociations());
        }

        // Create context and set used groups
        $context = SerializationContext::create();
        $context->setGroups(array_merge([$defaultGroup], $populate));
        $context->setSerializeNull(true);

        return $context;
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Head's letter
Consultation For Admissions 2019
OFSTED and SIAMS
Academy Finances
Financial Statement 2016
SEN(D)
Subject Information
What's Playing?
Who's Playing?
Healthy living/PSHE
Most able
6th form
Walking Talking Mocks
Knowledge Organisers y7
All Houses
Elgar
Extra Curric
Years 4/5/6 fun learning clubs
Eco work
School Chapel
BBC School Report 2016
GAIA Technologies
Hope University
RLPO
Friends of St Michael's Association
Liverpool Diocesan Schools Trust (LDST)
Year 7 Survey
St. Michael's actively promotes British values
How St Michael's actively promotes British values.
As a school, we value and celebrate the diverse heritages of everybody at St Michael's. Alongside this, we value and celebrate being part of Britain. In general terms, this means that we celebrate traditions throughout the year; for example, Harvest festival during the autumn term, Easter services and the British tradition of a pantomime around Christmas.
We also understand the importance of British values: democracy, rule of law, individual liberty, mutual respect and tolerance of those of different faiths and beliefs. Some of the ways in which we do this are shown below.
Student, parent and staff voice (Democracy)
Students, parents and staff have many opportunities for their voices to be heard at St Michael's through parent, staff and student questionnaires based on the school ethos and the distinctive Christian Ethos.
The school council allows students to voice their opinions, the council has had the opportunity to make a positive impact on the school environment, this includes taking part in planning for the new toilet blocks, canteen menus etc. They also take an active role in the recruitment of new staff across the school.
Rules and laws (Rule of law)
Pupils are encouraged to take ownership of not only their school but also of their own learning and progress. This encourages both personal and social responsibility and is demonstrated on a daily basis.
The rewards and sanctions system in school allows students to understand the importance of rules and can assist students in making informed decisions.
The behavior for learning principles put in place by the school are clearly understood by all and seen to ensure that every class member is able to learn in the best possible environment.
School values (Mutual respect)
The school holds 5 core values at the heart of its mission: Love, forgiveness, courage, peace and equality. These values are used in the daily life of the school and students are reminded about them regularly during assemblies and collective worship.
Students have the opportunity to be awarded when they live out the values in their lives, this give students the opportunity to understand and put into practice the values so that they have an impact on their actions and choices.
Ways in which values affect the running of St Michael's:
Teachers explain the meaning of the values to our students
Pupils have time to reflect on the values and their actions
Staff model the values to our students during and outside of lessons
The whole school community including parents and governors are involved in the Values system and all can continue to contribute through nomination for awards.
Individual liberty.
Pupils are encouraged to know, understand and exercise their rights and personal freedoms and are advised how to exercise these safely, during discussions in R.S and PSHE students are allowed to explore their own personal beliefs before looking at the beliefs of others in the local community and around the world. Topics studies in PSHE that allow this personal expression and discussion include: How do we deal with conflict, social and emotional aspects of learning, bullying and individuality, Britain as a diverse society, government, voting and elections, crime and the law, sex and relationships.
Understanding and respect for other religions and cultures.
Through Religious Education, PSHE and other lessons we develop awareness and appreciation of other cultures – in R.S one example would be the topic how Islam is portrayed in the media, in English through fiction and stories from other cultures and in Art by considering culture and art from other parts of the world.
During collective worship students are introduced to symbols, stories, traditions and celebrations used in other faiths and religions, this allows students to gain a fair wider view of the world around them.
Other key topics covered in RS include:
What beliefs do Christian denominations share and what beliefs separate them?
How do contemporary images reflect the beliefs, practices and values of faith communities?
What does it mean to be a good steward in the 21st Century?
Do words matter? - What do you believe in and why? - How do you express your core beliefs? - Are beliefs shared?
What is the impact of difference and diversity on faith communities?
©2011-2015 St Michael's High sitemap | contact us | VLE Login | Show My Homework


This paper studies the analytical properties of the reinforcement learning model proposed in Erev and Roth (1998), also termed cumulative reinforcement learning in Laslier et al (2001). This stochastic model of learning in games accounts for two main elements: the law of effect (positive reinforcement of actions that perform well) and the law of practice (the magnitude of the reinforcement effect decreases with players' experience). The main results of the paper show that, if the solution trajectories of the underlying replicator equation converge exponentially fast, then, with probability arbitrarily close to one, all the realizations of the reinforcement learning process will, from some time on, lie within an " band of that solution. The paper improves upon results currently available in the literature by showing that a reinforcement learning process that has been running for some time and is found suffciently close to a strict Nash equilibrium, will reach it with probability one.
Arthur, W.B. : (1993), \On designing economic agents that behave like human agents," Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 3, 1-22.
Arthur, W.B. Yu., M. Ermoliev and Yu. Kaniovski : (1987), \Non-linear Urn Processes: Asymptotic Behavior and Applications," mimeo, IIASA WP- 87-85.
Arthur, W.B. Yu., M. Ermoliev and Yu. Kaniovski : (1988), \Non-linear Adaptive Processes of Growth with General Increments: Attainable and Unattainable Components of Terminal Set.," mimeo, IIASA WP-88-86.
Beggs, A.W. : (2005), \On the Convergence of Reinforcement Learning.," Jour- nal of Economic Theory, 122, 1-36.
Benaim, M. : (1999), \Dynamics of Stochastic Approximation, Le Seminaire de Probabilite', Springer Lecture Notes in Mathematics.
Benaim, M and J. Weibull : (2003), \Deterministic Approximation of Stochastic Evolution in Games," Econometrica, 71, 873-903.
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B�orgers, T. and R. Sarin : (1997), \Learning Through Reinforcement and Replicator Dynamics," Journal of Economic Theory, 77, 1-14.
Camerer, C. and T.H. Ho : (1999), \Experience-Weighted Attraction Learning in Normal Form Games," Econometrica, 67(4), 827-874.
Cross, J.G. : (1973), \A Stochastic Learning Model of Economic Behavior," Quaterly Journal of Economics, 87, 239-266.
Cross, J.G. : (1983), \A Theory of Adaptive Economic Behavior, . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Erev, I. and A.E. Roth : (1998), \Predicting How People Play Games: Reinforcement Learning in Experimental Games with Unique, Mixed Strategy Equilibria," American Economic Review, 88(4), 848-881.
Fudenberg D. and D. Levine : (1998), \Theory of Learning in Games, . MIT Press.
Hopkins, E. : (2002), \Two competing models of how people learn in games," Econometrica, 70, 2141-2166.
Hopkins, E. and M. Posch : (2005), \Attainability of boundary points under reinforcement learning," Games and Economic Behavior, 53, 110-125.
Ianni, A. : (2007), \Learning Strict Nash Equilibrium through Reinforcement," mimeo, EUI Working Paper 2007/21.
Izquierdo, L.R., Izquierdo, S.S., Gotts, N.M. and J.G. Polhill : (2007), \Transient and asymptotic dynamics of reinforcement learning in games," Games and Economic Behavior, 61, 259-276.
Khalil, H.K. : (1996), \Nonlinear Systems, . Prentice Hall.
Laslier, J.F., Topol R. and B. Walliser : (2001), \A Behavioral Learning Process in Games," Games and Economic Behavior, 37, 340-366.
Ljung, L. : (1978), \Strong Convergence of a Stochastic Approximation Algorithm," Annals of Statistics, 6, 680-696.
Posh, M. : (1997), Cycling in a stochastic learning algorithm for normal form games," Journal of Evolutionary Dynamics, 7, 193-207.
Ritzberger K. and J. Weibull : (1995), \Evolutionary Selection in normal form games," Econometrica, 63, 1371-1399.
Roth, A. and I. Erev : (1995), \Learning in Extensive Form Games: Experimental Data and Simple Dynamic Models in the Intermediate Term," Games and Economic Behavior, 8(1), 164-212.
Taylor, P. : (1979), \Evolutionary stable strategies with two types of player," Journal of Applied Probability, 16, 76-83.
Vega-Redondo, F. : (2003), \Economics and the Theory of Games, . Cambridge University Press.
Weibull J. : (1995), \Evolutionary Game Theory, . MIT Press.


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