Roman stone pillar bridge in Trier, Germany. The arches were added in the 14th century.
The Romans were the world's first major bridge builders. The following list constitutes an attempt to list all known surviving remains of Roman bridges.
Also listed are bridges which feature substantially Roman material (spolia), as long as the later bridge is erected on the site of a Roman precursor. Finally, incidences where only inscriptions lay testimony to a former Roman bridge are also included.
In the following, bridges are classified either according to their material or their function. Most data not otherwise marked comes from O'Connor's Roman Bridges which lists 330 stone bridges for traffic, 34 timber bridges and 54 aqueduct bridges. An even larger compilation of more than 900 Roman bridges (as of 2011) is offered by the Italian scholar Galliazzo, which is used here only selectively.
Note: the table columns are sortable by clicking the header, e.g. for country of origin etc.
Bridges are particularly difficult to classify as they, more than other structures, are subject to wear, on account of war and the impact of natural elements. The constant need for repairs through the ages has often turned bridges into hybrid structures, making it often difficult or nearly impossible to determine the exact date and origin of individual parts of a bridge. Thus, the majority of bridges listed below can be assumed to include medieval or (early) modern modifications, replacements or extensions, to a small or large extent.
The following table lists bridges made out of stone or brick. The vast majority features arches, although stone deck slabs were also known. Bridges' spans and height abbreviations: S = small, M = middle, L = large.
(Aesepus) Cyzicus 3.5 mi above mouth Turkey 11 x S-M ?
Ain Diwar Bridge formerly crossed the Tigris Ain Diwar 3.5 km NE of Ain Diwar Syria ? In ruins, one span remaining.
Ávila Bridge Adaja Ávila ? Spain ? M ?
(Lopadium) Turkey ? In ruins. Only a few piers remain on north bank.
(Calycadnus) Samsat 25 km W Turkey c. 30 m ?
Hadji Bektari bridge Shkumbi Hadji Bektari 10 km NE of Elbasan Albania 3 x S ?
Muro del Peccato ? Civita Castellana N of Ponte sul Treia Italy, Central ? ?
Pons Minucius Tiber Otricoli 3 km S on Via Flaminia Italy, Central ? ?
Pons Probi Tiber Rome In Rome Italy, Rome & vicinity Demolished in 1484, footers removed 1874.
(Sangarius) Candir Köprü 55 km SE of Eskişehir Turkey ? ?
Pons Servili ? Orakë W of Lake Ohrid Albania ? ?
Pont de César Velaj Mondouilloux On Via Bolena France ? ?
(Souk el Khemis) 11 km E Tunisia 2 x S ? In ruins.
Pont de Duperré Oued Chelif Duperré 150 km SW of Algiers Algeria ? ?
Pont des Marchands Canal de la Robine Narbonne France 1 x c. 15 S One of the few remaining bridges with shops on it.
Pont de St Gabriel ? Tarascon ? France 3 m ?
Pont d'Ain Hedja ? Agbia ? Tunisia ? ?
Pont Ambroix Vidourle Ambrussum W of Gallargues-le-Montueux on Via Domitia France 5 x M ?
Pont d'Ascain Nivella Ascain 7 km SE of Saint-Jean-de-Luz France ? ?
Pont d'Ombret Semois Arel Arel-Trier road Belgium ? ?
Pont d'Oued Bou-Zid Oued Bou-Zid Ksar Hellal ? Tunisia ? ?
Pont d'Oued el Ahmar Oued el Ahmar Dougga 6.5 km E Tunisia ? ?
Pont sur Loire Loire Lavoûte-sur-Loire ? France ? ?
Pont sur Rhone Rhone Arles ? France ? ?
Pont sur Rhone Rhone Vienne To Ste Colombe les Viennes France ? ?
Pont Vieux Hérault Le Vigan ? France ? ?
Ponte da Ribeira de Odivelas Ribeira de Odivelas Vila Ruiva 1,5 km away from Vila Ruiva Portugal ? S Several arches are buried.
Ponte dei Ladroni V. d. Ferrara Benevento 17 km ENE on Via Traiana Italy, Southern 3 m; 10 m; 14 m ?
Ponte del Tirso Tirso Oristano Sardinia Italy, Insular Ruins ?
Ponte dell'Acquoria Aniene Tivoli 1.2 km W Italy, Rome & vicinity 7 x S ?
Ponte di Vigna Capoccio Fosso di Carano Velletri 4 km SW on Via Appia Italy, Rome & vicinity 1 x S ?
Ponte Ladricio Eisack Franzensfeste ? Italy, Northern ? ?
Ponte Petreo ? Ravenna c. 3 km S Italy, Northern ? ?
Ponte Pietra Ofanto Canosa di Puglia 5 km W on Via Traiana Italy, Southern 2 spans ?
Ponte Piro ? Barbarano 4 km SE of Blera on Via Clodia Italy, Central ? ?
Ponte Vella (Ponte Romana) Minho River Ourense ? Spain ?
Ponte Sanguinaro Sanguinaro Otricoli 7 km NE on Via Flaminia Italy, Central ? ?
Ponte San Matteo Bacchiglione Padua To E of town Italy, Northern ? ?
Ponte Sardone ? Palestrina 0.7 km SW on Via Praenestina Italy, Rome & vicinity ? ?
Ponte Sodo Valchetta Veii On N boundary Italy, Rome & vicinity ? ?
Ponte sul Fratta Fratta Orte 13 km SE on Via Flaminia Italy, Central ? ?
Ponte sul Reno Reno Bologna On Via Aemilia Italy, Northern ? ?
Ponte sul Tevere Tiber Sigliano ? Italy, Central ? ?
Ponte sul Treia Treia Civita Castellana 5 km NE on Via Flaminia Italy, Central ? ?
Ponte Taverna Burano Cagli 0.5 km S on Via Flaminia Italy, Central 4.8 m; 16.2 m ?
Quarto Ponte della Val Quazzola ? Quiliano Volta locality Italy, Northern ? ?
Quinto Ponte della Val Quazzola ? Quiliano Colle sul Rio d. Scarroni Italy, Northern ? ?
Sesto Ponte della Val Quazzola ? Quiliano Rio del Gallo Italy, Northern ? ?
Quarto Ponte di Val Ponci ? Finale Ligure In Val Ponci on Via Julia Augusta Italy, Northern ? ?
Puente de El Garro Almonte Alconétar Now flooded Spain ? ?
Puente de Piedra (Zaragoza) Ebro Zaragoza In town Spain ? ?
Pont de Pedra Segre Lleida In town Spain ? ?
Pont Vell Fluvià Besalú 30 km NW of Girona Spain ? ?
(Granicus) Biga Over Biga Çayı Turkey ? ?
Roman bridge ? Eğirdir ? Turkey ? ?
Sabrina bridge Karabudak Zimara ? Turkey ? ?
Sauerbrücke Sauer Wasserbillig ? Luxembourg ? ?
Shkumbi bridge Shkumbi Topcias Near Shenjan Albania 17 x S ?
Viadotta sulla Via Aurelia ? Rome Pons Cestius-Janiculum Italy, Rome & vicinity 1 x S ?
? Arapgir Çayı Korpanik 3 km E Turkey 30 m ?
? Bues Ganagobie W bank of Durance, S of Sisteron France ? ?
? Escoutay Viviers ? France ? ?
? Fosso di Palidoro Palidoro Beneath farmhouse Italy, Rome & vicinity 2 x S ?
? Guadiana Mertola ? Portugal ? ?
? Nahr er Rukkad ? W of Bostra Syria 8 spans ?
? Nile Aswan ? Egypt ? ?
? Wadi Suweida Suweida N of Bostra Syria 1 span ?
(Iris) Amasya ? Turkey ? ?
? ? Kireli ? Turkey ? ?
? ? Qodana W of Bostra Syria 3 spans ?
? ? Sette Vene 15 km N of Veii on Via Cassia Italy, Central 1 x S ?
A timber bridge is a structure composed wholly out of wood, while a stone pillar bridge features a wooden superstructure resting on stone pillars. Strictly speaking, many bridges of the second type should be rather called "concrete pillar bridges", as the Romans preferably used opus caementicium for constructing their bridge piers (stone was confined in these cases to covering). Both types, timber bridges and stone respectively concrete pillar bridges, are listed here in the same category as historically, with the consolidation of Roman power in the newly conquered provinces, wooden bridges often gave way to solid pillar bridges.
London Bridge Thames London England ?
Piercebridge Roman Bridge Tees Piercebridge England ?
Pons Aelius Tyne Newcastle England ?
Pons Sublicius Tiber Rome Italy ?
Pons Tirenus Garigliano Minturnae Italy ?
? Churn Cirencester England ?
? Eden Hyssop Holme Well England ?
? Forth ? Scotland ?
? Kelvin Summerston Scotland ?
? Loire Orléans France ?
? Loire ? France ?
? Rede Elishaw England ?
? Rede Risingham England ?
? Rhone Genf Switzerland ?
? Saône ? France ?
? Seine Paris France ?
? Tees Pounteys Bridge England ?
? Wear Binchester England ?
? ? Hunwick Gill England ?
? Fleet London, Newgate England ?
? ? Wallasey England ?
? Nene Water Newton England ?
? Severn Wroxeter England ?
As an alternative to ferry services, the Roman army often made use of pontoon bridges, along with timber structures, for river crossings. They usually consisted of boats lashed together, with the bows pointing towards the current. Permanent bridges of boats were also commonly set up for civilian traffic.
See also List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire.
Aix-en-Provence ? France ? ?
Alatri ? Italy ? ?
Antibes La Bouillide France ?
Antibes La Fontveille France ?
Anzio ? Italy ? ?
Aosta Pont d'Aël Italy ?
Arles Barbegal, Fontveille France ?
Athens, Hadrianic aqueduct Greece ?
Athens, Nea Ionia Late Roman aqueduct Greece ?
Bavay ? France ? ?
Baelo-Claudia ? Spain ? ?
Bologna ? Italy ? ?
Bonn Bonn Aqueduct Germany ?
Bordeaux ? France ? ?
Cádiz ? Spain ? ?
Catania ? Italy ? ?
Chelva Peña Cortada Spain ? ?
Chemtou ? Tunisia ? ?
Cimiez ? France ? ?
Die ? France ? ?
Erythrai ? Turkey ? ?
Évreux ? France ? ?
Granada ? Spain ? ?
Lyon Brevenne France ? ?
Lyon Mont d'Or France ? ?
Mainz Römersteine Germany ? ?
Marseille ? France ? ?
Mérida Las Tomas (Rabo de Buey) Spain ?
Mytilene, Lesbos ? Greece ?
Musti ? Tunisia ? ?
Nîmes Pont de Bornègre France ?
Orange ? France ? ?
Pézenas ? France ? ?
Périgueux ? France ? ?
Poitiers ? France ? ?
Pompeii ? Italy ? ?
Rodez ? France ? ?
Rome Anio Vetus Italy ?
Sádaba ? Spain ? ?
Saintes ? France ? ?
Salona Diocletianus Aqueduct Croatia ?
Sens ? France ? ?
Seville Caños de Carmona Spain ?
Spoleto Ponte delle Torri Italy ?
Saint-Rémy-de-Provence ? France ? ?
Syracuse ? Italy ? ?
Taormina ? Italy ? ?
Termini Imerese Aquae Corneliae Italy ?
Termancia (Tiermes) ? Spain ?
Turin ? Italy ? ?
Uncastillo acueducto de Los Banales Spain ?
Vaison ? France ? ?
Valencia de Alcántara ? Spain ?
Vienne ? France ? ?
Viterbo ? Italy ? ?
Volubilis ? Morocco ? ?
? Ponte Funicchio Italy ?
^ Kissel & Stoll 2000, pp. 17f.
^ Milner 1998, pp. 117f.
^ A Roman Bridge on the Aesepus, F. W. Hasluck, The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 12, (1905/1906):189.
^ Hasluck & 1905/06, pp. 188f.
^ Bauer 2004, pp. 83f.
^ a b Note that Anio Novus and Claudia shared about 10 km of their aqueduct bridge mileage (O'Connor 1993, p. 151).
^ a b c Note that Marcia, Julia and Tepula shared about 9 km of their aqueduct bridge mileage (O'Connor 1993, p. 151).
This page was last edited on 31 January 2019, at 05:40 (UTC).


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text:
Q: Minimum cost maximum flow algorithm with custom cost function What kind of cost functions can be used in minimum cost maximum flow algorithm?
Is it possible to have a cost function similar to:

*

*if flow on an edge is between [1, X], cost = FixedCost + C1 + flow * cost_per_flow[C1]

*if flow on an edge is between [X + 1, Y], cost = FixedCost + C2 + flow * cost_per_flow[C2]

*etc.

Does this change the algorithm in any way?

A: You can add up the fixed costs, and remove them from the equation. Then, You split each edge into 2 edges , each with appropriately calculated costs.

A: The minimum cost maximum flow algorithm is just a solver for a specific kind of linear program.
What makes linear programs solvable efficiently is convexity: in this case, if you have two feasible flows F and G, then for all t in [0, 1], the flow tF + (1-t)G is feasible and has cost(tF + (1-t)G) ≤ t cost(F) + (1-t) cost(G). For your objective, this basically means FixedCost in [1, X] is 0, C1 ≤ C2, FixedCost in [X + 1, Y] is (C1 - C2)X ≤ 0. That looks something like this:
6|        .
5|       .
4|      .
3|     .
2|   .
1| .
0.----------
 0 1   X

Probably it is important to you that FixedCost in [1, X] > 0, but this makes the problem NP-hard. A reduction from Steiner tree in graphs is to make the capacity of each edge infinite and cost the weight specified by the Steiner tree problem for the first unit and 0 thereafter. Make one of the k - 1 Steiner terminals a source with capacity k - 1 and the others sinks with capacity 1. Request the cheapest flow of k - 1 units.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Journey to the West Research
A repository for research on the great 16th-century Chinese Classic
How the Hindu Bird God Garuda Came to Appear in Journey to the West
April 24, 2018 October 17, 2018 Jim R. McClanahan
Heroes from Chinese military fiction are often cast as reincarnations of celestial beings. For instance, the famous patriot General Yue Fei (岳飛, 1103–1141) is portrayed as a reincarnation of the Hindu-Buddhist bird deity Garuda (Jialouluo, 伽樓羅; Jialiuluo, 伽留羅) in his folk biography The Story of Yue Fei (Shuo Yue quan zhuan, 說岳全傳, 1684). The bird, called the "Great Roc, the Golden-Winged King of Illumination" (Dapeng jinchi mingwang, 大鵬金翅明王), sits at the head of the Buddha's throne in the Western Paradise. His fiery temper is aroused when a bat-spirit (the embodiment of the Aquarius constellation) passes gas during the Enlightened One's sermon on the Lotus Sutra. He swoops down from the throne and snatches her up in his beak, killing her instantly. The Buddha admonishes the bird for his transgression of Buddhist law and exiles him to earth. His rebirth in the human world actually serves to counterbalance the actions of a nomadic antagonist, originally a dragon sent from the Eastern Heaven to punish China (Qian, 2016). This storyline was influenced by a previous work, Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592), which explains how Garuda came to hold such an important position above the Buddha.
Called the "Roc of Ten Thousand Cloudy Miles" (Yuncheng wanli peng, 雲程萬里鹏), [1] the bird is portrayed as a spiritual uncle of the Buddha and an ancient demon king with unequaled strength, speed, and powers of transformation (fig. 1). He wields two magic weapons, a halberd and a vase capable of trapping and killing even immortals. Garuda is so powerful, in fact, that not even Sun Wukong (孫悟空) is strong enough to pacify the beast. Therefore, the Buddha himself is forced to leave the Western Paradise to confront the demon headon. He casts the illusion of a bloody piece of meat above his head, and when the man-bird pounces on the bait, the Buddha takes away his ability to fly, thus trapping Garuda above his head in the demon's original form as a golden-winged vulture (Dapeng jinchi diao, 大鵬金翅鵰) (fig. 2). After some struggle, the bird agrees to become a protector of Buddhist law (Sk: dharma; Ch: fa, 法). Thus, Chinese fiction portrays Garuda as a powerful demon king that submits to the Buddha and perches above his throne as a hot-tempered guardian deity. [2]
The fact that this literary motif appears in two famous Chinese classics points to some widely known religious concept circulating during the 16th– and 17th-centuries. In this paper I will trace the origins of the motif from ancient South Asian literature and religious architecture to Esoteric Buddhist art in East Asia. The path we walk is a complicated one spanning centuries, belief systems, and artistic mediums.
Fig. 1 – A modern depiction of the Roc demon in his humanoid form (artist unknown) (larger version). Fig. 2 – A modern depiction of the roc trapped above the Buddha's head (artist unknown) (larger version).
1. India – Where our search begins
1.1. Garuda's appearance in ancient literature
The origin of the Chinese literary motif is over two thousand years old, first appearing in the 4th-century BCE Hindu epic the Mahabharata. The holy work states that Garuda is the son of the creator-sage Kashyapa and his second wife Vinata. After gestating in his egg for one thousand years, the bird bursts forth and his massive, fiery body grows to engulf the entire cosmos. His sun-like splendor is so bright that the devas mistake him for Agni, the god of holy fire. Garuda is forced to reduce his size and illumination when the devas ask him to do so out of fear. Falling prey to an ancient curse, his mother Vinata loses a bet and is enslaved by her sister Kadru, mother of the naga-serpents. Garuda agrees to steal the vessel containing the immortal elixir of amrita from the devas in order to secure his mother's release. He uses his great strength and speed to defeat the celestial army and kill the serpents guarding the elixir, and he uses his powers of transformation to extinguish the fire surrounding the treasured substance and sneak past the magic discus charged with dismembering thieves. Upon his return trip, Garuda is halted by the supreme deva Vishnu who grants him the boon of immortality for partaking in such a difficult quest. In return, the bird grants him the boon of serving as the carrier of his celestial vehicle (vimana) and positions himself above Vishnu's head atop the flagpole (dhvaja). Not long after, Indra, king of the devas, strikes the bird with a lightning bolt in an attempt to retrieve the amrita. The bird pays him respect by shedding a single feather and grants him the boon of eternal friendship. After learning the reason for the theft, the devaraja grants Garuda the boon of taking his enemies the nagas as his food. Both of them then orchestrate a plan in which the bird pays the amrita ransom to free his mother, but Indra takes the elixir away before the serpents can drink of it. Finally, Garuda slaughters all of the nagas (Ganguli, 2003, pp. 57-82).
It's easy to discern several aspects from Chinese fiction in the ancient story: 1) a powerful golden bird with great strength, speed, and powers of transformation; 2) a vessel with magical properties; 3) conflict between the bird and heavenly forces; 4) his subjugation by a higher power; 5) his installment above a deva's head; and 6) continued conflict between the bird and his serpent foes. This adds to existing literature showing that the Mahabharata influenced Journey to the West (Subbaraman, 2002).
1.2. Garuda's appearance on religious architecture
Since the Mahabharata was published, Garuda has been depicted on a number of ritual flagpoles (dvaja) in India. The dvaja pillar "is placed opposite the entrance to the main shrine [of a Hindu temple], on axis with the central image…it is an object of great importance and worship" (Dallapiccola, 2002, p. 60). Adherents would have paid reverence to it before entering the temple. People affected by snake bites would often embrace these types of pillars because they believed Garuda's powers over the nagas (and their serpentine kin) would neutralize the poison (Zimmer, 1946, p. 75). The oldest of the stone dvaja columns still standing is the Heliodorus pillar (2nd-cent. BCE) erected by a Bactrian-Greek envoy and convert of that name in honor of Vishnu in Vidisha (fig. 3) (Walker, 1968, p. 246). The Garuda is no longer extant, having been eroded by time or destroyed by iconoclasts. It is considered the "first dated monument linked with Vishnu" (Elgood, 2000, p. 56). Clues to what the original capital may have looked like can be drawn from numismatic evidence. The golden dinar of King Samudra (r. 335-375 CE) of the Gupta Empire, for example, features a Garuda dvaja (fig. 4) (Mookerji, 1973, p. 52). The capital is depicted as a bird, suggesting the eroded figure on the Heliodorus pillar may have originally taken such a form. This differs from later humanoid depictions of the god (see below).
Fig. 3 – The Heliodorus pillar (2nd-cent. BCE), Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, India (larger version). The Garuda capital is missing. Photo by the American Institute of Indian Studies (AIIS). Fig. 4 – The gold dinar of King Samudra (r. 335-375) of the Gupta Empire (larger version). The Garuda dvaja can be seen to the left. Photo by the American Council for Southern Asian Art (ACSAA).
Garuda's association with Buddhism seems to be quite old. His appearance on a number of standing gateways and carved cave temple entrances, collectively known as toranas, from the 1st-century BCE onward points to him being absorbed into the religion's pantheon within a few centuries of the historical Buddha's death. The oldest extant representation of Garuda appears on the eastern gateway of the Great Stupa at Sanchi (fig. 5) (Iyer, 1977, p. 52). Dated to the 1st-century BCE, the standing torana has three tiered architraves, the middle of which portrays a bodhi tree, an iconoclastic representation of the Buddha, flanked by real and mythical creatures paying homage to it. The far right side of this stone relief features Garuda standing next to a five-headed king of serpents (nagaraja) (fig. 6). The bird is depicted as a husky parrot with a delicate, forward curling crest, a thick beak, a pierced human ear, small flapping wings, and lacey tail plumage. The relationship between the two is amicable since it is a scene of religious reverence. This "Garuda and serpent" motif appears on the partial remains of a slightly younger stone architrave discovered in Kankali Tila at Mathura (Smith, 1969, p. 28). [3] The circa 1st-century BCE relief depicts him as a large bird of prey with similar iconography, including the curling crest, thick beak, and pierced human ear. But the tail plumage is far more flowery and ornate, indicating that the artist built off of the earlier example. Also, unlike the architrave from the Sanchi stupa, this piece portrays Garuda locked in a tense standoff with a three-headed nagaraja; the bird has a firm grasp of the hissing serpent with his beak, but the foe's body is wrapped twice around the god's neck and the tail is anchored at the base of a nearby tree (fig. 7) (Vogal, 1972, p. 172).
Fig. 5 – The reverse side of the East Torana of the Great Stupa at Sanchi (1st-cent. BCE), Madhya Pradesh, India (larger version). The Garuda and serpent motif is visible on the right side of the central architrave. Fig. 6 – Detail of the Garuda and serpent motif (larger version). Photos by the The Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art (HABRA), The Ohio State University. Fig. 7 – The partial architrave discovered in Kankali Tila (c. 1st-cent. BCE) in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India (larger version). Drawing from Smith, 1969, p. 28 .
Later depictions of the motif anthropomorphize Garuda. For instance, he makes an appearance standing over the torana of the carved Bhuta Lena cave shrine number forty (c. 100 CE) in Junnar (fig. 8) (Qureshi, 2010, p. 315). He is coupled with a nagaraja at the apex of the arched doorway; the two are presented as peaceful humanoid companions wearing matching hats and clothing and standing in a similar pose. This could be related to a birth tale (jataka) in which the Buddha, in his previous life as a hermit, reconciles the hatred between Garuda and a naga by "rehears[ing] the blessings of loving kindness until they [are] both at one. Thenceforward they abode together happily in peace and harmony" (Vogal, 1972, p. 142).
Fig. 8 – Garuda (left) and Nataraja (right) above the torana entrance of the Bhuta Lena cave shrine no. 40 (c. 100 CE) in Junnar, Maharashtra, India (larger version). Photo by ACSAA.
Dhar (2009) notes that the standing gateway toranas were replaced in popularity by "the post, lintel, and eave-cornice (kapotapālikā) type entryways" sometime after the 2nd to 3rd-century CE (p. 16). She continues, "From the fifth century, such an entrance gateway became an integral part of temple doorframes…its posts served as pilaster-doorjambs (stamhaśākhās) and the eave-cornice integrated with the lintel" (p. 16). It was around this time that Hindus followed the example of their Buddhist neighbors and began to create carved religious structures (Dehejia, 1997, p. 124). Such temples were considered the home of a given deity when they left their heavenly abode (Dehejia, 1997, p. 141). As such, these temples were profusely decorated with images of the deva, including the entrance way, to aid in their worship. A related root word for torana "suggests its role as an architectural symbol of a rite of passage or liminality" (Dhar, 2009, p. 1). This means whoever steps into the world of the "other" does so under the watchful eye of the deity placed on the torana. In the case of temples devoted to Vishnu and lesser devas associated with him, the image is either Garuda by himself (being a symbol of the god) or bearing the deva on his back, a variation on his portrayal in the Mahabharata that came to dominate his traditional iconography (Zimmer, 1946, p. 76).
1.3. Appearance of the antagonistic Garuda and Serpents motif
Whether alone or coupled with Vishnu, the antagonistic version of the Garuda and serpents motif began to appear on Hindu toranas by at least the 7th to 8th-century. In fact, the only examples that I can find come from this time period. I have seen examples of the "Garuda and Vishnu" motif above entrance ways as late as the 11th-century, but these are missing the serpents. However, later Tibetan art featuring the serpent variation suggests there may be Indian examples that I am not aware of. The 7th-century example appears on the torana of the Gaudar Gudi Temple in Badami (Gupte, 1967, p. 54) (fig. 9). Garuda is portrayed in humanoid form wearing a hat and clothing similar to figure 8. He is squatting over the entrance while grasping the tails of naga-serpents flanking him on both sides. The first c. 700 example appears on the torana of the Durga (Fort) Temple in Aihole (fig. 10) (Tartakov, 1997, p. 192). He is depicted as a smiling human in an erect flying posture with his left leg tucked under his groin and his right trailing behind him. Just like the first piece, he is wearing similar attire and grasping the tails of nagas on his left and right sides. The second c. 700 example appears over the entranceway of the Rajivalocana Temple in Rajim (fig. 11) (Patel, 1992, p. 146). But this version has Garuda transporting a four armed Vishnu. The figure is again depicted in human form and grasping the tails of his serpentine foes.
Fig. 9 – The Gaudar Gudi Temple Garuda with serpents (7th-cent.), Aihole, Karnataka, India (larger version). Photo by AIIS. Fig. 10 – The Durga (Fort) Temple Garuda with serpents (c. 700), Aihole, Karnataka, India (larger version). Photo by ACSAA. Fig. 11 – The Rajivalocana Temple Garuda and Vishnu with serpents (c. 700), Rajim, Chhattisgarh, India (larger version). Photo by the AIIS.
2. Cambodia – The motif achieves perfection
The torana spread to Southeast Asia by the late 6th– or early 7th-century. Next to India, Cambodia has the largest number of and most diverse toranas in all of Asia (Dhar, 2009, p. 214). In fact, I would dare say this is where the Garuda and serpents motif reached the point of perfection. Parul Pandya Dhar's wonderful monograph The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture (2009) features two beautiful examples from Buddhist temples carved in the unmistakable Khmer style. The first is an exquisitely crafted 9th-century entranceway from the Prasat Kok Po Temple in Siem Reap (pp. 222 and 228) (fig. 12 and 13). It portrays Garuda as a large, stout man-bird with pierced ears and wearing a Cambodian headdress and garment. He is standing on a pedestal and bearing a four-armed Vishnu on his back while grasping the flower garland-like tail of a three-headed nagaraja in each hand. The god is further flanked by two large creatures with gaping mouths known as "Faces of Glory" (Kīrtimukha). [4] Their arms interlock not only with the undulating serpents grasped by the man-bird, but two others located on the outermost left and right portion of the torana—the combination of arms and slithering serpentine bodies form a beautiful horizontal wave pattern with four crests. These larger nagarajas bear images of tiny Garudas standing on the back of their hoods. [5] The author notes that the "Kīrtimukha and makaras seen on Indian and Indonesian toranas are often replaced by the garuḍa-nāgas combination in Cambodia" (Dhar, 2009, p. 228). The second is a mid-10th-century entranceway from the Prasat thom Temple in Koh Ker (fig. 14 and 15). The depiction of Garuda is identical to the first example down to the clothing. But instead of bearing Vishnu and cooperating with the Kirtimukha to conquer nagas, he alone is grasping the long, flowery tails of his enemies who are positioned on pedestals at the same level as his own. Two small Buddhas use the bodies of the tightly drawn serpents as a place to meditate. Both nagarajas bear the Wheel of Buddhist Law (Dharmachakra) on their chests. The composition is therefore symbolic of Garuda and the nagas working together to literal "support" Buddhism.
Fig. 12 – The Prasat Kok Po Temple lintel featuring the Garuda and Vishnu with serpents motif (9th-cent.), Siem Reap, Cambodia (larger version). Fig. 13 – A detail of the motif (larger version). Fig. 14 – The Prasat thom Temple lintel with the Garuda and serpents motif (mid-10th-cent.), Preah Vihear, Cambodia (larger version). Fig. 15 – A detail of the motif (larger version). Photos by Wikimedia commons.
3. The motif spreads to East Asia
3.1. Tibet – The motif jumps from architecture to art
The Buddhist examples from Cambodia appear to have been influenced by depictions of the Garuda and serpents motif from Hindu temples. This is because they depict Hindu deities like Vishnu and portray the bird and naga as (symbolic) enemies. The same can be said for Buddhist art and architecture in East Asia. For instance, Heather Stoddard (1996) comments that the motif "is in fact present in all the main Tibetan [Buddhist] styles, and is indeed unique to Tibetan art" (p. 40). She continues, "The author has searched all over Asia, in Hindu or Buddhist cultures, without success, looking for the garuda in this pro-eminent position" (p. 40). (It's obvious that Stoddard was unaware of the architectural origins of the motif at the time of her study.) One of the three pieces that she cites as examples is a 13th-century Nepalese painting of Ratnasambhava (Baosheng rulai, 寶生如來, fig. 16), one of the five Esoteric Buddhas (Stoddard, 1996, p. 42). The painting shows the Buddha sitting on a throne comprised of a lotus flower base and a backrest framed by all sorts of real and mythical creatures. The Garuda and serpents motif crowns the apex of the throne. Art historians call this an "enlightenment torana" or a "gate of glory" (Beer, 1999, p. 88; Stoddard, 2008, p. 23). It's clear that Buddhist artists came to equate the torana with the fiery halo that signifies a deity's enlightened or divine nature. Robert Beer (1999) believes that these enlightenment toranas could have appeared as early as the 4th-century, but that it became a common fixture in Buddhist art from the 8th to the 12th-century (p. 90). Two beautiful examples of an enlightenment torana from the mid-6th-century appear in the Kanheri Temple Cave number ninety in Mumbai (Malandra, 1993, p. 110). It depicts two Buddhas standing under their own gates of glory, complete with what appears to be licks of heavenly flame (fig. 17). Though missing the motif, these examples are nearly identical to later Tibetan art, suggesting, as mentioned above, that there could be later Indian examples featuring the Garuda and serpents motif that I am unaware of.
Fig. 16 – Ratnasambhava, with Bodhisattvas (13th-cent.), Nepal (larger version). The Garuda and serpent motif can be seen at the apex of the throne. Photo by the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Fig. 17 – Two Buddhas with enlightenment toranas, from Kanheri Temple Cave number ninety, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India (mid-6th-cent.) (larger version). Photo by the AIIS.
Nepalese-Tibetan Buddhist art featuring the motif doesn't appear to predate the 11th-century, so this may have something to do with the second coming of Buddhism in Tibet. The religion became popular among the common folk during the 11th-century after lying dormant for nearly two hundred years. The Tibetan people embraced the Indian Buddhist faith and flocked to India in order to study in various monastic universities. Jan Casey Singer (1999) notes:
Within this international Buddhist community, the Tibetans stood apart by virtue of the particular zeal with which they sought to master the Indian Buddhist tradition. They had both the will and, since Tibet is relatively close to eastern India, the opportunity to observe closely and gradually absorbed the highly sophisticated traditions of Buddhism and Buddhist art that flourished in eastern India at this time" (p. 6).
Tibetans living and traveling in India no doubt came into contact with architecture featuring the Garuda and serpents motif. This is evidenced by their depiction of Garuda as a chubby man-bird (see fig. 22 below, for example). The Vishnudharmottara Purana (7th-century) contains a treatise on prescribed Hindu iconography that mentions the deity "should be made slightly pot-bellied and adorned by all ornaments" (Kramrisch, 1928, p. 80).
3.2. The fiery Garuda halo
Variations of the motif appeared as it spread eastward. For instance, an 11th-century wall mural of the Bodhisattva Vajrapani (Jingang shou pusa, 金剛手菩薩) in Kashmir features five colored Garudas flying about his flaming halo (fig. 18). Beer explains that these represent the five Buddhas or Buddhist families of Esoteric Buddhism. He adds: "a yellow garuda stands for earth, a white for water, a red for fire, a black for air, and a blue or multicoloured for space" (Beer, 1999, p. 62). This variation changed as it rapidly spread into China. An 11th-century painting from the famous Mogao caves of Dunhuang depicts the Bodhisattva Hayagriva (Matou Guanyin, 馬頭觀音), the "Horse-Headed Guanyin," with three (of five?) fiery Garudas comprising his halo (Fig. 19). This "Garuda aureola" reached its zenith in Japan. One beautiful 11th-century example shows the Esoteric Buddhist guardian deity Fudō Myōō (Budong mingwang, 不動明王) set against a Garuda halo. The five Garudas are portrayed as flaming roosters encircling the god (fig. 20) (Akiyama, 1961, pp. 53 and 57). Thus, Esoteric Buddhism was the catalyst for the spread of the Garuda aureola motif towards the east.
Fig. 18 – Five colored Garudas in the aureola of the the Lha khang Soma Vajrapani (11th-cent.), Kashmir (larger version). Photo by HABRA. Fig. 19 – Hayagriva with flaming Garudas (11th-cent.), Dunhuang, Gansu, China (larver version). The simplistic Garudas are located to the respective left and right of a Face of Glory, as well as in between his legs. Photo by the Musée national des Arts asiatiques. Fig. 20 – The God Fudo-myoo (Acala) and Two Attendants (11th-cent.), Japan (larger version). Photo by the University of California, San Diego.
3.3. China – The Mongols welcome the motif
The Mongol rulers of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) were largely responsible for bringing the Garuda and serpents motif to China. They were ardent followers of Tibetan Buddhism, and so they invited Buddhist lamas to preach in the Middle Kingdom. The person who first introduced Tibetan Buddhist art to China was the Nepalese artist Anige (阿尼哥, 1245–1306). At the surprisingly young age of eighteen or nineteen years old, he arrived at the Mongol court in 1260 as the leader of twenty-four artisans. His most famous accomplishment is the White Pagoda of the Miaoying temple in Beijing (Stoddard, 2008, pp. 19-20). Anige is the father of a Tibetan Stylistic tradition that carried on long after his death.
For instance, the Mongols commissioned several stupa-arches to be constructed "on strategic roads leading to the capital [of Beijing]" (Stoddard, 2008, p. 23). The only surviving example is the cloud platform of Juyong Pass (Juyong guan, 居庸關), a later addition to the Great Wall of China built in 1354. It originally supported three Buddhist stupas, but these disappeared within a century of their completion. Multilingual inscriptions on the arch indicate that it was built "in order to bring happiness to the people who pass under the stupa and receive thus the Buddha's blessings" (Stoddard, 2008, p. 23). The apex of the arch contains the Garuda and serpents motif (fig. 21 and 22). The man-bird is depicted as a stout, pot-bellied figure with the face, wings, and talons of a raptor bird and the ears, arms, and torso of a human. He wears a jeweled crown and his body is decorated with serpents on his wrists, arms, and chest. Hierarchy in scale is employed to portray the humanoid naga-spirits as smaller in stature and importance. They are trying to run away from him, but their scaly heels are pierced by his talons.
Fig. 21 – The Gate of Glory from the Cloud Platform of Juyong Pass (1345), Beijing, China (larger version). Photo by Snuffy on Flicker. Fig. 22 – A detail of the Garuda and serpents motif (photographer unknown) (larger version).
The motif continued to appear in Buddhist art into the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) after the Chinese had overthrown the Mongols. This is because some Chinese rulers, such as the Yongle Emperor (永樂帝, r. 1402–1424), upheld the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. Ming examples include a painting in the Sotheby's collection dated to the 15th-century (fig. 23 and 24); a relief carving on a 15th-century pagoda at Zhenjue Temple (真覺寺) in Beijing (fig. 25 and 26); and a stone stele in the Freer Art Gallery collection dated to circa 1500 (fig. 27 and 28). All of these pieces depict a Buddhist deity sitting before an enlightenment torana lorded over by Garuda and his serpentine foes. What's important here is that the variety of media suggests the motif became a standardized element of Sino-Tibetan Buddhist art at least a century prior to the publishing of Journey to the West (1592). The commonplace nature of the motif might then explain why it was included in the story. There are numerous occasions in the novel when the author/compiler provides folk origins for everyday concepts, such as why rings are put through the noses of buffalos. [6] So a bird attacking serpents above the head of the Buddha would certainly need a fanciful genesis story.
Fig. 23 – The Amitabha Buddha with an enlightenment torana (15th-cent.) (larger version). Fig. 24 – A detail of the Garuda and serpents motif (larger version). Photos by Sotheby's. Fig. 25 – Zhenjue Temple relief carving (15th-cent.), Beijing, China (larger version). Fig. 26 – A detail of Garuda (larger version). Photos by Wikimedia commons. Fig. 27 – A stone stele of a Bodhisattva with an enlightenment torana (c. 1500) (larger version). Fig. 28 – A detail of the motif (larger version). Photos by the Freer Gallery of Art.
4. Garuda's transformation from a god to a demon
The Ming dynasty examples suggest Garuda was considered a common element of the Buddha's enlightenment torana. The bird god is in effect a guardian of the faith who watches over the world from an exalted position high atop the Buddha's throne. So why then did the author/compiler of Journey to the West transform him into a monster who needed conquering? This obviously follows the novel's theme of powerful demons, such as Sun Wukong, being subjugated and put to good use. This can be traced to the Thunder Ritual (Leifa, 雷法), a Daoist liturgy designed to subjugate powerful gods and demons to be wielded as weapons against evil forces. One such god is Sire Thunder (Leigong, 雷公), a native Chinese weather deity responsible for making dragons produce rain when needed. And since lightning is his weapon, he is also considered a heavenly executioner who kills mortals guilty of unpunished crimes. [7] The god was sometimes portrayed as a human, but it was around the Tang Dynasty (618–907) when he took on a bird-like appearance with a beak, wings, and talons. This avian transformation coincided with the appearance of Garuda and Esoteric Buddhism in China. Upon entering the Middle Kingdom, Garuda served many of the same functions as Sire Thunder. His power over dragons gave him control of rain and his fierce nature enabled him to be a heavenly executioner. Therefore, depictions of Sire Thunder came to absorb features of the bird god. Most importantly, Tang-era stories describe religious masters and certain brave individuals subjugating this demonic figure and using his powers for their own purposes. [8]
Artistic renderings of Sire Thunder after his metamorphosis are strikingly similar to Garuda. A prime example of this comes to us in the form of a 9th-century fresco from Xinjiang originally held in the Berlin Museum of Indian art. The piece depicts numerous beings paying homage to the Four Heavenly Kings (Sida tianwang, 四大天王) (fig. 29). The foreground depicts Sire Thunder caught in a hunter's snare around his neck, while a hound bites at his leg. A larger figure, presumably a guardian deity of sorts, holds one of the god's wrists and stands with a club held overhead ready to strike (fig. 30). This scene contrasts with the overall religious nature of the piece, giving the impression that this "demon" is being captured in the name of the heavenly kings. So here we have a bird monster being subjugated by Buddhist forces. Such art could have easily influenced Garuda's depiction in Journey to the West.
Fig. 29 – A fresco showing the adoration of the Heavenly Kings (9th-cent.), Xinjiang, China (larger version). Fig. 30 – A detail of the subjugation of Sire Thunder (larger version).
A literary motif appearing in Journey to the West (1592) and The Story of Yue Fei (1684) depicts the Hindu-Buddhist bird deity Garuda as a demon-turned-Buddhist guardian who sits above the Buddha's throne. This is based on the bird's portrayal in the ancient Indian epic the Mahabharata (4th-century BCE), where he comes to sit above the deva Vishnu after taking part in a filial quest and agreeing to carry the god's celestial vehicle (vimana). Beginning around the 2nd-century BCE, Garuda started appearing on Hindu and Buddhist architecture that depicted him on ritual flag poles and above torana doorways. A motif of Garuda gasping the tails of naga-serpents, his eternal foes from Hindu lore, appeared by at least the 7th-century and spread as far away as Cambodia by the 9th– or 10th-century. The motif was adopted by Tibetan Buddhist artists by the 11th-century and incorporated into wall murals, thus making the jump from architecture to paint. It never lost its association with architecture, however, since the torana came to be equated with the halo of Buddhist deities. This "enlightenment torana" or "gate of glory" became a common feature of Tibetan Buddhist art and even made its way to Japan. This feature was depicted as the backrest of a throne, hence the Chinese literary motif of Garuda sitting above the Buddha can be directly tied to this style of art. The Mongols were largely responsible for bringing the motif to China as they were adherents of Tibetan Buddhism. It continued into the Ming dynasty thanks to royal patronage of Esoteric Buddhism. The motif appeared in Ming religious architecture, paintings, and stele, making it commonplace enough for the author/compiler of Journey to the West to provide a folkloric explanation for the phenomenon. But the concept of a demonic bird being subjugated is most likely based on the Tang Dynasty Thunder Ritual and stories of Sire Thunder, a Daoist weather deity with bird-like features, being captured by mortals and compelled to use his powers in their service.
Sire Thunder's avian form has persisted to this day, having become his standard iconography. Here I present a late 19th to early 20th-century wooden altar statue depicting the deity with his counterpart the Mother of Lightening (Dianmu, 電母) (fig. 31). His similarities to Garuda are just as noticeable today.
Fig. 31 – Sire Thunder and the Mother of Lightning (19th to 20th-cent.), Taipei, Taiwan (larger version). In the author's personal collection.
Sire Thunder actually appears with the Mother of Lightning (and other weather gods) in Journey to the West. Chapter 45 sees Monkey participating in a competition of transformations and ritual magic with three animal spirits disguised as Daoists. One competition involves making rain, during which time said gods appear. Although the spirit calling on the rain is powerful, Sun Wukong blocks his magic to make him look bad:
Becoming rather agitated, the Daoist loosened his hair, picked up his sword, and recited another spell as he burned a charm. Once more he brought down his tablet with a bang, and immediately the Heavenly Lord Deng arrived from the South Heaven Gate, trailed by the Squire of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning. When they saw Pilgrim [Sun Wukong] in midair, they saluted him, and he gave his explanation as before. "What powerful summons," he said "brought you all here so quickly?" The Heavenly Lord said, "The proper magic of Five Thunder [Wulei fa, 五雷法] exercised by that Daoist was not faked.
He issued the summons and burned the document, which alerted the Jade Emperor. The Jade Emperor sent his decree to the residence of the Primordial Celestial Worthy of All-Pervading Thunderclap in the Ninefold Heaven. We in turn received his command to come here and assist with the rainmaking by providing thunder and lightning." "In that case," said Pilgrim, "just wait a moment. You can help old Monkey instead." There was, therefore, neither the sound of thunder nor the flash of lightning (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 293).
The techniques used by the animal spirit for calling rain refers back to the aforementioned Thunder Ritual, where the powers of Sire Thunder are used in the service of another.
1) This name is a reference to the mythical Peng (鵬) bird mentioned in the first chapter of the Zhuangzi (莊子), a philosophical work of the 3rd-century BCE. The chapter details how the creature starts life as a small Kun (鯤) fish and changes into a bird of unfathomable size with wings that span the sky (Zhuangzi & Watson, 2003, pp. 23-24).
2) See Wu & Yu (2012) chapters 74 to 77.
3) The sources are actually conflicting on which relief is older. For instance, Iyer (1977) claims the first is the "earliest representation of garuda" (p. 52). On the contrary, Dhar (2009) lists the second as being from "c. second-first century BCE" (p. 10), which would make it older than the Sanchi example. I, however, believe the second is younger than the first because it is clearly an embellished version of the first.
4) Although some of its iconographical elements can be similar to the bird god, the Face of Glory shouldn't be confused with Garuda because it represents the "monster of greed" (Beer, 1999, pp. 69-70). This is why it is constantly in the act of eating.
5) This recalls the story of Krishna defeating the serpent Kaliya by dancing on his head (Leeming, 2006, p. 232).
6) For example, in chapters 50 to 52, Laozi's buffalo runs amuck on earth as a demon. The monster uses a diamond bracelet that he stole from his master to capture Monkey's staff. The simian hero enlists the aid of the Daoist patriarch, who subjugates the beast and later puts the bracelet through its nose and uses a sash as a lead. The novel then explains: "Thus the custom of leading the buffalo with a ring in its nose was established, a custom in use even now" (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 30).
7) People struck by lightning were thought to have been marked (scarred) with a sign of their guilt much like a convict in ancient China was tattooed (Meulenbeld, 2007).
8) See Meulenbeld (2007) chapter 4. See also section 6.4 for a discussion on Sun Wukong and his relationship to Sire Thunder and the Thunder Ritual.
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Categories: Buddhism, Daoism, Hinduism, Japan, Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty, Song Dynasty, Sun Wukong, Tang Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty	Tags: architecture, Buddhism, Daoism, demon, Garuda, Gate of Glory, Great Roc, Hinduism, Journey to the West: The Demons Strike Back, monster, Taoism, Torana
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6 thoughts on "How the Hindu Bird God Garuda Came to Appear in Journey to the West"
Mantrik says:
A wonderful contribution to the information on Garuda. 🙂
Thank you for allowing me to reblog.
Jim R. McClanahan says:
Reblogged this on Mantrik Fyre ཁྲོཾ and commented:
This is a refreshing new addition to the knowledge of Garuda and his various forms and I am delighted ot be able to rebog it and bring it to my site. 🙂
Apologies – somehow I reblogged to the wrong site (I have 2). I'll try to rectify.
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Tripitaka
Yu the Great
Zhu Bajie

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Implementing agile company-wide helps Skillz maintain fast growth.
Even in the mobile gaming industry, famous for its eye-popping growth rates, Skillz's numbers are remarkable. This year, Inc. named it the fastest growing company in America.
Keeping up with growth takes a special kind of focus. Founded in 2012, the mobile eSports company hosts cash competitions in mobile games of skill for more than 12 million users. Even though Skillz doesn't produce games itself, the company must regularly improve and tweak the platform that supports its wildly-popular eSports competitions, as well as consistently offering innovative new features to enable communication, cross-promotion and other social capabilities.
It's the sort of fast-paced ecosystem that agile development thrives in. But while most agile teams work in environments plagued by management-imposed deadlines, top-down approaches and the regular overturning of teams' decisions, Skillz takes the opposite tack—and, so far, it's working.
Perhaps the biggest key to Skillz' success is that project deadlines don't come from management. They come from the people who do the work.
Empowering workers to set their own deadlines, he says, gives them a stake in the final product. They're able to do their best work, rather than cutting corners to meet arbitrary deadlines. If the estimated deadline ever seems excessive, however, Skillz' management is open to discussing the cutting of certain features in that particular sprint.
In doing so, the company has been able to stay realistic about production timelines in the midst of fast, aggressive growth. The company's revenue growth over the past three years has topped 50,000%.
Skillz applies agile strategies not only to tech development, but also across the organization, including the business side. All divisions participate in iterative one-week sprints, with weekly reporting and real-time dashboards.
That means that whether the developer relations team is working to close a deal with a game publisher or the development team is adding new functionality to the tournament backend, they all report on the states of their projects in daily standup meetings. Those daily updates keep everyone in the loop regarding each team's progress and the company-wide impact. The result? Coordinated deadlines and tighter working relationships, which ultimately mean better margins.
And the intensified coordination is crucial to the company's success. Skillz hosts more than 500,000 eSports tournaments on its platform every day, as well as servicing a robust and growing social network with loyalty programs, leaderboards, chat functionality and player matching. It takes a team of 106 people to oversee all of these moving parts—half of them dedicated to the tournament backend and the other half focused on social interactions, each running a series of one-week sprints to hit specific milestones. Without these regular catch-up sessions, smooth day-to-day operations wouldn't be possible.
Thanks to those smooth operations, employee-lead goal setting and an overall agile-as-gospel mindset, Skillz continues to see impressive growth levels. In 2016, Skillz hit $54 million in revenue. At the close of 2017, Paradise expects that number to triple—and he's excited to see what 2018 has in store.


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"Come, everyone who thirsts, come to the waters; and he who has no money, come, buy and eat! Come, buy wine and milk without money and without price. Why do you spend your money for that which is not bread, and your labor for that which does not satisfy? Listen diligently to me, and eat what is good, and delight yourselves in rich food. Incline your ear, and come to me; hear, that your soul may live; and I will make with you an everlasting covenant, my steadfast, sure love for David. Behold, I made him a witness to the peoples, a leader and commander for the peoples. Behold, you shall call a nation that you do not know, and a nation that did not know you shall run to you, because of the Lord your God, and of the Holy One of Israel, for he has glorified you. ...
For the last 5 years, the in-house design team at the Faithlife Corporation has illustrated one Bible verse every day. This art has found its way onto t-shirts, magnets, and postcards—and now, a beautiful picture book. In print for the first time, art from Faithlife's Verse of the Day series paired with uplifting devotionals will encourage and inspire you. Christian Gifts
Glory of ChristChrist AtoningThe Effect Of The Word Of GodChrist's Own GloryimagepersonalityThe Beauty Of NatureGod On HighRight Hand Of GodRadiancyGod Sustaining CreationPower Of Christ, ShownHand Of GodGod, Living And Self sustainingRight SidesSalvation, Nature OfKnowledge, Of Jesus ChristCreatorGod's Glory In Jesus ChristMediatorGod, Power OfGod, Glory Of Share Your Faith Products
Every home is so much more than just walls and windows. Home is the place where we live, laugh, and love. It's an expression of who we are and what we believe. That's why we are committed to providing beautiful Christian art and inspirational home décor. Our passion is helping you create a place that reflects your faith and enables you to share it with others. So discover new ways to share your heart and God's love today! Bible Verse Wall Art
and in the cutting of stones for settings, and in the carving of wood, that he may work in all kinds of craftsmanship. "And behold, I Myself have appointed with him Oholiab, the son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan; and in the hearts of all who are skillful I have put skill, that they may make all that I have commanded you: the tent of meeting, and the ark of testimony, and the mercy seat upon it, and all the furniture of the tent, the table also and its utensils, and the pure gold lampstand with all its utensils, and the altar of incense, the altar of burnt offering also with all its utensils, and the laver and its stand, Share Your Faith Products
Please note: Although the exquisite framed and unframed Christian art prints, posters, and canvases displayed in our online Christian art gallery portray strong traditional family values, biblical themes, and God's wonderful creations; not all of the artwork is Christian. Since we have partnered with art.com and allposters.com who carry a vast inventory of secular artwork, please use discretion when searching for art.
19 designers and 31 writers invested their energy and creativity to this collection, each riffing on the timeless, inspired words of Scripture. Each designer worked hard to capture the essence of each verse in its historical and cultural context, and to design in a way that makes clear the way in which the original readers would have understood it. Then, after each design was complete, a writer reflected on each piece of art and the verse that inspired it. The result is 100 pairs of art and devotional that illuminate the words of Scripture. Christian Gifts
Now there were four supports at the four corners of each stand; its supports were part of the stand itself. On the top of the stand there was a circular form half a cubit high, and on the top of the stand its stays and its borders were part of it. He engraved on the plates of its stays and on its borders, cherubim, lions and palm trees, according to the clear space on each, with wreaths all around.read more.
Now when the wall had been built and I had set up the doors, and the gatekeepers, the singers, and the Levites had been appointed, I gave my brother Hanani and Hananiah the governor of the castle charge over Jerusalem, for he was a more faithful and God-fearing man than many. And I said to them, "Let not the gates of Jerusalem be opened until the sun is hot. And while they are still standing guard, let them shut and bar the doors. Appoint guards from among the inhabitants of Jerusalem, some at their guard posts and some in front of their own homes." The city was wide and large, but the people within it were few, and no houses had been rebuilt. Then my God put it into my heart to assemble the nobles and the officials and the people to be enrolled by genealogy. And I found the book of the genealogy of those who came up at the first, and I found written in it: ... Christian Gifts
Being Cleansed From SinSittingLikenessExpiationGod Made Visible In ChristGod's Glory RevealedPerfection, DivineGospel, Historical Foundation OfAdoration, Of ChristGod Is TranscendentLight, SpiritualExaltation Of ChristChrist's NatureAccuracyRevelation, In NtHoliness, Believers' Growth InGlory, Revelation OfGlory Of GodDivinity Of ChristEarth, God SustainingSelf ImageImage Of God
"The house which I am about to build will be great, for greater is our God than all the gods. "But who is able to build a house for Him, for the heavens and the highest heavens cannot contain Him? So who am I, that I should build a house for Him, except to burn incense before Him? "Now send me a skilled man to work in gold, silver, brass and iron, and in purple, crimson and violet fabrics, and who knows how to make engravings, to work with the skilled men whom I have in Judah and Jerusalem, whom David my father provided. Bible Verse Wall Art
1 Then the LORD said to Moses, 2 "See, I have chosen Bezalel son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah, 3 and I have filled him with the Spirit of God, with wisdom, with understanding, with knowledge and with all kinds of skills— 4 to make artistic designs for work in gold, silver and bronze, 5 to cut and set stones, to work in wood, and to engage in all kinds of crafts. 6 Moreover, I have appointed Oholiab son of Ahisamak, of the tribe of Dan, to help him. Also I have given ability to all the skilled workers to make everything I have commanded you:
For I want you to know how great a struggle I have for you and for those at Laodicea and for all who have not seen me face to face, that their hearts may be encouraged, being knit together in love, to reach all the riches of full assurance of understanding and the knowledge of God's mystery, which is Christ, in whom are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge. I say this in order that no one may delude you with plausible arguments. For though I am absent in body, yet I am with you in spirit, rejoicing to see your good order and the firmness of your faith in Christ. ... Christian Canvas Art
And it will come about in that day, that every place where there used to be a thousand vines, valued at a thousand shekels of silver, will become briars and thorns. People will come there with bows and arrows because all the land will be briars and thorns. As for all the hills which used to be cultivated with the hoe, you will not go there for fear of briars and thorns; but they will become a place for pasturing oxen and for sheep to trample. Christian Gifts
He made an altar of bronze, twenty cubits long and twenty cubits wide and ten cubits high. Then he made the sea of cast metal. It was round, ten cubits from brim to brim, and five cubits high, and a line of thirty cubits measured its circumference. Under it were figures of gourds, for ten cubits, compassing the sea all around. The gourds were in two rows, cast with it when it was cast. It stood on twelve oxen, three facing north, three facing west, three facing south, and three facing east. The sea was set on them, and all their rear parts were inward. Its thickness was a handbreadth. And its brim was made like the brim of a cup, like the flower of a lily. It held 3,000 baths. ... Bible Verse Wall Art
Until the adoption of Christianity by Constantine Christian art derived its style and much of its iconography from popular Roman art, but from this point grand Christian buildings built under imperial patronage brought a need for Christian versions of Roman elite and official art, of which mosaics in churches in Rome are the most prominent surviving examples. Christian art was caught up in, but did not originate, the shift in style from the classical tradition inherited from Ancient Greek art to a less realist and otherworldly hieratic style, the start of gothic art. Christian Gifts
Huram also made the pails, the shovels and the bowls. So Huram finished doing the work which he performed for King Solomon in the house of God: the two pillars, the bowls and the two capitals on top of the pillars, and the two networks to cover the two bowls of the capitals which were on top of the pillars, and the four hundred pomegranates for the two networks, two rows of pomegranates for each network to cover the two bowls of the capitals which were on the pillars.read more.
The Lord said to Moses, "See, I have called by name Bezalel the son of Uri, son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah, and I have filled him with the Spirit of God, with ability and intelligence, with knowledge and all craftsmanship, to devise artistic designs, to work in gold, silver, and bronze, in cutting stones for setting, and in carving wood, to work in every craft. ...
And when he had taken the scroll, the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders fell down before the Lamb, each holding a harp, and golden bowls full of incense, which are the prayers of the saints. And they sang a new song, saying, "Worthy are you to take the scroll and to open its seals, for you were slain, and by your blood you ransomed people for God from every tribe and language and people and nation, and you have made them a kingdom and priests to our God, and they shall reign on the earth." Then I looked, and I heard around the throne and the living creatures and the elders the voice of many angels, numbering myriads of myriads and thousands of thousands, saying with a loud voice, "Worthy is the Lamb who was slain, to receive power and wealth and wisdom and might and honor and glory and blessing!" ... Share Your Faith Products
Then God said, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. And let them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over the livestock and over all the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth." So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. Christian Gifts
Solomon made all the furniture which was in the house of the LORD: the golden altar and the golden table on which was the bread of the Presence; and the lampstands, five on the right side and five on the left, in front of the inner sanctuary, of pure gold; and the flowers and the lamps and the tongs, of gold; and the cups and the snuffers and the bowls and the spoons and the firepans, of pure gold; and the hinges both for the doors of the inner house, the most holy place, and for the doors of the house, that is, of the nave, of gold.
For the last 5 years, the in-house design team at the Faithlife Corporation has illustrated one Bible verse every day. This art has found its way onto t-shirts, magnets, and postcards—and now, a beautiful picture book. In print for the first time, art from Faithlife's Verse of the Day series paired with uplifting devotionals will encourage and inspire you.
Unless otherwise indicated, all content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from The Holy Bible, English Standard Version. Copyright ©2001 by Crossway Bibles, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Contact me: openbibleinfo (at) gmail.com. Cite this page: Editor: Stephen Smith. Publication date: Jun 3, 2019. Publisher: OpenBible.info. Christian Canvas Art
In the second year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadnezzar had dreams; his spirit was troubled, and his sleep left him. Then the king commanded that the magicians, the enchanters, the sorcerers, and the Chaldeans be summoned to tell the king his dreams. So they came in and stood before the king. And the king said to them, "I had a dream, and my spirit is troubled to know the dream." Then the Chaldeans said to the king in Aramaic, "O king, live forever! Tell your servants the dream, and we will show the interpretation." The king answered and said to the Chaldeans, "The word from me is firm: if you do not make known to me the dream and its interpretation, you shall be torn limb from limb, and your houses shall be laid in ruins. ...
Comfort, comfort my people, says your God. Speak tenderly to Jerusalem, and cry to her that her warfare is ended, that her iniquity is pardoned, that she has received from the Lord's hand double for all her sins. A voice cries: "In the wilderness prepare the way of the Lord; make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every valley shall be lifted up, and every mountain and hill be made low; the uneven ground shall become level, and the rough places a plain. And the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together, for the mouth of the Lord has spoken." ... Christian Canvas Art


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Microsoft Online Services is Microsoft's hosted-software offering and is a component of their software as a service strategy. Microsoft Online Services are hosted by Microsoft and sold with Microsoft partners.

The suite includes Exchange Online, SharePoint Online, Office Communications Online, Microsoft Forefront, and Microsoft Office Live Meeting.

For businesses, the software as a service approach enables organizations to access the capabilities of enterprise software through on-premises servers, as online services, or a combination of both, depending on specific business requirements. Services also provide the option to add complementary capabilities that enhance on-premises server software and simplify system management and maintenance.

Product Suite: Business Productivity Online Suite (BPOS)

The Business Productivity Online Suite Standard represents the first of a growing portfolio of Microsoft Online Services. Microsoft Online Services are a component of the broader Microsoft software as a service strategy that includes both Live and Online services.

Office 365
The successor of BPOS is Office 365. Where BPOS is based on Exchange 2007 and MOSS 2007, Office 365 was originally built around the 2010 versions of Exchange and Microsoft Office SharePoint Server (MOSS) and now the 2019 versions, since one of the benefits of Office 365 is that it is 'evergreen'. For Instant Messaging, plus audio and video conferencing, Office 365 provides Skype for Business (formerly Microsoft Lync).

Apart from these communications and collaboration applications, Office 365 will also have Microsoft Office Professional Plus included, which is the regular Office pack. On top of that, online versions of Word, Excel and PowerPoint are provided

Microsoft opened the Beta phase for this service in Q4 of 2010, and the service went live June 28, 2011

Support
Microsoft has set up a dedicated support department for BPOS outside their standard Professional Support Services. One reason can be that the type of support requests will differ from service requests for Microsoft products the customer runs on his own infrastructure: when a company opens a support question because they have problems with mail-sending using Outlook and their own Microsoft Exchange Server the technical side of such a support request is totally different from when the customer uses BPOS. Also, the expectations of the customer will be different: they have outsourced the services to Microsoft to avoid problems, thus when it doesn't work, they expect that Microsoft solves their problem quickly. For that reason, a dedicated BPOS and Office 365 support desk is in place in the US and in Ireland for the EMEA region. Microsoft's main support-providing partner HP has been busy finding and training new Tier 1 and Tier 2 support engineers for this desk. The EMEA support desk currently handles 1st line and escalated BPOS cases and is expected to support Office 365 cases after the product went live in June 2011.

Cloud computing and BPOS
On March 4, 2010, Steve Ballmer gave a speech focused on Microsoft's cloud computing commitment at the University of Washington. Here is an excerpt from the Seattle Times, "The cloud fuels Microsoft and vice versa. 'About 75 percent of our folks are doing entirely cloud-based or entirely cloud inspired,' Ballmer said. 'A year from now that will be 90 percent.' This full embrace of the term cloud computing is new for Microsoft. Up until now, Microsoft was still pushing the term 'software as a service' to describe cloud software."

References

Online Services

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Hi am james and love to meet nice people.
Hello, i am James. Love to meet nice people, because its very rare these days and yes i belive that its possible to meet a special lady who will make me as happy as i will make her.The philosophy I live by is "If you can't be with the one you love, love the one you're with.


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All over the globe there are people who love to fish, and in the universal language of the sport one name reigns supreme - that of Hardy®. For well over a century, Hardy has been a renowned manufacturer of some of the finest game fishing tackle in the world.
In the 1870's, William Hardy and John James Hardy formed the Hardy Brothers Partnership, and their favorite hobby became their profession. Although for the majority of its history, Hardy has remained a family firm, its very success decreed that it would not remain a partnership for long. In 1907 it was incorporated as a Limited Company, and in 1928 it went public.
The Hardy name is synonymous with quality and excellence. Such reputations are not acquired easily, but it has held true throughout the company's long history.
Viewing 1 - 6 of 6 total items
Hardy SDSL Saltwater Fly Fishing Reel
Hardy Ultralite MA DD Fly Fishing Reel
Hardy Ultralite MA DD Saltwater Fly Fishing Reel
Hardy Ultralite CA DD Fly Fishing Reel
Hardy Ultralite FWDD Fly Fishing Reel
Hardy Ultralite ASR Fly Fishing Reel w/ Spare Spools
Disc Drag


Nowadays taxidermist uses moulded forms in polyurethane to complete their work. These forms are pre-moulded with a high-density foam procuring both sustainability and durability which in returns simplifies the professional work.
Our service makes the difference. Call us!


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Tag: Timo Horn
Liverpool linked with German goalkeeper and PSG playmaker
May 2, 2016 May 2, 2016 Vincent Van Genechten
Liverpool will target Cologne goalkeeper Timo Horn with a view to making the German their number one between the sticks next season, despite extending Simon Mignolet's contract. According to a report in The Sun, the Reds sent scout Dave Fallows to make a final check on the 22-year-old during Cologne's encounter with Augsburg on Friday, a game that ended in a 0-0 draw. Horn is seen by coach Jurgen Klopp as the long-term solution to his problems regarding goalkeepers. Simon Mignolet signed a new five-year contract earlier this season, but the German feels he needs a…
Bundesliga, Juventus, Ligue 1, Liverpool, NewsNow, Premier League, PSG, Serie AJavier Pastore, Liverpool, PSG, Simon Mignolet, Timo Horn
How Did Nigel Pearson Transform Watford?


PoolSourcing Global Co., Ltd, formerly known as Vinsoft Joint Stock Company, was established on July 4, 2013. After five years of development, we have brought some remarkable achievements in the IT field.
In the next five years (2018 – 2023), PoolSourcing Global plans to develop and expand its portfolio in the following four professional outsourcing solutions in Vietnam: translation and interpretation services, legal services, and IT services. Specifically, Our focus is on developing strong language solutions, intellectual property practice and expanding our existing IT platform.
Poolsourcing Global offers a wide range of Industrial property services in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Japan, Korea, China, ranging from simple registrations to assist with sophisticated cases. Our service include advise and filing and prosecuting application for copyright, Trademark, Patent, Industrial Design and other Intellectual Property matter as franchising, license and Enforcement.
With the motto "Connecting Global Pools" PoolSourcing Global is highly committed to helping clients overcome language barriers at an affordable price and without compromising quality and deadlines. We take pride in providing high-quality and efficient services.
We have a team of about 100 well-trained staff and more than 5000 well-selected professional collaborators from around the world. All of them have qualifications in many fields such as language, science & technology, communications, human resources, law, IT, and marketing.
PoolSourcing Global is a reputable company that believes so much in customer satisfaction. Apart from completing more 9580 projects, we are a regular partner of 2500 enterprises and organizations, and the first choice of thousands of customers both at home and at abroad.
The trust of our customers is what motivates us to constantly improve and gradually develop our services.


Snefjord Rest Area is one of three such installations along the 66km long stretch of the Norwegian National Tourist Route on RV889 between Kokelv and Havøysund. It is situated by the mouth of the river Snefjordelva and just off the beach. Snefjord is an Sámi coastal community with small farms scattered across a cultural landscape where people have traditionally made their living by combining farming and fishing.
is open on two sides and has a gently sloping roof. In the two open sides there is a built-in seat.
The three are positioned so that when facing the sea the users can't see each other, but on the land facing side they do and this contributes to making a space with more contact.


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Oleg Novachuk (born 9 February 1971) is a Kazakh businessman, and the chief executive (CEO) of KAZ Minerals.

Early life
He has a master's degree in applied mathematics from Kazakh State University.

Career
Novachuk has been CEO of Kazakhmys since 15 March 2007, having been Finance Director from 23 September 2005 to 15 March 2007, and joining the company in 2001.

From 1998 to 2001, he was deputy chairman, then chairman, of JSC Kazprombank, at that time one of the largest private banks in Kazakhstan.

Following the completion of the Restructuring of Kazakhmys PLC Novachuk continued as the CEO of KAZ Minerals PLC.

As at April 2021, he owns 39.4% of KAZ Minerals.

References

1971 births
Living people
Kazakhstani businesspeople
Al-Farabi Kazakh National University alumni
Kazakhmys


Thanks to everyone who came to Pinot Noir: War of the Worlds last week!
There were lots of interesting comments about the Oregon and Burgundy pinots we were tasting that showcased different aspects of each region.
We had some fun breaking down the classification system of the Bourgogne (there are literally hundreds). The Oregon AVAs are a lot simpler, but are they as romantic (answers on a postcard, please)?
A Super Quick Primer On "Terroir"


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The length of a film should be directly related to the endurance of the human bladder.
Previous Title - Ghostbusters Return to Full Title List Next Title - Ghostbusters 2
Ghostbusters [2016] (1 disc)
Writer: Katie Dippold
Composer: Theodore Shapiro
Length: 116 minutes
(1 hour 56 minutes)
Suspense / Horror
Synopsis: Following a ghost invasion of Manhattan, paranormal enthusiasts Erin Gilbert and Abby Yates, nuclear engineer Jillian Holtzmann, and subway worker Patty Tolan band together to stop the otherworldly threat.
Reaction: It doesn't destroy my childhood, despite everyone's fears to the contrary. I think they would have done better to make this a distant sequel to the original two movies. It's not terrible, and there are several quite entertaining moments, but the 'reboot' direction immediately invites unfair comparison.
Paul Feig => Director / Writer
Katie Dippold => Writer / Rental Agent
Theodore Shapiro => Composer
Adam Ray => Lead Singer /�Voice of Slimer
Al Roker => Al Roker
Andy Garcia => Mayor Bradley
Annie Potts => Desk Clerk
Bess Rous => Gertrude Aldridge Ghost
Bill Murray => Martin Heiss
Brian Baumgartner => Frank (uncredited)
Cecily Strong => Jennifer Lynch
Charles Dance => Harold Filmore
Chris Hemsworth => Kevin
Dan Aykroyd => Cabbie
Ed Begley Jr. => Ed Mulgrave
Elizabeth Perkins => Phyllis Adler
Ernie Hudson => Uncle Bill
Eugene Cordero => Bass Guitarist
Karan Soni => Bennie
Kate McKinnon => Jillian Holtzmann
Kristen Wiig => Erin Gilbert
Leslie Jones => Patty Tolan
Matt Walsh => Agent Rorke
Melissa McCarthy => Abby Yates
Michael Kenneth Williams => Agent Hawkins
Michael McDonald => Jonathan the Theater Manager
Milana Vayntrub => Subway Rat Woman
Neil Casey => Rowan North
Ozzy Osbourne => Famous Rock Star
Robin Shelby => Lady Slimer (voice)
Sigourney Weaver => Rebecca Gorin
Steve Higgins => Dean
Tom Yi => Flashed Man
Zach Woods => Tour Guide Garrett
Although Harold Ramis could not make a cameo like his costars from the original Ghostbusters due to his death in 2014, you can see a bust of Harold just outside of Erin's university office near the beginning of the film.
At one point Erin proclaims: "Books can't fly and neither can babies". Both happened in the original Ghostbusters and Ghostbusters II.
Bill Murray's character Martin Heiss does not apparently die in the movie. In the movie tie-in book, "Ghosts from Our Past: Both Literally and Figuratively: The Study of the Paranormal", Heiss writes a foreword and states that the Ghostbusters are not frauds and had he believed them, he wouldn't have suffered large medical bills as a result of being knocked out of the window by a ghost.
The role of Patty Tolan, played by Leslie Jones was originally written for Melissa McCarthy. Paul Feig realized that Melissa McCarthy had played similar characters in his previous films, explaining "I wanted to unleash Leslie on the public in the same way we unleashed Melissa on the public in Bridesmaids, with a very showy role."
Jason Reitman, son of original Ghostbusters director Ivan Reitman, was asked in an interview if he would consider directing the reboot. Reitman joked that, based on his existing work, his version of the film would just be people talking about ghosts.
The movie is dedicated to Harold Ramis, as mentioned in the final credits.
When Erin Gilbert is giving her presentation of Quantum Physics, she writes equations on a board, one of which spells out the equation [Pa/RA(NO+RM)alS+UD1ies/Lab]com, if typing in this formula on Google you will be redirected to the official Ghostbusters website, an Easter egg present in the film.
In an interview with 'Den of Geek', Paul Feig revealed that the first cut of the movie was 4 hours and 15 minutes long.
Holtzman calls Pringles potato chips "salty parabolas". The shape of a Pringles potato chip really is a hyperbolic paraboloid or a saddle surface.
When possessed Kevin shows the Ghostbusters the glory days of New York City and summons ghosts, there's an advertisement saying "That's a big" and showing a Twinkie, a reference to Spengler's 35 feet long and 600 pounds Twinkie metaphor in the original Ghostbusters.
Emma Stone turned down an offer to star in the movie. She stated that while she liked the script, she did not want to commit to another potential series so soon after appearing in The Amazing Spider-Man and The Amazing Spider-Man 2.
Eliza Dushku was floated around as one of the members of the team with her name cropping up in some early credits works and the actress herself even dressing as a Ghostbuster for Halloween.
Holtzmann's hairstyle and glasses resemble her counterpart Egon from [Slimer! And the Real Ghostbusters].
When the Ghostbusters open the container with the ghost for Dr. Martin Heiss, he jokingly calls the ghost "Casper" in reference to the children's cartoon character "Casper, the friendly ghost". The creators of Ghostbusters were sued by the owners of the [Casper] properties for $50 million plus the destruction of the film prints, because their logo looked too similar to their character "Fatso", a member of "The Ghostly Trio". But in 1986 the case was ruled in favor of Ghostbusters. Nevertheless the live-action adaptation of Casper featured a cameo of Dan Aykroyd as Ghostbuster Ray Stantz.
The studio had long wanted to make Ghostbusters 3 for many years. When Dan Aykroyd was asked many times about the third film, his answer was always yes on condition that if all the principle Ghostbusters cast members including Ivan Reitman who directed the first two films return. The only main problem according to the main players was Bill Murray himself who shows lack of interest in reprising the role of Peter Venkman. However, the cast did reprise their roles in the 2009 video game, which is unofficially considered the third film that takes place two years after the events of Ghostbusters II. According to Reitman, when he met Murray in 2011, Murray already had shown loss of interest when the subject was brought up although there was no script at that time. The passing of Harold Ramis in early 2014 was the final straw that two weeks after that Reitman announced that he didn't want to direct it, resulting in Ghostbusters 3 being canned.
Original cast members - Bill Murray, Dan Aykroyd, Ernie Hudson, Annie Potts, Sigourney Weaver and even Harold Ramis all have cameos in the movie. Early on in the movie version of Ramis can be seen in the form of a bronze bust in the hallway outside Kristen Wiig's office. Aykroyd confirmed a cameo appearance on his Facebook and Twitter pages, although the post was later deleted. Hudson and Weaver's cameos were confirmed by director Paul Feig on Twitter, after the first two cameos leaked to the press. Rick Moranis, who has long since retired from acting, was also offered a chance to cameo, but declined.
Anna Faris, Alyssa Milano, and Eliza Dushku were rumored or mentioned by Dan Aykroyd as potential female Ghostbusters, before the project was a reboot.
In early pre-production, Anne Hathaway was reportedly considered for a role. The role was supposedly a doctor named Anna.
Jennifer Lawrence and Rebel Wilson were considered by director Paul Feig for roles in the movie.