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First Congo War
The First Congo War (1996–1997), also nicknamed Africa's First World War,[19] was a civil war and international military conflict which mostly took place in Zaire (present-day DR Congo), with major spillovers into Sudan and Uganda. The conflict culminated in a foreign invasion that replaced Zairean President Mobutu Sese Seko with the rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila.
Part of the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide; and the spillover of the Burundian Civil War and Second Sudanese Civil War
Map showing the AFDL offensive
24 October 1996 – 16 May 1997
(6 months, 3 weeks and 1 day)
Zaire, with spillovers into Uganda and Sudan[4]
Decisive AFDL victory
Overthrow of the Mobutu regime
Zaire renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Installation of Laurent-Désiré Kabila as President
Beginning of the Second Congo War
White Legion
Sudan[1]
Allied militias:
Ex-FAR/ALiR
Interahamwe
CNDD-FDD[2]
UNITA[3]
ADF[4]
Mai-Mai[a]
AFDL
Uganda[8]
Burundi[9]
Angola[9]
SPLA[1]
Eritrea[10]
United States (covertly)[11]
Mobutu Sese Seko
Donatien Mahele Lieko Bokungu
Christian Tavernier
Omar al-Bashir
Jonas Savimbi
Paul Rwarakabije
Robert Kajuga
Tharcisse Renzaho Laurent-Désiré Kabila
André Kisase Ngandu †
James Kabarebe
Yoweri Museveni
Pierre Buyoya
Zaire: c. 50,000[b]
Interahamwe: 40,000 – 100,000 total[13]
UNITA: c.1,000[13] AFDL: 57,000[14]
Rwanda: 3,500–4,000[14][15]
Angola: 3,000+[15]
Eritrea: 1 battalion[16]
10,000 defected[15]
thousands surrender 3,000–5,000 killed
250,000[17]–800,000 dead
222,000 refugees missing[18]
Following years of internal strife, dictatorship and economic decline, Zaire was a dying state by 1996. The eastern parts of the country had been destabilized due to the Rwandan genocide and other regional conflicts, and in many areas state authority had already collapsed, with infighting militias, warlords, and rebel groups (some allies, other enemies of Mobutu) in power. The population of Zaire had become restless and resentful of the inept and corrupt regime, whose military was in a catastrophic condition, while President Mobutu was terminally ill and no longer able to keep the different factions in his government under control. Furthermore, most neighboring states had become enemies, while Mobutu's international support had almost completely eroded.
The situation finally escalated when Rwanda invaded Zaire in 1996 to defeat a number of rebel groups which had found refuge in the country. This invasion quickly escalated, as more states (including Uganda, Burundi, Angola, and Eritrea) joined the invasion, while a Congolese alliance of anti-Mobutu rebels was assembled. Though the Zairean government attempted to put up an effective resistance, and was supported by allied militias as well as Sudan, Mobutu's regime collapsed in a matter of months. Despite the war's short duration, it was marked by widespread destruction and extensive ethnic violence, with hundreds of thousands killed in the fighting and accompanying pogroms.
A new government was installed, and Zaire was renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo, but this brought little true change. Kabila soon alienated his Rwandan and Ugandan allies. To avert a coup, Kabila expelled all Rwandan and Ugandan forces from the Congo. This event was a major cause of the Second Congo War the following year. Some experts prefer to view the two conflicts as one war.[20]
Dying state in ZaireEdit
Further information: Zaire
Mobutu Sese Seko, long-time dictator of Zaire
An ethnic Ngbandi, Mobutu came to power in 1965 and enjoyed support from the United States government because of his anti-communist stance while in office. However, Mobutu's authoritarian rule and policies allowed the Zairian state to decay, evidenced by a 65% decrease in Zairian GDP between independence in 1960 and the end of Mobutu's rule in 1997.[21] Following the end of the Cold War circa 1992, the United States stopped supporting Mobutu in favour of what it called a "new generation of African leaders",[22] including Rwanda's Paul Kagame and Uganda's Yoweri Museveni.
A wave of democratisation swept across Africa during the 1990s.[citation needed] Under substantial internal and external pressure for a democratic transition in Zaire, Mobutu promised reform. He officially ended the one-party system he had maintained since 1967, but ultimately proved unwilling to implement broad reform, alienating allies both at home and abroad. In fact, the Zairian state had all but ceased to exist.[23] The majority of the Zairian population relied on an informal economy for their subsistence, since the official economy was not reliable.[23] Furthermore, the Zairian national army, Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ), was forced to prey upon the population for survival; Mobutu himself allegedly once asked FAZ soldiers why they needed pay when they had weapons.[24]
Mobutu's rule encountered considerable internal resistance, and given the weak central state, rebel groups could find refuge in Zaire's eastern provinces, far from the capital, Kinshasa. Opposition groups included leftists who had supported Patrice Lumumba (1925–1961), as well as ethnic and regional minorities opposed to the dominance of Kinshasa. Laurent-Désiré Kabila, an ethnic Luba from Katanga province who would eventually overthrow Mobutu, had fought Mobutu's régime since its inception.[25] The inability of the Mobutuist régime to control rebel movements in its eastern provinces eventually allowed its internal and external foes to ally.
Ethnic tensionsEdit
Tensions had existed between various ethnic groups in eastern Zaire for centuries, especially between the agrarian tribes native to Zaire and semi-nomadic Tutsi tribes that had emigrated from Rwanda at various times.[26] The earliest of these migrants arrived before colonisation in the 1880s, followed by emigrants whom the Belgian colonizers forcibly relocated to Congo to perform manual labour (after 1908), and by another significant wave of emigrants fleeing the social revolution of 1959 that brought the Hutu to power in Kigali.[27]
Tutsi who emigrated to Zaire before Congolese independence in 1960 are known as Banyamulenge, meaning "from Mulenge", and had the right to citizenship under Zairian law.[28] Tutsi who emigrated to Zaire following independence are known as Banyarwanda, although the native locals often do not distinguish between the two, call them both Banyamulenge and consider them foreigners.[27]
After coming to power in 1965, Mobutu gave the Banyamulenge political power in the east in hopes that they, as a minority, would keep a tight grip on power and prevent more populous ethnicities from forming an opposition.[29] This move aggravated the existing ethnic tensions by strengthening the Banyamulenge's hold over important stretches of land in North Kivu that indigenous people claimed as their own.[29] From 1963 to 1966 the Hunde and Nande ethnic groups of North Kivu fought against Rwandan emigrants[30] — both Tutsi and Hutu – in the Kanyarwandan War, which involved several massacres.[31][32]
Despite a strong Rwandan presence in Mobutu's government, in 1981, Zaire adopted a restrictive citizenship law which denied the Banyamulenge and Banyarwanda citizenship and therewith all political rights.[33] Though never enforced, the law greatly angered individuals of Rwandan descent and contributed to a rising sense of ethnic hatred.[29] From 1993 to 1996 Hunde, Nande, and Nyanga youth regularly attacked the Banyamulenge, leading to a total of 14,000 deaths.[34] In 1995 the Zairian Parliament ordered all peoples of Rwandan or Burundian descent repatriated to their countries of origin, including the Banyamulenge.[35] Due to political exclusion and ethnic violence, as early as 1991 the Banyamulenge developed ties to the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a mainly Tutsi rebel movement based in Uganda but with aspirations to power in Rwanda.[36]
Rwandan genocideEdit
Main articles: Rwandan Civil War and Rwandan Genocide
A Rwandan refugee camp in Zaire, 1994
The deciding event in precipitating the war was the genocide in neighbouring Rwanda in 1994, which sparked a mass exodus of refugees known as the Great Lakes refugee crisis. During the 100-day genocide, hundreds of thousands of Tutsis and sympathizers were massacred at the hands of predominantly Hutu aggressors. The genocide ended when the Hutu government in Kigali was overthrown by the Tutsi-dominated Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF).
Of those who fled Rwanda during the crisis, about 1.5 million settled in eastern Zaire.[37] These refugees included Tutsi who fled the Hutu génocidaires as well as one million[29] Hutus that fled the Tutsi RPF's subsequent retaliation. Prominent among the latter group were the génocidaires themselves, such as elements of the former Rwandan Army, Forces armées rwandaises [fr] (FAR), and independent Hutu extremist groups known as Interahamwe.[38] Often, these Hutu forces allied themselves with local Mai Mai militias, who granted them access to mines and weapons. Though these were initially self-defense organizations, they quickly became aggressors.[29]
The Hutu set up camps in eastern Zaire from which they attacked both the newly arrived Rwandan Tutsi as well as the Banyamulenge and Banyarwanda. These attacks caused about one hundred deaths a month during the first half of 1996.[39] Furthermore, the newly arrived militants were intent on returning to power in Rwanda and began launching attacks against the new regime in Kigali, which represented a serious security threat to the infant state.[40] Not only was the Mobutu government incapable of controlling the former génocidaires for previously mentioned reasons but actually supported them in training and supplying for an invasion of Rwanda,[41] forcing Kigali to act.
Banyamulenge rebellionEdit
Given the exacerbated ethnic tensions and the lack of government control in the past, Rwanda took action against the security threat posed by génocidaires who had found refuge in eastern Zaire. The government in Kigali began forming Tutsi militias for operations in Zaire as early as 1995[42] and chose to act following an exchange of fire between Rwandan Tutsi and Zairian Green Berets that marked the outbreak of the Banyamulenge Rebellion on 31 August 1996.[43]
While there was general unrest in eastern Zaire, the rebellion was probably not a grassroots movement; Uganda president Yoweri Museveni, who supported and worked closely with Rwanda in the First Congo War, later recalled that the rebellion was incited by Zairian Tutsi who had been recruited by the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA).[42] The initial goal of the Banyamulenge Rebellion was to seize power in Zaire's eastern Kivu provinces and combat the extremist Hutu forces attempting to continue the genocide in their new home. However, the rebellion did not remain Tutsi-dominated for long. Mobutu's harsh and selfish rule created enemies in virtually all sectors of Zairian society. As a result, the new rebellion benefited from massive public support and grew to be a general revolution rather than a mere Banyamulenge uprising.[44]
Banyamulenge elements and non-Tutsi militias coalesced into the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) under the leadership of Laurent-Désiré Kabila, who had been a long-time opponent of the Mobutu government and was a leader of one of the three main rebel groups that founded the AFDL. While the AFDL was an ostensibly Zairian rebel movement, Rwanda had played a key role in its formation. Observers of the war, as well as the Rwandan Defense Minister and Vice-President at the time, Paul Kagame, claim that the AFDL was formed in and directed from Kigali and contained not only Rwandan-trained troops but also regulars of the RPA.[45]
Foreign involvementEdit
RwandaEdit
Map of Zaire in c.1996
According to expert observers, as well as Kagame himself, Rwanda played the largest role of a foreign actor, if not the largest role of all, in the First Congo War. Kigali was instrumental in the formation of the AFDL and sent its own troops to fight alongside the rebels. While its actions were originally sparked by the security threat posed by the Zairian-based génocidaires, Kigali was pursuing multiple goals during its invasion of Zaire.
The first and foremost of these was the suppression of génocidaires who had been launching attacks against the new Rwandan state from Zaire. Kagame claimed that Rwandan agents had discovered the plans to invade Rwanda with support from Mobutu; in response, Kigali began its intervention with the intention of dismantling the refugee camps in which the génocidaires often took refuge and destroying the structure of these anti-Rwandan elements.[45]
A second goal cited by Kagame, was the overthrow of Mobutu. While partially a means to minimize the threat in eastern Zaire, the new Rwandan state also sought to set up a puppet regime in Kinshasa.[22] This goal was not particularly threatening to other states in the region because it was ostensibly a means to securing Rwandan security and because many of them also opposed Mobutu. Kigali was further aided by the tacit support of the United States, which supported Kagame as a member of the new generation of African leaders.[22]
However, the true intentions of Rwanda are not entirely clear. Some authors have proposed that dismantling refugee camps was a means of replenishing Rwanda's depleted population and workforce following the genocide; because the destruction of the camps was followed by forced repatriation of Tutsi regardless of whether they were Rwandan or Zairian.[46] The intervention may also have been motivated by revenge; the Rwandan forces, as well as the AFDL, massacred retreating Hutu refugees in several known instances.[47] A commonly cited factor for Rwandan actions is that the RPF, which had recently come to power in Kigali, had come to see itself as the protector of the Tutsi nation and was therefore partially acting in defense of its Zairian brethren.[48][29]
Rwanda possibly also harbored ambitions to annex portions of eastern Zaire. Pasteur Bizimungu, president of Rwanda from 1994–2000, presented the then-US ambassador to Rwanda, Robert Gribbin, with the idea of a "Greater Rwanda." This idea purports that the ancient state of Rwanda included parts of eastern Zaire that should actually belong to Rwanda.[49] However, it appears that Rwanda never seriously attempted to annex these territories. The history of conflict in the Congo is often associated with illegal resource exploitation but, although Rwanda did benefit financially by plundering Zaire's wealth,[50] this is not usually considered their initial motivation for Rwandan intervention in the First Congo War.[51]
UgandaEdit
As a close ally of the RPF, Uganda also played a major role in the First Congo War. Prominent members of the RPF had fought alongside Yoweri Museveni in the Ugandan Bush War that brought him to power, and Museveni allowed the RPF to use Uganda as a base during the 1990 offensive into Rwanda and subsequent civil war. Given their historical ties, the Rwandan and Ugandan governments were closely allied and Museveni worked closely with Kagame throughout the First Congo War. Ugandan soldiers were present in Zaire throughout the conflict and Museveni likely helped Kagame plan and direct the AFDL.[42]
Lt. Col. James Kabarebe of the AFDL, for example, was a former member of Uganda's National Resistance Army, the military wing of the rebel movement that brought Museveni to power, and French and Belgian intelligence reported that 15,000 Ugandan-trained Tutsi fought for the AFDL.[52] However, Uganda did not support Rwanda in all aspects of the war. Museveni was reportedly much less inclined to overthrow Mobutu, preferring to keep the rebellion in the East where the former génocidaires were operating.[53]
AngolaEdit
Angola remained on the sidelines until 1997, but its entrance into the fray greatly increased the already superior strength of anti-Mobutu forces. The Angolan government chose to act primarily through the original-Katanga Gendarmeries later called the Tigres, proxy groups formed from the remnants of police units exiled from Congo in the 1960s, fighting to return to their homeland.[54] Luanda did also deploy regular troops. Angola chose to participate in the First Congo War because members of Mobutu's government were directly involved in supplying the Angolan rebel group, UNITA.[55]
It is unclear exactly how the government benefited from this relationship, other than personal enrichment for several officials, but it is certainly possible that Mobutu was unable to control the actions of some members of his government. Regardless of the reasoning in Kinshasa, Angola entered the war on the side of the rebels and was determined to overthrow the Mobutu government, which it saw as the only way to address the threat posed by the Zairian-UNITA relationship.
UNITAEdit
Due to its ties to the Mobutu government, UNITA also participated in the First Congo War. The greatest impact that it had on the war was probably that it gave Angola reason to join the anti-Mobutu coalition. However, UNITA forces fought alongside FAZ forces in at least several instances.[56] Among other examples, Kagame claimed that his forces fought a pitched battle against UNITA near Kinshasa towards the end of the war.[57]
OthersEdit
Numerous other external actors played lesser roles in the First Congo War. Burundi, which had recently come under the rule of a pro-Tutsi leader, supported Rwandan and Ugandan involvement in Zaire but provided very limited military support.[58] Zambia and Zimbabwe also gave measured amounts of military support to the rebel movement.[59] Eritrea, an ally of Rwanda under Kagame, sent an entire battalion of its army to support the invasion of Zaire.[10] Likewise, Ethiopia, and the South Sudanese rebel army, the SPLA, all provided financial or moral support to the anti-Mobutu coalition. Other than from UNITA, Mobutu also received some aid from Sudan, whom Mobutu had long supported against the SPLA, though the exact amount of aid is unclear and ultimately was unable to hinder the advance of opposing forces.[60] Zaire also employed foreign mercenaries from several African and European countries.
See also: Massacres of Hutu refugees during the First Congo War
With active support from Rwanda, Uganda,[61] and Eritrea,[10] Kabila's AFDL was able to capture 800 x 100 km[clarification needed] of territory along the border with Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi by 25 December 1996.[61] This occupation temporarily satisfied the rebels, because it gave them power in the east and allowed them to defend themselves against the former génocidaires. Likewise, the external actors had successfully crippled the ability of the same génocidaires to use Zaire as a base for attacks. There was a pause in the rebel advance following the acquisition of this buffer territory that lasted until Angola entered the war in February 1997.[62]
During this time, Rwanda destroyed refugee camps the génocidaires had been using as safe-bases, and forcibly repatriated Tutsi to Rwanda. It also captured many lucrative diamond and coltan mines, which it later resisted relinquishing.[29][51] Rwandan and aligned forces committed multiple atrocities, mainly against Hutu refugees.[47] The true extent of the abuses is unknown because the AFDL and RPF carefully managed NGO and press access to areas where atrocities were thought to have occurred.[63] However Amnesty International said as many as 200,000 Rwandese Hutu refugees were massacred by them and the Rwandan Defence Forces and aligned forces.[64] The United Nations similarly documented mass killings of civilians by Rwandan, Ugandan and the AFDL soldiers in the DRC Mapping Exercise Report.
Further information: Operation Thunderbolt (1997)
Statue of Laurent-Désiré Kabila
There are two explanations for the restart of the rebel advance in 1997. The first, and most probable, is that Angola had joined the anti-Mobutu coalition, giving it numbers and strength far superior to the FAZ, and demanding that Mobutu be removed from power. Kagame presents another, possibly secondary, reason for the march on Kinshasa: that the employment of Serbian mercenaries in the battle for Walikale proved that "Mobutu intended to wage real war against Rwanda."[65] According to this logic, Rwanda's initial concerns had been to manage the security threat in eastern Zaire but it was now forced to dispose of the hostile government in Kinshasa.
Whatever the case, once the advance resumed in 1997, there was virtually no meaningful resistance from what was left of Mobutu's army. Kabila's forces were only held back by the dreadful state of Zaire's infrastructure. In some areas, no real roads existed; the only means of transport were infrequently used dirt paths.[66] The AFDL committed grave human rights violations, such as the carnage at a refugee camp of Hutus at Tingi-Tingi near Kisangani, where tens of thousands of refugees were massacred.[67]
Coming from the east, the AFDL advanced westward in two pincer movements. The northern one took Kisangani, Boende, and Mbandaka, while the southern one took Bakwanga, and Kikwit.[67] Around this time, Sudan attempted to coordinate with remnants of the FAZ and White Legion that were retreating northward to escape the AFDL. This was to prevent Zaire from becoming a safe haven for the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) and its allies, which were fighting the Sudanese government in the Second Sudanese Civil War at the time. The Mobutu-loyal forces were collapsing so quickly, however, that they could not prevent the AFDL, SPLA and Ugandan military from occupying northeastern Zaire. Sudan-allied Ugandan insurgent groups which had been based in the region were forced to retreat into southern Sudan alongside FAZ troops that had not yet surrendered and a smaller number of Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) soldiers. They attempted to reach the SAF base at Yei, not knowing that it had already been overrun by the SPLA. The column of about 4,000 fighters and their families was ambushed by the SPLA during Operation Thunderbolt on 12 March, and mostly destroyed; 2,000 were killed, and over 1,000 captured. The survivors fled to Juba.[1] Meanwhile, the AFDL reached Kinshasa by the middle of May. Another AFDL group captured Lubumbashi on April 19 and moved on by air to Kinshasa. Mobutu fled Kinshasa on May 16, and the "libérateurs" entered the capital without serious resistance.[67] The AFDL-allied Eritrean battalion had aided the rebels during the entire 1,500 km advance despite being not well equipped for the environment and lacking almost all logistical support. By the time the Eritreans arrived at Kinshasa along the AFDL, they were exhausted, starving and ill, having suffered heavy casualties as a result. They had to be evacuated from the country by the war's end.[16]
Throughout the rebel advance, there were attempts by the international community to negotiate a settlement. However, the AFDL did not take these negotiations seriously but instead partook so as to avoid international criticism for being unwilling to attempt a diplomatic solution while actually continuing its steady advance.[68] The FAZ, which had been weak all along, was unable to mount any serious resistance to the strong AFDL and its foreign sponsors.
Mobutu fled first to his palace at Gbadolite and then to Rabat, Morocco, where he died on 7 September 1997.[69] Kabila proclaimed himself president on 17 May, and immediately ordered a violent crackdown to restore order. He then attempted to reorganise the nation as the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
AftermathEdit
Main article: Second Congo War
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The new Congolese state under Kabila's rule proved to be disappointingly similar to Zaire under Mobutu. The economy remained in a state of severe disrepair and deteriorated further under Kabila's corrupt rule.[70] He failed to improve the government, which continued to be weak and corrupt. Instead, Kabila began a vigorous centralisation campaign, bringing renewed conflict with minority groups in the east who demanded autonomy.
Kabila also came to be seen as an instrument of the foreign regimes that put him in power. To counter this image and increase domestic support, he began to turn against his allies abroad. This culminated in the expulsion of all foreign forces from the DRC on 26 July 1998. The states with armed forces still in the DRC begrudgingly complied although some of them saw this as undermining their interests, particularly Rwanda, which had hoped to install a proxy-regime in Kinshasa.
Several factors that led to the First Congo War remained in place after Kabila's accession to power. Prominent among these were ethnic tensions in eastern DRC, where the government still had little control. There the historical animosities remained and the opinion that Banyamulenge, as well as all Tutsi, were foreigners was reinforced by the foreign occupation in their defence.[71] Furthermore, Rwanda had not been able to satisfactorily address its security concerns. By forcibly repatriating refugees, Rwanda had imported the conflict.[72]
This manifested itself in the form of a predominantly Hutu insurgency in Rwanda's western provinces that was supported by extremist elements in eastern DRC. Without troops in the DRC, Rwanda was unable to successfully combat the insurgents. In the first days of August 1998, two brigades of the new Congolese army rebelled against the government and formed rebel groups that worked closely with Kigali and Kampala. This marked the beginning of the Second Congo War.
Child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo
^ a b Many Mai-Mai militias in eastern Zaire initially allied themselves with Rwanda and the AFDL against Hutu militants and refugees.[5] As soon as most Hutu were driven away, however, many Mai-Mai groups turned against Rwanda and the AFDL.[6] Despite this, some anti-Hutu Mai-Mai remained allied with Rwanda and the AFDL.[7]
^ Officially, the FAZ had c. 80,000 soldiers by the war's start,[12] though the actual number was closer to about 50,000.[12][13] Of these, just 25,000 were in a condition to fight, whereas the rest was likely to flee or desert upon the first signs of combat.[12]
^ a b c Prunier (2004), pp. 376–377.
^ Prunier (2009), pp. 116–118.
^ Duke, Lynne (20 May 1997). "Congo Begins Process of Rebuilding Nation". The Washington Post. p. A10. Archived from the original on 24 February 2011. Guerrillas of Angola's former rebel movement UNITA, long supported by Mobutu in an unsuccessful war against Angola's government, also fought for Mobutu against Kabila's forces.
^ a b Prunier (2004), pp. 375–377.
^ Prunier (2009), pp. 117, 130, 143.
^ Prunier (2009), p. 130.
^ a b Duke, Lynne (15 April 1997). "Passive Protest Stops Zaire's Capital Cold". The Washington Post. p. A14. Archived from the original on 24 February 2011. Kabila's forces – which are indeed backed by Rwanda, Angola, Uganda and Burundi, diplomats say – are slowly advancing toward the capital from the eastern half of the country, where they have captured all the regions that produce Zaire's diamonds, gold, copper and cobalt.
^ a b c Plaut (2016), pp. 54–55.
^ Prunier (2009), pp. 118, 126–127.
^ a b c Prunier (2009), p. 128.
^ a b c Thom, William G. (1999). "Congo-Zaire's 1996–97 Civil War in the Context of Evolving Patterns of Military Conflict in Africa in the Era of Independence". XIX (2). Journal of Conflict Studies. Archived from the original on 21 August 2006.
^ a b This number was self-declared and was not independently verified. Johnson, Dominic: Kongo — Kriege, Korruption und die Kunst des Überlebens, Brandes & Apsel, Frankfurt am Main, 2. Auflage 2009 ISBN 978-3-86099-743-7
^ a b c Abbott (2014), p. 35.
^ a b Plaut (2016), p. 55.
^ https://www.amnesty.org/ailib/aipub/1998/AFR/16203698.html[permanent dead link]
^ CDI: The Center for Defense Information, The Defense Monitor, "The World At War: January 1, 1998".
^ Prunier (2009), p. 72.
^ e.g.: Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 194
^ Gondola, Ch. Didier. The History of Congo. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002. p. 6
^ a b c Kennes, Erik. "The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Structures of Greed, Networks of Need." Rethinking the Economics of War. Ed. Cynthia J. Arnson and I. William Zartman. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2005. p. 147
^ a b Kennes, Erik. "The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Structures of Greed, Networks of Need." Rethinking the Economics of War. Ed. Cynthia J. Arnson and I. William Zartman. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2005. p. 157
^ "Congo's Curse". IRIN. 5 October 2010. Archived from the original on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 15 October 2015. Ex-president Mobutu once asked his soldiers why they needed salaries when they had guns [...]
^ Gribbin, Robert E. In the Aftermath of Genocide: the U.S. Role in Rwanda. New York: IUniverse, 2005. p. 190
^ Vlassenroot, Koen. "Conflict & Malitia Formation in Eastern Congo." Ed. Preben Kaarsholm. Violence, Political Culture & Development in Africa. Athens: Ohio UP, 2006. 49–65. p. 53
^ a b Lemarchand, René. The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2009. p. 32
^ Vlassenroot, Koen. "Citizenship, Identity Formation & Conflict in South Kivu: The Case of the Banyamulenge". Review of African Political Economy. 2002. 499–515.
^ a b c d e f g Autesserre, Severine. "The Trouble With Congo: How Local Disputes Fuel Regional Conflict." Foreign Affairs. 2008. 87(3). 94–110.
^ Bronwen Manby (2013). Struggles for Citizenship in Africa: African Arguments. Zed Books Ltd. ISBN 1848137869. Archived from the original on 7 May 2018 – via Google Books. (no page numbers)
^ Lemarchand, René. The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2009. p. 13
^ "Conflict and environmental insecurity in the North Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo - ACCORD". accord.org.za. Archived from the original on 29 January 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
^ Lemarchand, René. The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2009. pp. 15–16
^ Lemarchand, René. The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2009. p.16
^ Vlassenroot, Koen. "Citizenship, Identity Formation & Conflict in South Kivu: The Case of the Banyamulenge." Review of African Political Economy. 2002. 499–515. p. 508
^ Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 45
^ "North Kivu: How to end a war". ISN Security Watch.
^ a b c Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 48
^ Afoaku, Osita. "Congo's Rebels: Their Origins, Motivations, and Strategies." Ed. John F. Clark. The Africa Stakes of the Congo War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 109-28. p. 121
^ a b Pomfret, John. "Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo; Defense Minister Says Arms, Troops Supplied for Anti-Mobutu Drive." Washington Post. 9 July 1997: A1.
^ Gribbin, Robert E. In the Aftermath of Genocide: the U.S. Role in Rwanda. New York: IUniverse, 2005. p. 107, 201
^ a b Gribbin, Robert E. In the Aftermath of Genocide: the U.S. Role in Rwanda. New York: IUniverse, 2005. p. 213-14
^ Longman, Timothy. "The Complex Reasons for Rwanda's Engagement in Congo." Ed. John F. Clark. The African Stakes of the Congo War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 129-44. p. 131
^ Gribbin, Robert E. In the Aftermath of Genocide: the U.S. Role in Rwanda. New York: IUniverse, 2005. p. 175-76
^ Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 147-48
^ a b Samset, Ingrid. 'Conflict of Interests or Interests in Conflict? Diamonds & War in the DRC.' Review of African Political Economy. 2002. 463–480. pp. 470–471
^ Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 54, 58
^ Pomfret, John. "Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo; Defense Minister Says Arms, Troops Supplied for Anti-Mobutu Drive." Washington Post. 9 July 1997: A1
^ Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 65-66
^ a b Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 55
^ Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. pp. 61–63
^ Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 100
^ Democratic Republic of Congo. An long-standing crisis spinning out of control Archived 22 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine . Amnesty International, 3 September 1998. p. 9. AI Index: AFR 62/33/98
^ Dickovick, J. Tyler (2008). The World Today Series: Africa 2012. Lanham, Maryland: Stryker-Post Publications. ISBN 978-1-61048-881-5.
^ a b c David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2012. p. 423ff. ISBN 978-0-06-220011-2.
^ Howard W. French (8 September 1997). "Mobutu Sese Seko, Zairian Ruler, Is Dead in Exile in Morocco at 66". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved 30 December 2016.
^ Kennes, Erik. "The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Structures of Greed, Networks of Need." Rethinking the Economics of War. Ed. Cynthia J. Arnson and I. William Zartman. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2005. p. 154
^ Longman, Timothy. "The Complex Reasons for Rwanda's Engagement in Congo." Ed. John F. Clark. The African Stakes of the Congo War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 129-44. pp. 131–32
Abbott, Peter (2014). Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002. Oxford; New York City: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-076-1.
Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009.
Gribbin, Robert E. In the Aftermath of Genocide: the US Role in Rwanda. New York: IUniverse, 2005.
Clark, John F. (2002) The African Stakes in the Congo War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-6723-7.
Edgerton, Robert G. (2002) The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-30486-2.
Gondola, Ch. Didier. (2002) The History of Congo, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-31696-1. Covers events up to January 2002.
Kennes, Erik. "The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Structures of Greed, Networks of Need." Rethinking the Economics of War. Ed. Cynthia J. Arnson and I. William Zartman. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2005
Michael Nest with François Grignon and Emizet F. Kisangani: The Democratic Republic of Congo: Economic Dimensions of War and Peace, Lynne Rienner, 2006 ISBN 1-58826-233-2
Prunier, Gérard (2009). Africa's World War : Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-970583-2.
Plaut, Martin (2016). Understanding Eritrea: Inside Africa's Most Repressive State. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Prunier, Gérard (July 2004). "Rebel Movements and Proxy Warfare: Uganda, Sudan and the Congo (1986-99)". African Affairs. 103 (412): 359–383. JSTOR 3518562.
Vlassenroot, Koen. "Citizenship, Identity Formation & Conflict in South Kivu: The Case of the Banyamulenge." Review of African Political Economy. 2002. 499–515.
Vlassenroot, Koen. "Conflict & Malitia Formation in Eastern Congo." Ed. Preben Kaarsholm. Violence, Political Culture & Development in Africa. Athens: Ohio UP, 2006. 49–65.
Lemarchand, René. The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2009.
Jackson, Stephen. 'Making a Killing: Criminality & Coping in the Kivu War Economy.' Review of African Political Economy. 2002.
Samset, Ingrid. 'Conflict of Interests or Interests in Conflict? Diamonds & War in the DRC.' Review of African Political Economy. 2002. 463–480
Stearns, Jason (2011). Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-929-8.
Auterresse, Séverine (2009). "Hobbes and the Congo: Frames, Local Violence, and International Intervention". International Organization. 63 (2): 249–280. doi:10.1017/S0020818309090080.
Reyntjens, Filip (2005). "The Privatisation and Criminalisation of Public Space in the Geopolitics of the Great Lakes Region". Journal of Modern African Studies. 43 (4): 587–607. doi:10.1017/S0022278X05001230.
Autesserre, Séverine (2008). "The Trouble With Congo: How Local Disputes Fuel Regional Conflict". Foreign Affairs. 87 (3): 94–110.
Thom, William G. (1999). "Congo-Zaire's 1996–97 Civil War in the Context of Evolving Patterns of Military Conflict in Africa in the Era of Independence". Journal of Conflict Studies. 19 (2).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Congo_War&oldid=905373509"


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Working conditions & health
Vulnerability at work
Workplace OHS programs & practices
OHS regulation & enforcement
Clinical treatment & health measurement
Workplace disability management
Compensation & benefit policy
KTE Advisory Committee
Adjunct scientists
Systematic Review Program
Knowledge transfer & exchange
Plain-language summaries
What researchers mean by...
Document directory
IWH in the media
Our stakeholder networks
Establishing and maintaining relationships with key stakeholders plays an important role in IWH's knowledge transfer and exchange (KTE) strategy. It is one of the four key components of the IWH approach to KTE that is outlined in how we do KTE. Key to establishing and maintaining these relationships is our engagement with stakeholders through formal networks.
IWH's stakeholder networks represent knowledge users from the wide range of audiences that make up Ontario's occupational health and safety and disability management community, including policy-makers, workplace parties, professional practitioners and clinicians.
Networks allow for regular, face-to-face meetings with stakeholder representatives above and beyond stakeholder meetings that occur as part of the research process on specific projects. At these meetings, we review recent or planned research of interest with stakeholders, as well as ask stakeholders about the issues in their work that might benefit from new research.
All networks share a common purpose: to promote evidence-informed policy and practice in the prevention of work injury and disability. Members may also be approached to participate on research project teams or on project advisory committees, and to assist with dissemination of research findings to their own networks, clients or members.
The Institute established its first formal network in 2001 – the Physiotherapy Educationally Influential (EI) Network. Over the years, the Institute continued to develop new networks and, today, a total of 11 networks are in place. These networks, and the stakeholders they represent, are described below.
Ontario prevention system network
The Prevention Knowledge Exchange Group (PKEG), which is hosted by IWH, brings together representatives of organizations in the Ontario work injury and illness prevention system. The organizations represented, which meet four times a year, include the following:
Ministry of Labour (MOL)
Workplace Safety and Insurance Board (WSIB)
Infrastructure Health & Safety Association (IHSA), serving the construction, utility and transportation sectors
Public Services Health & Safety Association (PSHSA), serving the health-care, education and municipal sectors
Workplace Safety North (WSN), serving the mining, pulp & paper and forestry sectors, as well as northern Ontario businesses
Workplace Safety & Prevention Services (WSPS), serving the manufacturing, retail and agricultural sectors
Occupational Health Clinics for Ontario Workers (OHCOW)
Workers Health & Safety Centre (WHSC)
Centre of Research Expertise for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders (CRE-MSD)
Centre of Research Expertise for Occupational Disease (CREOD)
Occupational Cancer Research Centre (OCRC)
Educationally influential (EI) clinical/professional networks
Five educationally influential (EI) networks bring together annually clinical/professional practitioners who are considered by others in their professions to be mentors or opinion leaders. The five professions that each have their own EI network are:
ergonomists
kinesiologists
Members of the EI networks are identified through a process of nomination. A survey is sent out to members of professional associations asking recipients to identify practitioners who enjoy teaching others and who take the time to share what they know, among other criteria, using a process modeled on that developed by Hiss et al. (1978).
The EI networks used to meet separately, once or twice a year. However, in 2016, we met for the first time with members from all five EI networks at an event we called an "EI summit." The feedback from the network members was so positive – they especially welcomed the opportunity to share experiences about using research evidence with colleagues from other disciplines – that a decision was made to hold EI summits going forward.
Networks for injury, illness and disability prevention professionals
Two networks serve the interests of workplace injury and disability prevention/management professionals: the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Professionals Network and the Disability Managers Network. These networks are established through an open-invitation process, and they meet annually to discuss research findings, new projects and emerging practice issues. At the request of the members, IWH established LinkedIn groups for each network to allow for posting and discussing research findings and to provide networking opportunities throughout the year.
Workplace party networks
Two networks are dedicated to workplace parties: the Labour Forum and the Employer Forum. These network members are recruited through personal contact and other networks, each meeting twice a year. The Labour Forum has representatives from the larger Ontario unions, as well as labour umbrella organizations. The Employer Forum has representatives from employer associations, organizations serving employers in the area of OHS or disability management, and some large, individual employers.
Influential research users network
The Influential Knowledge Users (IKU) Network is made up of members from multiple stakeholder categories who are champions of using research evidence to inform policy and practice. As well, these people are senior enough in their organizations to influence decision-making. Twice a year, this group meets to share ideas about improving knowledge transfer and exchange across all the organizations represented. We have also interviewed individual or small groups of IKUs about how best to develop and sustaining knowledge exchange between researchers and knowledge users.
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NYC-based artist Becca McCharen brought her signature "cultural experiments for the body" to Milk Studios in the Meatpacking district for friday night of NYFW. With a degree in architecture, McCharen created Chromat in 2010 with an eye for structure, scaffolding, and ornate 3D printing.
Chromat's pieces in the past have ranged from swimwear to daring lingerie, the latter most memorably worn in Beyonce's 2014 VMA performance. Thankfully, these 3D-printed pieces of art are even available for purchase to the public on their website, as well as their more casual pieces, of course. Chromat has also been featured on performers such as Nicki Minaj, FKA Twigs, Rita Ora and Demi Lovato.
Chromat's audience cheered and whooped as the show began with green strobe lights introducing the models onto the runway. Chromat's collection has been distinct in its style and has remained so since their birth five years ago. Chromat's A/W collection expanded on their style and experiments, working with innovative materials to create metallic bodysuits, plastic headwear, and strappy bralets. Tightly worn mesh dresses only highlighted the underwear underneath that perfectly accented the bodies of the women.
It was refreshing to see women as well as transgender women of all shapes and sizes working the provocative pieces under the bright flashing lights of the room. Their confidence was a perfect statement of New York's state of mind and they were not afraid to show it. The crowd of all ages and boroughs roared every time a model would come out rocking their platforms and rubber knee-high's, not only because of the outstanding work, but because of the models that represented it.
For further information on the Chromat A/W15 fashion collection visit here.


The Sawtooth Range is a mountain range of the Rocky Mountains in central Idaho. This is an alpine, lake–studded, lupine-covered wonderland that rivals the nearby Grand Tetons. Filled with over 350 miles of hiking, horseback riding and mountain bike riding trails, inviting hot springs and lakes filled with trout, you will not be short of things to do with the added bonus of very little crowds.
A vast ocean of lava flows and scattered islands of cinder cones and sagebrush, Craters of The Moon National Monument is located on the Peaks to Craters scenic byway. There is a loop road that stops at several spots that explain the volcanic history. Who would have expected to see lava formations like those of Hawaii in the middle of Idaho?
Hard to beat the beauty and activities this lake has to offer whether its swimming, parasailing boating or fishing. A great place to spend a relaxing weekend away with a charming and inviting community. There is a public marina and several lodging options. Also offered are daily cruises with sunset and dinner options.
This state historic site was a functional prison between 1872 to 1973. While the prison was quite peaceful in the early years, by the year 1935 the behavior of the inmates changed and many riots and other types of violence started to erupt. The Old Penitentiary has an assortment of interpretive aids spread throughout the grounds, including displays on improvised weapons, daily life, and prison riots. A great way to spend an afternoon.
If you would like to book a whole house or cabin to yourself or your family in Idaho then you need to check out HomeAway! They have a huge range of vacation homes at really good rates. We had the best experience staying at a gorgeous log cabin in the Pacific North-west through this website that really was the ultimate getaway! Have a look and see what you think.
Incase you haven't heard of Skyscanner, this website compares all the different airlines including the budget airlines that a lot of the other search engines miss. This is a great website whether you are flying domestic in the USA or internationally. Search for your flights to Idaho here.


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The Ringbrothers Chevrolet K5 Blazer – A 430 BHP Classic Off-Roader
Ben Branch November 8, 2018
The Chevrolet K5 Blazer first appeared in 1969 as a competitor to the wildly successful Ford Bronco and International Harvester Scout – both vehicles are now remembered as ground breaking American 4x4s that launched the modern SUV genre along with British competition in the shape of the Land Rover and Range Rover Classic.
The Chevrolet K5 Blazer
What the K5 Blazer brought to the table that had been largely missing from the Ford and International Harvester offerings was comfort. Both the Bronco and Scout were very capable off-road and usable on-road, but they lacked many of the refinements you'd probably want in a daily driver, like air-conditioning, better road manners, and additional interior space.
The engineers and designers at Chevrolet had been clever with the design of the Blazer. Rather then spending the time and resources needed to develop a new platform from scratch, they took an existing pick-up truck platform and reduced the wheelbase.
This decision to use pre-existing tooling and parts resulted in very low development costs, but it had another benefit that would launch the Blazer to the forefront of the genre it had only appeared in for the first time in 1969 – it had all the comfort and usability of a regular Chevy pick-up truck and all the options you might want, like automatic or manual transmission, air-conditioning, power brakes, a range of 4 engine choices and a push-button radio.
When ordering your Blazer you had the option of a 250 cubic inch inline-6, a 292 cubic inch inline-6, a 307 cubic inch V8, or at the top of the list, a 350 cubic inch V8 with 255 bhp.
The first generation K5 Blazer was built from 1969 till 1972, a year after its introduction it was already outselling the Bronco and Scout, and the next generations of both of these 4x4s would take a hefty dose of inspiration from the Blazer.
The Ringbrothers Chevrolet K5 Blazer
The Chevy you see here is the first 4×4 ever built by the Ringbrothers – one of the USA's premier custom car builders who have been more focussed on sports and muscle cars. The surging popularity of vintage off-roaders has been picking up steam in recent years, and as a result they're popping up on the order books of garages like the Ringbrothers for the first time.
As with all of their builds, the team stripped this 1971 Chevrolet K5 Blazer to its bones before beginning the rebuild. The body was prepped to better-than-factory condition before being resprayed, all new suspension was provided front and back by RideTech, with reconditioned axles, and perhaps most importantly, a new GM LS3 crate engine with a Holley Fuel System and a custom Flowmaster exhaust producing 430 bhp.
This engine is mated to a Bowler Performance 4L60E automatic transmission, and the Ringbrothers team fabricated new running boards, a firewall, an air box, engine covers, a fan shroud, floors, and side panels for the build in-house.
Once the mechanicals were done the attention turned to the interior, an all-bespoke leather interior was made by Upholstery Unlimited, all new gauges were installed, air-conditioning was provided by Vintage Air, and a one-off soft top designed to fit perfectly with the roll bar was added.
The Blazer now rides 1″ higher on 17" Circle Racing wheels with BF Goodrich All-Terrain tires – specifically chosen as the client who ordered this Chevy is planning to use it to explore beaches and sandy back roads along the Florida coast – this is why it was nicknamed the "Seaker".
If you'd like to see more from the Ringbrothers you can click here.
Published by Ben Branch - November 8th 2018
Sir Paul McCartney's Mini Cooper S Is For Sale
It isn't every day you get the chance to buy Sir Paul McCartney's original Mini Cooper S. The Harold Radford & Co Mini Cooper S Radford was famous for impeccable coachbuilt Bentleys, typically for country gentlemen, in either shooting brake or estate wagon configuration with acres of walnut, leather, and plush carpeting. It caused quite…
A Brief History of the Ford Escort Mk 1
Introduction: Exit the Anglia, Enter the Ford Escort Mk 1 The Ford Escort Mk 1 is one of the most beloved British cars of its generation with styling that quickly embedded itself into the British and European pantheon of humble commuter cars that made good on the race tracks of the Continent, not to mention…
The Volvo 1800E – Is This Sweden's Most Beautiful Car?
The Volvo 1800E is the fastest version of what is possibly Sweden's most beautiful car. It's a car that was designed by a Swede and built with a global supply chain (and some subterfuge) to replace the famous failure that was the Volvo P1900. The Volvo P1800 – 1800S – 1800E – 1800ES The design…
A Garage On Your Wall – The Automotive Art Of Arthur Schening
Arthur Schening is an artist and graphic designer who is perhaps known best for his automotive art, characterized by its close attention to detail, clean minimalism, and well-researched historical accuracy. Arthur runs Schening Creative, his own design and illustration firm. He has well over 20 years of experience working for all manner of clients around…
1910 Cadillac Racer – A $35,000+ Brass Era Competition Roadster
This 1910 Cadillac racer is a brass era roadster that was built with one thing in mind – competition. In 1910 the automotive world was still in its infancy, the first gasoline-powered car had been built by Karl Benz just 25 years earlier, and they still largely resembled horse drawn carriages with missing ponies. This…
Bullitt Specification – Highland Green Ford Mustang Fastback
The Ford Mustang driven by Steve McQueen in the 1968 cult classic "Bullitt", now known as the Bullitt Mustang, has become one of the most memorable and iconic cinema cars of the 20th century. The Bullitt Ford Mustang Steve McQueen is almost as famous for his love of cars and motorcycles as for his career…
Rhodes Dean Boots – Hand Made In Portugal
John Doe Ironhead Motorcycle Jeans – Raw Denim + XTM® + Kevlar®


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Paula Sherriff A proven track record of fighting for you in Dewsbury, Mirfield, Denby Dale and Kirkburton
My Position on Syria
Today I have written to constituents to set out my position on Syria. You can read my letter here:
It is likely that in the forthcoming days MPs will be asked to vote on whether the UK takes part in air strikes in Syria. I have received a huge amount of correspondence regarding this crucial issue and I therefore wanted to make my position clear.
I was present in Parliament last Thursday and listened intently to the Prime Minister's statement when he set out his case for UK forces to commence a bombing campaign against ISIS / Daesh in Syria.
Voting for military action is one of the most difficult decisions an MP could possibly face and it is not a decision which I take lightly. I have taken time to read your emails as well as speaking to members, constituents, colleagues and experts gauging their thoughts and views.
The UK is under severe threat from an ISIS / Daesh attack and in recent months there have been as many as seven foiled attacks. As in the recent attacks in Paris and Tunisia, fatal terrorist attacks in modern times in the UK have been carried out by home-grown jihadists. I am not convinced that airstrikes in Syria will ultimately make us any safer here in the UK. Instead, I believe that we need to invest further in policing and a wider counter-terrorism strategy.
The situation in Syria is incredibly complex and I am deeply conscious that at the heart of this debate are millions of innocent civilians. Without doubt the world cannot sit back while this humanitarian crisis persists and I certainly do not advocate a policy of passively doing nothing. However, I do not believe that the airstrikes proposed by the Prime Minister are the best form of action to take at this time and I am also unconvinced that there are currently ground forces with the capability to defeat ISIS / Daesh, without which airstrikes are of extremely limited use even just for a military strategy.
On this basis the Prime Minister has failed to convince me that pursuing air strikes in Syria is part of a longer-term and comprehensive strategy and I therefore intend to vote against the motion.
I want to thank everyone for contacting me with their views. I hope I have helped you understand why I have taken the decision that I have.
The Old Dewsbury Reporter Building
17 Wellington Road
WF13 1HQ
Email: paula@paulasherriff.org.uk
Promoted by Karen Rowling on behalf of Paula Sherriff both at Old Dewsbury Reporter Building, 17 Wellington Road, Dewsbury, WF13 1HF


Knight Rider marathon is coming to Twitch on July 24th!!!
My ideal Knight Rider movie.
So there's these posts that are becoming popular around Reddit "You have an unlimited budget and can revive any property you want for a movie or tv series, what do you choose?" - well I choose Knight Rider. But I'd do it in a way that tries to avoid the mistakes of KR 2008 while still giving it a modern edge and current topical relevance.
Original Michael Knight, Bonnie Barstow and RC3 are way too old to go around fighting bad guys, instead they run what's left of The Foundation For Law and Government. FLAG is still active, but just barely. Devon Miles died a long time ago and someone else had to take the reigns, naturally the job falls to Michael Knight.
With what's left of the money from Knight Industries / FLAG, the group build a new KITT (ideally, a redesigned Trans Am that mixes 2010 Camaro throwback "70s muscle car" looks with the 1982 Trans Am aesthetic: Triangle hood scoop, bowling ball wheel covers, single bar tail lights, pop-up headlights rather than composite, T-Top roof (gotta have it for the ejector seat), beige PMD seats and interior. A dash that modernizes the original KITT dash created by George Barris, same general look with wrap around style and jet fighter steering wheel, LED voice bar, but now with touch panel screens on the dash instead of CRT monitors. (Touch screens in cars are actually commonplace, it's wierd, I bet nobody in the 80s ever thought that'd happen).
It's getting close to the year 2020. Self-driving cars are beginning to be something commercially feasible and open to the public and no longer science fiction. In this "current" timeline (not a complete restart from 1982) a start-up company called Road Net Inc. is testing out basic A.I. for its line of internet connected automated vehicles. An entire network of cars, trucks, semi trailers all tapped in to the internet.
Neil DuBois Tyson (played by everyone's favorite black astrophysicist, Neil deGrass Tyson) is working on Road Net when he dies under mysterious circumstances. His 20 year old son Thomas, desperately searches for answers to his father's murder. Thomas, being the son of a programmer, is a whiz at computers and an ace hacker. And given that he's the son of a man who co-founded his own self-driving car company, he is also obsessed with the concept of artificial intelligence... He knows about KITT, but only through various old newspaper clippings and grainy VHS copies of accidental sightings of the "mystery miracle car" dating back to the 80s.
In the 80s, Michael and KITT criss-crossed the USA fighting criminals and terrorists and publicly participating in races for charity, demolition derbies, expirimental fuel competitions - all kinds of stuff.... so it is purely statistical probability that some newspaper journalist or broadcast news reporter was at the right place and right time to be able to catch them on film or video.
Michael Knight is investigating the suspicious death of Neil Tyson, he was a publicly known figure in the prime of his health, about to make history with Road Net. Someone with an agenda wanted him out of the picture, permanently. Perhaps a malcontented employee, or a business partner with sinister plans.
In real life, there are already fears that self driving cars will just open up the door to "electronic carjackings" by crafty hackers. The movie plot will play on this, as that is the goal of the villain, but on a much larger scale.
Someone close to Neil Tyson decided his idea for good could be exploited.
Michael Knight and Thomas Tyson meet by sheer coincidence. While trying to dig out more information he discovers that his father and Devon Miles of FLAG were once friends in their younger years. Neil actually got the idea for Road Net from KITT. Thomas finds the remnants of one of FLAG's bases, which he assumes is abandoned. It isn't.
Spotted in Dallas. Ghostbusters, Knight Rider, and Back to the Future!


Two new fluffy buttermilk pancakes with shortbread pieces cooked inside, layered with vanilla cream and topped with fresh bananas, warm salted caramel and even more shortbread pieces. Served with two eggs* and hash browns, plus your choice of two strips of bacon or two sausage links.
Two new fluffy buttermilk pancakes are a tasty addition to any meal.
Pick three and make it your own. Served with your choice of dipping sauces. Not so hungry? Pick two.
Crumbled chorizo sausage, jalapeños, sautéed mushrooms and fire-roasted bell peppers and onions blended together with seasoned red-skinned potatoes. Topped with grilled seasoned chicken breast, shredded Cheddar cheese, a spicy five pepper sauce and Pepper Jack queso.
Seasoned red-skinned potatoes, fire-roasted bell peppers and onions, mushrooms and broccoli, topped with two egg whites scrambled with spinach and grape tomatoes. Served with a side of salsa.
A USDA select, 8 oz seasoned sirloin steak cooked to perfection. Served with whole grain rice and steamed zucchini & squash.
Warm apple crisp topped with premium vanilla ice cream and caramel sauce, then sprinkled with powdered sugar.


The 2016–17 Rugby Pro D2 was the second-level French rugby union club competition, behind the Top 14, for the 2016–17 season. It ran alongside the 2016–17 Top 14 competition; both competitions are operated by the Ligue Nationale de Rugby (LNR).
Lyon won the 2015–16 Pro D2 title and were thereby automatically promoted to the Top 14. Bayonne won the promotion playoffs to secure the second promotion place.
The bottom finisher in 2015–16, Provence Rugby was relegated from Pro D2 to Fédérale 1. Tarbes was also relegated for financial reasons.
The two bottom finishers in the 2015–16 Top 14 season, Oyonnax and Agen, were relegated to Pro D2.
Soyaux Angoulême and Vannes won the Fédérale 1 promotion playoffs. The 2015–16 season was the first in which the promotion playoffs were separated from those for the traditional Fédérale 1 championship prize, Trophée Jean-Prat.
1 bonus point for losing by 5 points (or less). The required margin had been 7 points or less until being changed in advance of the 2014–15 season.
The 2016–17 season was the last for the then-current Pro D2 promotion system. From 2017–18 forward, Pro D2 will institute a playoff system identical to the one currently used in Top 14, with the top six teams qualifying for the playoffs and the top two teams receiving byes into the semifinals. The league championship and automatic promotion place will go to the winner of the playoffs; the runner-up will enter a playoff with the second-from-bottom Top 14 team, with the winner of that playoff taking up the final place in Top 14 for the following season.
Green background denotes the champions, who are automatically promoted to Top 14.
Blue background denotes teams that qualify for the promotion play-offs.
Bourgoin had 8 points deducted for financial irregularities.
The highest ranked team at the end of the regular season, Oyonnax Rugby, earned automatic promotion to the Top 14 as champion de France de PRO D2 2017.
^ Mortimer, Gavin (18 August 2016). "French rugby enjoys a popularity boom as it looks to the future". Rugby World. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
^ "Classement PRO D2". Ligue Nationale de Rugby (in French). Retrieved 13 February 2017.
^ "PROD2, Bourgoin - Retrait de 8 points". Ligue Nationale de Rugby (Press release) (in French). 28 December 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
^ "Rugby Pro D2 Top Try Scorers". lnr.fr. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
This page was last edited on 15 March 2019, at 03:06 (UTC).


Volunteers are the roots of strong communities. Just like roots are essential for trees to bloom, volunteers are essential for communities to bloom. Thanks to volunteers, our communities grow strong and resilient. Even the tiniest volunteer effort leaves a profound and lasting trace in a community, much like tree rings that appear over time.


Crowds gather on Memorial Day 2016 for the rededication program for the Grand Army of the Republic Memorial Museum in downtown Aurora. The museum's renovation has won another state award.
The Aurora Grand Army of the Republic Memorial Museum has been named the 2017 Small Institution of the Year by the Illinois Association of Museums.
"The IAM Awards Committee and Executive Board were impressed with efforts and outcomes of the City of Aurora and its dedicated citizens to restore and reopen this important historic building and preserve and tell the many stories it interprets," the group said in announcing the honor.
The Aurora GAR Memorial Museum was built in 1877-78 as a tribute to the Aurora residents who fought in the Civil War. Seven hundred men from 70 different Union Army regiments would become members of the Aurora GAR Post, according to a press release from the city.
Over the years, the GAR Hall fell into disrepair, and was closed because of safety concerns. After a 15-year, $3.5 million restoration effort, the museum was reopened to the public on Memorial Day 2016.
"The stalwart efforts to reopen the GAR have not gone unnoticed," said Mayor Richard Irvin in the press release. "Visitors are in awe as they tour the museum. Statewide organizations such as the Illinois Association of Museums and Landmarks Illinois have deemed it worthy of recognition. Certainly, everyone who was involved in the restoration efforts must be applauded for their work to preserve one of Aurora's most treasured historic assets."
Today, the GAR Museum at 23 E. Downer Place in downtown Aurora presents a dozen exhibits focusing on the local soldiers who served in the Civil War and on the growing community of Aurora in the mid- and late 1800s. The museum is open from noon to 4 p.m. on Saturdays and from 5 to 9 p.m. on the first Friday of every month.
The museum also is open for tours by community and school groups, Monday through Friday.
This is the second state award presented to the GAR Museum in the past year. In 2016, Landmarks Illinois, a statewide historic preservation organization, presented its President's Award for Preservation to the Aurora GAR project.


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What is Mall of Horror about?
How to Play Mall of Horror and Review Videos
Awards Won by Mall of Horror
Is Mall of Horror fun to play?
Mall of Horror
Genre: Horror, Negotiation, Zombies
Back of the Box
In Mall of Horror, each player takes control of three character: a blonde, a bad boy and a brute, trapped in a mall invaded by hundreds of hungry zombies. There is only one way to survive: find a temporary safety in areas where the zombies aren't yet, and forget about values such as solidarity and humanity. Better them than you!
Who will be thrown at the zombies for the survival of the rest of the gang? Who will take over the security H.Q.? who will look for some first aid material? No room for the weak, you will negotiate, lie, ally, betray, in one word, you will try to survive!
The goal is not to kill the greatest number of zombies but simply to survive. You must flee from place to place while zombies try to devour the inhabitants of the mall.
Each player controls 3 characters, each with a different ability and worth a certain number of points at the end of the game if they survive.
Each place in the mall has different characteristics. They may contain varying numbers of characters and may give some bonus items which will help your survival. When enough zombies arrive at a location, the players there must vote for who will get eaten. Players may also vote for who will become the new chief of security and who will search the van with its valuable goods, giving players a chance to negotiate and strike up deals, perhaps even making good on them.
We are still in the middle of updating the details of the game Mall of Horror. If you would like to share information or thoughts about this game, feel free to contribute by submitting it via the comments form below. You input is much appreciated and will go towards enhancing the information on this site. Thank you in advance!
Any additional information to share about Mall of Horror? We would like to hear from you! Provide your review, feedback and comments via the comments form below and we will update this page.
2006 Golden Geek Best Light / Party Game Nominee


This section is for our Veterinary Partners.
If you are referring a patient to APH please have your office fill out and submit the Patient Referral Form and discuss any pre-appointment directives with your client.
Our Diagnostic Images will be available to view as soon as possible, typically within 24 hours.
Multiple diagnostic imaging studies for a patient may be available for viewing by entering the Patient-ID below. The Patient-ID may be located on patient records or referral summaries already provided. Please note that the Patient-ID must be entered exactly as it is written. If you have trouble locating the Patient-ID please call us at (805) 466-3880 . Note that studies are not available immediately, however, most are available within 24-hours.
We are the largest small animal veterinary hospital in San Luis Obispo county, offering 24 hour emergency and critical care services for individuals and Veterinarian Doctors in our area. Our team consists of Eight full time Veterinarians, Vet Tech's including nine Registered Veterinary Technicians and Client Service Technicians. We have a fully equipped Hospital and Surgical Room to accommodate a wide range of procedures. We have a Hyperbaric Chamber on site and a separate isolation facility. We have an In house Laboratory as well as fully equipped Diagnostic capabilities with Digital X-Ray, MRI, Ultrasound and CT Scan.


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Mexican Supreme Court of Justice dismisses Constitutional Controversies on the amendments to the Electricity Industry Law
The highest tribunal of the country has not analyzed the merits of the cases, considering that there was a lack of legitimate interest.
Read more about Mexican Supreme Court of Justice dismisses Constitutional Controversies on the amendments to the Electricity Industry Law
Garrigues wins five awards at the 6th Expansión Legal Awards
Garrigues was again one of the biggest winners at the sixth edition of the Expansión Legal Awards for Excellence in Business Law Practice, hosted by the daily financial newspaper Expansión.
Read more about Garrigues wins five awards at the 6th Expansión Legal Awards
The Energy Regulatory Commission has declared the resumption of all deadlines and legal terms
The Energy Regulatory Commission published this Monday in the Federal Official Gazette the "Agreement by which all deadlines and legal terms that were suspended as a measure to prevent and combat the spread of the coronavirus COVID-19 by means of resolutions No. A/010/2020, A/014/2020, A/015/2020 and A/018/202, are resumed.
Read more about The Energy Regulatory Commission has declared the resumption of all deadlines and legal terms


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Q: Changing tensor value from a saved tensorflow model I have some models saved that have dropout layers. Unfortunately, the dropout_keep_dim value was not given as placeholders. Now when I restore the model for test purpose, it gives random output for each run. So, my question is, is it possible to change the dropout_keep_dim of a saved variable? The dropout layer is added the following way:
tf.nn.dropout(layer_no, dropout_keep_dim)

I have already wasted hours on google and didn't find any working solution. Is there even a solution or are my saved models of no use now? Tf.assign doesn't work as, in my case, dropout_keep_dim is not a variable. Any kind of help is appreciated.
NB. I can restore the dropout_keep_dim value and print it. I want to change it if that's possible and then test with the saved weights.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


A super simple, healthy and refreshing summer soup to cool us down!
This recipe comes from Valeria Zammit, a mum of one, a professional photographer specializing in maternity and family events photography, owner of the Gallery of Vallery, and maltamum card partner.
Liquidize properly, strain and cool. Proportions are up to you. No cooking.
« Back to school in style with Lola – Hollywood stars love these products!


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Mediatakeout: What Is All the Gossip About?
Mediatakeout and we have some aspects in common, just continue reading to know.
The advent of websites have made it easier to spread the news and fictional stories. It is now possible for anyone with a budget to own a website and write for the audience.
The UK Time has investigated a rather nostalgic blog that targets a specific genre. Hop into the questions and answers section below for the explanation.
Mediatakeout FAQs
What Is Mediatakeout?
There are news articles related to African American celebrities. The stories of other popular names like Britney Spears can also be found on this site. Hip hop, lifestyle, politics and sports are some of the categories you can find.
When Was It Launched?
This gossip website was launched in January 2006, according to Wikipedia. This is why we have called it a nostalgic element, particularly for millennials.
Is Its Website Mediatakeout com?
You might assume that Mediatakeout com must be the official link. However, the actual website is MTONews.com.
"The most notable headlines are displayed on the homepage when you open the website. There is a section called'More News'. There is a lot of news references in the latter."
The articles are not too detailed. They are easy to read and have essential information. There are not a lot of images to distract you.
The owner believes in the validity of the news because of the close resources.
What Is the Language of This Website?
It is easy to understand for almost everyone because it is in English. There are translate services for other languages on the internet.
Is Mediatakeout Still Around?
Its status is still active. You can find the latest news on celebrities on the website. The stories about the incident between Will Smith and Chris Rock are similar. This reference was written in April 2022.
Additionally, the Mediatakeout 2022 also entails the pregnancy of Britney Spears.
Who Created Mediatakeout?
The guy is named Fred Mwangaguhunga, he graduated from the John Jay College of Criminal Justice. He received two degrees from Columbia University. The owner of the site was born in Washington, D.C. to a Ugandan mother and father.
Who Quoted the Exclusives of Mediatakeout?
Quoting the exclusives means mentioning the important news or aspects of this website. There are many online platforms and TV shows that have some sort of reference to this.
Good Morning America involves the interviews of different celebs. You can see the clips on the internet. Other titles include MTV News and Wendy Williams.
Above and beyond Mediatakeout 2022, you can read the sports news on our website as well.
Tags: MediatakeoutMediatakeout 2022mediatakeout com


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Against All Odds: 8. Normal Calculations
In this free online video program, "students will discover how to convert the standard normal and use the standard deviation; how to use a table of areas to compute relative frequencies; how to find any percentile; and how a computer creates a normal quartile plot to determine whether a distribution is normal. Vehicle emissions standards and medical studies of cholesterol provide real-life examples."
The White Glove Test: Discovering Dust in the Solar System (NASA Activity)
The Student Dust Counter is an instrument aboard the NASA New Horizons mission to Pluto, launched in 2006. As it travels to Pluto and beyond, SDC will provide information on the dust that strikes the spacecraft during its 14-year journey across the solar system. These observations will advance our understanding of the origin and evolution of our own solar system, as well as help scientists study planet formation in dust disks around other stars.
In this lesson, students explore the SDC data interface to establish any trends in the dust distribution in the solar system. Students record the number of dust particles, "hits," recorded by the instrument and the average mass of the particles in a given region.
A Dusty Dilemma (NASA Activity)
The Student Dust Counter is an instrument aboard the NASA New Horizons mission to Pluto, launched in 2006. As it travels to Pluto and beyond, SDC will provide information on the dust that strikes the spacecraft during its 14-year journey across the solar system. These observations will advance human understanding of the origin and evolution of our own solar system, as well as help scientists study planet formation in dust disks around other stars.
In this lesson, students learn the concepts of averages, standard deviation from the mean, and error analysis. Students explore the concept of standard deviation from the mean before using the Student Dust Counter data to determine the issues associated with taking data, including error and noise. Questions are deliberately open-ended to encourage exploration.
The Integrated Medical Model (NASA Activity)
The Integrated Medical Model (IMM) is a Monte Carlo simulation-based tool designed to quantify the probability of the medical risks and potential consequences that astronauts could experience during a mission. In this activity, students will use Monte Carlo methods with a TI-Nspire™ to simulate and predict probabilities of CO2 headaches aboard the ISS.
NASA's Math and Science @ Work project provides challenging supplemental problems for students in advanced science, technology, engineering and mathematics, or STEM classes including Physics, Calculus, Biology, Chemistry and Statistics, along with problems for advanced courses in U.S. History and Human Geography.
Spacewalk Training (NASA Activity)
The Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory allows astronauts an atmosphere resembling zero gravity (weightlessness) in order to train for missions involving spacewalks. In this activity, students will evaluate pressures experienced by astronauts and scuba divers who assist them while training in the NBL. This lesson addresses correlation, regression, residuals, inerpreting graphs, and making predictions.
Spacecraft Radar Tracking (NASA Activity)
Math and Science @ Work presents an activity for high school AP Statistics students. In this activity, students will look at data from an uncalibrated radar and a calibrated radar and determine how statistically significant the error is between the two different data sets.
Predicting Metabolic Rates of Astronauts (NASA Activity)
NASA's Math and Science @ Work presents an activity focused on correlation coefficients, weighted averages and least squares. Students will analyze the data collected from a NASA experiment, use different approaches to estimate the metabolic rates of astronauts, and compare their own estimates to NASA's estimates.
Maintaining Bone Mineral Density (NASA Activity)
One health concern that arises when shifting from an environment with gravity to microgravity is the loss of bone mass density. This Math and Science @ Work advanced statistics activity has students analyze two different exercise countermeasures and construct null and alternative hypotheses to determine their relative effectiveness in maintaining bone mineral density.
Display Design: A Human Factor of Spaceflight (NASA Activity)
NASA's Math and Science @ Work presents a free-response-styled question for advanced high school statistics. Students will evaluate the data from an experiment about astronaut response time. They then will perform hypothesis tests to see if a difference in response times indicates whether one control panel display is preferable to another.
Song: Where Have All the Students Gone
A song parody about how teachers lament that their students do not learn to think. Yet the exams they give only test memorization of rote facts. May be sung to the tune of Pete Seeger's "Where Have All the Flowers Gone." Lyrics written by Dennis Pearl with lots of help from Lawrence Mark Lesser (University of Texas, El Paso). Musical accompaniment realization and vocals are by Joshua Lintz from University of Texas at El Paso.


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Hugill, Andrew
'Pataphysics - A useless guide
Kiadó: MIT Press
Kategóriák: Irodalomtudomány
Of all the French cultural exports over the last 150 years or so, 'pataphysics--the science of imaginary solutions and the laws governing exceptions--has proven to be one of the most durable. Originating in the wild imagination of French poet and playwright Alfred Jarry and his schoolmates, resisting clear definition, purposefully useless, and almost impossible to understand, 'pataphysics nevertheless lies around the roots of Absurdism, Dada, futurism, surrealism, situationism, and other key cultural developments of the twentieth century. In this account of the evolution and influence of 'pataphysics, Andrew Hugill offers an informed exposition of a rich and difficult territory, staying aloft on a tightrope stretched between the twin dangers of oversimplifying a serious subject and taking a joke too seriously.
Drawing on more than twenty-five years' research, Hugill maps the 'pataphysical presence (partly conscious and acknowledged but largely unconscious and unacknowledged) in literature, theater, music, the visual arts, and the culture at large, and even detects 'pataphysical influence in the social sciences and the sciences. He offers many substantial excerpts (in English translation) from primary sources, intercalated with a thorough explication of key themes and events of 'pataphysical history. In a Jarryesque touch, he provides these in reverse chronological order, beginning with a survey of 'pataphysics in the digital age and working backward to Jarry and beyond. He looks specifically at the work of Jean Baudrillard, Georges Perec, Italo Calvino, J. G. Ballard, Asger Jorn, Gilles Deleuze, Roger Shattuck, Jacques Prévert, Antonin Artaud, René Clair, the Marx Brothers, Joan Miró, Max Ernst, Marcel Duchamp, James Joyce, Flann O'Brien, Raymond Roussel, Jean-Pierre Brisset, and many others.
Acknowledgments ix
A Note on Some of the Primary Sources in English xiii
Preamble xv
1 General Introduction 1
2 (2000 Onward) Disoccultation 23
3 (1975-2000) Occultation 43
4 (1964-1975) Pataphysics, 'Pataphysics 71
5 (1959-1964) Universal Pataphysics 91
6 (1948-1959) Le Collège de 'Pataphysique 113
7 (1907-1948) Dada, Surrealism, and 'Pataphysics 137
8 (1907-1948) Unconscious Pataphysics? 169
9 Alfred Jarry (1873-1907) 191
Andrew Hugill is a Professor at Bath Spa University. He is also a Commandeur Requis of the Ordre de la Grande Guidouille in the Collège de 'Pataphysique.


The product was specifically designed to provide a smoothing layer characterized by high standard adhesion (especially on wet and tiled surfaces), and good resistance to water negative pressure even in wet conditions.
W3 IMPERMEABILIZZANTE can be put to different uses according to the underlying surface and the type of job involved.
the ideal surface is concrete cast on site, precast concrete, sand and cement plasters and tiling, even in damp conditions, provided the moisture content is not so high as to prevent polymer setting.
in swimming pools, with or without glass reinforcement, to level out walls and bottom before laying tiles, even in the presence of rising dampness.
Carefully examine the underlayment and make sure it provides a suitable and structurally sound base, in particular when you have to work on surfaces that, in operating conditions, may be affected by negative water pressure because of high humidity levels.
Any surface irregularity or depression more than 5¸10 mm deep must be evened out with GROVE RAPIDO.
leave to rest for a few minutes, then apply with a steel spatula.
The day after apply one or two finishing layers, according to the required finishing standard.
If required, finish off with a layer of NORPHEN SW SMALTO, diluted with water at will and applied with an airless spray for uniform surface colour.
Standard finishing with 160g/m² glass mesh reinforcement: 2.0 - 2.5 kg/m².
Do not use at temperatures lower than +8°C.
Stop applying the product 90 minutes after you mixed the two components.
Do not add any water after preparing the mix, even if the product should thicken (in summer).
comp. A and B: 24 months in the original packs, in a sheltered dry place, at a temperature between +5°C and +30°C; protect from frost.
comp. C: 12 months in the original packs, in a sheltered dry place, at a temperature between +5°C and +30°C; protect from dampness.


Save 10% off using our coupon code WEEKLYSPECIAL in your shopping cart. The five products below are the available styles on sale, so make sure you take advantage! Because, next week they will change to five different ones!


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Regulatory polymorphisms of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Hiroyoshi Hattori, Aiko Suminoe, Morimasa Wada, Yuhki Koga, Kimitoshi Kohno, Jun Okamura, Toshiro Hara, Akinobu Matsuzaki
The aim of this study is to determine whether the polymorphisms of the MDR1 gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The MDR1 gene polymorphisms, -2352 G > A, -934A > G, -692T > C (5′ regulatory region) and 3435C > T (exon 26), were examined in 157 ALL patients and 96 healthy children. The amounts of MDR1 mRNA were quantified in 54 healthy individuals using normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells to evaluate the effect of each polymorphism on the gene expression. The frequency of the G/G genotype of the -2352 G > A was significantly higher in ALL than in controls (74/109 versus 52/96, p = 0.04). The frequency of the T/T genotype of the 3435C > T was also significantly higher in ALL (29/118 versus 10/96, p = 0.006). In a haplotype analysis using the 5′ regulatory sites, the frequency of a certain haplotype was higher in ALL than in controls (59/90 versus 42/88, p = 0.048). When the -2352G > A was examined in different age groups, patients aged six or older were found to have the G/G genotype more frequently than the controls (42/51 versus 52/96, p = 0.0014), while no difference was observed in the younger age group. The amounts of MDR1 mRNA were significantly higher in either G/G or G/A genotype of the -2352 G > A than in A/A genotype (p = 0.04). The present study suggests that the genetic background of MDR1 may be associated with the development of childhood ALL, possibly due to a quantitative change in the MDR1 gene resulting from genetic polymorphisms.
Leukemia Research
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leukres.2007.04.009
10.1016/j.leukres.2007.04.009
Dive into the research topics of 'Regulatory polymorphisms of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia'. Together they form a unique fingerprint.
Multidrug Resistance Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 100%
Genotyping Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 71%
Nested Gene Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 42%
Development Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 42%
Childhood Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 42%
Messenger RNA Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 28%
Age Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 28%
Haplotype Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 28%
Hattori, H., Suminoe, A., Wada, M., Koga, Y., Kohno, K., Okamura, J., Hara, T., & Matsuzaki, A. (2007). Regulatory polymorphisms of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia Research, 31(12), 1633-1640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leukres.2007.04.009
Regulatory polymorphisms of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. / Hattori, Hiroyoshi; Suminoe, Aiko; Wada, Morimasa et al.
In: Leukemia Research, Vol. 31, No. 12, 12.2007, p. 1633-1640.
Hattori, H, Suminoe, A, Wada, M, Koga, Y, Kohno, K, Okamura, J, Hara, T & Matsuzaki, A 2007, 'Regulatory polymorphisms of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia', Leukemia Research, vol. 31, no. 12, pp. 1633-1640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leukres.2007.04.009
Hattori H, Suminoe A, Wada M, Koga Y, Kohno K, Okamura J et al. Regulatory polymorphisms of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia Research. 2007 Dec;31(12):1633-1640. doi: 10.1016/j.leukres.2007.04.009
Hattori, Hiroyoshi ; Suminoe, Aiko ; Wada, Morimasa et al. / Regulatory polymorphisms of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In: Leukemia Research. 2007 ; Vol. 31, No. 12. pp. 1633-1640.
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title = "Regulatory polymorphisms of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia",
abstract = "The aim of this study is to determine whether the polymorphisms of the MDR1 gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The MDR1 gene polymorphisms, -2352 G > A, -934A > G, -692T > C (5′ regulatory region) and 3435C > T (exon 26), were examined in 157 ALL patients and 96 healthy children. The amounts of MDR1 mRNA were quantified in 54 healthy individuals using normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells to evaluate the effect of each polymorphism on the gene expression. The frequency of the G/G genotype of the -2352 G > A was significantly higher in ALL than in controls (74/109 versus 52/96, p = 0.04). The frequency of the T/T genotype of the 3435C > T was also significantly higher in ALL (29/118 versus 10/96, p = 0.006). In a haplotype analysis using the 5′ regulatory sites, the frequency of a certain haplotype was higher in ALL than in controls (59/90 versus 42/88, p = 0.048). When the -2352G > A was examined in different age groups, patients aged six or older were found to have the G/G genotype more frequently than the controls (42/51 versus 52/96, p = 0.0014), while no difference was observed in the younger age group. The amounts of MDR1 mRNA were significantly higher in either G/G or G/A genotype of the -2352 G > A than in A/A genotype (p = 0.04). The present study suggests that the genetic background of MDR1 may be associated with the development of childhood ALL, possibly due to a quantitative change in the MDR1 gene resulting from genetic polymorphisms.",
author = "Hiroyoshi Hattori and Aiko Suminoe and Morimasa Wada and Yuhki Koga and Kimitoshi Kohno and Jun Okamura and Toshiro Hara and Akinobu Matsuzaki",
note = "Funding Information: We thank Dr. S. Taniguchi for his excellent technical and scientific support, and all the participants in the Kyushu-Yamaguchi Children Cancer Study Group for providing the patient samples. This work was supported by grants from The Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan. Hattori H was supported by the research fellowships of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for Young Scientists.",
doi = "10.1016/j.leukres.2007.04.009",
journal = "Leukemia Research",
T1 - Regulatory polymorphisms of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia
AU - Hattori, Hiroyoshi
AU - Suminoe, Aiko
AU - Wada, Morimasa
AU - Koga, Yuhki
AU - Kohno, Kimitoshi
AU - Okamura, Jun
AU - Hara, Toshiro
AU - Matsuzaki, Akinobu
N1 - Funding Information: We thank Dr. S. Taniguchi for his excellent technical and scientific support, and all the participants in the Kyushu-Yamaguchi Children Cancer Study Group for providing the patient samples. This work was supported by grants from The Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan. Hattori H was supported by the research fellowships of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for Young Scientists.
N2 - The aim of this study is to determine whether the polymorphisms of the MDR1 gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The MDR1 gene polymorphisms, -2352 G > A, -934A > G, -692T > C (5′ regulatory region) and 3435C > T (exon 26), were examined in 157 ALL patients and 96 healthy children. The amounts of MDR1 mRNA were quantified in 54 healthy individuals using normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells to evaluate the effect of each polymorphism on the gene expression. The frequency of the G/G genotype of the -2352 G > A was significantly higher in ALL than in controls (74/109 versus 52/96, p = 0.04). The frequency of the T/T genotype of the 3435C > T was also significantly higher in ALL (29/118 versus 10/96, p = 0.006). In a haplotype analysis using the 5′ regulatory sites, the frequency of a certain haplotype was higher in ALL than in controls (59/90 versus 42/88, p = 0.048). When the -2352G > A was examined in different age groups, patients aged six or older were found to have the G/G genotype more frequently than the controls (42/51 versus 52/96, p = 0.0014), while no difference was observed in the younger age group. The amounts of MDR1 mRNA were significantly higher in either G/G or G/A genotype of the -2352 G > A than in A/A genotype (p = 0.04). The present study suggests that the genetic background of MDR1 may be associated with the development of childhood ALL, possibly due to a quantitative change in the MDR1 gene resulting from genetic polymorphisms.
AB - The aim of this study is to determine whether the polymorphisms of the MDR1 gene are associated with the development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The MDR1 gene polymorphisms, -2352 G > A, -934A > G, -692T > C (5′ regulatory region) and 3435C > T (exon 26), were examined in 157 ALL patients and 96 healthy children. The amounts of MDR1 mRNA were quantified in 54 healthy individuals using normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells to evaluate the effect of each polymorphism on the gene expression. The frequency of the G/G genotype of the -2352 G > A was significantly higher in ALL than in controls (74/109 versus 52/96, p = 0.04). The frequency of the T/T genotype of the 3435C > T was also significantly higher in ALL (29/118 versus 10/96, p = 0.006). In a haplotype analysis using the 5′ regulatory sites, the frequency of a certain haplotype was higher in ALL than in controls (59/90 versus 42/88, p = 0.048). When the -2352G > A was examined in different age groups, patients aged six or older were found to have the G/G genotype more frequently than the controls (42/51 versus 52/96, p = 0.0014), while no difference was observed in the younger age group. The amounts of MDR1 mRNA were significantly higher in either G/G or G/A genotype of the -2352 G > A than in A/A genotype (p = 0.04). The present study suggests that the genetic background of MDR1 may be associated with the development of childhood ALL, possibly due to a quantitative change in the MDR1 gene resulting from genetic polymorphisms.
U2 - 10.1016/j.leukres.2007.04.009
DO - 10.1016/j.leukres.2007.04.009
JO - Leukemia Research
JF - Leukemia Research


Ahrendt, L. W. A. 1961. Berberis and Mahonia a taxonomic revision J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 57:225.
National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. URL: https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=6844. Accessed 24 April 2019.