text:
\section{Introduction}

Soft cellular systems, that encompass foams, emulsions and biological tissues, are constituted of highly deformable -- yet almost incompressible -- units (bubbles, drops, cells), interacting through attractive adhesive interactions and soft steric repulsions. Interface
energy is key to the cohesion and the rigidity of these
systems, sometimes constituted solely of fluids. Under small strains, they behave elastically. Above a yield value, plastic rearrangements (called T1 events) occur, conferring to these systems a complex rheological behavior \cite{tlili_2015}. The relationship between the macroscopic response and the microscopic details, such as packing fraction and structural disorder, is still the subject of intense research activity \cite{Weaire_2008, Dollet_2014, Geminard_2018}.
Even the simplest case of quasistatic-regime -- in which the structure is at mechanical equilibrium at every time -- is far from being fully understood, in particular in the shear banding phenomenon.
Numerical tools are proved to be extremely useful to investigate the relationship between microscopic details and macroscopic mechanical response \cite{Kabla_2003, cox_shear_2006, Guyot_2019, cantat2018foams, Osborne_2017}. The cellular Potts model (CPM) is one of the standard numerical modeling of multicellular systems, with various applications ranging from foam coarsening to collective behaviors of biological cells. However, because of its lattice-based modeling technique, it has been rarely used to investigate mechanical properties of cellular systems, except for a few exceptions \cite{Jiang_1999, Raufaste_2007}.

In this paper, we present a rigorous implementation of quasistatic strain within CPM, offering a versatile tool to investigate interplay between mechanical properties and other processes at work in cellular systems, such as coarsening in foams, or cell division and cell death in biological tissues.
The outline of the paper is as follows: in Section \ref{Method} we introduce the cellular Potts model and show how it can be conveniently extended to simulate cellular systems under quasistatic strain. The method is compared with other existing approach, and extension to higher strain rates is discussed. In Section \ref{Benchmark} we test the proposed method by analyzing the shear strain of 2D dry foams. For a regular hexagonal foam, the shear modulus we obtained numerically agrees with the corresponding theoretical expression \cite{Princen_1983,khan_rheology_1986}. Yield strain is also analyzed. For disordered foams, we study the effect of disorder on the affinity of the displacement field and the shear modulus magnitude, and compare our results with those reported in literature.

\section{Modeling quasistatic strain with CPM \label{Method}}

\subsection{Cellular Potts Model}

Cellular Potts model (CPM), also called the Glazier–Graner–Hogeweg (GGH) model, is one of the most accepted models of a multicellular system.
It is widely used for simulating
cellular systems in various fields of physics or biology, such as coarsening and mechanics of foams \cite{Glazier1990,Jiang_1999}, tissue morphogenesis \cite{Hirashima_2017}, cell sorting \cite{Graner_1992} and collective cell motion in epithelial tissues \cite{Szabo_2010, Kabla_2012}.
The CPM is a lattice-based model in which each cell in the system is given a different label (cell ID), and each lattice site $k$ has a value $\sigma_k$ taken from the list of cell IDs. A given cell is then represented by the subset of lattice sites that have its cell ID.
A cell type $\tau(\sigma)$ can also be defined for each cellular domain. The CPM makes no assumption on the shape or the connectivity of the cellular domains, these properties are direct consequences of the energy terms. In particular, walls between adjacent cells are allowed to fluctuate, and T1 events happen spontaneously.
The CPM Hamiltonian $\mathcal{H}$ that characterizes 2D soft cellular systems reads  \cite{Graner_1992}:
\begin{equation}
	\mathcal{H}=\sum_{\substack{neighboring \\ sites  \langle k,l \rangle}}J_{\tau,\tau^\prime}\left(1-\delta_{\sigma_k,\sigma_l}\right)+\frac{B}{2A_0}\sum_{\substack{cells \\ i}}\left(A_i-A_0\right)^2.
 \label{eq:potts-energy}
\end{equation}
The first sum in Eq. (\ref{eq:potts-energy}) is carried over neighbouring sites $\langle k,l \rangle$ and represents the boundary energy: each pair of neighbours having unmatching indices determines a boundary and contributes to the boundary energy.
Here, $\sigma_k$ and $\sigma_l$ are the site values of site $k$ and $l$, respectively.
$\tau$ and $\tau^\prime$ are abbreviations for $\tau(\sigma_k)$ and $\tau(\sigma_l)$.
$J_{\tau,\tau^\prime}\left(=J_{\tau^\prime,\tau}\right)$ is the energy per unit contact length between cell types $\tau$ and $\tau^\prime$.
The second sum in Eq. (\ref{eq:potts-energy}) represents the compressive energy of the cells. $B$ is the effective 2D bulk modulus of a cell, $A_i$ is the area of cell $i$, and $A_0$ the \textit{nominal area}.

The state of the system is updated via a Monte Carlo algorithm: a lattice site is first selected randomly. A target label is then randomly selected amongst this site's neighboring labels, and the update is accepted or discarded following Metropolis-like rule which preserve the connectivity of cellular domains \cite{Durand_2016}.
The acceptance probability in this Monte Carlo scheme requires a temperature, which has to be chosen carefully. Setting the temperature to a small value is analogous to performing an energy minimization, which is the usual choice to study the structure of dry foams. Higher temperatures will induce fluctuations in the boundaries between adjacent bubbles. Further increase of the temperature leads to large topological rearrangements and is useful to model biological systems, the simulation temperature reflecting the cellular activity.

\subsection{Adding quasistatic strain to CPM}
A common way to introduce strain in numerical simulations is by changing the shape of the simulation box. After proper equilibration, static properties of the materials can be measured directly for any given strain.
However, such method cannot be used in lattice-based modeling techniques as CPM. Nevertheless, strain can be applied by adding appropriate terms in the Hamiltonian.
This approach has been used by Jiang and Glazier to simulate foams submitted to a time-dependent shear rate \cite{Jiang_1999}. In this study, shear is introduced by adding an energy contribution of the bubble boundaries, either in the bulk or those in contact with the two edges of the sample only, so that updates that move the wall in the direction of the shear are more likely to be accepted. The energy term added to the Hamiltonian is actually an energy gradient, and is kept constant throughout the simulation. In Monte Carlo, an energy gradient is analogous to a stress, so that the simulations are actually performed by applying a constant stress to the foam.
The same method has been used by Raufaste \textit{et al.} to simulate a foam flow around an obstacle \cite{Raufaste_2007}.
One great advantage of this method is that it does not require to wait for mechanical equilibration before incrementing the wall displacements. However, this approach has also a few drawbacks. First, when the strain energy term is applied on every bubble boundary (bulk strain), it overdetermines the displacement field. The case of a regular hexagonal foam is illustrative in this respect: the method implies an affine deformation of the bubble boundaries, which is not compatible with the Plateau's laws \cite{cantat2018foams}.
As we will discuss in Section \ref{sec:regular_foam}, exact resolution of the deformation field shows that only the midpoints of the films follow affine displacement \cite{Princen_1983,khan_rheology_1986}.
Similarly in \cite{Raufaste_2007}, the added energy term sets the rheological behavior of the foam, resulting in a plug flow of the foam in the channel.
Second, when the applied stress is larger than the yield value, the foam deformation produces a stress that opposes the one applied by the energy term. As a consequence, the actual shear rate of the simulation is not constant, but is the difference between the applied stress and the stress produced by the foam as an elastic response. This makes evaluating the actual shear strain quite difficult (in \cite{Jiang_1999} it is assumed that it is proportional to the number of MCS).

We develop here an alternate method to simulate quasistatic strain within CPM, while avoiding these drawbacks. It first requires the Potts lattice to be non-periodic in one direction, that we choose to be the $y$ direction. This non-periodicity effectively creates a foam encased between two walls. To simulate a given strain created by the movement of these walls, we impose the displacement of the bubbles that touch the edges $y=\pm L/2$, where $L$ is the size of the box in the $y$ direction. This is done by adding the following term to the Hamiltonian:
\begin{equation}
  \label{eq:harmonic-com}
  \mathcal H_{strain} = \sum_i \frac{k}{2} \delta_{i,e} \left| \mathbf{r}_i - \mathbf{r}^\star_{i} \right|^2,
\end{equation}
where $\mathbf{r}_i$ is the position of the center of mass (c.m.) of bubble $i$, and $\mathbf{r}^\star_{i}$ its the target position. For instance, to simulate a shear strain $\epsilon$ along the $x$ direction, $\mathbf{r}^\star_{i} =\epsilon ~ y_i \mathbf{e}_x$, where $\mathbf{e}_x$ is the unit vector along the $x$ axis.
The Kronecker delta $\delta_{i,e}$ in Eq. \ref{eq:harmonic-com} is there to restrict the application of the strain  to the bubbles in contact with the top and bottom edges of the box (symbolized with index $e$). The displacement and deformation of the bubbles in the bulk result only from the minimization of the total energy.

The constant $k$ acts as a spring coefficient. Higher values will impose a stronger restraint on the position of the c.m.. This value must be high enough so that the c.m. of each bubble stays in the vicinity of its target position, but not so high that it affects the shape of the bubbles.
It can be chosen empirically: starting from a low value, the constant $k$ can be increased until the average position of each c.m. is close enough to its target value (typically within a distance of $1$ pixel).
Alternatively, an estimation of a proper value can be obtained by considering the stress that these harmonic restraints apply on the bubbles. They create a potential energy gradient around the c.m. of bubble $i$, which is equivalent to a force $k \left( \mathbf{r}_i - \mathbf{r}^\star_{i} \right)$. This force is actually the shear stress that is applied to the system in order to induce the shear strain.
In the elastic regime, this stress is proportional to the strain, and depends only on the shear modulus. With an estimation of the shear modulus, we can find the value of $k$ that will induce an average distance between the c.m. and its target position of any arbitrary value, typically chosen to be of the order of a pixel. With this method, $k$ will depend linearly on the imposed shear strain.

The methodology to simulate quasistatic strain is then the following: starting from an unstrained foam, we slowly increase the applied strain $\epsilon$ over multiple simulations. The strain is kept constant over the course of a given simulation, and the final configuration is used as the starting point of the simulation at a higher strain. The increments of $\epsilon$ must remain small in comparison with $\ell/L$ (where $\ell$ is the typical size of a bubble), especially at yield strain and above, to ensure that the structure relaxes in accordance with a true quasistatic regime, {\it i.e.: } the succession of T1 events that would occur in a real foam is reproduced accurately.
When $\epsilon$ is incremented, bubbles at the boundary translate to their final positions over the course of just a few Monte Carlo steps (MCS). However, proper equilibration over the whole sample takes longer, and depends on both the temperature and the system size. We check that equilibrium is reached by monitoring the total energy, and run each simulation until the energy fluctuates around a steady value.

Ensemble averages and relevant quantities can be obtained for each value of the strain. In particular, the energy is used to extract the relevant information about elastic modulus and yield strain. In the elastic regime, the stress is proportional to the strain, so that the strain energy varies quadratically with the strain, with a prefactor that depends only on the size of the system and the effective elastic modulus. For instance, the energy of a 2D medium with surface area $\mathcal A$ under a shear strain $\epsilon$ is
\begin{equation}
  \label{eq:energy-strain}
  \mathcal E(\epsilon) - \mathcal E_0 = \mathcal A \frac{G}{2} \epsilon^2,
\end{equation}
where $\mathcal E_0$ is the energy at zero strain, and $G$ is the 2D shear modulus.
Yield strain is determined either by tracking the drop of strain energy or counting the frequency of T1 rearrangements.

\subsection{Validity beyond quasistatic regime}
In the quasistatic regime, viscous dissipation plays no role, and typical timescale of T1 rearrangements  \cite{Durand_2006} is much smaller than timescale of strain. Although it is tempting to simulate mechanics of cellular systems beyond quasistatic regime, it must be warned that CPM is a Monte Carlo simulation technique, and as such the kinetics of the relaxation process is determined by the Monte Carlo updating rule. Therefore, the rheological behavior in this regime will depend on the chosen updating rule. CPM traditionally uses Metropolis-like algorithm, because of its ability to mimic overdamped force-velocity behavior \cite{Glazier2007b}.

\section{Quasistatic shear of 2D foams \label{Benchmark}}

\subsection{Initial state preparation}

We test our method and assess its performances by simulating 2D foams under quasistatic shear strain.
Although liquid content can be readily incorporated in CPM, we assume the dry foam limit in this study.
We first simulate regular hexagonal foams, for which quasistatic shear deformation, shear modulus and yield strain can be calculated analytically. We then extend our study to polydisperse disordered foams, to check that our method allows us to capture the effect of disorder, and compare our results with those obtained in a previous study \cite{cox_shear_2006} using Surface Evolver, another popular numerical model for cellular systems \cite{Brakke_1992}.

For the regular hexagons, we use $100$ bubbles on a $10$ by $10$ arrangement. Periodic boundaries are used along the $x$ direction, but not along the $y$ direction, which effectively results in walls at the top and bottom of the simulation box. The initial and target surface area of the bubbles that lie at the boundaries are set to half of the surface area $A_0=1000$ pixels$^2$ of the other bubbles. This is done so that inter-bubble films meet with the boundaries at $90 \degree$ angles, which is expected for a foam at rest. Special care is taken so that the aspect ratio of the simulation box matches the aspect ratio of a regular hexagonal lattice ($2/\sqrt{3}$).

The polydisperse foam is created from a random distribution of points in a square box. A Voronoi tessellation is done on this array of points to generate the starting configuration. Each bubble is given a random target surface area $A_0$, following a normal distribution with an average of $1000$ pixels$^2$ and a standard deviation of $\Delta A =125$ pixels$^2$.
The foam is then equilibrated in consecutive stages: a temperature annealing is first performed with a small compressibility. Lowering the compressibility enhances topological rearrangements, resulting in faster and more thorough equilibration. In a second stage, the compressibility is progressively increased to a more realistic value.
Finally, the foam is sheared along the $x$ axis in both directions up to a strain of $0.1$. This final step ensures that the shear loading that will be performed in the following will not trigger many, if any, T1 events. At the end of this equilibration procedure, the standard deviation of the distribution of side numbers per bubble is found to be $\Delta n=0.48$.

In all our simulations, we set $J=1$ and $B=30$. Note that, as shearing is done at constant volume, the results are not really affected by the compressibility of the cells.

\subsection{Hexagonal foam \label{sec:regular_foam}}

\subsubsection{Displacement field and shear modulus}

For a regular, hexagonal foam, the deformation, and subsequently the elastic moduli can be calculated analytically~\cite{Princen_1983,khan_rheology_1986}:
since the foam cells are spatially periodic, for any deformation, the centers of the hexagonal cells move affinely with the bulk. Cell symmetry implies that the midpoints of each film also moves affinely. Further, in any deformation, the films remain planar, in accordance with Young and Laplace's equations. Note that, as a consequence, the threefold junctions between films do not move affinely.
We define the non-affine component of the displacement field as the actual displacement field to which the affine displacement field is subtracted. Figure \ref{fig:na-hex} shows the non-affine displacement field of both the bubble centers and the film junctions that we obtained numerically. In agreement with the theory, only bubble centers follow the affine displacement field.
\begin{figure}[h]
	\begin{center}
  \includegraphics[width=0.9\columnwidth]{na-hex2.pdf}

  \caption{Non-affine component of the displacement field of the bubble centers (in red) and threefold junctions between films (in blue) for a regular hexagonal foam under quasistatic shear (image corresponds to strain value $\epsilon=0.45$).}
  \label{fig:na-hex}
    \end{center}
\end{figure}

The exact stress-strain relationship has been calculated by Princen, yielding the following expression for the shear modulus~\cite{Princen_1983,khan_rheology_1986}:
\begin{equation}
  \label{eq:stress-strain}
  G_{\text{Princen}} = \frac{2 \lambda}{\sqrt{3} l_h} \frac{1}{\sqrt{\epsilon^2 + 4}},
\end{equation}
where $\lambda$ is the line tension (so a film of length $\ell$ has an energy of $2 \lambda \ell$) and $l_h$ is the length of the side of an hexagon. Equation \ref{eq:stress-strain} gives the shear modulus for a foam up to the yield point. For small strains, its expression simplifies to:
\begin{equation}
  \label{eq:shear-modulus}
  G_{\text{Princen}} = \frac{\lambda}{\sqrt{3}l_h}.
\end{equation}

Note that in CPM simulations, the line tension $\lambda$ is proportional to $J$: $\lambda=zJ$, where the prefactor $z$ depends on the range of interactions between lattice sites \cite{Magno_2015,Villemot_2020}
Actually, the underlying lattice introduces some anisotropy, so that $z$ depends slightly on the orientation of the film. Increasing the neighbor order helps to smooth out this anisotropy, but increases the computational cost. For this reason, we use fourth neighbour order (corresponding to 20 neighbors per pixel) in our simulations, which is a good compromise between cost and accuracy. However, a residual anisotropy can still have significant impact on the mechanical response of the simulated foam, as films tend to be pinned in orientations that minimize energy. This is especially pronounced for the regular hexagonal foam, whose films have three possible orientations only. For disordered foams, anisotropy of the line tension is somehow smoothed out by the wider orientational distribution of the films.

\begin{figure}[h]
  \includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{G-T}
  \caption{Dimensionless shear modulus $G_{\text{hex}}/G_{\text{Princen}}$ of an hexagonal foam as a function of the reduced temperature $T/J$. The orange line represents the linear fit over the range $T/J > 1.5$.}
  \label{fig:G-T}
\end{figure}

Fortunately, the effect of lattice anisotropy can be circumvented by increasing the simulation temperature, that has for effect to induce sampling over more film orientations. However, increasing the temperature also tends to increase the overall energy of the system, mostly because the fluctuating films are longer than at zero temperature. Precisely, when fluctuations are small, the increase in length of a film at temperature $T$ is proportional to its length at  zero temperature: $\delta \ell = \ell T/2\lambda a$, where $a$ ($a\sim 1$ pixel) is some cut-off length \cite{Villemot_2020}. Therefore, one must evaluate $G$ at different temperature values and then extrapolate its value at zero temperature to circumvent anisotropy artefacts.

For a given simulation temperature, a series of simulations are performed at different shear strains. A quadratic fit of $\mathcal E=f(\epsilon)$  gives us the numerical value of the shear modulus of the hexagonal foam $G_{\text{hex}}$.
The value of $G_{\text{hex}}$ as a function of the reduced temperature is reported on Fig.~\ref{fig:G-T}.
For temperatures $T/J\leq 1.5$, the energy does not vary quadratically with the strain, because of the anisotropy of the underlying lattice, leading to inaccurate values of $G_{\text{hex}}$. For temperature range  $T/J> 1.5$ on the other hand, the quadratic fit converges and the reported value  $G_{\text{hex}}$ varies linearly with the simulation temperature. We adjust the value of the prefactor $z$ such that the intercept of the linear fit of $G_{\text{hex}}$ is equal to the theoretical value $G_{\text{Princen}}$ (Eq. \ref{eq:shear-modulus}). We obtain  $z=10.50 \pm 0.07$, in very good agreement with other values reported in literature \cite{Kafer_2007, Marmottant_2009, Magno_2015,Villemot_2020}, and hence confirming the accuracy of the method.

\subsubsection{Yield strain}

\begin{figure}[h]
  \centering
  \subfloat[]{
    \includegraphics[width=0.45\columnwidth]{before-T1.png}
  } \hfill
  \subfloat[]{
    \includegraphics[width=0.45\columnwidth]{after-T1.png}
  }
  \caption{Configurations right before and after the creation of a shear band. The black line indicates the localization of the shear band.}
  \label{fig:shear-bands}
\end{figure}

Unlike shear modulus, yield strain of a regular hexagonal foam changes with the orientation of strain. With our chosen orientation (Fig. \ref{fig:na-hex}), the expected value is $2/\sqrt{3}$ \cite{Princen_1983, khan_rheology_1986}. Note that this theoretical value assumes that the foam is homogeneous and invariant by translation in both directions, so that at yield stain T1s occur simultaneously and uniformly in the hexagonal foam \cite{Princen_1983, khan_rheology_1986}.

As for the shear modulus, we study the evolution of the yield strain with temperature and extrapolate to zero temperature to circumvent any effect of the underlying lattice anisotropy  (Fig. \ref{fig:yield-strain}). Extrapolation leads to a yield strain value $0.74$ at zero temperature, which is significantly lower than the theoretical value. The cause of this discrepancy is the presence of the walls: in our simulations, as well as in real foams, the presence of these walls breaks the translational invariance in the $y$ direction, because films meet the walls at right angles \cite{cantat2018foams}.  As a consequence, films in the vicinity of the walls are smaller than in the bulk, as this can be seen in Fig. \ref{fig:shear-bands},
and the structure then relaxes through a line of T1s in the vicinity of one of the two walls at strain lower than the theoretical yield value.

\begin{figure}[h]
  \includegraphics[width=0.9\columnwidth]{yield-strain}
  \caption{Yield strain as a function of the reduced temperature.}
  \label{fig:yield-strain}
\end{figure}

Because our system is periodic in the $x$ direction, a shear band does not create any topological defect, it just changes the neighbouring of the bubbles that belong to the two rows that slide with respect to each other.
Therefore, the configuration right after the shear banding is still an hexagonal foam, but with a lower effective strain. This strain is actually lowered by a fixed amount: for a system of $N$ rows of bubbles, a translation of $1$ bubble to the side changes the strain by an amount $\Delta \epsilon = 2 / N \sqrt{3}$.
Fig.~\ref{fig:energy-shear-band} shows the reduced strain energy as a function of the shear strain, for a reduced temperature $T/J=2.26$. The abrupt drop in energy corresponds to a shear band.
The first curve on the graph is a quadratic fit of the simulation points below the yield strain of $0.51$. The second curve corresponds to the same parabola, but offset to the right by a quantity $\Delta \epsilon = 2 / 9\sqrt{3}$ (our simulation box contains $10$ rows, two of which are half rows). This second curve has no fitting parameter, and shows that after a shear band the system still has the same shear modulus.
\begin{figure}[h]
	\includegraphics[width=0.9\columnwidth]{energy-shear-band}
	\caption{Reduced strain energy $\mathcal E(\epsilon)/ \mathcal E_0-1$ as a function of the shear strain $\epsilon$ (Eq. \ref{eq:energy-strain}). The first orange curve is a quadratic fit of the simulation points below the yield strain of $0.51$. The second curve is identical but offset to the right by a quantity $\Delta \epsilon = 2 / 9\sqrt{3}$.}
	\label{fig:energy-shear-band}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Polydisperse foam}

We now test our method with a polydisperse, disordered foam. Structural disorder is known to affect the mechanical properties of foams \cite{cox_shear_2006, Hohler_2005}, so it is important to check that our method allows to detect the effect of structural disorder on the mechanical response of a 2D foam.
As for the monodisperse case, we first plot the non-affine component of the displacement field (see Fig. \ref{fig:na-poly}).
\begin{figure}[h]
  \includegraphics[width=0.9\columnwidth]{na-poly2.pdf}
  \caption{Non-affine component of the displacement field of the bubble centers (in red) and threefold junctions between films (in blue) for the polydisperse foam under quasistatic shear (image corresponds to strain value $\epsilon=0.10$).}
  \label{fig:na-poly}
\end{figure}
In contrast with the regular case, both the bubble centers and the threefold film junctions have a strong non-affine component.

\begin{figure}[h]
  \includegraphics[width=0.9\columnwidth]{energy-shear-poly}
  \caption{Reduced strain energy $\mathcal E(\epsilon)/ \mathcal E_0-1$ as a function of the shear strain $\epsilon$ (Eq. \ref{eq:energy-strain}). The orange curve is a quadratic fit.}
  \label{fig:energy-shear-poly}
\end{figure}
For the polydisperse foam, shearing was this time done along both  $+x$ and $-x$ directions, as shown on Fig.~\ref{fig:energy-shear-poly}. This setup improves the accuracy of the quadratic fit used to obtain the shear modulus, and allows us to check that there is no residual stress in the initial state

Once again, the shear modulus is measured at different temperatures, and then its zero temperature value is extrapolated from linear fit.
For each temperature, the temperature-dependent modulus $G_{\text{poly}}$ was obtained from a quadratic fit of the energy. This modulus was then divided by the shear modulus of the hexagonal foam $G_{\text{hex}}$ at same temperature and with same mean bubble area ($A_0=1000$ pixels$^2$). Note that the ratio $G_{\text{poly}}/G_{\text{hex}}$ is then independent of $z$.
Fig.~\ref{fig:G-T-poly} shows that this normalized modulus converges to a constant value as temperature is increased. This plateau value is $\sim 89\%$ of the value found for perfect hexagons in our simulation. This value is consistent with those obtained by Cox \& Whittick \cite{cox_shear_2006} with the Surface Evolver program \cite{Brakke_1992}, for foams with similar values of $\Delta A/\langle A\rangle$ and $\Delta n/\langle n \rangle$.

\begin{figure}[h]
  \includegraphics[width=0.9\columnwidth]{G-T-poly}
  \caption{Shear modulus of the polydisperse foam, normalized by the shear modulus of regular hexagonal foam with same mean bubble area and at same temperature, as a function of the reduced temperature $T/J$. The dashed red line represents the average value from simulations with $T/J > 1.5$.}
  \label{fig:G-T-poly}
\end{figure}

\section{Conclusion}
Numerical simulations are valuable tools to investigate the relationship between the mechanical response and the microscopic details of a cellular material, such as a foam or a biological tissue.
 The cellular Potts model is a standard numerical modeling tool of multicellular systems, with various applications ranging from foam coarsening to collective behaviors of biological cells. We have shown that quasistatic strain can easily be implemented in CPM, and checked
the accuracy of our method by analyzing the shear strain of 2D foams. For ordered foams, the shear modulus obtained numerically agrees well with the theoretical expression, and bubble centers follow affine displacement as expected. For disordered foams, bubble centers do not follow affine displacement and the shear modulus is found to be lower than for ordered foam with same average bubble area. We obtained good agreement with Surface Evolver simulations, another popular numerical model of multicellular systems. Systematic characterization of the effect of disorder will be investigated in a next study.
More generally, the implementation of quasistatic strain into CPM provides a versatile numerical tool to investigate the interplay between rheological behavior and additional structural changes that take place in cellular systems.

\acknowledgments
ANR (Agence Nationale de la Recherche) and CGI (Commissariat à l'Investissement d'Avenir) are gratefully acknowledged for their financial support of this work through Labex SEAM (Science and Engineering for Advanced Materials and devices), ANR-10-LABX-0096 and ANR-18-IDEX-0001.

\input{biblioCPM.bbl}

\end{document}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
HomeCrypto CornerCryptidsAlmas
By Ben Cryptids, Crypto Corner 3 Comments
The Almas are reported to be hairy bipedal hominid creatures that are said to be found across central Asia, Siberia, Mongolia and Kazakhstan. The first reported sightings of the Almas date back to the 1400's. The name 'Almas' is used to refer to this type of hominid rather than a specific creature and is taken from Mongolian language, literally meaning 'wild man'.
Sightings of the Almas continue to be reported in the present day usually describing the Almas as cave men or neanderthal like creatures. The individual Almasty is described to walk upright and is covered in hair which ranges from red to dark brown in coloration. Only the face of an Almasty is apparently free from hair and sightings report the Almasty's skin to be dark.
Some accounts have reported that the hands of the Almas are free from hair, revealing long slender fingers and it has been reported that the Almas also sport large feet similar to that of the bigfoot. The shape of the Almas skull differs from a human skull and is described as having large prominent brow lines and jaws in comparison to a flat nose and a flat slanted forehead.
Contrary to the common description provided above, in 1964 Professor Boris Porchnev described the Almas as having skulls shaped like a 'cone' and commented that their dental structure was very similar to humans with the Almas having slightly larger canines.
Almas - artist impression
Professor Boris Porchnev even claimed to have found today's descendants of the Almas and that they are a humanoid species that live in underground caves. Professor Porchnev went on to describe the Almas as being very athletic and living off a diet of meat, fruits and vegetables. He also reported they were very foul smelling.
Zeta Reticuli Greys
The Devil Goat
Fear Liath
Emperor Pontran
I shot one of these Almas with my blowgun. It left a blood trail that smelled like shit. This was in the foothills of the Himalayas in 1953. I never saw one again, but I did find some remains in the early 1960's.
See my historic findings at http://www.almaadventure.com.
Please watch your language. This is a site made for children to do research
uzyr400
I agree, peeps need to watch language here….IMO

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


How moving to Berlin changed my relationship to money.
Photo credit: Artis Pupins, CC BY 2.0.
Last year, my New Year's Money Resolution was to become a person who is good with cash, broadly defined. It's fitting then, that in the intervening year I pulled up stakes and moved to Berlin, Germany, a city that operates more or less entirely on a cash basis.
The only places that accept a Kreditkarte are chain stores like grocery stores and pharmacies. Everything else, from taxicabs to corner stores, demands Bargeld — cash. (Perhaps not coincidentally, Bar is a noun that can mean either "cash" or, predictably, "bar.") Luckily, Berlin is a relatively inexpensive city, and its cash demands are low compared to the antimatter of pocket change in New York City. Venmo has yet to reach the continent, but it isn't too great a burden to spot a friend or two a round at the bar — a beer will typically set you back between €2,50 and €4 at a bar, or between €0,90 and €2 at a Spätkauf, or corner store.
Even so, the cash-only learning curve has been steep, and made steeper by the fact that €1 and €2 euro coins feel to my callused American fingers like pocket change that is somehow, miraculously, sufficient for a coffee, or a Berliner, or a half-liter of beer. In the first few days, shelling out coins for actual goods seemed like an exchange-rate magic trick, but watching the euro bills shrink in size in my wallet, from a large, khaki €50 to smaller, Monopoly-blue €5s, the real weight of my apparent change becomes clearer.
In New York, much of the time, I operated under a private delusion of "cash" and "money" being somehow separate — the former in my pocket, the latter in my bank account — and Berlin's aversion to plastic money has forced me to reckon with this contradiction. Day-to-day, I have very little access to the "money" in my American bank account; I bank with Bank of America, which is affiliated with Deutsche Bank, though apparently not affiliated enough to prevent foreign transaction fees. Additionally, Deutsche Bank is based in Frankfurt, some five hours southwest of Berlin, and Deutsche Bank–affiliated ATMs seem to me sparser here than other large national banks.
In order to avoid unnecessarily large foreign transaction fees, getting cash requires a special trip to an ATM a few U-Bahn stops away, and a touch of prospecting to hit the exchange rate on a good day. (When I first lived in Germany, during a semester abroad in 2009, the exchange rate was around €1,40 to the dollar; these days it's closer to €1,10.) I usually make a trip on Sundays, when little else is open or going on. Once I leave the ATM, unless I'm buying toothpaste or groceries — for which I also have to pay foreign transaction fees — my cash is every cent I have. When deciding whether to buy something, or when settling up with the bartender, I've stopped thinking of any of the cards in my wallet — the money they represent isn't an option, so they aren't really real, sort of.
So far, I've managed to get by in Berlin on about €60 per week. I live a directionless, tourist-adjacent life at the moment, spending a few hours "writing" in a cafe, a few hours window-shopping, and a few more drinking cheap Pilsner with friends. I could of course be eating more, and even drinking more, but so far €60 has been a decent cut-off — less than $70 USD (as of this writing) and enough for groceries, the occasional Döner Kebap, and at least enough beer to make it through a few months of frigid humidity and 4 p.m. sunsets.
If I had any real money coming in, my self-imposed cash ceiling would be a tremendous financial boon — the realized aim of what a friend of mine calls "cash-only life," and without the tempting bad habit of reaching for my debit card to spare an unbroken €10 or €5 bill. But given that my income is reduced to only what I earn writing (as here) or freelance editing, my €60/week has left me just barely in the red so far, albeit more comfortably than the rollercoaster of rent checks and direct deposits of my life in New York.
Like a flea in a jar, my good money behavior is a direct result of the constraints of my environment; I can only wonder whether the cash-only self-control I've attained here could survive a move back to a place with card readers on every store counter, cash back at the pharmacy and grocery store, and fee-free ATMs on every other corner. I'd like to think it could, but then I remind myself that cash-only living requires quite a bit more cash in other places. As palatable as it may be right now to commit to spending €60 in a week, I doubt pulling $160 out at my local ATM in Brooklyn — an initial $60 for the week, then another $100 two or three days later after I've run out of cash and still need to buy groceries — would afford me a similar level of buying power.
With enough practice, and enough impoverished self-restraint, maybe I could live on cash alone in any city. I could limit every cent of my spending money to cash-on-hand, and grant myself a glimpse into my larger financial reality just once a week, when I make my pilgrimage to the cash machine for a little more to live on. Or maybe I should just stay in Berlin.
John Sherman is a writer living in Berlin.


text:
from __future__ import unicode_literals

from uuid import uuid1

from django.db.models import (
    BooleanField,
    EmailField,
    CASCADE,
    Manager,
    ManyToManyField,
    Model,
    OneToOneField,
    UUIDField,
)
from django.urls import reverse
from django.utils.encoding import force_text, python_2_unicode_compatible

from ..events.models import Interest

def create_token():
    return Token.objects.create()

@python_2_unicode_compatible
class Token(Model):

    uuid = UUIDField(unique=True, default=uuid1)

    def __str__(self):
        return force_text(self.uuid)

class SubscriberManager(Manager):

    def from_uuid(self, uuid):
        try:
            token = Token.objects.select_related('subscriber').get(uuid=uuid)
        except Token.DoesNotExist:
            raise InvalidToken
        try:
            return token.subscriber
        except Subscriber.DoesNotExist:
            raise InactiveToken

@python_2_unicode_compatible
class Subscriber(Model):

    email = EmailField(unique=True)
    is_confirmed = BooleanField(default=False)
    token = OneToOneField(Token, on_delete=CASCADE)
    interests = ManyToManyField(Interest)

    objects = SubscriberManager()

    def __str__(self):
        return self.email

    def save(self, *args, **kwargs):
        if self.token_id is None:
            self.token = Token.objects.create()
        return super(Subscriber, self).save(*args, **kwargs)

    def get_absolute_url(self):
        return reverse('subscriptions', kwargs={'uuid': self.token.uuid})

class InvalidToken(Exception):
    pass

class InactiveToken(Exception):
    pass

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Scientists from the Brigham Young University in the USA have found out by eye-analyses that relationships can help you to remain Stress calm and focused: Who was supported by the spouse in the case of tricky tasks, able to master emerging Stress better.
Forty couples should be solved on the Computer confusing task. A part of them worked alone, the others received indirect assistance through your spouse who gave you the Hand. While you knobelten to the tasks was recorded, your pupil diameter continuously by an infrared camera, which is a direct Signal for the stress response of the body.
Stressed by all participants, but those who were supported by their spouses, got used to much faster at the task and you could &ndash with less Stress to do; the pupillary reactions were significantly lower. Professor Wendy Birmingham, who led the study, said: "If we have a spouse in us, can help us to cope with the Stress we have in life."
Measurements of the effect of interpersonal relationships on the pupillary response in real-time, there has been hardly. Steven Luke, a psychology Professor at BYU, explained: "People react within 200 milliseconds on Stress. It can immediately be measured, how someone reacts to Stress, and whether social support changed this."


History is replete with people's failures to anticipate the impact of technological change. Are we making the same mistake with financial technology (fintech)?
The European Business Review magazine welcomes a new regular editorial series that hosts reporting on renowned museums, cultural centres, galleries, artistic foundations and interviews with their Directors, Curators, as well as with lead personalities of the artistic scene.


text:
Easy money: Record breaking rent for Cambridge driveway at £4,500 a year
A driveway is being rented for £375 a month and is a 20 minute walk to the city centre
Raymond Brown
Traffic Warden issuing a ticket (Image: Keith Jones)
A driveway in Cambridge is now being rented out for £375 per month which is believed to be a record-breaking £4,500 per year.
The space is being rented for the sky-high fee and is a 20 minute walk to the city centre as residents cash in on the city's congestion and shortage of parking spaces.
Motorists are willing to pay top dollar to avoid being fined by traffic wardens or stump up the more than £20 a day it can cost to park in Cambridge City Council car parks.
The £4,500 per year drive is off Barton Road, Newnham and is advertised on yourparkingspace.co.uk.
The description reads: "Space in the driveway of my house in a cul-de-sac off Barton Road, within fifteen to twenty minutes walking distance of central Cambridge."
The average cost of renting out a drive in the city is about £200 per month - or £2,500 per year - but prices vary widely.
Previously a parking space in Cambridge was snapped up for £3,000, as the News reported. The tiny strip of land at the back of Coldham's Lane is just 17ft 10in by 10ft.
And savvy residents are coining in more than £2,000 a year renting out their drives to motorists desperate fora safe and secure parking space.
Charles Cridland, founder of YourParkingSpace.co.uk, previously told the News: "It's like a gold rush, huge numbers of homeowners are renting out their driveways, earning up to £400 per month in London and £2,000 per year in Cambridge helped in part by Eric Pickles giving the green light to driveway rentals last year.
"It's an easy way to make an extra one to two thousand pounds a year. Driveways close to Cambridge station are in particularly high demand, with homeowners currently charging prices between £100 and £160 per month."
Drivers are finding it cheaper to rent car parking spaces rather than stump up the sky-high prices at Cambridge City Council run car parks.
The boom in the number of residents renting out driveways in Cambridge came after then Communities Secretary Eric Pickles stopped councils from fining people for cashing in on the shortage of parking spaces.
The Minister announced the move after councils began threatening households with fines of up to £20,000 for renting out their driveways without planning permission.
Residents can now rent a parking space without planning permission.
By 2014, hundreds of residents were now renting out their driveways in the city after it was named as the most expensive to park outside London.
Cambridge City Centre


text:
glazedkoala
Ethan joined Mar 10, 2014
The designer, developer, and artist for Super Happy Fun Block!
Puzzle Balance 1: Complexity
Oct 6 2014 glazedkoala Blog
Recently I released a new beta build of Super Happy Fun Block to testers. There were a few mechanic changes, some art changes, and some new puzzles. The biggest change however was to existing puzzles. The order players encounter them in was completely changed and many were adjusted slightly to be easier. This was to address a problem that players have had since the first build of the game: it was just too hard. In a way, I take a lot of pride in this fact. I set out to make a puzzle game that really required people to think; that required players to be smart, not just make them feel smart. I wanted each puzzle to be unique and interesting. But when players are struggling through very early puzzles, or worse - struggling through every single puzzle, it's a problem. It's stressful and it's unpleasant. To figure out how to make a puzzle easier while still remaining interesting I had to determine what actually made a puzzle difficult. The answer is a number of factors, but they can be grouped into three basic categories: complexity, exploration, and intuitiveness. This post will be covering complexity.
Complexity is a no brainer. A more complex puzzle is harder. What's a little more interesting is what makes a puzzle complex. Many games seem to think that the important thing here is making a puzzle longer. If a puzzle takes more steps to solve, it is harder than a puzzle that takes less. This is definitely a factor, especially when combined with other techniques to ramp up difficulty, but it's actually a bad way to measure a puzzle's complexity. A much better indicator is the number of plausible actions a player can take at any given step. A plausible action is something the player can do (press a button, push a block, cut a rope, shoot a bird) that appears to be a possible step towards solving a puzzle. If a player thinks ahead, they may be able to determine that the action is incorrect without even attempting it, but for now let's assume they aren't thinking ahead.
Step Count
Imagine a puzzle will take a player 20 actions to complete. This certainly sounds complicated. But if there's only ever one plausible action available to them, then it's actually quite simple. The player just does the one action available to them and moves on. We can picture this puzzle as the following maze:
At first glance this maze might look complex to somebody. It's certainly tightly packed in parts. But if you just start the maze you'll find that there are no dead ends. There are 20 turns, but never any branching paths. Despite appearances, the maze wouldn't be any simpler if it were a straight line.
Plausible Action Count
What truly increases the complexity of a puzzle is the number of plausible actions at any given point. Imagine a puzzle that starts with four plausible actions. If a player randomly tries one, they find that there are now four new plausible actions they can take. Each of those leads to four more possible actions. Each of those actions either obviously lead to failure when attempted or, in one case, is the correct solution. This puzzle has 64 possible "paths" that could lead to the solution (4^3). Let's look at a maze that has just four plausible actions followed by four plausible actions - 16 paths (4^2). Each split is colored to help you spot them.
This is much more complicated than the first maze. Trying every possible path at random to find a solution would take a long time, so now a player is more likely to try to think ahead. Perhaps they can easily eliminate a junction that dead ends quickly (like green). Maybe they'll try to start the maze from the end instead of the beginning (in this case, that'd get you the solution quickly). The important thing to note here is that we've created a much more complicated maze which encourages a player to think before blindly diving into it.
Lost In A Straight Hallway
In a puzzle game like Super Happy Fun Block, this maze belies the actual complexity the player experiences. In a maze, you can clearly see where there are splits in the path and, importantly, you can see where there are no splits in the path. If a player ran into a puzzle with this many possible paths, they may not actually identify where the splits even exist. They may only notice 2 of the 4 possible paths they can take. If the paths they easily identify appear to dead-end, they won't know where to start looking for missed paths.
Here, grey paths represent actions the player thinks may exist that they simply haven't been able to see. Players may spend all of their time looking for alternate actions to try where there are none. I call this "getting lost in a straight hallway." As the designer, it may seem obvious to you that the action a player took is the ONLY way that player can advance to the next step towards the solution. The player can never think this with 100% confidence. The best way to prevent this from happening is to design in a way which helps players identify where their options exist.
There are a few important things to take away from these ideas on complexity.
Long puzzles, with multiple steps but few or no options, are deceptively easy. These make for good introductory puzzles or breaks between challenges later in the game.
Even having one step with multiple options can greatly increase the difficulty for a player.
Help a player identify where options actually exist to decrease difficulty. Otherwise players may get stuck looking for options where there are none.
Check in next week for a post about exploration and what it means in puzzles!
Indie DB
Nov 4 2021 2,659 members Official
Indie games are changing the world, one giant pixel at a time. With Indie DB we aim to support independent developers and their games, by providing them...
ModRealm4
Superhappyfunblock.com
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Axel Goes to Mars. Uff-da!
Ve sent dem lots of money fer our Martian hide avay.
Dat Helga vouldn't need her girdle, floating tru de air.
And taste yust like good lutefisk (wid maybe scales of green).
Yah, dat vould be a humdinger – to be an astro-nut.
It came widdout a refund check, and Helga nearly cried.
I yust paid fer our tickets on da next flight out tew Wenus!
Poverty: The One in Ten.
The one who lost his job and finds it now hard to subsist.
I delivered papers till the weather froze my car.
I have had to make a feast from one granola bar.
When the bank met my request for assistance with guffaws.
And I discovered that the world treats poverty like sin.
The way the other ladies do; she now has godly stress.
'Tomorrow will be better' we have chanted ev'ry day.
But the wolf is at the door and settled down for a long stay.
Struggling to keep my head above a sea of debt.
It's just that mac and cheese is all they had at the food shelf.
Without the magic sticker they will toss you into jail!
A boat through Minnesota, they have trolls that grab your nose.
Or guess their middle name or agree to paint a barn.
Peering down your chimney and then snitching all your pies.
And ev'ry bureaucrat leads snowmen out to find more flakes.
Me with probiotics or a knotted Windsor tie.
Without a bedtime story—which I think was pretty stark.
She wouldn't bother to get up and fetch me a pecan.
A bar of soap inside my mouth was good enough for me.
And poisoned me with sugar in my cereal and mush.
She let my laundry pile up, let my shoe laces all fray.
You never would mistake her for a stainless Doris Day!
And didn't care when I ate apples green and quite unripe.
My mother fell down on the job of making me behave.
I'm sorry to report that she was NOT the perfect slave.
Here in Minnesota, with its ice in fits and starts.
Minnesota is a great place to be COMING FROM.
Even Sinclair Lewis couldn't take it anymore.
Writers here go crazy – you can very nearly time it.
But came the day he had to take a real aesthetic flyer.
When I get the palm, off to Hawaii I'll be progressing!


text:
Q: Fancybox issue. Duplicate images With the modules fancybox i try to show a photo gallery in a modal page (fancybox).
The problem is that the images are showing 11 times and i don't know why. I already search and i use the correct syntax.
Here is my code:
JQUERY
$(".testGatorade[rel=group1]").fancybox({
            'speedIn'        :    200,
            'speedOut'        :    200,
            'overlayShow'    :    false,
            'modal'          : true,
            'showCloseButton' : true,
            'titleShow'       : true,
            'titlePosition'   : 'over',
            'titleFormat'        : function(title, currentArray, currentIndex, currentOpts) {
                return 'Image ' + currentIndex + ' / ' + currentArray.length + (title.length ? '   ' + title : '') + '';
            }
        });

HTML

Thanks for helping,
i work on it since 4 days.

A: I solved duplicate images in fancybox by adjusting the jQuery selector(I just modified the selected class name).More practical information about usage of fancybox

A: I have a similar problem and in my case it is caused by non-standard-conform use of the a-tag.
I have non-inline-tags within the a-tag (divs and imgs), which should be ok by html5-standards (see here: http://html5doctor.com/block-level-links-in-html-5), but is not valid before that.
Mozilla and Chrome render this to a standard-conform a-tag by duplicating / multiplying the a-tag. (you can verify that with the DOM Inspector)
And duplicate a-tags mean duplicate images in your fancybox gallery...
Solution would be to use standard-conform a-tags, so instead of this:

...

...

use this:

...

...

Maybe I could help with this...

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Bamboo Orchid by Kerri Ligatich - 7.125" x 10.000"
Bamboo Orchid metal print by Kerri Ligatich. Bring your artwork to life with the stylish lines and added depth of a metal print. Your image gets printed directly onto a sheet of 1/16" thick aluminum. The aluminum sheet is offset from the wall by a 3/4" thick wooden frame which is attached to the back. The high gloss of the aluminum sheet complements the rich colors of any image to produce stunning results.
Thank you Sharon for the feature in the Hawaii group!
Thank you Michael for the feature in the Beautiful Hawaii group!
Thanks Marilyn for the feature in the I Love Orchids group!
Thank you jrr and Kay!
These Bamboo Orchids grow wild on my property on the Big Island of Hawaii. Some have stems 5 to 6 feet tall.


text:
Usage of images, videos and web texts
ESA/Hubble images, videos and web texts are released under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license and may on a non-exclusive basis be reproduced without fee provided they are clearly and visibly credited. Detailed conditions are below.
The full image or footage credit must be presented in a clear and readable manner to all users, with the wording unaltered (for example: "ESA/Hubble"). Web texts should be credited to ESA/Hubble (except when used by media). The credit should not be hidden or disassociated from the image footage. Links should be active if the credit is online. See the usage rights Q&A section on this page for guidance.
ESA/Hubble materials may not be used to state or imply the endorsement by ESA/Hubble or any ESA/Hubble employee of a commercial product or service;
We request a copy of the product sent to us to be indexed in our archive;
If an image shows an identifiable person, using that image for commercial purposes may infringe that person's right of privacy, and separate permission should be obtained from the individual.
If images or visuals are changed significantly from the original work (apart from resizing, cropping), we suggest that the changes are mentioned after the credit line. For example "Original image by ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser), warping and recolouring by NN"
Note that this general permission does not extend to the use of ESA/Hubble's logo, which shall remain protected and may not be used or reproduced without prior and individual written consent of ESA/Hubble. Owners of external websites wishing to link to the ESA/Hubble web site may use ESA/Hubble's logo for the link, provided they have obtained prior authorisation from ESA/Hubble and on the condition that such use is clearly identifiable as a web link.
Also note that music, scientific papers and code on this site are not released under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license and can not be used for non-ESA/Hubble products.
By reproducing ESA/Hubble material, in part or in full, the user acknowledges the terms on which such use is permitted.
Usage rights Q&A
Our basic intention is to encourage the use of our material and we take a common-sense approach to crediting: our only concern is that you credit clearly, visibly and unambiguously and that the credit is not separated from the image/footage/text. We understand that the most appropriate way of doing so may vary from case to case. See the Q&A below for some common examples.
Q: I want to use the footage in a YouTube video. Is it OK just to put the credit in the text description that appears next to the video?
A: No, as this is hidden inside a tab. Also it is not visible if the video is embedded in another website. Please include the full credit 'burned in' or overlaid on the video, or clearly visible as a credit at the end.
Q: I want to upload a Hubblecast to my YouTube channel, or embed this in my blog. Do I need to add a credit 'burned in' or overlaid on the video?
A: Hubblecast videos already have a credit at the end, so you do not need to edit it.
Q: I am a producer for a TV programme and wish to use your images and footage. Do I need to overlay the credit on the image?
A: You do not need to, provided the credit is clearly visible and reproduced in full at the end of the programme.
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A: No. Please reproduce the credit in full. This should normally be on the page which the picture is presented on, or on the facing page.
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A: No. Provided it is clearly visible and identified as being the credit for the cover image, the credit can appear in another prominent place in your publication. This could, for example, be the back cover, the inside front cover or the editorial page.
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A: No. Images and videos published on spacetelescope.org are, unless explicitly stated otherwise, cleared for reuse without needing to contact the individuals or organisations listed. Their names must not be removed from the credit, however.
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A: Yes. We suggest that you mention the changes after the credit line, for example: "Original image by ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser), warped and recoloured by NN".
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Q: Can I just overlay the ESA/Hubble logo instead of the credit?
A: No. The use of the ESA/Hubble logo is controlled and it must not be reproduced without permission.
Q: Do these copyright terms also apply to images and footage from HubbleSite.org?
A: NASA's HubbleSite.org has similar but slightly different conditions. Any material made available on the ESA/Hubble website at spacetelescope.org can be reproduced without seeking separate permission from HubbleSite.org or other organisations, even if it also appears on their website.
Q: I am a journalist. I want to use the text of a press release in a news report. Do I need to credit you?
A: No. News media are excepted from the requirement to credit the text. (You must, however, properly credit any images or videos you use).
Q: I am an editor of a publishing company. I want to use text from spacetelescope.org in a book. Do I need to credit you?
A: No, media including book publishers are exempted from crediting text.
Q: How should I credit text taken from spacetelescope.org?
A: Please credit us as "ESA/Hubble".
Q: I am an artist and I have produced artwork based on Hubble images. Can I sell my artwork for my profit?
A: Yes, artwork you produced based on Hubble images may be sold for your own profit as long as you credit clearly and visibly.
If you have further questions, or are in any doubt, please contact hubble@eso.org


text:
The Dystopian Future in Which Almost No One Owns a Car
By this point readers are more than familiar with the previously unthinkable infringements on our traditional rights and liberties due to "health and safety" lockdowns that the state has inflicted upon us over the last year. While thankfully more and more restrictions are being lifted, it is important not to forget the period of veritable universal house arrest that was enacted in many states, in which even the freedom to go for a drive was denied to us. It unfortunately seems inevitable that we will face such scenarios again when a convenient excuse comes along, though I fear that the next time will be even worse thanks to the advent of self-driving cars.
Self-driving cars seem like a truly amazing advancement in human technology. As someone who is not particularly fond of driving, I once followed their development with great interest and hopeful anticipation. However, the advent of lockdowns as an acceptable government policy has shown just a taste of the kind of dangers that would come with their widespread adoption. While they would liberate us from many of the dangers of the road and free up time in which to work or enjoy ourselves on a ride, the price of this liberation is actually an unprecedented level of government control.
Some advocates of self-driving cars argue that their adoption would mean that very few people would actually own a vehicle anymore, and that instead everyone would basically Uber everywhere. Oftentimes such predictions are espoused by people who lament how evil American prosperity is and cringe at the thought of our car culture's carbon footprint.
It is not difficult to see how this could go very wrong. Can you imagine how much worse government lockdowns would have been at their height last year if the state merely needed to apply pressure to Uber-like ride services to cease general operation to stop people from moving? Ride services would almost certainly be forced to require government-issued documents in order to book a ride in such a scenario, leaving the vast majority of the population completely stranded and unable to go anywhere.
Fortunately, there are many reasons to believe that without massive government intervention America is not likely to willingly let go of its deeply ingrained car culture in favor of ubiquitous Ubering.
However, even if people do own their self-driving cars, the danger remains.
Tesla is a case in point. Unlike a "traditional" car that drives off the lot and disappears into the traffic, Tesla cars are perpetually connected to the internet and Tesla itself. As the pioneer in self-driving cars, it seems likely that other manufacturers will also build around Tesla's concept, which is itself similar to numerous other "smart appliance" trends in everything from house lighting to fridges, ovens, and washing machines. While this connectivity has great uses, such as allowing repairs to be completed remotely, the danger is obvious.
Customers have complained about having features of their Tesla being removed without their notice or authorization, prompting one reporter to remark that "if someone buys a used car with cruise control, there isn't an expectation that the manufacturer will then arrive and ask to remove it," yet something similar has already happened. Similarly, Tesla collects vast amounts of data from its cars, which is no doubt useful and needed for continuing to improve the system and work out kinks, but it is dangerously naïve to believe that such data would remain outside the reach of the government if it wanted it.
Finally, the same danger with universal Ubering still remains. Tesla or any self-driving car that would naturally require some level of internet connection can be remotely shut down. As cool as Tesla may seem, the odds are very slim that it would defy a state order to render its fleet inoperable in the name of "public safety" or any other excuse the government may come up with.
Think back to the hysteria of last spring. You are kidding yourself if you believe that people like Governor Whitmer of Michigan wouldn't have ordered all cars rendered inoperable until "essential workers" were granted permission to drive if such a thing had been within her power.
The picture becomes even more bleak if one thinks of the nefarious uses such control could be used for beyond "public health" lockdowns. What if our current cancel culture craziness were to continue into a death spiral that resulted in something akin to the Chinese social credit system? Such a thing seems unthinkable—"this is America," after all. But if in 2019 we had been visited by a time traveler who told us that in a year Americans would be forbidden from leaving their homes or going to church and that businesses would be forced to close en masse, we likely would have thought such a person was crazy. Yet here we are.
It is easy to see all the benefits that would come with self-driving cars, but at the end of the day the potential for dramatically increased government control and abuse is horrifying to contemplate.
The Right to Private Property Implies A Social Liability, Not a Private Privilege!
Made in Britain: Handcrafted jewellery brand, 'The Silver Stable'


Are you having trouble finding a Medicare doctor in your area? Most doctors participate in Medicare, so finding a doctor normally isn't an issue.
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Call 1-800-MEDICARE (1-800-633-4227) and ask for assistance.
There are several keys to finding a Medicare doctor.
The first is to ask if the doctor is accepting new patients. The annual Medicare doc fix is frustrating to doctors and patients alike. As a result, some doctors are limiting the number of Medicare patients they are willing to accept.
Once you find a doctor, ask them if they accept Medicare assignment.
If you have original Medicare and a Medigap plan, finding a Medicare doctor is much easier than it is for those who bought a Medicare Advantage plan. Almost every doctor and hospital participates in Medicare but less than half the doctors in Georgia accept Medicare Advantage plans. Even if you find a Medicare Advantage doctor, they may not take your particular plan.
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Japan as a "Littoral zone culture"
The Samurai Archives Citadel Forum Index // The Bakumatsu to Meiji
JLBadgley
Tsushima no Kami
Forum Kanrei
Location: Washington, DC, USA
Posted: Sun Feb 20, 2011 11:47 pm Post subject: Japan as a "Littoral zone culture"
Okay, so I've been off studying a bit further inland from Japan lately, reading Christopher I. Beckwith's Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present (2009). In general, it is a very thought-provoking work, if overly ambitious (all of that in only 500 pages?), but some of the bits on Japan really get to me.
I realize this isn't his forte, but when he refers to Toyotomi Hideyoshi as the "shogun" of Japan, it tends to make me wonder if he has really studied anything about the country and the period. Thus, when he makes a statement like the following, it really makes me shake my head:
"There are some important reasons why Japan 'modernized' or 'Westernized' so quickly and became the lone Asian power among the otherwise exclusively European and American group of nations ruling most of the world in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As an island country, Japan was a Littoral zone culture familiar with ships, the sea, an maritime trade. Compared to the peoples of the continental Asian empires founed by Central Eurasians, there was not as much of a conceptual or practical gap for the Japanese to bridge in order to catch up with the European maritime powers. Japan also had an unusually high literacy rate, partly due to the 'temple school' system. And finally the country had not in reality been completely close but had slowly assimilated some of the most important developments of European science via the 'Dutch learning,' translation of books acquire through the Dutch trading post in Nagasaki harbor." (Emphasis added).
Now, I'm willing to admit that the relatively high rate of literacy and selective access to "Dutch learning" was no doubt a key factor in keeping Japan informed on what was going on. However, I don't think I've ever seen anyone try to make the claim that Japan's maritime skills were on par, let alone exceeding, those of the rest of Asia. Granted, Japan was an island nation, but most of what I read of their attempts at crossing even the relatively short distance to Korea often seems to be far behind the abilities of the Chinese, Koreans, and Ryukyuan sailors. Furthermore, although for a period "wako" were greatly feared, that seems to be more for their ferociousness as warriors and not necessarily for their sailing abilities. Finally, while there were "red seal" ships going out and coming back, I had always been under the impression that most of the trade was through ships from other countries coming to Japan, and not the other way around--especially during the period when Japan was closed.
I'd say that the real reason Japan became a power was their ability to quickly (about 30 years) acquire the necessary skills from Britain, France, etc. I don't see their "island culture" coming into it except in that they were able to keep themselves insulated from outside (i.e. European) influences that weakened some of the continental powers; even when they were forced to open, they were still able to maintain some control over their own destiny, rather than just folding to external pressures.
Thoughts? Am I off-base and missing something in this equation?
Obenjo Kusanosuke
Kii no Kami
2009 Benefactor
Posted: Mon Feb 21, 2011 2:19 am Post subject:
I agree with you and your observations. I think Beckwith has it totally wrong about Japan. It seems that he is super imposing what made Britain as an island nation a power over the Japan, but the British "cod piece" doesn't fit the Japanese model so well.
Heee heee! Shita iro! Shita iro! Here comes his lordship, Baka Tono!
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Tatsunoshi
Miko no Kami
Multi-Year Benefactor
Location: 京都日本 Cincinnati, OH
Yep, he really 'missed the boat' big time with that analysis (for all the reasons that you've specified). Seems like most of the books I've read that were written by 'Chinese history scholars' that bring Japan into the mix tend to have only the most superficial knowledge of the country. Of course, I don't read too many books by Chinese history scholars because I'm too busy saving the world from their subject's counterfeiting and pirating operations .
kitsuno
Forum Shogun
Outside of piracy (and just how much Japan even engaged in is questionable), Japan was always way behind where an island nation should have been with maritime skills. Probably because Japan wasn't so much a unified country, but a collection of domains for so long, and outside trade also didn't seem that important to them, so they didn't have much reason to raise a maritime army.
lordameth
Awa no Kami
Location: 南加州
I agree with what everyone else has said - Beckwith has definitely missed the boat (good pun there, Tatsu), making broad-ranging statements based on an assumption that Japan, as an island nation, was strong in its maritime trade abilities, without actually knowing that much about the country.
A few points, though.
although for a period "wako" were greatly feared, that seems to be more for their ferociousness as warriors and not necessarily for their sailing abilities.
I do believe that the going theory today among scholars is that much wakô activity actually involved Chinese sailors and navigators, so the question of Japanese sailing abilities doesn't actually enter into it.
Finally, while there were "red seal" ships going out and coming back, I had always been under the impression that most of the trade was through ships from other countries coming to Japan, and not the other way around--especially during the period when Japan was closed.
You're right about the "maritime restrictions" period - after the 1630s, there were no Japanese trading vessels going overseas at all (though Satsuma and Tsushima may have sent ships to Ryukyu and Korea on official business). But, prior to that, during the brief period of the red seal ship trade (roughly 1590-1640), I think that Japanese ships went overseas just as much as foreign ships came to Japan.
Well, either that or Japanese merchants and samurai seeking to go overseas took a ride on ships belonging to a different people. There were plenty of Japanese active in trading in Southeast Asia at that time, not just waiting for SE Asians to come to them... though whether they had their own Japanese ships to go to SE Asia on or not I'm not 100% sure.
All that said, though, I think we need to keep in mind that while Japanese ships were not plying the seas to travel to the mainland during the Edo period, domestic maritime & riverine trade was still very active. Trade and travel between Western Japan (esp. Kyushu) and the Kansai region was, I get the impression, done more by boat through the Inland Sea than by road, on land. Boats transported goods from Fushimi and elsewhere down to Kyoto via rivers and canals, and the Sumidagawa in Edo was covered in boats and lined with storehouses. Riverbanks were majorly active places in the cities of Edo period Japan - many of the most major economic districts were organized along the riverbanks, moreso than along the roads. Or, to put it another way, notice that the Tokaido starts and ends at bridges (Nihonbashi in Edo and Sanjô-ôhashi in Kyoto).
It happens that I first read about the concept of littoral cultures in an article on Viet Nam, so that's what I look back to when I think about what defines a littoral culture. The majority of the country of Viet Nam is organized along the coast - it doesn't extend very deep into the mainland - and the vast majority of its population lives (in the early modern period) very close to the coasts. Regions are separated from one another by tall mountains, and so trade and travel works mainly east-west on the rivers, and north-south (between river valleys) by sea, along the coasts, not by land via mountain passes. In summary, early modern Viet Nam as I understand it is very much a "littoral culture." River boats, and seashore or riverbank focused economy and lifestyle; doesn't have to be particularly active or powerful on "the high seas", i.e. in traveling overseas, to be a "littoral culture". The question of whether a people is a "littoral culture" is not the same as being a "maritime power."
The Japanese may not have been a maritime power, or innately somehow well-prepared to become a maritime power, like the "Island-Nation Britain" theory goes, but I think the basic idea of Japan as a "littoral culture", i.e. one based around rivers and water transport moreso than around land transport, might not be too far off.
My blog on Japanese art & history: http://chaari.wordpress.com
紫水晶殿 - The Amethyst Lord
ltdomer98
Daijo Daijin
Location: Washington (the one with all the politicians)
Posted: Mon Feb 21, 2011 10:35 am Post subject:
Tatsunoshi wrote:
Seems like most of the books I've read that were written by '[redact]Chinese history scholars'[/redcact][insert]NON-JAPAN HISTORY SCHOLARS[/insert] that bring Japan into the mix tend to have only the most superficial knowledge of the country.
Yes, I'm looking at you, Noel Perrin. Stick to Brit Lit, you poofter.
//side note: is it too much to ask for a strikethrough HTML code?
The Sengoku Field Manual Blog
mktanaka
Togishi
Location: Oakland, Ca USA
Posted: Thu Feb 24, 2011 11:13 am Post subject:
The period of Japan's history that I see the country having superior Naval/Maritime skills is years post Meiji Restoration... Previous to that period, as others have already stated, Japan does not appear to have superior skills to her peers.
Being an island nation helped (Post Meiji Restoration), but I do not feel it is the main reason for Japan's Imperial Navy success. Note when Military activities moved from sea to air globally, Japan was able to be fairly successful in that transition.
An island nation does/did serve as barrier for entry of other nations, so, that aspect did help with Japan's autonomy. It helped Japan import selectively without being mandated from others what was to be imported.
I think the main reason transcends a period of time, but is related to skills/behaviors of the people of that nation with a solid educational system as a foundation. Skills that if a nation collectively embraces such as "Commitment to Task" in business or military endeavors, it increases chances of success.
Luck plays a part in life, but... my belief that success for an individual, a business, or a nation, is due to the skills and effort put forth for the goal that they trying to achieve. Some of the teachings of Samurai ways post Meiji Restoration helped Japan as a nation with "Commitment to Task".
The other area which I feel helped Japan as a nation move so fast up the World Military/Economic food chain was the elimination of classes where one was destined to live in the same class as one's predecessors. The system of meritocracy which duties and promotions are based on merit was embraced during this period as well. This change served to motivate all to that one could move up based on performance.
A more recent example of this in my mind that shows an entire nation with a singular goal is Isreal's Defense Force. A country founded in 1948 and in a relatively short period of time, had a very capable national defense program. Granted, having the USA as an ally helps. A nation with a strong "Commitment to Task" can make great progress in a relatively short period of time.
shikisoku
Yamashiro no Kami
Location: 天領 Tama
And fear of Russia threat.
Military spending at the time was 39% of the national budget.
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June J. ClarkDecember 22, 2022Comments Off on Blanketed moon Europa could harbor life0320
Scientists have long assumed that the earliest life on Earth required a few basic conditions, including water and a power supply — in this case, the Sun — that allows you to get going. With that in mind, it feels like looking for similar situations elsewhere inside the Solar System if your purpose is to locate extraterrestrial existence. Earth would possibly seem special in this regard. Still, water is pretty ample in our machine, and Jupiter's icy moon Europa is speedy, becoming a high candidate within the search for life.
In a brand new examination published in Scientific Reports, researchers awareness on Europa's doubtlessly life-giving cocktail of liquid water and gravity-generated warmth emanating from its core. The paper attracts some fascinating parallels between Europa and certain locations here on Earth. The recipe for existence is good for bacteria to thrive without the presence of daylight.
If life exists deep inside Europa, sunlight could be difficult to come back by way of. The moon's icy shell is the notion of being over six miles thick, with an ocean lying below that stretches over 60 miles into the planet. That's an entire lot of water, and it's saved warm by tidal forces generated using its parent, Jupiter. If this sounds acquainted, it's probably due to the fact Saturn's ice-protected moon Enceladus has a comparable courting with its determined planet and is also the notion of having a deep ocean just under its frosty crust.
To get an idea of how life ought to thrive in the inky black depths of Europa potentially, the researchers sought examples of microbes that stay their lives without assistance from the Sun. They observed what they had been looking for in-floor water samples from the Mponeng gold mine in South Africa. There, deep underground, microorganisms live and die without ever seeing the sun, and it has its very, very own manner of generating the strength it needs to continue to exist.
"This intense subterranean mine has water leaking thru cracks that include radioactive uranium," Douglas Galante, co-writer of the work, explains. "The uranium breaks down the water molecules to produce loose radicals (H+, OH-, and others), which attack the surrounding rocks, in particular, pyrite (iron disulfide, FeS2), producing sulfate. The bacteria use the sulfate to synthesize ATP [adenosine triphosphate], the nucleotide responsible for the power garage in cells. This is the first time a surrounding has been found to continue to exist directly on the idea of nuclear strength."
The scientists believe that this primitive form of life might be important to expertise how lifestyles started on Earth and hint at what might be going on deep within Europa. "The ocean bed on Europa seems to provide very similar conditions to those who existed on primitive Earth all through its first billion years," Galante notes. "So analyzing Europa today is to some extent like looking lower back at our personal planet within the past."
The idea that humans are endowed with inner cores of Divinity has been huge spread. This was unfolded by mystics and occultists, whose teachings from their "Ascended Masters" imply divinity in a guy. Even spiritual leaders have keyed into the narrative and now it has come to be a mantra for folks that suppose they're seekers for the reality. This becomes premised on the notion that most miracles and so-referred to as energy-of-the-mind myths are evidence that there's Divinity in the guy and that with sure tiers of purity, the guy will, in the end, turn into godhead.
They communicate of the era of God-men, while people who have developed themselves into becoming gods take over the ruler-deliver of the earth. But everybody who truly recognize the creations, the legal guidelines governing them, and that the whole thing is strictly ordered by someone-call him limitless intelligence, God, which exclusive cultures and organizations call exceptional names; the excellent scientist-who deliberate everything and ordered it through legal guidelines of nature, under which everything taking place can be defined, will realize how a lot they're in error who trust such.
To apprehend this, we need to look at the shape of our Universe as a beginning. The Universe is below constant enlargement, spiraling outwards in the direction of a limitless void. Hence it's miles in itself finite, although of such length that the human mind cannot imagine the size. Let our consciousness be on the most effective of the seven universes that harbor the earth as one of the several liveable planets. Of course, there are other planets that harbor life within our universe, however, the earth occupies a satisfactory area.
Scientists had been capable of pick out minute components of relying upon, of which the atom is but a rough minuscule. And there have been investigations that indicate that there may be absolutely duality in the man or women. One wishes to take a look at the diverse money owed of near loss of life reviews, like Raymond Moody's Life After Life to realize that the human body is but a cloak worn by means of the real proprietor. And the owner generally cannot be visible to the bodily eyes.
It also approaches that there's an inner world that exists when we drop our bodies. It opens up a contemporary international outdoor the bodily body, the sector of sports of occultists and "ascended" masters. This is referred to as the Astral plane, our instantaneous subsequent-door surroundings that harbors the "Shadow" of the earth. Everything found in the world is replicated there, that's why it is referred to as the shadow. But it's miles truly the prototype of every element in the physical world.
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I spotted these simply chic sterling silver wire wrapped rings over at Far Afield Jewelry on Etsy. The stacker rings come with your choice of Swarovski crystals or Czech glass. I love the stones above because peridot is my birthstone while aquamarine is one of my favorite colors.
These rings are $14 each, 2 for $24, or 3 for $30. If you buy 3, you can have 3 separate gifts or else you can stack 2 on your own finger and give 1 away--so many budget-friendly options.
Head over to Far Afield today and check out all of the other great gift ideas!


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Eurochild brings children's rights to the Fundamental Rights Forum
Eurochild will host two workshops to bring children's rights to this annual gathering on pressing human rights challenges of today
The Fundamental Rights Forum 2021 (11-12 October) is a unique platform for dialogue about the pressing human rights challenges that Europe faces today. The Forum brings together diverse voices, and uniting thinkers, makers, creators and doers. The forum will address two overarching topics: Young people and Europe's future and Europe's recovery from the Covid-19 pandemic.
This year, the Forum will be a hybrid event - offering in-person and online events. It will be broadcasted live from Vienna City Hall and five other European cities – Strasbourg, Geneva, Warsaw, Ljubljana and Oslo.
During the two days, you will be able to follow over 140 different talks, workshops and debates on the six main themes: A human rights oriented digital age; Fighting hate and discrimination; People on the move; Social rights are human rights; Strengthening human rights practice; Defending the rule of law and securing access to justice.
Eurochild is pleased to host two online workshops and bring attention to children's rights at this important gathering.
1) "Advancing children's rights in early childhood"
- Monday 11 October, 1530-1630 hrs CET
This session is hosted by Eurochild.
Children's rights in the early years (0-6) are rarely considered in public policy, despite evidence of their profound effect in shaping children's healthy development and wellbeing. The session aims to raise awareness, understanding and support for children's rights in early childhood and connect those who are interested and active in human rights and early childhood.
It will ask participants to reflect and act on the need for public policies and investment to pay more attention to early childhood, particularly for children facing poverty and exclusion. It will discuss how EU initiatives such as the EU Strategy on the Rights of the Child and the European Child Guarantee can be used to advance early childhood development.
The speakers include:
Maria Herczog, Chair, Family, Child, Youth Association, Hungary and former member of the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child
Agata D'Addato, Eurochild and Aljosa Rudas, the International Step by Step Association (ISSA)
Naomi Feely, Senior Research and Policy Officer, Children's Rights Alliance Ireland
Géraldine Libreau, European Commission DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture
Stefan Iszkowski, Policy Officer, DG Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, European Commission
2) "Fulfilling social rights for children and families"
- Tuesday 12 October, 1015-1115 hrs CET
The hosts of this session are, Hope and Homes for Children and Eurochild in cooperation with Lumos and SOS Children's Villages.
In line with the EU Strategy on the Rights of Child it will explore how child protection and welfare systems can be strengthened to realise the social rights of children and families and prevent entry in alternative care, in particular institutionalisation. In the first part, recent trends of deinstitutionalisation, drivers of family separation and placement in alternative care will be presented. It will include lessons learnt from the COVID-19 pandemic and challenges faced by disadvantaged groups.
The second part will focus on how to strengthen child care and social protection systems by sharing practical examples including use of EU funds. It will be followed by Q & A, facilitated by a moderator to gather the questions and remarks from participants. It will be closed by sharing the main recommendations for development of integrated community-based support services for families at risk and for parenting support.
Otto Sestak, Hope and Homes for Children Romania
Galina Markova, Know-how Centre for Alternative Care for Children, New Bulgarian University, Bulgaria
Galina Bulat, Inclusive Education Manager, Lumos
Kresimir Makvic, National Advocacy Adviser, SOS Children's Villages Croatia
There are many more panel discussions, workshops, networking sessions, practical demonstrations and exhibitions, many with a focus on children.
> Browse the programme and register to the sessions
If you would like further information on the Eurochild events at the Fundamental Rights Forum, please do not hesitate to contact Ally Dunhill, Eurochild Head of Advocacy


In this session, you will learn how to combine personality and plain language to engage, enlighten and inform your target audiences with meaningful communication. We will discuss the three ingredients you need to create effective and impactful messages for all your communications activities. Discover best practices and examples that will spur you to consider new ways to communicate your story and position your organization.


This year, Hartford gardeners again want to show their gardens, ranging from small cottage gardens to a riverside garden. Starting from All Saints' Church, the beautiful church by the river, enjoy a walk through a part of Huntingdon that retains much of the original village character.
You can visit the Open Studio in the garden at Eaton Farm, visit an interesting cottage garden or see what can be done with a small bungalow garden.
Light refreshment will be available at some gardens. We ask that only Assistance Dogs go into the gardens but there will be dog parking areas at most gardens.
Proceeds to All Saints Church Funds.
Plant sales: Plant sales at some gardens - growing conditions permitting.
Cost: £5.00 adult two day passport, accompanied under 14s free.
How to get event passports: On the day from All Saints' Church.