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Sarna News: MechWarrior 5: Mercenaries Has Arrived - Here's What You Can Expect
11th Brigade (SLDF)
The 'Mech That Looks Most Like A Turkey
Community Outreach - How Michael Todd Met Robert N. Charrette
Community Outreach - The Robert N. Charrette Collection
New Heavy Metal Trailer For HBS' BattleTech Reveals New 'Mech: The Bull Shark
Eleventh Brigade
Unit Profile (as of 2581)
Parent Formation 4th Division
Formed 2571
3 Tactics
4 Composition History
5.1 Reunification War
The Eleventh Brigade was a part of the Star League Defense Force Regular Army. Formed as a part of the 4th Division during the creation of the SLDF. The Eleventh Brigade was a part of II Corps during Operation UNION HOLD. The Eleventh Brigade served as a part of the Outworlds Alliance Task Force from the start of the operation in 2581 until the entire Fourth Division was transferred to the Taurian Concordat front in 2584.[1]
The Eleventh was stationed on Conroe when the invasion of the Alliance began and was deployed forward to pacify the population of Niles in 2581,[2] before taking part in the attack on Sevon in late 2581. The Eleventh Brigade, other units of the Fourth Division, and the Sixth Royal Division, would face the combined forces of the Pitcairn Legion and the Alliance Fourth Armored Division in what turned into a grueling month of combat that left the Sixth Royal Division heavily damaged and the commander of the Outworlds Alliance Task Force immensely frustrated.[3]
After spending 2582 on Sevon, the Eleventh joined the rest of the Fourth Division and the Fifth Division in the SLDF attack and occupation of Cerberus, an action that became a grueling, drawn-out combat that took a heavy toll on both the attackers and defenders. The Eleventh would remain on Cerberus until its transfer to the Taurian front.[4]
Officers[edit]
Commanding Officers of the 11th Brigade
Tactics[edit]
Composition History[edit]
Rules[edit]
Reunification War[edit]
When randomly generating force experience all 11th Brigade forces apply a +2 bonus to the Random Experience Level roll.[5]
All 11th Brigade units add a +1 bonus to Initiative rolls.[5]
All 11th Brigade units may Force the Initiative.[5]
All 11th Brigade units may utilize Overrun Combat.[5]
All 11th Brigade units receive a +1 bonus on Availability Rolls for Advanced Components.[5]
All 11th Brigade units receive a +1 bonus to repair rolls.[5]
All 11th Brigade units receive a +1 bonus to determine the availability of supplies or replacement equipment.[5]
↑ Historical: Reunification War, p. 140, "Outworlds Alliance Front"
↑ Historical: Reunification War, p. 110-111, "Fait Accompli(shed)"
↑ Historical: Reunification War, p. 114-115, "Sevon"
↑ Historical: Reunification War, p. 124, "Baby Killers Unleashed"
↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Historical: Reunification War, p. 181, "The Star League"
Retrieved from "https://www.sarna.net/wiki/index.php?title=11th_Brigade_(SLDF)&oldid=552329"
Star League Defense Force Commands - Brigade


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Causes Of Illegal Immigration
Illegal Immigration As a result, illegal immigration has several important effects on the economy, society, and jobs.The number of people immigrating to the USA is increasing. There are several causes of it. Judith Gans (2007) has observed that the reasons are simple and complex at the same time. First of all, the most general reason is of economic character. Most illegal migrants come from poor, less-developed countries and try to find better job conditions and higher wages to provide for their families. However, this economic factor is supported by the fact that the system of immigration in the United States differ from those system in other countries fundamentally. To be precise, there are three sub-causes of illegal immigration to the USA:…show more content…
Thus, global economic processes made labor more liberal and more international. From this point of view, illegal immigration as a phenomenon has a tendency of spreading. Apart from this, illegal mechanisms of immigration to the USA are used because of a limited number of channels for legitimate economic migration. Therefore, low-skilled workers from other countries, who are demandable in the United States, search for illegal ways of crossing the border. The debate of illegal immigration in the United States is one that is plagued with many details, and one that sparks a huge amount of controversy among politicians and citizens alike. While it is an issue that many argue about, few people are actually knowledgeable about the subject and have facts to back up their opinions. According the Center for Immigration Studies, the "unauthorized resident immigrant population is defined by all foreign-born non-citizens who are not legal residents" (CIS). This definition incudes people who emigrate from countries all over the world; it is not exclusive to those who come from Mexico and surrounding Central…show more content…
Recent figures, including reports from the Border Patrol of illegal crossings at the southwest border, suggest that the numbers began to grow again last year. But Pew researchers said the increases in the 2012 census data — the latest available — were too small for them to conclusively confirm the recent rise. The Pew researchers, for the first time using larger census samples from past years, also went back to revise some of their previous estimates. The new figures, while only slightly different, show an even clearer picture of the surging growth in unauthorized immigrants to a peak of 12.2 million in 2007 from 3.5 million in 1990. In 2008 and 2009, there was a steep drop, with the numbers falling to an estimated 11.3 million. After 2009, the population leveled off and by some measures might have been gradually growing. The Pew report does not point to any causes of the changes. But Mr. Passel noted that the dates of the decrease matched the deepest years of the economic slowdown, with its high
Should Immigrants Be Allowed To Stay In The United States?
Immigrants should be allowed to remain in the country because many families would be separated, they are already accustomed to the American society, and they contribute to the economy. The issue is about immigration in the United States, about how immigrants are coming into the country every year and it seems not to stop. Year after year, it has become a major problem in the U.S, that they ask
Illegal Immigration And Immigration Around The World
Every immigrations is mainly because they want to move from a poor to a richer country. However, illegal immigrants tend not to be the poorest within their population. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration, u.d.) There a many reasons why people leave their home country. Immigrants are motivated to leave because of political issues, family re-unification, escaping conflict or natural disaster.
Illegal Aliens Impact
1. Impact of illegal aliens on the U.S. economy There have been a lot of arguments about the impact of illegal aliens on the U.S economy. The protesters said that they are the burden while the opposite team thought that undocumented aliens contribute to the country's economy. Therefore, it can be said that unauthorized immigrants have both positive and negative impacts on different parts of the U.S economy. 1.1.
Illegal Migration In Mexico
Longing a better life and because of wanting to earn more money. "There is one fact to consider when migrating to another place, how much they expect to win in Mexico and how much they expect to win in the other place they want/need to be"(Espinosa and Douglas (1997)American journal of sociology). On the other hand Mexicans without papers (illegal migrants) are confined to the same type of jobs even the not dignified type of jobs, illegal migrants usually don't have much education so they cant do better in united states but they do it for their families back at Mexico. Immigrants that travel for work are diverse they have a better prospect of a social life than the ones that are illegal, as a turnaround they do have a superior education. Although migrants that are illegal are scared of being caught and deported back to Mexico or worse arrested because of their situation, frequently they are not arrested and they can help their families and have a better life but take one thing in consideration the "American dream" doesn't exist for Mexicans less for illegal Mexicans it is difficult for them to have a good life let alone a dreamed
Persuasive Essay On Immigration Laws
Immigrants provide this country with an immeasurable number of benefits, and limiting immigration will only leave the United States at a disadvantage to other countries. Immigration laws have also been very controversial about their morality and their actions can outrageously impact families lives forever. The future of immigration laws is unknown, but prohibiting immigration is not the answer the United States needs. Immigrants have been moving into the US for hundreds of
took away one of the largest international guarantors for insurgent coordination worldwide, this left many of the members of these failed insurgencies jobless and on the breadline so with a desperate need for money they often turn to a life of crime. This period then gave way to the rise in Globalization and with it the development of organized criminal groups. "just as the business world benefitted from globalization, so has organized crime" Albanese j. transnational crime and the 21st century p.1, transnational and organized crime groups are now more trained and fully equipped and took full advantage of this opportunity to be more productive due to globalization. Globalization gave transnational crime groups the access to large quantities of the economical scale. By the mid-1990's the systems that were implemented by the Soviet Union became obsolete and gave way to all types of threats, both new and old to nation-states.
Examples Of Wealth Inequality In America
As americans it is not only right to help each other, it is necessary for the betterment of the country. It is inept for the government to watch their country struggle, while spending massive amount of money for funding on frivolous things like sororities and fraternities Many cities in America are filled with people who earn less than what the standard of living is in the country .They experience many hardships and often struggle because of the issues within their community. This is the biggest issue with wealth inequality. It hinders the ability of americans to take risks and investments that could be very beneficial to them in the future, while also limiting the success of the less fortunate by supplying them with limited resources . Wealth inequality inevitably has a major role in america's current poverty level, which in turn could possibly lead to crime.
The Pros And Cons Of Minimum Wage Laws
Many countries have implemented minimum wage laws, with the purpose of setting an amount that would help workers who belong to the lower socio-economic strata. These workers are usually the ones that have manual jobs which often pay the least amount of money. To ensure that such workers are not exploited and taken advantage of, governments put up laws which require employers to pay a set amount of money for work done, making it illegal to pay anything lower than the amount set. However, one major economic downside that results in the implementation of such laws is an increase in unemployment which further upsets other economic factors. This, among other things, shows that the introduction of legislation to repeal all minimum wage laws is a good strategic decision for the economy in the long term.
Macro Economic Aggregates In Japan
It increased at the rate of 5.84% in 2010 and after 2010 the growth slowed down. From 2010 to 2013 the growth rate was 2-3
The Symbolic Interactionism Theory Of Illegal Immigration
The three basic sociological theories should bring to light some of the reasons why "illegal immigration" is controversial today and why immigrants are treated poorly. The Symbolic Interactionism Theory focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society as well as the meaning given to objects through day-to-day interactions. Symbols and the terminology given to the current social problem contributes to the creation of perceptions that people have. For example, when an average American hears the words "illegal immigrant" the first thing that tends to come to mind is a hispanic immigrant who crossed the border. People usually do not remember the fact that many immigrants have come to this country by plane, with a visa, education, and look like the average caucasian-american citizen.
More about Causes Of Illegal Immigration

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


After powering on or restarting the printer, the initialization stops with a message that says Critical Error followed by an alphanumeric string.
Each printer model has its own version of embedded software that begins to execute when the printer power switch is turned on. The embedded software defines numerous error codes in an alphanumerical format, such as "E-IO-40" or "01000005" or other similarly-formatted messages. A longer, plain-language explanation typically accompanies these alphanumeric codes.
These errors are in hexadecimal format. The "DEAD" letters in the second example is purely coincidental and should not be over-analyzed for significance.
These errors are rare. In many cases a total shutdown and disconnection from power will reset the electronics and allow the printer to boot normally on a subsequent startup attempt.
Is the printer environment within specifications?
An excessively warm environment may cause unexpected problems in the computer components of the printer. Correct the environment to meet the printer's operating requirements.
Has the printer been moved?
Vibrations during transit may have unseated components or connections to the motherboard, hard drive, or other internal electronic components. Regardless of whether the printer was moved, have a qualified service technician power off & unplug the printer and open the electronics assembly to reseat the RAM on the motherboard and look for any other issues inside.
If possible, reload the printer software.
This may or may not be possible depending on when and how the software error is occurring. If you encounter difficulty attempting to reload software, contact HP for further assistance.
If the condition cannot be resolved, replacement of the motherboard and/or hard disk drive may be necessary.
In some cases these critical errors may also occur during normal printer operation. The same steps for resolution provided above may be applied to these cases as well.


Powered by Direct Current (DC) motor, the KDK ceiling fan generates smooth air circulation and breeze within the room. Made of Polypropylene and Fiber Glass (PPG), the 3D blades deliver smooth and strong airflow.
3D blade delivers smooth and strong airflow.
Suitable for low ceiling apartment (3 metres & below).


This organic cotton play mat is soft and comfy for babies to sit and lie down on and can be used under a baby gym blanket or for baby massage too. This squishy, padded play mat is white with an indigo giraffe pattern on one side and a small print on the reverse with a dark blue trim. This sweet giraffe design co-ordinates with other items in the range for a perfectly co-ordinated baby nursery. This Fresk playmat is lovely and cosy for babies and toddlers and parents will love the cute Scandi-inspired design too. Ethically made under fair trade conditions, this Fresk playmat is kind on sensitive, baby-soft skin and eco-friendly too. Fun for a nursery and stylish enough for anywhere else in the house too, parents and children alike will love this Fresk play mat.


text:
Review of Codex Sinaiticus: A Full Color Facsimile. London; Peabody, Mass: The British Library; Hendrickson, 2010. 347pp. Hardcover. $799.00. Published in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 16.1 (2012): 81–82.
Review of Dirk Jongkind, Scribal Habits of Codex Sinaiticus, Texts and Studies III.5. Piscataway: Gorgias, 2005. 323. ISBN: 9718-1-59333-422-2. $102.00. Printed Casebound. Published in Bulletin for Biblical Research 22 (2012): 260–62.
Review of Steve Moyise, Paul and Scripture: Studying the New Testament Use of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2010. 151 pp. $21.99, paper. Published in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 15.4 (2011): 79–81.
Review of Sandra L. Richter, The Epic of Eden: A Christian Entry into the Old Testament. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2008. 263pp. $24.00. Paper.
Review of Paul: Missionary of Jesus. After Jesus, vol. 2. By Paul Barnett. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008, xvi + 240 pp. $18.00 paper. Published in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 15.1 (2011), 112–13.
Review of Man and Woman, One in Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Paul's Letters. By Philip B. Payne. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009, 511 pp, $29.99 paper. Published in Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, 54.1 (2011), 177–79.
Review of G. K. Beale. We Become What We Worship: A Biblical Theology of Idolatry. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2008. 341 pp. $26.00. Paper. Published in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 14.4 (2010): 121–22.
Review of Robert W. Yarbrough, 1–3 John. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008. xx +434pp. $39.99. Published in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 14.3 (2010), 98–99.
Review of T. Desmond Alexander. From Eden to the New Jerusalem: An Introduction to Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2009 (Nottingham, England: InterVarsity, 2008). 208pp. 978-0825420153. $19.99 Paperback. Published in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 14.2 (2010), 94-95.
Review of Joel Kennedy. The Recapitulation of Israel: Use of Israel's History in Matthew 1:1–4:11. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2.257. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008. 264pp. 9783161498251. $105.00 (paper). Published in Bulletin for Biblical Research 20.2 (2010): 268-69.
Review of David B. Capes, April D. DeConick, Helen K. Bond, and Troy A. Miller, eds., Israel's God and Rebecca's Children: Christology and Community in Early Judaism and Christianity: Essays in Honor of Larry W. Hurtado and Alan F. Segal, Waco: Baylor University Press, 2007. xviii + 480pp. $79.95, Hardback. Published in Bulletin for Biblical Research 19 (2009), 463-65.
Review of Encounters with Biblical Theology. By John J. Collins. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005, 243 pp., $22.00.
Review of Paul-Gerhard Schwesig, Die Rolle der Tag-JHWHs-Dichtungen im Dodekapropheton, Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 366. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2006. IX + 347pp. ISBN-13: 978-3-11-019017-5; ISBN-10: 3-11-019017-6; ISSN 0934-2575. $132.30. Cloth. Published in Bulletin for Biblical Research 19 (2009), 104-105.
Review of Andrew Chester, Messiah and Exaltation: Jewish Messianic and Visionary Traditions and New Testament Christology, WUNT 207. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007. 716pp. ISBN: 978-3-16-149091-0. $215.00. Cloth. Published in Bulletin for Biblical Research, 18.2 (2008), 348-50.
Review of Israel's Messiah in the Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by Richard S. Hess and M. Daniel Carroll R. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2003. 192 pages. Paperpack, $19.99.
Review of Richard H. Bell, The Irrevocable Call of God: An Inquiry into Paul's Theology of Israel, WUNT. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005. xxv + 550pp. ISBN: 3-16-148009-0. $175.00. Cloth, published in Bulletin for Biblical Research, 18.1 (2008), 161-64.
Review of David Toshio Tsumura, The First Book of Samuel, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007. 720pp. $50.00, Hardcover.
Review of Stanley E. Porter, ed., The Messiah in the Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007. ix + 268pp. $29.00, paper.
Review of Paul M. Hoskins, Jesus as the Fulfillment of the Temple in the Gospel of John, Paternoster Biblical Monographs. Waynesboro, GA: Paternoster, 2006. xiv + 265pp. $35.00. Paper.
Review of Scott J. Hafemann and Paul R. House, eds., Central Themes in Biblical Theology: Mapping Unity in Diversity, Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007. 330pp. $29.99, paper.
Review of Guy Waters, The End of Deuteronomy in the Epistles of Paul, WUNT 2/221. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006. 302pp. ISBN: 3-16-148891-1. $99.50. Paper, published in Criswell Theological Review, 5.2 (2008), 119–20.
Recommendation of Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, edited by G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson. Baker, 2007, 1161 pages, $54.99
Review of C. John Collins, Genesis 1–4: A Linguistic, Literary, and Theological Commentary. Phillipsburg: P&R, 2006. 318pp. $17.99, paper.
Review of Richard B. Hays, The Conversion of the Imagination: Paul as Interpreter of Israel's Scripture. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. 213pp. $20.00, paper.
Review of Russell T. Fuller and Kyoungwon Choi, Invitation to Biblical Hebrew: A Beginning Grammar, Invitation to Theological Studies. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2006. 364 pp. $49.00.
Review of Denny Burk, Articular Infinitives in the Greek of the New Testament: On the Exegetical Benefit of Grammatical Precision, New Testament Monographs, 14. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2006. 179 pp. $55.00, cloth, published in Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 51.1 (2008), 134-35.
Review of Tom Nettles, The Baptists: Key People Involved in Forming A Baptist Identity (Beginnings in Britain), Ross-shire, Scotland: Christian Focus, 2005. 390pp. Hardcover, $29.99.
Review of Michael F. Bird, Jesus and the origins of the Gentile Mission, Library of Historical Jesus Studies, published in Criswell Theological Review 5.1 (2007), 107.
Review of Tom Thatcher, Why John Wrote a Gospel: Jesus–Memory–History, published in The Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 50.2 (2007), 396–98.
Review of James M. Garretson, Princeton and Preaching: Archibald Alexander and the Christian Ministry, published in SBJT 11.1 (2007), 93-93.
Review of Andreas J. Köstenberger, John, BECNT, published in Bulletin for Biblical Research 16.2 (2006) 368-69.
Review of Andrew T. Lincoln, Truth on Trial: The Lawsuit Motif in the Fourth Gospel, published in Bulletin for Biblical Research 16.2 (2006) 369-71.
Review of Peter G. Bolt, The Cross from a Distance: Atonement in Mark's Gospel, New Studies in Biblical Theology, Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2004. An edited version of my review appeared in The Southwestern Journal of Theology 47.1 (2004) 91–93.
Review of Richard A. Taylor and E. Ray Clendenen, Haggai, Malachi, The New American Commentary, Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2004. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 47.1 (2004) 99–100.
Review of Tremper Longman III, How to Read Genesis, Downers Grove: Intervarsity, 2005. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 47.1 (2004) 100–101.
Review of Jacob Milgrom, Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics, A Contintenal Commentary, Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004. An edited version of my reveiw appeared in The Southwestern Journal of Theology 47.1 (2004) 105-106.
Review of Graeme Goldsworthy, Prayer and the Knowledge of God, Leicester: InterVarsity, 2003. An edited version of this review appeared in The Southwestern Journal of Theology 47.1 (2004) 111.
Review of Tricia Gates Brown, Spirit in the Writings of John: Johannine Pneumatology in Social-Scientific Perspective, JSNTSup 253, New York: T & T Clark, 2003. Bulletin for Biblical Research 16.1 (2006) 168–69.
Review of Michael J. Gorman, Apostle of the Crucified Lord: A Theological Introduction to Paul and His Letters, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 46.3 (2004) 97–99.
Review of Larry W. Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 46.3 (2004) 99–100.
Review of Martin Jan Mulder and Harry Sysling, eds., Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading and Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2004. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 46.3 (2004) 100–101.
Review of George W. E. Nickelsburg and James C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch. A New Translation. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 46.3 (2004) 101–102.
Review of Craig S. Keener, The Gospel of John: A Commentary, 2 vols., Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2003. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 46.3 (2004) 102–103.
Review of N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003. Trinity Journal 26 (2005) 140-43.
Review of Martin Hengel, The Septuagint as Christian Scripture. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2004. The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 9.1 (2005) 102-104.
Review of BibleWorks 6 + BDAG/HALOT Package + Qumran Sectarian Manuscripts. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 46.2 (2004) 77-79.
Review of James D. G. Dunn, Jesus Remembered. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 46.2 (2004) 61-64.
Review of Walther Zimmerli, The Fiery Throne. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003. The Southwestern Journal of Theology 46.2 (2004): 82-83.
Review of Darrell L. Bock, Jesus according to Scripture. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2002. The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 7.2 (2003) 111-12.
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Covert Intelligence versus the American Body Politic?
Joshua A. Perkins
In the current 'War on Terror' climate, stories about the activities of United States intelligence agencies and organizations have become frequent in the news. In 2015, it was revealed that the U.S. had spied on its ally, Germany.[1] To the everyday American who doesn't give intelligence covert activity much thought in their normal day-to-day life, these headlines may shock them, but should it?
More recently, the United States intercepted communications between Congress and Israeli officials, relating to the Iran nuclear deal. This revelation lead to allegations against the U.S. administration that it has been spying on Congress.[2] In light of these charges, the question must be asked, "Should covert intelligence agencies and organizations within an open government and society, like the United States, be treated as anathema to the Body Politic?"
The Philosophical Argument That It Should
On August 4, 1822, then former President James Madison Jr. wrote a letter to the chairman of a Kentucky state education committee, Mr. W.T. Barry. In his letter President Madison wrote these words:
"A popular Government, without popular information, or the means of acquiring it, is but a Prologue to a Farce or Tragedy; or, perhaps both. Knowledge will forever govern ignorance: And a people who mean to be their own Governors, must arm themselves with the power which knowledge gives."[3]
Stated another way, the power of the citizen to govern one's self can only be exercised if the citizenry have access to all necessary information to make an informed decision.[4] A covert agency that keeps information from the public limits their power to govern.
In theory, most Americans would concede this point. In President John F. Kennedy's address to the American Newspaper Publishers Association in 1961 he described the ethos of the American people and their aversion to the opaqueness of internal government workings. President Kennedy stated:
"The very word "secrecy" is repugnant in a free and open society; and we are as a people inherently and historically opposed to secret societies, to secret oaths, and to secret proceedings. We decided long ago that the dangers of excessive and unwarranted concealment of pertinent facts far outweighed the dangers that are cited to justify it. Even today, there is little value in opposing the threat of a closed society by imitating its arbitrary restrictions. Even today, there is little value in insuring the survival of our nation if our traditions do not survive with it."[5]
There is an expectation within the American body politic to have the most open society attainable based on the tenets advocated by James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and other American philosophers. These tenets value the dignity inherent in Man's human nature and, as a result, support the position that the people are entitled to a government that is forthcoming with information out of respect for and responsibility towards the people.
The Philosophical Argument That it Should Not
The opposing philosophical view that covert intelligence agencies and organizations within an open government and society is not anathema to the American body politic is based upon the view that secrecy is equally as necessary as transparency for any government to function properly. An enemies true intention towards the U.S. can only be discerned if the U.S. is able to uncover that enemies thinking/psychology towards the U.S. through the use of covert intelligence organizations and espionage; covert intelligence organizations that are able to find information that haven't been sanitized for public consumption.[6]
Secrecy is also necessary if the U.S. wants to accept defectors from opposing states or, at the very least, to maintain a continuous flow of information from insiders who are willing to provide such information to the U.S. without the source being compromised. An example of this was in China were a third party, Wikileaks, released secret information to the public that revealed that the U.S. received specific intelligence as to the type of missiles, launch site, and launch time for missiles being tested by the Chinese Army. The public disclosure revealed that the U.S. disseminated that information to its allies in the region so that its allies were not caught unaware by the launch.[7]
The disclosure will allow the Chinese government to quarantine their strategic missile corps and remove officers or civilian scientists who have been providing the sensitive information to the U.S. This will have the affect of ending that avenue for the United States to gather intelligence related to China's strategic missile corps and will weaken the United States' ability to respond to potential missile threats from China in the future. There is no way to gauge how long it will take the U.S. to rebuild its access to that vital information, but it stands to reason that this loss of intelligence will be detrimental to U.S. interests.
Just how far reaching a disclosure of intelligence information can be is very difficult to quantify. In 1931, a book was published in the Saturday Evening Post called, The American Black Chamber.[8] The author was former Chief of the Cipher Bureau, Herbert Yardley. He was a cryptologist who explained in his book how the U.S. government broke the Japanese codes used in diplomatic cables in the 1922 Washington Naval Conference.[9]
At the time it may have seemed innocuous. World War I was over and the U.S. was ascending on the world stage. Soon, however, the world would plunge into World War II and the U.S. would enter its Great Depression. The Japanese intelligence community was made aware of their deficiencies in secure communications from Mr. Yardley's publication and transformed their communications to make it harder for their codes to break. This made it substantially more difficult for American intelligence to decode information coming out of Japan and its embassies and culminated in the shortcomings of American defense systems that allowed Pearl Harbor to be attacked on December 7, 1941.[10]
Actions have consequences, and the scope and magnitude of those consequences are not always apparent. Although Congress has passed laws with the aim of protecting secret information considered vital to the United States' national security; media organizations, like the New York Times and WikiLeaks, leak secret information for public consumption based on the argument that they have a public duty to protect free speech. The debate centers around the proposition that since the 1st Amendment states, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press…"[11], that means no law may therefore be passed to limit the scope of free speech in America. Since Wikileaks got access to the secret cables between the U.S. and its allies, the argument would stand that Wikileaks has a right to release what it finds because the 1st Amendment guarantees their ability to do so. The Supreme Court has not always endorsed this view since it has allowed for the curbing of free speech particularly when state secrets and national security are involved. As one Supreme Court Justice noted, "the freedom to believe in one's speech is absolute, but the freedom to act is not."[12]
A modern day example of this dilemma is the New York Times' disclosure of the Swift program that was being used by the Treasury Department and the CIA to track the transfer of funds for terrorist operations.[13] Through the Swift program the U.S. had access to data collection from a Belgian cooperative of lending/financial institutions that were responsible for the annual wireless transfer of over $6 trillion. With this information the CIA was able to follow the money trail to track Al Qaeda operations abroad. When the program was disclosed (over objections from the office of the President of the United States) in 2006, Al Qaeda stopped transferring funds through international wires and started using couriers and cash. Al Qaeda's adaptation based on the public release of this secret information has made it much more difficult for the CIA to track Al Qaeda operations and could prevent the U.S. from being able to respond to terrorist threats in the future.
Whichever philosophical viewpoint one holds there are very few Americans who advocate the complete dismantling of the U.S. intelligence apparatus as a whole. To the contrary, the need for intelligence to safeguard those principles about which James Madison spoke and helped to enshrine in the Constitution is necessary to protect citizens of the U.S. from states or non-state actors who seek to deny, limit, or terminate individual liberty to the American people.
The answer to the question of whether or not covert intelligence agencies within an open government and society is or is not anathema to the American body politic is not to be found in absolute terms. The dilemma is one of how it should be structured, proper safeguards, and appropriate accountability. The answer to the question of whether or not the Intelligence Community[14] should be loathed by the American people because of its nature to be disinclined towards transparency is; that it should not be, but depending on how it conducts itself within the legal limits placed on it, it can be.
Should It Be Considered Anathema?
Before exploring whether or not the Intelligence Community can be anathema to America's open society, whether it should be anathema to American society needs to be discussed first.
The purpose of the Federal Government is to ensure its citizens' unalienable rights, which include the right to "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."[15] Each individual is perfectly free, as God is perfectly free, and the American people come together as a collective to form a union with the express goal of protecting and preserving their said freedoms.[16] Simply put, the Federal Government's role is to safeguard its citizens' civil liberties from hostile foreign or domestic entities.
To safeguard those freedoms the federal government of the U.S. must maintain certain defenses, e.g., the Armed Forces, to prevent invasion from a hostile nation-state or, as the U.S. has seen in more recent times, non-state actors such as Al Qaeda. The assets that the U.S. uses to maintain its defenses can only be used effectively and morally if there is responsible intelligence being collected and processed to indicate where threats against the security of its people lie.
It would be an abuse of power for the U.S. to receive intelligence that an attack from a European nation is imminent within the next 24 hours and use that information to arbitrarily engage Norway with its nuclear first strike capabilities. Neither would it be appropriate to attack all European nations. Each instance would constitute an abuse of the United States' power.
Intelligence is also necessary for the purpose of providing insight into the psychology and intentions of other countries and groups. If Mexico and the U.S. were in a state of harmony with one another and Mexico started building tanks, the U.S. may not understand why Mexico would have a need for additional tanks. They may misperceive Mexico's intentions and think that Mexico was massing forces in preparation for an act of aggression against the U.S. To respond, the U.S. begins building aircraft that can bomb Mexico's tanks. Mexico may have only been building the tanks to increase their security, but now that they see the U.S. is building aircraft, they now begin to manufacture their own aircraft and an arms race has begun. This pushes each state closer to a war with each other that neither intended nor wanted. This all occurs because of the misperception created by not knowing why each state was taking the actions that they did. This is known as the security dilemma.[17] The intelligence that a covert organization can gain access to can provide to world leaders information about the intent of newly manufactured military capabilities and assist them in making rational decisions to prevent arms races and prevent the security dilemma from occurring.
So, should covert organizations be considered anathema to American democracy and its people? No. There is a legitimate function/role that the Intelligence Community serves in providing U.S. leaders and those responsible for maintaining United States' defenses with current and relevant intelligence to make informed decisions to protect the U.S. from those who would wish to do her harm.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1942 and the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center buildings on September 11, 2001 are just two examples that demonstrate the aggression that the U.S. faces and will continue to face in the future. Both instances illustrate the need for the Intelligence Community as a bulwark against such calamities.
One final example of the importance and practical purpose of secret intelligence capabilities is Iran and the Stuxnet Worm.[18] While no state will ever come forward to admit their role in the 2010 event because it would constitute an act of war it never the less shows the importance of industrial espionage capabilities that a state needs to have. In September 2010, a virus was transmitted to Iran's Bushehr nuclear facilities that succeeded in disrupting Iran's pursuit of nuclear capabilities. The virus, known as the Stuxnet Worm, worked by changing the centrifuge speed to disrupt the uranium enrichment process while simultaneously giving false data that everything was working normally to those who monitored the computer systems. This only could have been achieved with access to proprietary information to Siemens Industrial software that was used at the nuclear facility. If the CIA, NSA, or similar secret intelligence agency that was responsible for gathering the data used to conduct the attack, didn't conduct espionage to be able to infiltrate Iran's nuclear facility software then Iran may have access to nuclear weapons today. Should a covert intelligence organization that prevents a nuclear holocaust (Iran's stated goal to wipe Israel off the map)[19] be considered an anathema?
The Intelligence Community should not be an anathema to the open society in the U.S. because the Intelligence Community serves a vital function in the preservation of the United States' open society. For this reason, the issue of whether having secret intelligence gathering organizations should not be debated in terms of whether it should exist at all, but rather how to create safeguards to prevent it from becoming an anathema. Historically, when the Intelligence Community started to become an anathema, the discussion revolved around how to bring the Intelligence Community back from the brink.[20]
There are political pundits, scholars, and professional experts who make arguments to the American people that the CIA has corrupted and even committed a coup against the federal government of the U.S.[21] They argue that the CIA should be disbanded for their failings and breaches of their fiduciary duties. They claim to be in favor of abolishing the Intelligence Community, but their argument is never based on the function of intelligence gathering and dissemination that these secret organizations are responsible for. The argument isn't that there should be no Intelligence Community, only that the current intelligence institutions are not complying with appropriate restrictions.
There certainly is not an outcry from the American people to do away with the United States' secret intelligence gathering capabilities. Stalwarts of the intelligence community like the Central Intelligence Agency are 64 years in the making and cannot be undone in one congressional session without severe risks to the safety of the country.
Under What Circumstances Can It Be?
Can the Intelligence Community become an anathema to the American body politic? The dilemma for the American people is: what is the Intelligence Community doing in their name around the world and at home?
There have been times in the Intelligence Community's history when they have clearly overstepped the legal and moral limits that American society places on them. Espionage has existed in some form or fashion in the United States' history since the Revolutionary War when George Washington used the 'Culper Ring' in New York to spy on the British.[22] Leaking of sensitive information has existed since the founding of the U.S. as well. A famous case involved Thomas Paine, the author of Common Sense, being fired from a Continental Congress committee responsible for intelligence oversight after he leaked information about the help the Continental Congress was receiving from the French in public pamphlets.[23]
It wasn't until the invention of the telegraph that the U.S. could use technology to pry into nations' private communications and that modern espionage came into being. Prior to the advent of the telegraph espionage carried a connotation of a wartime/military function, but now espionage could be utilized in new ways which society had yet to measure the means against the ends. It was in1922 when the Cipher Bureau broke the Japanese codes for their communication cables that the U.S. had its first test with the morality of using covert organizations to ascertain another nations' proprietary information.
The U.S. used their access to Japanese confidential cables to ensure an advantage in negotiations with the Japanese. In 1929, when all of this was brought to light and Secretary of State Henry Stimson took his office, he promptly ended the program and completely eliminated the Cipher Bureau's budget. His reasoning was succinctly summed up with his commentary that, "Gentlemen do not read each other's mail."[24] This was America's first modern standoff with covert intelligence organizations within the government and Secretary Stimson's decision effectively ended the Cipher Bureau's potential threat to become an anathema.
Until the 1970s, ethical questions that may have normally been raised from the use of the Intelligence Community went largely unasked as the U.S. slowly emerged from its necessity of relying on secret organizations to support World War II. As Cicero once noted, "For among times of arms, the law falls mute."[25] The only exception were questions that were raised regarding President James Polk and his use of clandestine agents sent to Mexico as emissaries. The practice of sending officials with a dual mission to spy on Mexico as well as conduct official business became known as, "spying in striped pants."[26] The accusations were that President Polk was misusing personnel of his intelligence community and the data they collected for military use to purposefully try to stoke the flames for a war with Mexico. The end goal was to acquire more land from Mexico than just the Texas annexation.[27]
Looking at the circumstances around these events there seems little doubt that President Polk wanted to acquire more than just Texas from Mexico. However, whether or not he misused intelligence assets to start the Mexican-American War never became a concern for the American people primarily because the U.S. engaged in hostilities with Mexico, and the American people viewed Mexico as an enemy. A blind eye is turned to abuses of power for the sake of the nation's survival. That is why questions about actions taken by the Intelligence Community went largely unasked for nearly 100 years, from the Mexican-American War of the late 1840's to World War II in the mid-1940's.
The real debate seeking to determine if a large, secret intelligence agency ran counter to the values that the American people espouse started immediately prior to American victory in World War II. On June 13, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued an order that created the Office of Strategic Services (OSS).[28] Prior to the creation of the OSS, intelligence gathering and operations were primarily conducted by either the State Department or the Armed Forces.
It was in no way limited to those two entities however. There was an amalgamation of government institutions that possessed secret intelligence capabilities. The Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI), which still exists today, was responsible for gathering intelligence critical to the Navy's mission, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Military Information Division (MID), War College Department (WCD), Army Signal Corps and the State Department are just a smattering of examples. [29] The State Department also created the Bureau of Secret Intelligence under their umbrella and the State Department developed an attaché system to provide cover for military intelligence agents abroad.[30] If a department of the Federal government had a need for intelligence, so long as they had the funds to provide a budget for it within their framework, they created their own intelligence gathering apparatus. Like two corporations who seek a joint venture to maximize their benefits and limit their costs, government agencies could work together to create joint intelligence agencies that would fall under a particular agencies jurisdiction while the other still benefited from the access to intelligence and reduced cost to their budget.
The existence of so many intelligence gathering arms of all the federal agencies, with each part having access to its own set of intelligence separate from the others, made it apparent that there was a need to consolidate the Intelligence Community into one body. On June 13, 1942, that is precisely what President Franklin D. Roosevelt did when he created the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), but the OSS was not the first option that the President sought.
The United States' civilian leadership wanted to create the first peace-time secret intelligence gathering body. Until 1947, the United States' history of secret intelligence collection and clandestine operations were left to the agencies that dealt in foreign affairs and were heavily involved in war-time operations or pre-war preparations. The new intelligence agency would be the United States' first attempt to create an agency that would conduct espionage during peace-time and not for the purpose of conducting and winning wars against other nations. The governmental department was to be named the Office of the Coordinator of Information (COI) and report to the President of the U.S.[31] President Roosevelt's vision never came to fruition as it was initially intended. The OSS replaced the COI with the difference being that instead of being accountable to the President, the OSS reported to the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) with the military moving to the forefront of American foreign policy with the war against the Axis Powers.[32]
The OSS was a short-lived agency, disbanded only 3 years later by President Harry Truman, but it did eventually emerge as the consolidated, peace-time intelligence organization that the civilian leadership had envisioned with the passage of the National Security Act of 1947.
An early accomplishment of the Intelligence Community following the conclusion of World War II was Operation Paperclip.[33] Operation Paperclip was the United States' effort to harbor former German Nazis who were scientists, engineers, and cryptologists. The U.S. accomplished this by bringing them to the U.S. and giving them citizenship or by offering them protection wherever they might be oversees serving the United States' needs.
Operation Paperclip worked with war criminals like Klaus Barbie (the Butcher of Lyon), Otto von Bolschwing (associate of Eichmann), and SS Colonel Otto Skorzeny (confidante of Hitler). The CIA used Klaus Barbie in Bolivia to help capture Che Guevara.[34] The CIA used Otto von Bolschwing to bolster their intelligence on U.S.S.R. operations in Germany.[35] The CIA used Colonel Skorzeny to traffic arms in Spain.[36] Do the actions taken in Operation Paperclip constitute the CIA being an anathema to the American body politic? It can be argued that the United States' use of such men is morally repugnant, but the question becomes more difficult to answer when you consider that each of the three men achieved results for the U.S. that were important to its security.
Furthermore, the other men that were brought in during the operation were mainly scientists and engineers who were responsible for giving the U.S. a working rocket program.[37] The former German scientists now turned American scientists are responsible for untold billions of dollars of revenue in patents and military technology for the U.S. Looking further into the future, their rocket program allowed the U.S. to beat the Soviet Union to the moon. The rocket program also allowed for the development of the missiles that were capable of delivering the United States' nuclear warheads. Could the U.S. have otherwise maintained an effective policy of containment against the Soviet Union during the Cold War without the rocket program?
Not every example is located in the grey area. Some are very clear-cut and it's perplexing that the Intelligence Community was able to get away such egregious acts. One such instance was J. Edgar Hoover's role as Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Director Hoover came into power originally under President Coolidge as the Director of the Bureau of Investigation (BOI), which later became the FBI under President Roosevelt. He used FBI assets to secretly and illegally investigate elected officials whom he viewed as political enemies and others that he recognized as politically powerful, in order to keep himself in his position as Director of the FBI.
Director Hoover also ran illegal counter intelligence programs that monitored the actions of Martin Luther King Jr., Eleanor Roosevelt, President John F. Kennedy, Robert Kennedy, President Eisenhower, President Ronald Reagan, Presidential Candidate Thomas Dewey, etc.[38] Each President from President Roosevelt to President Nixon wanted to remove him from his post, but they all also decided that the potential political liability was too great as a result of the nature of the intelligence Director Hoover was able to amass.
Director Hoover's actions are examples of when intelligence organizations can become an anathema to the American body politic. Baron John Acton's once said that, "power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely". That statement is as true today as it was when he wrote those words in 1887. Men are fallible creatures. When J. Edgar Hoover died in 1972, Congress recognized that public officials who were allowed to acquire too much power could begin to use their office and organizations in a way that would allow it to become an anathema. To prevent this from happening Congress passed a law that only allows the Director of the FBI to hold their office for a maximum of 10 years.
An example of an entire organization moving towards the clearly defined area of anathema is the CIA in the late 1960s and early 1970s. After Watergate, Congress convened a committee that became known as the 'Church Committee' in the Senate to investigate allegations of the illegal use of CIA assets. Watergate ended the era of little-to-no government oversight of the Intelligence Community. The New York Times published an article that revealed what it called the 'Family Jewels'. The family jewels were the illegal actions taken by the CIA that the Church Committee discovered. They included the attempted assassination of foreign leaders of various countries, i.e., Congo, Dominican Republic, and Chile, the illegal wiretapping and surveillance of journalists, and the infiltration of foreign states' police forces.[39]
The Church Committee made recommendations that eventually led to the creation of Select Intelligence Oversight Committees in both houses of Congress to return the CIA to more stringent civilian oversight. The investigation also led to the passage of the Foreign Intelligence Security Act that created a system for the CIA to request surveillance warrants from independent judges who could reinforce the impartial civilian control over the Intelligence Community to prevent the Intelligence Community from becoming anathema to the American body politic.[40]
A pattern begins to emerge in American history where each generation faces its own unique threat and responds to that threat in a manner that they see fit. It's only after the threat has been beaten and the next generation rises to lead, that the actions the previous generation took are given a critical eye to ensure that no legacy remains that may allow the Intelligence Community to become an anathema. Today's generation faces the threat of terrorism. Current leaders have used the CIA's predator drones to assassinate high profile terrorists in countries like Yemen and Pakistan,[41] used a meta-data collection program, and passed the Patriot Act.
The CIA also runs an extraordinary rendition program in which they take high profile terrorists who possess vital intelligence and transport them to 'black sites' in Eastern Europe.[42] The CIA also transfers the terrorists to Middle Eastern nations who are more liberal in their interrogation techniques. The point of the program is to take individuals that would not 'break' under interrogation techniques authorized in the U.S. and place them in an environment outside of U.S. law that allows for harsher interrogation techniques to get the intelligence the CIA desires.[43]
These are a few examples of how the United States' current generation is dealing with the threat that faces them in the form of global terrorism. What steps the next generation will take to prevent the CIA from becoming anathema to the American body politic no one can yet say. There are those who argue global terrorism is a tactic and not an enemy that can be defeated. Communism was an ideology and ideas cannot be conquered; yet the U.S. still claimed victory. If history is a good indicator the U.S. will overcome this threat that currently faces them and the necessary steps will be taken to bring the Intelligence Community back into balance with the people it represents through its actions.
To paraphrase Nietzche, the ideal world does not exist; we exist in the real world.[44] As much as one might wish to argue against the necessity of covert intelligence organizations in an open society, there are critically important reasons for the U.S. having such an apparatus to protect its people.
Covert intelligence organizations and agencies serve a vital function in allowing for the moral use of the state's power. They can only be an anathema when they become corrupt and abuse the power they are entrusted with. Each generation faces their own unique threats and responds accordingly. With each response the enemy adapts and the intelligence organizations are forced to innovate new ways to meet the adapting threat that push the moral boundaries of the open society they represent.
As Hans Morgenthau notes,
"Universal moral principles cannot be applied to the actions of states in their abstract universal formulation, but that they must be filtered through the concrete circumstances of time and place. The individual may say for himself: "Fiat justitia, pereat mundus (Let justice be done, even if the world perish)," but the state has no right to say so in the name of those in its care. Both individual and state must judge political action by universal moral principles, such as that of liberty. Yet while the individual has a moral right to sacrifice himself in defense of such a moral principle, the state has no right let its moral disapprobation of the infringement of liberty get in the way of successful political action, itself inspired by its moral principle of national survival."[45]
The state has a moral obligation to ensure its national survival. To prevent covert intelligence organizations from becoming an anathema to an open society, the American body politic must continue to educate its citizenry on its responsibility to exercise personal responsibility. Each citizen must remain aware of the actions that are taken by those who represent them in their name and use their elected representatives to make the necessary reforms when actions are being taken that are not in keeping with the collective moral underpinnings of American society. Being an anathema and anathematic actions are the difference between tyranny and democracy.
[1] "WikiLeaks: US Spied on Angela Merkel's Ministers Too, Says German Newspaper." The Guardian. July 1, 2015. Web. Accessed January 3, 2016.
[2] Entous, Adam and Danny Yadron. "U.S. Spy Net on Israel Snares Congress." The Wall Street Journal. December 29, 2015. Web. Accessed December 31, 2015.
[3] Madison, James. "The Founders' Constitution," Volume 1, Chapter 18, Document 35.
The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
[4] Locke, John. "Of the Ends of Political Society and Government." The Second Treatise of Government, 1690. Reprint, (Upper Sandle River: Prentice-Hall, 1952), p. 54-55.
[5] Kennedy, John F. "Address to the American Newspaper Publishers Association." John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. April 27, 1961. Web. Accessed December 31, 2015.
[6] Scoville, Herbert Jr., "Is Espionage Necessary for Our Security?" Foreign Affairs, Vol. 54, No. 3. April 1976. Pp. 482-495.
[7] Chang, Gordon G., "Is China Planning a Surprise Missile Attack?" World Affairs. September-October 2011.
[8] "Pearl Harbor Review- The Black Chamber." National Security Agency. January 15, 2009. Web. Accessed December 30, 2015.
[9] Yardley, Herbert. The Black Chamber. US Naval Institute Press: September 2004.
[10] Holmes, W.J. Double-Edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific During World War II. US Naval Institute Press: 1979, p. 44-52.
[11] Amendment I. The Bill of Rights. December 15, 1791.
[12] "Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296 (1940)." JUSTIA. Web. Accessed December 31, 2015.
[13] Lichtblau, Eric and James Risen, "Bank Data is Sifted by U.S. in Secret to Block Terror." New York Times. June 23, 2006. Web. Accessed December 29, 2015.
[14] "National Security Act of 1947, Section 3." Office of the Director of National Intelligence. July 26, 1947. Web. Accessed December 30, 2015.
[15] Jefferson, Thomas. "Declaration of Independence." July 4, 1776.
[16] Locke, John. "Of the Ends of Political Society and Government." The Second Treatise of Government, 1690. Reprint, (Upper Sandle River: Prentice-Hall, 1952), p. 71-79,
[17] Glaser, Charles L. "The Security Dilemma Revisited," World Politics, Vol. 50, No. 1., 1997, pp. 171-201.
[18] J. Broad, William, John Markoff and David Sanger, "Israeli Test on Worm Called Crucial in Iran Nuclear Delay." New York Times, January 15, 2011. Web. Accessed 3 January, 2016.
[19] Bronner, Ethan "Just How Far Did They Go, Those Words Against Israel." New York Times, June 11, 2006. Web. Accessed January 3, 2016.
[20] Knott, Stephen F. "Congressional Oversight and the Crippling of the CIA," George Mason University's History News Network. November 4, 2001. Web. Accessed December 28, 2015.
[21] Morrissey, Ed. "Ron Paul: The CIA Conducted a Coup in the US." Hot Air. January 21, 2010. Web. Accessed January 1, 2016.
[22] Rose, Alexander. Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring. New York, New York: Bantam Books. May 2006. p. 67-100
[23] Van Wagenen, James S. "A Review of Congressional Oversight." Central Intelligence Agency. April 14, 2007. Web. Accessed January 1, 2016.
[24] Kahn, David. The Reader of Gentlemen's Mail: Herbert O. Yardley and the Birth of American Intelligence, Reviewed by Thomas R. Johnson, (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2004).
[25] Cicero, Marcus T. Pro Milone. Duckworth Publishing. April 19, 2005. p. 4.
[26] Raat, W. Dirk, "US Intelligence Operations and Covert Action in Mexico, 1900-47." Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 22, No. 4. October, 1987. pp. 615-638.
[27] Stenberg, Richard R. "The Failure of Polk's Mexican War Intrigue of 1845." Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 4, No. 1. March, 1935. pp. 39-68.
[28] "The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency." Central Intelligence Agency. March 15, 2007. Web. Accessed 1 January 2016.
[29] "Proud History." Office of Naval Intelligence. October 3, 2011. Web. Accessed January 1, 2016.
[30] Srodes, James. Allen Dulles: Master of Spies. Lanham: Regnery Publishing. 1999. p. 83.
[31] "COI Came First." Central Intelligence Agency. March 15, 2007. Web. Accessed January 2, 2016.
[32]"What Was the OSS?" Central Intelligence Agency, March 15, 2007. Web. Accessed January 2, 2016.
[33] Gimbel, John. Science, Technology, and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1999. pp. 37-59
[34] My Enemy's Enemy. DVD. Directed by Kevin MacDonald. 2007; Paris, France: Wild Bunch Distribution, 2007.
[35] Naftali, Timothy. "Berlin to Baghdad: The Pitfalls of Hiring Enemy Intelligence," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 4. 2004. pp. 128-129.
[36] Scott, Peter D. "Why No One Could Find Mengele: Allen Dulles and the German SS," The Threepenny Review, No. 23. Autumn, 1985. pp. 16-18.
[37] Gimbel, John. "German Scientists, United States Denazification Policy, and the 'Paperclip Conspiracy'." The International History Review, Vol. 12, No. 3. 1990. pp. 441-465.
[38] Dee, Ivan R. "From the Secret Files of J. Edgar Hoover," Review by Kenneth O'Rielly, The Wisconsin Magazine of History, Vol. 76, No. 3. Spring, 1993. pp. 214-215.
[39] Mazzetti, Mark and Tim Weiner, "Files on Illegal Spying Show C.I.A. Skeletons From Cold War." New York Times. June 27, 2007. Web. Accessed January 2, 2016.
[41] Shane, Scott "Drone Attack Kills a Senior Militant Leader in Pakistan," New York Times. October 13, 2011. Web. Accessed January 2, 2016.
[42] "Lithuania: Terrorism Suspect Files Case Over C.I.A. Rendition Claim," Associated Press. October 27, 2011. Web. Accessed January 1, 2016.
[43] Weaver, William G. and Robert M. Pallitto, "The Law, Extraordinary Rendition, and Presidential Fiat," Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 1. March, 2006. pp. 102-116
[44] Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Twilight of the Idols. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Edition Limited. 2007. p.18.
[45] Morgenthau, Hans J. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, Fifth Edition. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978. p. 10.
Joshua A. Perkins is an Armor officer serving with the 1st Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment, 3rd Armor Brigade Combat Team at Fort Carson, Colorado. He earned his master's degree in political science, with a specialization in national security and diplomacy, from the University of West Florida. The views expressed are the author's own and do not reflect those of the Department of Defense or United States Army.
cammo99
I can not fault the author given the excellence of his choices but I do wonder if this subject should not be expanded.
The recent revelation that the US was spying on Israel was offset but the release of Pollard an American/Israeli who spied on the US from the inside out. Yet that is not even factored in the paradigm.
Pollard's release after years of Israeli attempts to free Pollard is to say the least not believable as coincidence.
A question not addressed is the value of our spies lives to begin with and what is a spy worth at all?
Many a blogger expressed the desire to have Pollard executed, as earnest patriots or anti-Zionists or possibly anti-Semitic angst suggested. But that expression raises the question wouldn't I want the chance to live or even be free again if I were caught spying?
The USS Pueblo, An American AWAC taken by China and other examples of American spy technologies captured in tact with their crews and we got our people back.
Yet even operating in some waters remains dangerous as was the issue of the USS Liberty which has left many an American sailor bitter.
Domestic issues can run from how does Watergate fit into this paradigm?
Agents, not operating for an official "Spy " agency but with all the facility of insiders backed by the val office has parallels with how FDR ran spies before the OSS. Even Sean Penn's recent "adventure" meeting with the worlds wealthiest drug dealer with hints that it lead to his capture has left questions unanswered.
If the NY Times compromised intelligence access to Al-Qaeda, what is the role of celebrity wild cards and the ever popular Hollywood hero. where did they get the intel and does the press shield laws cover it under free speech? Even if it has consequences in loss of human life?
In an age of satellite intel collection human intel is still nuts and bolts despite failures that may yet still yield the most significant intelligence in "now" time. Pointed out in this article also referring to the Chinese missile fiasco compromised by wikileaks.
No one asked if the Chinese having found out they had a leak, what happened to the poor dumb SOBs who were willing to give or sell that information. What did it cost?
The issue today is internal how do we even define who are enemies are? Let alone who should we be spying on? That issue is as murky as the fog of war.
If President Obama is angling for the top spot of the UN is he already in conflict of interests of the USA?
I can't speak from experience , but if I were spying on another country or even doing a business deal where I seduced scientists to come to the USA with marketable skills their host nation may have ignored for one reason or another or simply because the targets wanted to come to America, I'd like to think that if the country suddenly decided my intent hurt their national interest I wouldn't be left to rot in one of their jails.
I wonder under the current administration and others how many people we have left behind.
NOT a comment, but in my daily email this article came:
Precarious privacy and with a sub-title 'This excerpt from the surveillance expert's account of Surveillance after Snowden asks whether societies that permit mass surveillance at the expense of privacy are undermining the very possibility of politics.'
Link: https://www.opendemocracy.net/wfd/david-lyon/precarious-privacy


Displaying your Nautilus award-winning book at a Book Trade Show is a great way to promote your awarded title as well as meet other authors and publishers active in the field.
We are excited that you have chosen to display your Book at one of the 2017 Book Trade Shows. Promoting your book at one of the major trade shows is a great step in helping your book gain visibility.
Thank you for purchasing your Display-space through Nautilus Book Awards.
STEP 1. REGISTER. The registration link is given on the document that you received by email. If you have already registered your book for Display, please proceed to step 2.
Combined Book Exhibit, New York.
WHY DISPLAY my book at a Trade Show?
Glad to hear that you intend to do a Display at BEA or ALA! My hunch is that your book will be noticed by quite a few bookstore owners there. Last spring at BEA-2016 Chicago, I stood for over an hour near the New Titles Showcase, and watched people cluster around the "Nautilus Award Winners" bookshelf, which is 5-tier high. When I introduced myself, and asked where the visitors were from, it was amazing that quite a few persons were from several states distant from Chicago, IL. A couple persons were buyers for County Public Library systems; and an even greater number were Bookstore owners. Many of them were taking smart-phone Photos of the Award Winners' bookcovers that they planned to purchase for their store. It was a sweet moment of recognizing one way that our Award Winners' books connect with the wider world!
Does Nautilus have a BOOTH at this year's BEA?
With regret, Nautilus will not have a booth at the 2017 BEA in New York. Perhaps that will be possible next year.
Oops! I forgot to mention my Nautilus Award on the Display-Registration form.
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text:
DR. J. K. SEHGAL MEMORIAL ORATION
Strategic issues in child health
CP Mishra
Associate Professor, Department of Community Medicine, IMS, Banaras Hindu University, Uttar Pradesh, India
C P Mishra
Department of Community Medicine, IMS, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi - 221 005, Uttar Pradesh
DOI: 10.4103/0019-557X.73274
Mishra C P. Strategic issues in child health. Indian J Public Health 2010;54:75-80
Mishra C P. Strategic issues in child health. Indian J Public Health [serial online] 2010 [cited 2021 Jan 16];54:75-80. Available from: https://www.ijph.in/text.asp?2010/54/2/75/73274
The world has witnessed a significant improvement in child health. However, even today children below than 5 years of age face multiple obstacles, including birth injuries, infectious diseases, malnutrition, and home environment that lacks intellectual stimulation, and environment with polluted water and air. Several issues which pertain to the child health are discussed here.
Impressive gains have been made in reducing child mortality globally. Child deaths are halved from 20 million in 1960 to well under 10 million in 2009. But progress in mortality reduction is uneven geographically, with the child mortality rate increasing or remaining constant in at least 26 countries. The greatest numbers of "under 5" child deaths in the world are found in Sierra Leone, Angola, and Afghanistan, where between 257 and 270 children die for every 1000 live births. [1] In India, a wide variation occurs in child mortality in different regions of the country with the overall mortality rate being 74 per 1000 live births. The present neonatal mortality (39/1000 live births) has remained stationary in the last one decade. According to SRS (2008), the infant mortality rate (IMR) in the country has been 53 per 1000 live births and the IMRs for male and female children were 52/1000 and 55/1000 live births, respectively. Urban-rural differences do exist with the IMR being 36/1000 live births in the urban and 58/1000 in the rural area. [2]
Childhood morbidity
In India, common morbidities among children under 3 years of age are fever, acute respiratory infections, diarrhea, and malnutrition. Unfortunately malnutrition is rarely perceived as a morbid event by families, communities, and health system. The prevalence of underweight declined from 52% (NFHS-1) to 47% (NFHS-2) but this decline was only 1% from NFHS-2 to NFHS-3. Reduction in stunting was to the extent of 8% from NFHS-2 (46%) to NFHS-3 (38%). [3] However, there was an increase in the proportion of children who were wasted (16-19%). Besides the deficiency of macronutrients, there is enough evidence to substantiate a high magnitude of micronutrient deficiency disorders in India. Apart from the major macro- and micronutrients, there exist more than 300 nutrients, which are vital for the body. Recent evidence suggests that even mild vitamin A deficiency (VAD) probably increases morbidity and mortality in children emphasizing the public health importance of this disorder. According to NNMB (2003), the prevalence of severe forms of VAD such as corneal ulcers/softening of cornea (keratomalacia) has in general become rare. Bitot's spots were present in varying magnitudes in different parts of the country. The prevalence was higher than the WHO cut-off level of 0.5% indicating the public health significance of the problem of VAD. [4]
The prevalence of anemia is very high among young children. As much as 72.9% of the children up to the age of 3 in urban areas and 81.2% in rural areas are anemic. Also the overall prevalence has increased from 74.2% (1998-1999) to 79.2% (2005-2006). [3] Nagaland has the lowest (44.3%) and Bihar has the highest prevalence. In children (<2 years), iron deficiency anemia causes permanent neurologic damage resulting in suboptimal scholastic skills leading many of them to below average class or premature dropping out of the schools. It also triggers increased morbidity from infectious diseases. [4]
Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) have been recognized as a public health problem in India since 1920s. The most devastating outcomes are increase in perinatal mortality, mental retardation, and reproductive failure and in severely endemic areas cretinism may affect up to 5-15% of the population. [4] Psychological problems (namely, anxiety, frustration, depression) in adolescents are increasing day by day and pose serious challenges to the families and call for vibrant and operational adolescent friendly health services.
The relevance of limiting micronutrients is given below:
The deficiency of zinc is emerging as an important public health problem. Zinc is an important nutrient for a child's growth, resistance to severe infection, and survival.
A meta-analysis of eight mortality trials indicates that improving the vitamin A status of children aged 6 months to 5 years reduced mortality rates by about 23% in a population with at least low prevalence of clinical signs of vitamin A deficiency. [5]
Childhood and adolescent disabilities are emerging as a serious public health threat. In one of the studies (Mishra et al. unpublished data), it was found that out of 594, 543, and 607 subjects belonging to age groups <5, 5-9, and 10-19 years, respectively, 1.8%, 10.3%, and 11.9%, respectively, had disability as per the WHO classification. There existed a significant association between the age and disability status of subjects (χ2 = 47.017, df = 2, P<0.001). The spectrum of disability included behavior disability (1.4%), communicable disability (5.7%), personal care disability (1.5%), locomotor disability (2.8%), body disposition disability (3.2%), dexterity disability (1.9%), and situational disability (2.3%).
Key concerns
Childhood problems have been identified through special surveys and research pursuits. Benefits of health and related services can be obtained only and only if these conditions are identified by the service providers and systems are fully operational to deal with these problems.
Low birth weight leads to greater neonatal and infant mortality, impaired physical and mental performance, and cause of adult disease in later life. Their detection and management pose several challenges.
5 to 10% of newborns require some resuscitation and 1% cases require resuscitation. This calls for staff and support services in position.
The prevention of hypothermia and sepsis and the management of initial feeding problems in general and in the event of diseases (i.e., HIV) require special efforts.
At a macrolevel, organizations of triage and emergency treatment are still in a conceptual stage.
The involvement of private sectors in curative care should be the entry point for preventive and promotive services.
Growth monitoring is on a low profile.
Critical period in a child's life
The most critical phase in a child's life is the intrauterine life. Here maximum growth velocity occurs and in a span of 9 months, from a single zygote a nearly 3-kg baby is born. During this phase and for subsequent 2 years, brain development takes place. Growth velocity estimates in terms of height and weight, done in a study using the mixed longitudinal design, identified 06-24 months as the critical period in the growth of a child. [6] The emotional bonding provided by breast feeding and tender loving care (TLC) rendered to a child in the early part of life have a tremendous influence on the psychosocial development of the child.
Service provisions
Neither Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illness (IMNCI) in major states of India nor Comprehensive Child Survival Programme (CCSP) in Uttar Pradesh has moved beyond capacity building of ASHAs and ANMs. Assessment classification and treatment of childhood and neonatal illness are not operationalized and referral mechanisms are yet to be established. It has made no perceptible dent in health care behavior and positive community practices for child care. In spite of concentrated efforts to improve RCH services in the NRHM, the achievements in the progress have not been up to the mark. This is amply highlighted by the facts that only 18.8% mothers had full antenatal checkups, institutional delivery was 47%, and 13.3% mothers received financial assistance under JSY. [7]
As far as child interventions are concerned, the achievements are as follows: [7]
Children under 3 years breast fed within 1 h of birth: 40.5%
Children aged 0-5 years exclusively breast fed: 46.8%
Children aged 6-35 months breast fed for at least 6 months: 25.5%
Children aged 6-9 months receiving solid/semisolid food and breast milk: 57.1%
Children aged 12-23 months fully immunized: 54.0%
Women aware about danger signs of ARI: 57.4%
Children with diarrhea in the last 2 weeks who received ORS: 34.2%
Children with diarrhea in the last 2 weeks who were given treatment: 70.6%
Children with acute respiratory infection or fever in last 2 weeks who sought advice or treatment: 77.4%.
The high levels of undernutrition and persisting hunger in the region not only calls for an assessment of the situation of food production and consumption but also issues like access to food by the poor. With the objective of ensuring food security to all the people, especially the poor, the public distribution system (PDS) was a major intervention in the country. But the PDS has failed in serving its purpose. Hence, it was redesigned as the targeted public distribution system (TPDS) with effect from June 1997. Under the TPDS, higher rates of subsidies are given to the poor and the poorest among the poor. But various studies have identified major deficiencies of the TPDS such as high exclusion and inclusion errors, poor viability of fair price shops (FPS), failure in fulfilling price stabilization objectives, and leakages. The TPDS in its current form as an antipoverty program, clearly, is not doing very well. Thus there is a need to restructure and reform the TPDS. The GOI has taken measures to check the diversion of food grains and strengthen the TPDS. Global positioning system and radio-frequency identification devices are effective measures to curb the diversion and leakages. To eliminate the problem of bogus ration card, provision of food credit cards or computerization of operations has been made. Even more, further innovations are needed to strengthen the TPDS. [4] It is, therefore, impending upon the region to increase the productivity and production of food grains at a rate faster than the growth of the population in the future. The second challenge would be the provision of food at reasonable and cheap prices to the population so that real incomes are not depleted by unusually high market prices of food grains. Given the existing demand and supply condition, this requires a better management of food grain stocks and an effective use of the PDS.
In spite of its existence for the last 35 years, ICDS has a limited coverage and impact. ICDS has to be universalized and the current scheme does not focus on 0-3 year olds. The program needs to be restructured in a mission mode with a mission structure at the central level and a similar structure at the state level. Without prejudicing the interest of the 3-6 year olds, the focus of the entire ICDS has to shift to a much greater extent than before to the 0-3 year olds. A major factor adversely affecting the success of ICDS is leakages which at least in part are due to centralized procurement of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods. Centralized procurement of food has the additional problem of irregular supply of food in the anganwadis, and thrusting food items on beneficiaries irrespective of their taste and preferences. Very often this leads to nonacceptance or rejection of the food distributed. The food distributed has to be hygienically prepared and culturally acceptable. Micronutrients do not work unless the child and mother are consuming sufficient calories through proper quantity of fat, protein, etc. For children between 3 and 6 years of age, food diversification is necessary, that is, addition of egg, milk, fruits, and leafy vegetables to their meal. There is also a need for fortification in the diet of adolescent children especially girls. It is also a matter of concern that only 21% children of age 12-35 months received a vitamin A dose in the last 6 months. Less than 10% coverage is reported in Nagaland (8.7%) and Uttar Pradesh (7.3%). Only states such as Tamil Nadu (37.2%), Goa (37.3%), Tripura (38.0%), Kerala (38.2%), West Bengal (41.2%), and Mizoram (42.2%) have a better coverage, though substantially low. The coverage under the National Nutritional Anaemia Control Programme (NNCP) needs improvement as only 22.3% of pregnant women consumed iron and folic acid for 90 days. [4] National anemia control program for children has not been operationalized to the desired extent. According to NFHS-3, only 51% (urban 72%, rural 41%) of families are consuming iodized salt. [3]
As per the poverty line criteria based on the NSSO 61st round survey (Rs. 356 per capita for rural families and Rs. 540 per capita for urban families), 28% of the Indian population is below poverty line (BPL). On the basis of employing a new poverty line ($1.25 per day at 2005 purchasing power parity [PPP]), 41.6% of the Indian population is BPL. The field of child health is further complicated by the emergence of WHO child growth standards. By using this criterion, 15.6% of children (1-3 years) are suffering from severe malnutrition. It is considerably high in comparison to the figure of 4.2% based on IAP classification. Instead of lamenting and denying these statistics, it may be worthwhile to focus on taking urgent steps to bring down these gross income and health disparities among our populace. According to the Global Hunger Index (GHI) computed on the basis of child mortality rates, child malnutrition rates, and proportion of energy-deficient population, India ranked 66th out of 88 countries. [8]
Operational efficacy of health systems
India has created a wide network of subcenters, PHCs, and CHCs in rural areas. A larger number of public and private hospitals, nursing homes, and private practitioners exist in urban areas. However, community-based care in urban pockets, as in rural areas, for maternal and child health services is not up to the mark. [9]
The poor performance of Indian Public Health System is widely acknowledged. Analysts have attributed this failure to a number of factors, which include almost all the components that make a system functional, that is, infrastructure, human resources, logistics, and participation of the community. Because of the mission mode in National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), the execution moved at a fast pace and the professional systemic approach adopted in the mission has shown its impact. However, it has a long way to go and more innovations are required to meet the challenges. The states that have been lagging behind in the pre-NRHM period are still struggling to implement the NRHM in its letter and spirit. There is an acute shortage of all categories of staff in health sectors across the length and breadth of the nation. There are 14,851 subcenters with no ANM, 130,812 subcenters with one ANM, and 25,743 subcenters with two ANMs. There are 31.6% CHCs where specialists are in position. [10] However, only 25.2% CHCs have obstetricians and gynecologists. [7]
Enhanced funds through the central government are being utilized through the process of decentralized planning and implementation to ensure the ownership of respective state governments to the reform process. Community-based monitoring and proactive roles of Village Health and Sanitation Committees and Rogi Kalyan Samitis have restored the confidence of the community in the public health system. District action plans and convergence of key health and health-related initiatives are being ensured through the district and state health missions. The proposed financial outlay of Rs. 6207.84 crores for National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) in the 11th plan has big hopes for vulnerable sections in urban slums. [11]
Innovations in NRHM
A wide range of innovative approaches are being implemented by states to address identified needs/specific gaps in health services. Two hundred and eighteen innovations are documented by the mission for its stockholders and for cross-learning purposes. Innovations for safe motherhood are Birth Waiting Rooms (Andhra Pradesh), Janani Suraksha Vahini (Karnataka), Janani Express Yojana (MP), Mamta Friendly Hospital Initiatives (New Delhi), Saubhgyawati Scheme (Uttar Pradesh), and Ayushmati and Vande Matram Schemes (West Bengal). Innovations for infant and young child feeding and immunization are Bal Shakti Yojana (Madhya Pradesh), Ankur Project (Maharashtra), Panchamrit Campaign (Rajasthan), and Kano Parbo Na (West Bengal). With NRHM on, a disproportionate increase in quantity without a proportionate increase in manpower and physical facility has led to a compromise in quality. The time spent per patient is limited, and emphasis on interpersonal communication and utilization of health facility visit for health awareness has been negligible. On one side, where JSY has brought pregnant women to institutions for delivery, the recommended 48-h stay in most places could not be ensured. [10]
Concentrated efforts should be made to reduce mother's malnutrition and its knock-on effects on child malnutrition.
Breast feeding in the first hour is the significant input for child health. If Indian mothers enhance early initiation of breastfeeding within 1 h, we can save 250,000 babies from death annually by just this action; this would reduce the overwhelming share of neonatal mortality in our IMR.
Feeding recommendations by grassroot workers should emphasize on exclusive breast feeding for 6 months and solid food 6 months onward along with breast milk.
Micronutrient malnutrition continues unabated in the country leading to heavy economic loss.
Exact mapping of micronutrient deficiencies has not been done for the country.
Existing programs do not address the problem in a holistic manner. Only nutrient supplementation programs are in existence and that too not covering the entire high-risk group.
There is inadequate monitoring of micronutrient deficiencies in the country. NFHS undertaken every 6 years covers only anemia levels in women and children under 3 years and projects only a state-level picture. NNMB exists only in few states giving state-level projections for the eight states only.
Dietary diversification and nutrition education have not been given the required thrust.
Food fortification has not been studied adequately.
Nutrition-oriented horticultural interventions to promote the production of fruits and vegetables at household and community level are yet to be taken up.
Awareness generation on the consequences of micronutrient malnutrition, its prevention, and management is not being addressed adequately.
Inherent qualities of Road to Health Cards is not internalized by family as well as the health system. The purpose of any growth monitoring system should be to identify the deterioration of a child on a nutritional scale at an early stage and to pinpoint regions for the same and take necessary corrective measures at the earliest.
ICDS can check the deterioration of a child's nutritional scale; this is a very crucial input because once a child deteriorates, chances of a spontaneous recovery are very rare. [12]
Green, white, and blue revolutions have contributed significantly in improving the nutritional health of the population of India. However, it can be optimized by adopting the 3A approach (awareness, access, and affordability) and empowerment of the community in the field of nutrition. The importance of nutritional education can be well appreciated by the statement "if you give a fish to a hungry person, he will eat once or twice but, if you teach him how to fish he will take care of his livelihood and will also teach others."
Considering the diversities in the country, area-specific feeding recommendations are to be made, tested, and executed for better nutritional outcomes.
Domestic violence may have adverse pregnancy outcomes. [13] Conducive and child friendly environment is the key to optimum growth and development and subsequent scholastic performance.
Receptivity of a child
Receptivity of a child in the family is the major determinant of its survival and development. [9] Sex-wise differences in child feeding and rearing practices, utilization of child health interventions, and health-seeking behavior during illness will reflect about child receptivity. This can be gauged by prevailing sex selective abortions, sex-specific neonatal and infant mortality, and child mortality rates.
Receptivity of the girl child can be enhanced by providing better opportunities for education, employment, and equity in all spaces of life.
Family welfare initiatives
Adverse effects of early pregnancy, multiple pregnancy, and pregnancies at short birth intervals are widely acknowledged. Issues pertaining to family planning stabilization are submerged in the ocean of NRHM. Even today, the current use of any family planning method is 47.1% (44.4% in rural and 53.0% in urban). [7] These are average statistics and there exist wide variations across the country. Empowered action group states have higher fertility. As high fertility and child mortality go hand in hand, concentrated efforts are required to limit the size of the family. Jansankhya Stiratha Kosh with its major strategies such as GIS mapping, website, Prema and Santhushti, and family welfare-linked health insurance schemes have tremendous potential for population stabilization. The universal insurance scheme launched in 2003 has several bottlenecks in effective implementation but it is the critical input for the poor. [11]
Urgency in planning and implementation of child health intervention is a very pertinent issue. It calls for micro-planning and micro-financing. There is a need and scope for medical and social audit for child health interventions. Reaching the unreached by adopting the indigenous, scientific, affordable, and acceptable technology through multisectoral linkages and community participation for key issues in child health should be the primary concern of all partners involved in child care. National and international organizations have shown concerns over the rights of children. In order to ensure them, attitudinal changes in the providers of child interventions and care givers at family and community levels are of paramount importance. Legislations, service provision, and empowerment through health and nutrition education are well-recognized public health approaches. Each approach has its merits and demerits. However, demand-driven strategies are better than supply-oriented strategies. Nonetheless, a holistic approach encompassing the three approaches will have a synergistic effect on child survival and development.
1. Global Action for Children. Child Survival. Available from: http://www.globalactionforchildren. org/ issues/ child_survival1/ [last accessed on 2009 Nov 9].
2. Registrar General, India. Sample Registration System. SRS Bulletin 2009;Vol. 44, No. 1.
3. International Institute of Population Sciences. National Family Health Survey India. NFHS-3 2005-2006.
4. Planning Commission. 11 th five year plan, 2007-2012. Vol.2, Social Sector; Chapter 4- Nutrition and social safety net. p. 128- 61.
5. Beaton GH, Martorell R, Kristan A. Vitamin A supplementation and child morbidity and mortality in develop countries: Editorial. The United Nations University Press. Food Nutr Bull 1994;15.
6. Mishra CP, Reddy DC, Tiwari IC. Growth pattern among harijan and tribal pre-school children. Ind Ped 1986;23:35-40.
7. International Institute of Population Sciences. District Level Household Facility Survey (DLHS), Facts Sheets India, 2007-8.
8. Bhasin SK. New Poverty Line and Growth chart bring forth sharp inequalities in the Indian population. Indian J Community Med 2009;34:171-2.
9. Mishra CP. Critical links in child survival. Indian Journal of Preventive & Social Medicine 2007;38:104-10.
10. Sharma AK. National Rural Health Mission: Time to take stock. Indian J Community Med 2009;34:175- 82.
11. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Annual Report of Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. 2008-2009. p 1-524.
12. Mishra CP, Reddy DC, Tiwari IC. Nutritional status of preschool children in a backward community. Indian J Pediatr 1987;54:267-70.
13. Yost NP, Bloom SL, McIntire DD, Leveno KJ. A prospective observational study of domestic violence during pregnancy. Obstetric Gynecol 2005;106:61-5.
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Mishra C P
Critical period ...
Operational effi...
Receptivity of a...
Family welfare i...


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