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Al-Biruni
This article is about the medieval Muslim scientist and scholar. For the lunar crater, see Al-Biruni (crater). For the university, see Al-Beroni University.
Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni
An imaginary rendition of Al Biruni on a 1973 Soviet post stamp
Native name
Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Birunī
Kath, or Khiva,[1] Khwarezm, Afrighid dynasty (modern-day Uzbekistan)
c. 1050 (aged 77)
Ghazni, Ghaznavid Empire (modern-day Afghanistan)
Khwarezm, Central Asia
Ziyarid dynasty (Rey)[2]
Ghaznavid dynasty (Ghazni)[3]
Aristotle, Ptolemy, Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī, Rhazes, al-Sijzi, Iranshahri, Abu Nasr Mansur, Avicenna, al-Battani, Al-Tamimi
Geology, physics, anthropology, comparative sociology, astronomy, astrology, chemistry, history, geography, mathematics, medicine, psychology, philosophy, theology
Notable works
The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries, Gems, Indica, The Mas'udi Canon, Understanding Astrology
Influenced
Al-Sijzi, Avicenna, Omar Khayyam, al-Khazini, Zakariya al-Qazwini, Maragha observatory, Islamic science, Islamic philosophy
Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Bīrūnī (Chorasmian/Persian: ابوریحان محمد بن احمد البیرونی Abū Rayḥān Bērōnī;[4][5] New Persian: Abū Rayḥān Bīrūnī[6]) (973–1050), known as Al-Biruni (Arabic: البيروني) in English,[7] was an Iranian[8][9][10][11] scholar and polymath. He was from Khwarezm — a region which encompasses modern-day western Uzbekistan, and northern Turkmenistan.
Biruni is regarded as one of the greatest scholars of the medieval Islamic era and was well versed in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist and linguist.[10] He studied almost all fields of science and was compensated for his research and strenuous work. Royalty and powerful members of society sought out Al-Biruni to conduct research and study to uncover certain findings. He lived during the Islamic Golden Age, in which scholarly thought went hand in hand with the thinking and methodology of the Islamic religion. In addition to this type of influence, Al-Biruni was also influenced by other nations, such as the Greeks, who he took inspiration from when he turned to studies of philosophy.[12] He was conversant in Khwarezmian, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, and also knew Greek, Hebrew and Syriac. He spent much of his life in Ghazni, then capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty, in modern-day central-eastern Afghanistan. In 1017 he traveled to South Asia and authored a study of Indian culture (Tahqiq ma li-l-hind...) after exploring the Hinduism practised in India.[lower-alpha 1] He was given the title "founder of Indology". He was an impartial writer on customs and creeds of various nations, and was given the title al-Ustadh ("The Master") for his remarkable description of early 11th-century India.[10]
He was born in the outer district of Kath, the capital of the Afrighid dynasty of Khwarezm (now a part of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan)[14][10] (or Chorasmia).[15][14] To conduct research, Al-Biruni used different methods to tackle the various fields he studied. Many consider Al-Biruni one of the greatest scientists in history, and especially of Islam because of his discoveries and methodology. He lived during the Islamic Golden Age, which promoted astronomy and encouraged all scholars to work on their research.[14] Al-Biruni spent the first twenty-five years of his life in Khwarezm where he studied Islamic jurisprudence, theology, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy and also dabbled in the field of physics and most other sciences as well.[15] The Iranian Khwarezmian language, which was the language of Biruni,[16][17] survived for several centuries after Islam until the Turkification of the region, and so must some at least of the culture and lore of ancient Khwarezm, for it is hard to see the commanding figure of Biruni, a repository of so much knowledge, appearing in a cultural vacuum.[18] He was sympathetic to the Afrighids, who were overthrown by the rival dynasty of Ma'munids in 995. He left his homeland for Bukhara, then under the Samanid ruler Mansur II the son of Nuh. There he corresponded with Avicenna[19] and there are extant exchanges of views between these two scholars.
In 998, he went to the court of the Ziyarid amir of Tabaristan, Shams al-Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos ibn Wushmgir. There he wrote his first important work, al-Athar al-Baqqiya 'an al-Qorun al-Khaliyya (literally: "The remaining traces of past centuries" and translated as "Chronology of ancient nations" or "Vestiges of the Past") on historical and scientific chronology, probably around 1000 A.D., though he later made some amendments to the book. He also visited the court of the Bavandid ruler Al-Marzuban. Accepting the definite demise of the Afrighids at the hands of the Ma'munids, he made peace with the latter who then ruled Khwarezm. Their court at Gorganj (also in Khwarezm) was gaining fame for its gathering of brilliant scientists.
In 1017, Mahmud of Ghazni took Rey. Most scholars, including al-Biruni, were taken to Ghazni, the capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty.[2] Biruni was made court astrologer[20] and accompanied Mahmud on his invasions into India, living there for a few years. He was forty-four years old when he went on the journeys with Mahmud of Ghazni.[14] Biruni became acquainted with all things related to India. He may even have learned some Sanskrit. During this time he wrote his study of India, finishing it around 1030.[21] Along with his writing, Al-Biruni also made sure to extend his study to science while on the expeditions. He sought to find a method to measure the height of the sun, and created an early version of an astrolabe for that purpose.[14] Al-Biruni was able to make much progress in his study over the frequent travels that he went on throughout the lands of India.[22]
Mathematics and astronomy
An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different phases of the moon.
Diagram illustrating a method proposed and used by Al-Biruni to estimate the radius and circumference of the Earth
Ninety-five of 146 books known to have been written by Bīrūnī were devoted to astronomy, mathematics, and related subjects like mathematical geography.[23] His religion contributed to his research of astronomy, as in Islam, worship and prayer require knowing the precise directions of sacred locations, which can only be accurately found using astronomical data.[14] Biruni's major work on astrology[24] is primarily an astronomical and mathematical text, only the last chapter concerns astrological prognostication. His endorsement of astrology is limited, in so far as he condemns horary astrology[25] as 'sorcery'.
In discussing speculation by other Muslim writers on the possible motion of the Earth, Biruni acknowledged that he could neither prove nor disprove it, but commented favourably on the idea that the Earth rotates.[26] He wrote an extensive commentary on Indian astronomy in the Tahqiq ma li-l-hind mostly translation of Aryabhatta's work, in which he claims to have resolved the matter of Earth's rotation in a work on astronomy that is no longer extant, his Miftah-ilm-alhai'a (Key to Astronomy):
[T]he rotation of the earth does in no way impair the value of astronomy, as all appearances of an astronomic character can quite as well be explained according to this theory as to the other. There are, however, other reasons which make it impossible. This question is most difficult to solve. The most prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving of the earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called Miftah-ilm-alhai'a (Key to Astronomy), in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in the words, at all events in the matter.[27]
In his description of Sijzi's astrolabe he hints at contemporary debates over the movement of the earth. He carried on a lengthy correspondence and sometimes heated debate with Ibn Sina, in which Biruni repeatedly attacks Aristotle's celestial physics: he argues by simple experiment that vacuum must exist;[28] he is "amazed" by the weakness of Aristotle's argument against elliptical orbits on the basis that they would create vacuum;[29] he attacks the immutability of the celestial spheres;[30] and so on.
In his major extant astronomical work, the Mas'ud Canon, Biruni utilizes his observational data to disprove Ptolemy's immobile solar apogee.[31][32] Not only did he perform research on theories, but he also wrote an in-depth analysis and explanation of an astrolabe and how it should work. He drew many different depictions of various instruments that are considered to be the precursors of more modern objects such as clocks and the astrolabe, in which other scientists were able to use to complete these inventions in the coming years.[14] More recently, Biruni's eclipse data was used by Dunthorne in 1749 to help determine the acceleration of the moon,[33] and his observational data has entered the larger astronomical historical record and is still used today[34] in geophysics and astronomy.
"Al-Biruni contributed to the introduction of the experimental scientific method to mechanics, unified statics and dynamics into the science of mechanics,[35][36] and combined the fields of hydrostatics with dynamics to create hydrodynamics.[35] He came up with different methods for exploring densities, weight, and even gravity. Along with those methods, Biruni went so far as to describe instruments that go along with each of those areas as well. Although he never entirely focuses just on physics in any of his books, the study of physics is present throughout many of his various works. Biruni also came up with different hypotheses about heat and light.[14]
See also: History of geodesy § Al-Biruni
Four directions and Political divisions of Iran by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī
Bīrūnī devised a method of determining the earth's radius by means of the observation of the height of a mountain. He carried it out at Nandana in Pind Dadan Khan in Pakistan.[37] He was heavily interested in the workings of the earth and included research about the planet in many of his works. The result of his discovery of radius measurement was due to Biruni's arduous research about the earth.[14]
In his Codex Masudicus (1037), Al-Biruni theorized the existence of a landmass along the vast ocean between Asia and Europe, or what is today known as the Americas. He deduced its existence on the basis of his accurate estimations of the Earth's circumference and Afro-Eurasia's size, which he found spanned only two-fifths of the Earth's circumference, and his discovery of the concept of specific gravity, from which he deduced that the geological processes that gave rise to Eurasia must've also given rise to lands in the vast ocean between Asia and Europe. He also theorized that the landmass must be inhabited by human beings, which he deduced from his knowledge of humans inhabiting the broad north-south band stretching from Russia to South India and Sub-Saharan Africa, theorizing that the landmass would most likely lie along the same band.[38]
Pharmacology and mineralogy
Biruni's most important work was a major pharmacopoeia, the "Kitab al-saydala fi al-tibb" (Book on the Pharmacopoeia of Medicine), describing essentially all the medicines known in his time. It lists synonyms for drug names in Syriac, Persian, Greek, Baluchi, Afghan, Kurdi, and some Indian languages.[39][40]
Due to an apparatus he constructed himself, he succeeded in determining the specific gravity of a certain number of metals and minerals with remarkable precision.[41]
History and chronology
Biruni's main essay on political history, Kitāb al-musāmara fī aḵbār Ḵᵛārazm (Book of nightly conversation concerning the affairs of Ḵᵛārazm) is now known only from quotations in Bayhaqī's Tārīkh-e masʿūdī. In addition to this various discussions of historical events and methodology are found in connection with the lists of kings in his al-Āthār al-bāqiya and in the Qānūn as well as elsewhere in the Āthār, in India, and scattered throughout his other works.[42] Al-Biruni's study of history was not limited to the aforementioned topics, he also touched upon the topic of the earth's creation. He elaborated upon the fact that the earth was created from the elements and not solely through divine creation. Even though Islam did influence his study, he did acknowledge the role of the elements.[14]
Bīrūnī is one of the most important Muslim authorities on the history of religion.[43] Al-Biruni was a pioneer in the study of comparative religion. He studied Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, and other religions. He treated religions objectively, striving to understand them on their own terms rather than trying to prove them wrong. His underlying concept was that all cultures are at least distant relatives of all other cultures because they are all human constructs. "What al-Biruni seems to be arguing is that there is a common human element in every culture that makes all cultures distant relatives, however foreign they might seem to one another."[44]
Al-Biruni divides Hindus into an educated and an uneducated class. He describes the educated as monotheistic, believing that God is one, eternal, and omnipotent and eschewing all forms of idol worship. He recognizes that uneducated Hindus worshipped a multiplicity of idols yet points out that even some Muslims (such as the Jabiriyya) have adopted anthropomorphic concepts of God.[45]
Al-Biruni wrote about the peoples, customs and religions of the Indian subcontinent. According to Akbar S. Ahmed, like modern anthropologists, he engaged in extensive participant observation with a given group of people, learnt their language and studied their primary texts, presenting his findings with objectivity and neutrality using cross-cultural comparisons. Akhbar S. Ahmed concluded that Al-Biruni can be considered as the first Anthropologist,[46] however, others argue that he hardly can be considered an anthropologist in the conventional sense.[47]
Bīrūnī's fame as an Indologist rests primarily on two texts.[48] Al-Biruni wrote an encyclopedic work on India called Taḥqīq mā li-l-hind min maqūlah maqbūlah fī al-ʿaql aw mardhūlah (variously translated as "Verifying All That the Indians Recount, the Reasonable and the Unreasonable"[49] or "The book confirming what pertains to India, whether rational or despicable"[48]) in which he explored nearly every aspect of Indian life, including religion, history, geography, geology, science, and mathematics. During his journey through India, military and political histories were not of Al-Biruni's main focus. Instead, he decided to document the more civilian and scholarly areas of Hindu life such as culture, science, and religion.[50] He explores religion within a rich cultural context.[51] He expresses his objective with simple eloquence: He also translated the works of Indian sage Patanjali with the title Tarjamat ketāb Bātanjalī fi'l-ḵalāṣ men al-ertebāk.
I shall not produce the arguments of our antagonists in order to refute such of them, as I believe to be in the wrong. My book is nothing but a simple historic record of facts. I shall place before the reader the theories of the Hindus exactly as they are, and I shall mention in connection with them similar theories of the Greeks in order to show the relationship existing between them. (1910, Vol. 1, p. 7;1958, p. 5)
An example of Al-Biruni's analysis is his summary of why many Hindus hate Muslims. Biruni notes in the beginning of his book how the Muslims had a hard time learning about Hindu knowledge and culture.[51] He explains that Hinduism and Islam are totally different from each other. Moreover, Hindus in 11th century India had suffered waves of destructive attacks on many of its cities, and Islamic armies had taken numerous Hindu slaves to Persia, which—claimed Al-Biruni—contributed to Hindus becoming suspicious of all foreigners, not just Muslims. Hindus considered Muslims violent and impure, and did not want to share anything with them. Over time, Al-Biruni won the welcome of Hindu scholars. Al-Biruni collected books and studied with these Hindu scholars to become fluent in Sanskrit, discover and translate into Arabic the mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy and other fields of arts as practiced in 11th-century India. He was inspired by the arguments offered by Indian scholars who believed earth must be globular in shape, which is the only way to fully explain the difference in daylight hours by latitude, seasons and earth's relative positions with moon and stars. At the same time, Al-Biruni was also critical of Indian scribes who he believed carelessly corrupted Indian documents while making copies of older documents.[52] He also criticized the Hindus on what he saw them do and not do, like their deficiencies in curiosity about history and religion.[51]
One of the specific aspects of Hindu life that Al-Biruni studied was the Hindu calendar. His scholarship on the topic exhibited great determination and focus, not to mention the excellence in his approach of the in-depth research he performed. He developed a method for converting the dates of the Hindu calendar to the dates of the three different calendars that were common in the Islamic countries of his time period, the Greek, the Arab/Muslim, and the Persian. Biruni also employed astronomy in the determination of his theories, which were complex mathematical equations and scientific calculation that allows one to convert dates and years between the different calendars.[53]
The book does not limit itself to tedious records of battle because Al-Biruni found the social culture to be more important. The work includes research on a vast array of topics of Indian culture, including descriptions of their traditions and customs. Although he tried to stay away from political and military history, Biruni did indeed record important dates and noted actual sites of where significant battles occurred. Additionally, he chronicled stories of Indian rulers and told of how they ruled over their people with their beneficial actions and acted in the interests of the nation. But, his details are brief and mostly just list rulers without referring to their real names. He did not go on about deeds that each one carried out during their reign, which keeps in line with Al-Biruni's mission to try to stay away from political histories. Al-Biruni also described the geography of India in his work. He documented different bodies of water and other natural phenomena. These descriptions are useful to today's modern historians because they are able to use Biruni's scholarship to locate certain destinations in modern-day India. Historians are able to make some matches while also concluding that certain areas seem to have disappeared and been replaced with different cities. Different forts and landmarks were able to be located, legitimizing Al-Biruni's contributions with their usefulness to even modern history and archeology.[51]
The dispassionate account of Hinduism given by Al-Biruni was remarkable for its time. He stated that he was fully objective in his writings, remaining unbiased like a proper historian should. Biruni documented everything about India just as it happened. But, he did note how some of the accounts of information that he was given by natives of the land may not have been reliable in terms of complete accuracy, however, he did try to be as honest as possible in his writing.[51] Mohammad Yasin compares it to "a magic island of quiet, impartial research in the midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns, and plundered temples."[54] Biruni's writing was very poetic, which may diminish some of the historical value of the work for modern times. The lack of description of battle and politics makes those parts of the picture completely lost. However, Many have used Al-Biruni's work to check facts of history in other works that may have been ambiguous or had their validity questioned.[51]
Most of the works of Al-Biruni are in Arabic although he wrote one of his masterpieces, the Kitab al-Tafhim apparently in both Persian and Arabic, showing his mastery over both languages.[55] Bīrūnī's catalogue of his own literary production up to his 65th lunar/63rd solar year (the end of 427/1036) lists 103 titles divided into 12 categories: astronomy, mathematical geography, mathematics, astrological aspects and transits, astronomical instruments, chronology, comets, an untitled category, astrology, anecdotes, religion, and books he no longer possesses.[42]
Selection of Extant Works
A Critical Study of what India says, Whether Accepted by Reason or Refused (تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة معقولة في العقل أم مرذولة); or Indica; or Kitab al-Hind; Kitab al-Bīrūnī fī Taḥqīq mā li-al-Hind.[56]; or Alberuni's India (Translation)[57] – compendium of India's religion and philosophy.
Book of Instruction in the Elements of the Art of Astrology (Kitab al-tafhim li-awa'il sina'at al-tanjim); in Persian
The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries (الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية) – a comparative study of calendars of cultures and civilizations, (including several chapters on Christian cults)[58] with mathematical, astronomical, and historical information.
Melkite Calendar, or Les Fetes des Melchites – Arabic text with French translation extract from The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries.[59]
The Mas'udi Canon (قانون مسعودي) – encyclopedia of astronomy, geography, and engineering, dedicated to Mas'ud, son of Mahmud of Ghazni of the eponymous title.
Understanding Astrology (التفهيم لصناعة التنجيم) – a question and answer style book about mathematics and astronomy, in Arabic and Persian.
Pharmacy – on drugs and medicines.
Gems (الجماهر في معرفة الجواهر) - geology manual of minerals and gems. Dedicated to Mawdud son of Mas'ud.
History of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father
History of Khawarezm
Kitab al-Āthār al-Bāqīyah 'an al-Qurūn al-Khālīyah.[60][61]
Risālah li-al-Bīrūnī (Epître de Berūnī)[62]
Persian work
Biruni wrote most of his works in Arabic, as the scientific language of his age, however, his Persian version of the Al-Tafhim[55] is one of the most important of the early works of science in the Persian language, and is a rich source for Persian prose and lexicography.[55] The book covers the Quadrivium in a detailed and skilled fashion.[55]
After Al-Biruni's death, in the Ghaznavid dynasty and following centuries his work was not built on, nor referenced. It was only hundreds of years later in the West, that his books became read and referenced again, especially his book on India which became relevant to the British Empire's activity in India from the 17th century.[63]
A film about his life, Abu Raykhan Beruni, was released in the Soviet Union in 1974.[64]
Lunar crater Al-Biruni, on the far side of the Moon, as seen by Apollo 14
The lunar crater Al-Biruni and the asteroid 9936 Al-Biruni were named in his honour.
In June 2009, Iran donated a pavilion to the United Nations Office in Vienna—placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the Vienna International Center.[65] Named the Scholars Pavilion, it features the statues of four prominent Iranian scholars: Avicenna, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Zakariya Razi (Rhazes) and Omar Khayyam.[66][67]
The statue of Al-Biruni in United Nations Office in Vienna as a part of Persian Scholars Pavilion donated by Iran
↑ Al-Biruni's idea of al-Hind (India) was a cultural zone, more or less coinciding with the present day India.[13]
↑ Patrologia orientalis. Robarts - University of Toronto. Paris Firmin-Didot. 1907. p. 291.
1 2 Kennedy, E.S. (1975-06-26). "The Exact Sciences". In Frye, R. N.; Fisher, William Bayne. The Cambridge History of Iran: The period from the Arab invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge University Press. p. 394. ISBN 9780521200936.
↑ Ataman, Kemal (2008). Understanding Other Religions: Al-Biruni's and Gadamer's "fusion of Horizons". CRVP. p. 58. ISBN 9781565182523.
↑ Bīrūnī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad (1879). The Chronology of Ancient Nations: An English Version of the Arabic Text of the Athâr-ul-Bâkiya of Albîrûnî, Or "Vestiges of the Past". Translated by Sachau, Eduard. Oriental translation fund of Great Britain & Ireland. In our time the word is pronounced Biruni (or Beerooni), e.g. in Teheran. but the vowel of the first syllable is majhul, which means that in more ancient times it was pronounced Beron (or Bayroon)... That the name was pronounced in this way in Central Asia about the author's time, we learn from indisputable statement regarding our author from the pen of Alsam'ani, a philologist and biographer of high repute.
↑ Mackenzie, D.N. (2014-09-25). A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-1366-1396-8.
↑ BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN. Encyclopædia Iranica, (1989, December 15). Retrieved August 20, 2015.
↑ Encyclopædia Britannica, al-Biruni (Persian scholar and scientist) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia, Britannica.com, retrieved 2010-02-28
↑ Bosworth, C. E. (1968). "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)". In Boyle, J.A. The Cambridge History of Iran: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods. Vol. Cambridge University Press. The Iranian scholar al-BIruni says that the Khwarazmian era began when the region was first settled and cultivated, this date being placed in the early 13th-century BC)
Frye, Richard Nelson (February 2000). The Golden Age of Persia. Phoenix Publishing, Incorporated. ISBN 9780753809440. The contribution of Iranians to Islamic mathematics is overwhelming. ..The name of Abu Raihan Al-Biruni, from Khwarazm, must be mentioned since he was one of the greatest scientists in World History
Khan, M. A. Saleem (2001). Al-Biruni's Discovery of India: An Interpretative Study. iAcademicBooks. p. 11. ISBN 9781588681393. It is generally accepted that he was Persian by origin, and spoke the Khwarizmian dialect
Rahman, H. U. (1995), A Chronology of Islamic History : 570 – 1000 CE, London: Mansell Publishing, p. 167, ISBN 1-897940-32-7, A Persian by birth, Biruni produced his writings in Arabic, though he knew, besides Persian, no less than four other languages.
"Al-Bīrūnī | Persian scholar and scientist". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-07-06.
Lindberg, David C. (1980-03-15). Science in the Middle Ages. University of Chicago Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780226482330. A Persian by birth, a rationalist in disposition, this contemporary of Avicenna and Alhazen not only studied history, philosophy, and geography in depth, but wrote one of the most comprehensive Muslim astronomical treatises, the Qanun Al-Masu'di.
Massignon, L. (1951). "Al-Biruni et la valuer internationale de la science arabe"". Al-Bīrūnī Commemoration Volume A.H.362-A.H.1362. Iran Society. pp. 217–219. In a celebrated preface to the book of Drugs, Biruni says, "And if it is true that in all nations one likes to adorn oneself by using the language to which one has remained loyal, having become accustomed to using it with friends and companions according to need, I must judge for myself that in my native Khwarezmian, science has as much as chance of becoming perpetuated as a camel has of facing Kaaba.
Strohmaier 2006, p. 112
MacKenzie 2011
Samian, A.L. (1997-07-31). "Al-Biruni". In Selin, Helaine. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 157. ISBN 9780792340669. his native language was the Khwarizmian dialect
1 2 3 4 Boilot, D.J., Al-Biruni (Beruni), Abu'l Rayhan Muhammad b. Ahmad New Ed., 1, pp. 1236–1238, He was born of an Iranian family in 362/973 (according to al-Ghadanfar, on 3 Dhu'l-Hididja/ 4 September — see E. Sachau, Chronology, xivxvi), in the suburb (birun) of Kath, capital of Khwarizm....was one of the greatest scholars of mediaeval Islam, and certainly the most original and profound. He was equally well versed in the mathematical, astronomic, physical and natural sciences and also distinguished himself as a geographer and historian, chronologist and linguist and as an impartial observer of customs and creeds. He is known as al-Ustdadh, 'the Master'. in Bearman, Bianquis & Bosworth 2007
↑ Berggren, J. L.; Borwein, Jonathan; Borwein, Peter (2014). Pi: A Source Book. Springer. p. 680. ISBN 978-1-4757-4217-6. The Persian polymath, al-Birüni, a younger contemporary of Abu'l-Wafa', calculated the perimeters of inscribed and ...
↑ Healey, Christina (2006). Al-Biruni.
↑ Verdon, Noémie (2015). "Conceptualisation of al-Hind by Arabic and Persian writers". In Ray, Himanshu Prabha. Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History. Routledge. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-317-34130-7.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Sparavigna, Amelia (2013). "The Science of Al-Biruni". International Journal of Sciences. 2.
1 2 Bosworth 1968
↑ Strohmaier 2006, p. 112.
↑ MacKenzie 2011.
↑ Bosworth, C.E., Ḵh̲ W Ārazm in Bearman, Bianquis & Bosworth 2007
↑ Papan-Matin, Firoozeh (2010). Beyond Death: The Mystical Teachings of ʻAyn Al-Quḍāt Al-Hamadhānī. BRILL. p. 111. ISBN 9004174133.
↑ Hodgson, Marshall G. S. (1974). The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization. University of Chicago Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0226346779.
↑ Waardenburg, Jacques (1999-08-19). Muslim Perceptions of Other Religions: A Historical Survey. Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 9780195355765.
↑ Khan, M.S. (1976). "Al-Biruni and the Political History of India". Oriens. 25/26.
↑ Saliba 1989.
↑ Al-Biruni, R. (2004-03-01). The Book Of Instruction In The Elements Of The Art Of Astrology. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 9780766193079.
↑ Noonan, George C. (July 2005). Classical Scientific Astrology. American Federation of Astr. ISBN 9780866900492.
↑ Douglas (1973, p.210)
↑ Al-Biruni, trans. by Edward C. Sachau (1888), Alberuni's India: an account of the religion, philosophy, and literature, p.277
↑ Berjak 2005, part 5.
↑ Rosenfeld, B. "Book review of Life and Works of al-Buruni by P. Bulgakov". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 5: 135. Retrieved 2018-07-06.
↑ Covington, Richard. "Rediscovering Arabic Science". Aramco World. Retrieved 2018-10-05.
↑ Houtsma, M. Th., Missing or empty |title= (help) in Bearman, Bianquis & Bosworth 2007<
↑ Stephenson, F. Richard (2008-03-24). Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation. Cambridge University Press. pp. 45, 457, 488–499. ISBN 9780521056335.
1 2 Alikuzai 2013.
↑ Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). Rushdī, Rāshid, ed. Statics. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. Psychology Press. p. 642. ISBN 9780415124119. Using a whole body of mathematical methods (not only those inherited from the antique theory of ratios and infinitesimal techniques, but also the methods of the contemporary algebra and fine calculation techniques), Muslim scientists raised statics to a new, higher level. The classical results of Archimedes in the theory of the centre of gravity were generalized and applied to three-dimensional bodies, the theory of ponderable lever was founded and the 'science of gravity' was created and later further developed in medieval Europe. The phenomena of statics were studied by using the dynamic approach so that two trends – statics and dynamics – turned out to be inter-related within a single science, mechanics. The combination of the dynamic approach with Archimedean hydrostatics gave birth to a direction in science which may be called medieval hydrodynamics. [...] Numerous fine experimental methods were developed for determining the specific weight, which were based, in particular, on the theory of balances and weighing. The classical works of al-Biruni and al-Khazini can by right be considered as the beginning of the application of experimental methods in medieval science.
↑ Pingree 1989.
↑ Starr, S. Frederick (12 December 2013). "So, Who Did Discover America? | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Retrieved 2018-07-06.
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↑ Levey, Martin (1973). Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medieval Sources. Brill Archive. p. 179. ISBN 90-04-03796-9.
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↑ Ahmed, Akbar S. (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist". RAIN (60): 9–10. doi:10.2307/3033407. JSTOR 3033407.
↑ Tapper, Richard (1995). ""Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam"". Anthropological Quarterly. 68 (3): 185–193. doi:10.2307/3318074. JSTOR 3318074.
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↑ George Saliba. "Al-Bīrūnī". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved Aug 12, 2017.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Khan, M.S. (1976). "Al-Biruni and the Political History of India". Oriens. 25/26.
↑ Bīrūnī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad (1910). "On the Hindus in General, as an Introduction to Our Account of Them". Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about A.D. 1030. 1. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner. p. 17see also Vol 2 of Al-Biruni's India.
↑ Kennedy, E.S.; Engle, Susan; Wamstad, Jeanne (1965). "The Hindu Calendar as Described in Al-Biruni's Masudic Canon". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 24.
↑ Yasin, Mohammad (1988). Reading in Indian history. New Delhi, India: Atlantic Publishers & Distri,. p. 19. ISBN 978-8-1715-6120-9. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
1 2 3 4 S.H. Nasr, "An introduction to Islamic cosmological doctrines: conceptions of nature and methods used for its study by the Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ, al-Bīrūnī, and Ibn Sīnā", 2nd edition, Revised. SUNY press, 1993. pp 111: "Al-Biruni wrote one of the masterpieces of medieval science, Kitab al-Tafhim, apparently in both Arabic and Persian, demonstrating how conversant he was in both tongues. The Kitab al-Tafhim is without doubt the most important of the early works of science in Persian and serves as a rich source for Persian prose and lexicography as well as for the knowledge of the Quadrivium whose subjects it covers in a masterly fashion"
↑ Kitab al-Bīrūnī fī Taḥqīq mā li-al-Hind, Hyderabad: Osmania Oriental Publication Bureau, 1958
↑ Kegan, Paul, ed. (1910), Alberuni's India, 2, translated by Sachau, E.C., London: Trench, Truebner
↑ Patrologia Orientalis tom.10 p.291
↑ Patrologia orientalis. Robarts - University of Toronto. Paris Firmin-Didot. 1907 [1903]. pp. 291–312.
↑ Sachau, C.E., ed. (1878), Chronologie orientalischer Volker, Leipzig: Brochhaus
↑ The Chronology of Ancient Nations, translated by Sachau, C.E., London: W. H. Allen, 1879
↑ Kraus, Paul, ed. (1936), Epître de Berūnī (in French), Paris: Maisonneuve
↑ "BBc Radio: In our Time – Al-Biruni".
↑ Abbasov, Shukhrat (1975-04-14), Abu Raykhan Beruni, Pulat Saidkasymov, Bakhtiyer Shukurov, Razak Khamrayev, retrieved 2018-07-04
↑ UNIS. "Monument to Be Inaugurated at the Vienna International Centre, 'Scholars Pavilion' donated to International Organizations in Vienna by Iran". Retrieved 11 September 2016.
↑ "Permanent mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations office – Vienna". en.viennaun.mfa.ir.
↑ Hosseini, Mir Masood. "Negareh: Persian Scholars Pavilion at United Nations Vienna, Austria". Retrieved 11 September 2016.
Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2007). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Retrieved 10 November 2007.
MacKenzie, D. N. (October 18, 2011). "CHORASMIA iii. The Chorasmian Language". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2018-07-06. Chorasmian, the original Iranian language of Chorasmia, is attested at two stages of its development. The earliest examples have been left by the great Chorasmian scholar Abū Rayḥān Bīrūnī.
Strohmaier, Gotthard (2006). "Biruni". In Meri, Josef W. Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780415966917.
"Ibn Sina - Al-Biruni Correspondence" (PDF). Translated by Berjak, Rafik. 2005. Retrieved July 2018. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Alikuzai, Hamid Wahed (October 2013). A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes. 1. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 9781490714462.
Bosworth, C.E. (February 1, 2010). "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN i. Life". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-07-04.
Pingree, David (February 1, 2010). "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN ii. Bibliography". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-07-04.
Saliba, George (2010). "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN iii. Mathematics and Astronomy". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-07-04.
Pingree, David (2010). "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN iv. Geography". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-07-04.
Anawati, Georges C. (1989). "Pharmacology and Mineralogy". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-07-04.
Pingree, David (2010). "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN vi. History and Chronology". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-07-04.
de Blois, François (2010). "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN vii. History of Religion". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-07-04.
Lawrence, Bruce B. (1989). "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN viii. Indology". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-07-04.
Douglas, A. Vibert (1973), "Al-Biruni, Persian Scholar, 973–1048", Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 67: 209–211, Bibcode:1973JRASC..67..209D
Yano, Michio (2007), "Bīrūnī: Abū al‐Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al‐Bīrūnī", in Thomas Hockey; et al., The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, New York: Springer, pp. 131–3, ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0 | (PDF)
Kennedy, E. S. (2008) [1970–80], "Al-Bīrūnī (or Bērūnī), Abū Rayḥān (or Abu'l-Rayḥān) Muḥammad Ibn Aḥmad", Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Encyclopedia.com
Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-96930-1
Abulfadl naba'I (1986), Calendar-making in the History, Astan Ghods Razavi Publishing Co.
Abolghassem Ghorbani; Markaze Nashre Daneshgahi (1995), Biruni Name, ISBN 964-01-0756-5
Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè (2001), The Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-40216-6
Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, 1 & 3, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12410-7
Saliba, George (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, ISBN 0-8147-8023-7
Dani, Ahmed Hasan (1973), Alberuni's Indica: A record of the cultural history of South Asia about AD 1030, University of Islamabad Press
Samian, A.L. (2011), "Reason and Spirit in Al-Biruni's Philosophy of Mathematics", in Tymieniecka, A-T., Reason, Spirit and the Sacral in the New Enlightenment, Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology in Dialogue, 5, Netherlands: Springer, pp. 137–146, doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9612-8_9, ISBN 978-90-481-9612-8
Biruni, Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al- (1910), E. Sachau, ed., Al-Beruni's India: an Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of Indiae, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.
Rosenthal, F. (1976), E. Yarshter, ed., Al-Biruni between Greece and India, New York: Iran Center, Columbia University
Yasin, M. (1975), Al-Biruni in India, Islamic Culture
Ataman, K. (2005), Re-Reading al-Biruni's India: a Case for Intercultural Understanding, Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations
Wilczynski, Jan Z. (1959). "On the Presumed Darwinism of Alberuni Eight Hundred Years before Darwin". Isis. 50 (4): 459–466. JSTOR 226430.
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"BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN – Index". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-07-07.
"Al-Biruni (973–1048)." Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. 2001. Encyclopedia.com. 5 Feb. 2015.
Al-Bīr Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography | 2008 | Copyright
"Abu Rayhan al-Biruni." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. 5 Feb. 2015
Works online
Hogendijk, Jan: The works of al-Bīrūnī – manuscripts, critical editions, translations and online links
Elliot, Henry Miers, Sir; Dowson, John (1871), "1. Táríkhu-l Hind of Bírúní", The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period, 2, London : Trübner & Co. (At Packard Institute)
Sachau, C. Edward (1910), ALBERUNI'S INDIA – An account of ... India about A.D. 1030, 1, Kegan Paul, Trench Trubner & Co. Ltd., London
Sachau, C. Edward (1879), The Chronology Of Ancient Nations, London: William H. Allen And Co., retrieved June 24, 2017
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THE ORDER, PART 2 MY FIRST PARTY Rachel leads me to the theater, through a confusing maze of corridors. We're wearing matching outfits, a blue-green floral bikini with a wrap-around pareo of the same material. She says the party has a Polynesian theme, since the new members are from Hawaii. Rachel took me to the dining room earlier, and I got to know several of the girls in The Order.
Talking to them feels a little awkward at first, because I know several of them had their hands all over me last night, and their fingers in my pussy and ass. But now they seem just like normal girls, laughing and giggling as we eat. They talk a lot about sex, more than most kids, even, and there's a frankness about their conversation that takes a little getting used to. Out of the mouths of babes. I get the feeling that several of them are lesbian or bisexual, but that others just play whatever role they're asked to play.
One of them, a dark-haired girl named Moira, asked me how I had come to be there, and I told her I thought I was joining a convent. This revelation sent curly haired cleo stuffed hard on her gaping hole pornstreamlive pussyfucking all into gales of laughter. "Yeah, some fucking convent THIS is,' Moira said. "Well, I was misinformed," I said, laughing too, stealing a line from a movie I saw once.
Turns out I'm probably the only one here who just walked up do the door one day and asked to be allowed in. Some of them, like Rachel, were brought here by their parents. Others were employees of one of the members of The Order. Many of them were "recruited" against their will, and simply worn down and broken by endless fucking. Moira was one of these. She said she was drugged on a date and brought here by the assistant manager of the burger joint she worked at.
He was an 18-year-old kid who just happened to be the son of one of the members, the owner of a chain of restaurants. Anyway, she emerged from her drug-induced haze to find herself being gang-fucked in front of a big crowd of people.
By the end of the night, she was begging for more cock. Moira was quite cheerful about it, having long since accepted her fate and learned to love it. "After all," she said, matter-of-factly, "what's not to like about fucking?" Outside the theater, there's a large room that has been decorated in the same theme, with a lot of thatch and fake palm trees.
It's like a big luau. A lot of the girls are there, including Moira, all dressed like Rachel and I, and quite a few men, all in Hawaiian shirts of different colors, and shorts.
They greet me with smiles and welcome me to The Order. Someone hands me a mai tai, and there are trays of hors d'oeuvres everywhere I look. It's really like any other adult party, except that all the participants are very free with each other.
The girls casually rub the men's cocks through their shorts as they talk. Equally casually, the men fondle the girls' titties, their asses, whatever they can conveniently get their hands on. I talk to one man for a few minutes, and he reaches up during the conversation and slides a finger inside my bikini top, nudging my nipple as if he owns it. I guess he likes what he feels, since he leans down and whispers that I should come find him later in the theater.
I look around for the new members, but I don't see anyone who looks even remotely Hawaiian. After an hour or so, an announcement is made that the members should all go into the theater, because the show is about to begin.
The men file into the adjacent room and take their seats in the theater. The seats are in tiers, rising steeply toward the back. The seats are large and plush, with room for two people, you know, like love seats, and lots of space in between rows.
There are railings on the back of each row, and little trays for drinks. Everything is carpeted. The men scatter themselves in the room, leaving many empty seats.
There's a sort of a stage in front of them, separated from the seats by a huge glass window. Rachel told me that it was one-way, soundproof glass, that we could see and hear people "onstage" but they couldn't see or hear the people seated in the theater.
There is also a row of TV monitors located in various parts of the audience, suspended from the ceiling. Rachel has clued me in on my duties for the evening, since they're exactly the same as hers. We are to stand around the perimeter of the theater, and the members pick and choose from the girls, inviting them to sit with them, suck their cocks, or whatever.
Meanwhile, the night's entertainment is going on behind the glass. I have no idea what that heat of the first wazoo ride hardcore blowjob consist of, but Rachel has assured me that whatever it is, it will involve fucking.
That, after all, is The Order's reason for existence. On the stage, the show is beginning, and I'm glad I get a chance to watch, at least for awhile.
The stage is furnished with a couch and a day bed, with a red bedspread. A man and woman walk out onto the stage, holding hands.
The man, very tan, is dressed in the same sort of Hawaiian shirt and tan shorts. The woman, who is obviously Polynesian, with long, silky black hair, is wearing a floral, spaghetti-strap sundress.
They sit down on the couch, facing the audience, with the day bed in front of them. The monitors have come on, and I soon conclude that there must be cameras hidden in various places onstage, because I can see different views of the stage, some of them close-ups, on the different monitors.
Now two young girls appear, dressed in what have to be two of the skimpiest matching string bikini's ever made. They're about 14, I think, slim, with smallish breasts and long black hair, in ponytails. It's clear at a glance that they are identical twins. As they climb up on the bed and face each other on their knees, it's as if one of them is the mirror image of the other.
The illusion is enhanced by their movements, like in those pantomimes you see masturbating on cam makes aubrey cum very hard masturbation stiptease. They lean forward and kiss each other softly on the lips, and then, as their kiss deepens, they reach behind each others' backs and slowly pull on the strings that hold their bikini tops in place, first the one in back, then behind their necks.
As their tops fall away, I see their budding breasts, with perky brown nipples. One of the cameras zooms in on them, and I can see them on a nearby monitor, stiffening as they rub them together.
The man on the couch, meanwhile, has unzipped his shorts, and they're down around his ankles, while the woman has reached over and is casually stroking his rigid cock. Both of them are watching the girls on the bed. The girls, including me, are positioned around the theater, and one by one the men signal for us to join them. There are more than enough girls to go around, and some of the men appear content to wait for awhile.
Rachel, however, appears to be in demand, and she immediately moves along the top row and kneels down between a members' parted legs. He says something to her I can't hear, but she immediately helps him out of his shorts, and then leans forward and begins licking his big, rigid cock with slow sweeps of her tongue, sometimes moving lower to trace around his freshly-shaved balls.
I watch her for a few moments, until my attention is drawn back to the stage. One of the girls has bent down and taken the other girl's nipple into her mouth, and is sucking it gently, rolling the other nipple with her fingertips.
I can hear the other girl's gasp as her sister licks and sucks on her sensitive nipple. Then she returns the favor, mimicking her sister's movements almost exactly. Both of their nipples are sticking out now, clearly visible from where I stand, rubbing gently against hot brunette gets her hairy cunt drilled other as they again kiss lightly, playing visibly with each other's tongues.
Their hands slide down to their bikini bottoms now, and they again tug gently on the strings at each other's hips, slowly undoing the bows. Their bottoms come loose, and their naked, shaved pussies come into view. Their hands are lightly caressing each other between their tawny legs, and I feel my own pussy becoming wet as I watch them.
I turn now to scan the audience, and I notice that another member is gesturing at me, probably because I'm the new girl. With some nervousness, I thread my way along the row and bend forward. "What can I do for you?" I ask. "Just sit with me and stroke my dick, sweetheart,", he says. His shorts are already down around his ankles, and his big cock is erect. "I want to concentrate on the show for awhile." I sit down next to him, grateful that he's not going to make any truly outrageous demands on me, at least not yet, and that I can keep watching the action onstage.
I reach over and close my fingers around the fat shaft of his cock and slowly begin to move the loose outer skin up and down. It's big, like every other cock in the room, and I make a mental note to ask Rachel about that phenomenon after the party. That reminds me of something Rachel had given me a little bottle of massage oil that she said was nice for this sort of thing, so I take it from my bag and unsnap the lid, squirting some of it on his cock and spreading it with my fingers.
He sighs with pleasure as my fingers begin to glide lightly up and down the shaft, not exerting much pressure, just caressing it. "Ohhh, yeah, just like that," he says softly. "You like my big cock, baby?" I know his type, having encountered many like him in strip joints. They love to talk dirty to girls, and they love it when girls talk dirty back. I've made guys cum that way lots of times during lap dances.
I snuggle against him, pressing my breast against his arm, stroking him happily and purring. "Mmmmmm, yeah, baby, your dick is soooo big, I can't wait to feel it deep inside my pussy, fucking me." "Damn, you're a bad girl, aren't you?" he says.
"Ooooh, that's right, I'm such a nasty girl. Do you like fucking nasty sluts like me, and making them cum really hard on your cock?" I croon, giving his cock a squeeze. "Yeah, I like to bend them over and fuck it hard into their tight little cunts," he says, his eyes fixed on the two young girls on the bed. "Mmmmmm, that sounds hot!" I say, still lightly stroking his fat cock. As if to return the favor, he reaches over and unties my pareo, and soon his fingers are inside my bikini bottoms, stroking my already-wet pussy with them.
"Who are those girls?" I say, as his fingers slip inside my vagina. "They're so young!" "They're fourteen. The guy on the couch…they're his twin daughters. That's his wife beside him.
She and the two daughters are kind of his entrance fee." "Mmmmm, your fingers feel so nice in my pussy," I whisper. "Can you feel how wet I am?" "You love to fuck, don't you…" he says, sliding his fingers into my vagina.
"Uhhhh, yes, I never get enough cock. I love having a nice big hard one in my pussy, or in my ass, or my mouth. Or all three." He moans, and I know by his reaction that I've found the key to this particular member's heart.
Or maybe to his cock. Anyway, our attention returns to the action on the stage now. I glanced up at Rachel and she's still obediently slurping on her member's member. Ha, ha. The girls on the bed now have their bikini's completely off, kinky bitch masturbates with a sex toy they've moved into a sixty-nine position and are happily licking each other's baby-smooth pussies.
It seems like they're trying to position themselves such that their parents can watch their tongues in action, but the cameras give the audience a nice view, too.
They're certainly enjoying themselves, anyway, enthusiastically lapping at each other's clits, sometimes sucking on them too. Pretty soon, I hear their moans gradually rising in pitch, and then they both squeal, clutching each other's little asses, and I can tell that they've brought each other to a simultaneous climax.
They tremble in each other's arms like that for a minute or two, while their mother continues to patiently stroke their father's big dick. I find myself wondering if he's ever fucked his daughters…and xxxxxx 2019 story 30 min his wife helped him do it.
Now, two men appear, completely naked, with the expected huge cocks. The father speaks to his daughters, but I can't tell what he's saying. Whatever it is, they immediately disentangle themselves and arrange themselves on the day bed, on their hands and knees, facing each other. They kiss each other, once again extending their tongues and twining them together lightly, playfully.
The men, meanwhile, move up behind the two girls, and bring the heads of their cocks up to their dripping-wet clefts, rubbing them slowly up and down between their labia. Then, slowly, they thrust forward, sinking their big cocks into the two tiny girls, inch by inch. Soon they are buried deep inside them, and they begin to slowly fuck their cocks in and out in unison, glistening in the bright lights with the girls' wetness.
The two girls break their kiss for a moment and beg in high-pitched, girlish voices for the men to fuck them harder.
Their bodies are jolted by each of the men's forward thrusts, their small breasts and firm asses jiggling a little each time. Their mother, after watching the ravishing of her daughters for a few minutes, turns her attention to her husband's cock, bending over and taking it into her mouth. She begins to bob her head, sucking him in a slow rhythm, as he casually watches the obscene fucking of his daughters by these two strangers.
As I continue my light stroking of the cock in my hand, I wonder what the father is thinking. What kind of man hot lesbian babes playing arround on cam sell his wife and two young daughters into sex slavery, and then watch them being fucked like he was watching a Disney movie? While his wife sucks his cock. Different strokes, eh?
The man next to me apparently wants to take it to the next level. "Baby, how about a nice lap dance, so you can still watch them." I smile up at him. This is something I'm sort of an expert at, having made a living doing it in strip clubs for awhile. "Sure, daddy. You want me to leave my bikini on?" "No, that might chafe a little," he says. "Okay," I say, standing up, my taut ass right in his face. "Untie me." He reaches out and unties the strings on my hips, and takes my bikini bottoms.
I wonder if he gets to keep them. No time to worry. I move between his legs, facing the stage, and ease down on him, resting my hands on his knees, and capturing his slippery cock between the soft cheeks of my ass. Slowly, I begin to slide up and down it, and he moans quietly, looking around me at the stage. It's kind of fun doing this naked, compared to strip clubs, when there are always clothes in the way. After rubbing his cock this way for a few minutes, I move up and let it poke up between my thighs.
It's so big, it sticks up a few inches, and it almost looks like it's MY cock, not his. I press my thighs around it and begin to move up and down, stroking it with the smooth skin of my thighs. Then I reach down and caress the head with my fingertips, pressing the shaft into the wet folds of ebony babe gets anal and dp pounding pussy.
I stay like that for awhile, just moving a little bit to keep him interested. Everytime his cock moves, it rubs against my clit, and I think my pussy is oozing wetness all over his shaft. On the bed, the two girls have come again, breaking their tongue-kiss and bumping back against the mens' cocks, crying out in their soprano voices as their bodies explode in orgasm at the same time.
It's as if their bodies are hard-wired together, so that they each feel what the other one does. I wonder if one of them can come while the other one gets fucked. The two men are rapidly approaching their own orgasms, and suddenly, they slide their cocks out of the girls' clinging pussies.
The girls immediately get on their backs on the couch, their legs extending in opposite directions, but with their heads next to each other. They turn their heads to kiss each other as the men move to a position above them, stroking their cocks urgently. The girls, acting, as always, like one person, reach up and fondle the men's sperm-bloated, hairless balls with their fingers.
The men groan and both of them come at once, spurting rivers of hot, thick sperm all over the girl's faces, bathing them with syrupy come. The girls lick each other's tongues, lips and cheeks, playfully lapping up thick gobs of semen, sharing it between them, the entire sperm-fest plainly visible on one of the close-up monitors.
Then men in the room burst into applause. Almost all of the men in the audience have girls with them now. Many are having their cocks sucked, and some of them are fucking. I glance over at Rachel and she's straddled her partner, facing him, his cock buried inside her. She's slowly rocking on him as he grabs her cute little ass in her hands, fucking his cock in and out of her tight, juicy pussy.
He's licking and sucking on one of her nipples as she holds onto his neck. Moira, meanwhile, is with a man a couple of rows down. He's bent her over the row in front of her, and his slowly thrusting his engorged cock in and out of her pussy, both of them watching the monitors.
I'm getting too hot to keep up the lap dance, and without even asking, I reach down and guide my member's cock into my more-than-willing pussy. He doesn't object, he just groans as my muscles grip his big cock, my ass giving him a playful little wiggle.
"Fuck, your pussy is like an oven!" he murmurs. "Mmmmm, it loves your cock. Fuck me, baby, nice and slow." He pulls me back against his chest, and his hands move victoria june delivery boy came just in time my tummy to my breasts, pushing my bikini top up above them. My nipples are like pebbles against his palms as I squirm on his embedded cock. The scene has changed onstage. The man's wife has released his cock and risen from the couch, while the two girls have moved to the couch, on their knees.
The two men jelena jensen and summer day erotic lesbian sex on the bed gone, but three more have arrived, all of them black, very black, and all of them naked, except that they're each wearing a little square of cloth over their cocks, held in place by a rawhide tie around their waist, and some kind of bone necklace.
There are white, painted streaks on their cheekbones, like war paint. It's like their playing the part of jungle savages. I hear music, mostly drums and what might be a marimba. The black men are surrounding the gorgeous Polynesian woman and helping her out of her sun dress.
Soon, she, too, is naked, her body truly magnificent, with high, full breasts and a round, lush ass. The men's black hands are all over her body, running over her tits, her ass, her pussy. She writhes as they caress her body, and she's clearly becoming very excited and aroused. They're becoming erect too, and the little bit of cloth does nothing to conceal their gleaming cocks now.
On the stage, the girls have bent forward and are both busy licking their father's cock. Once again, they move in unison, licking up and down the sides of his shaft. They meet at the top and kiss each other, their tongues swirling around the bulbous head. Their fingernails lightly caress his balls. His attention, however, is focused on his wife. One of the black men has moved up onto the day bed, his long, thick cock resting against his flat stomach.
The Polynesian woman climbs up between his legs, and lifts his cock with her fingers, guiding it to her mouth and sucking on the head. The other two watch, their cocks not fully erect, but extending in front of them like heavy-duty garden hoses, pushing the little cloth covering aside.
"God, damn, you're cunt is like a fucking tight fist," says the man behind me, his lips at my ear. "It's gripping my cock and trying to suck the come out of my balls!" "Mmmmm, your dick is soooo big, it's stretching my pussy so nice.
You want me to come all over your big prick, baby?" His hand move down to my clit, his fingers rubbing it gently as I wriggle on his cock.
"Yeah, baby, do it, come on my big dick in your pussy…let me feel it!" I'm actually thinking of faking an orgasm, although I've seldom had to resort to that. I read somewhere once that if girls' neural pathways get programmed the right way early in life, they don't have any trouble coming.
Well, that's me. I've always come like crazy, even with that perverted priest the first time. Anyway, it turns out there's no need to fake it this time, because before I know it, I'm coming all over his cock for real, my pussy spasming around his cock as he rubs my clit, waves of pleasure washing over me.
I know he hasn't come, though. I figure he's waiting for the grand finale onstage. The woman on the day bed, meanwhile, is patiently sucking on the monstrous cock of the black man. Suddenly he grunts like a wild animal, and she slides his cock out of her mouth, resting the head on her extended tongue. I can see the hard, thick spurts of his come as they jet right into her open mouth, and then ooze back out over her tongue and slowly down her chin, as his cock flourishes again and again, sending still more of his sperm between her lips.
Fuck that's hot! She doesn't swallow any of it, she just plays with it, collecting a viscous pool of it on her tongue and draping it over the head of his cock. Some of it oozes against her fingers where she grips the thick shaft at the base. Some of it dangles from her chin, suspended there until she slides his cock head down and gathers it up.
It seemed like she does this for minutes on end, slurping up gobs of semen and then letting it ooze back onto his cock head so she can play with it some more. This is a woman who loves come. Finally, she's done, quietly licking the sperm from her fingers. The drums beat loudly. And then the first man withdraws, and the second black man approaches her. She moves up onto her hands and knees, and he mounts her, moving his cloth covering around to the side of his hip, guiding his cock to the her cleft.
He moistens the head it by rubbing it up and down a few times, and then places it at the tiny pucker of her ass. Grabbing his cock in his fist, he slowly forces the flared head into her tight ass. Inch by inch, he sinks his cock into her depths, as she sucks air through her clenched teeth, her face a picture of wanton, savage lust.
On the couch, one of the girls has straddled her father, facing forward, and is slowly sinking down on his cock, as her twin guides his cock into his daughter's hairless pussy. I guess that answers the question of whether he's ever fucked them.
Soon he's buried in her to the hilt, and her twin bends down and begins lapping at her sister's clit, sometimes letting her tongue drift down and caress the underside of her father's cock. I'm still happily wriggling on the big cock buried in my pussy, about to come again. But the scene onstage has inspired my guy. "I want to fuck your tight, teenage ass," he says. "Mmmm, I thought you'd never ask," I whisper. I move up until his cock slips out of my wet pussy, and he grabs his cock and moves it back to my asshole.
I slowly sink down, feeling the bulbous head pop inside my asshole, stretching it wide and making me gasp in sudden pain. I know it won't last big cock rewards mother id like to fuck with orgasms, though, and soon I'm sinking down on his shaft as it slides, inch by inch, into my ass. I glance down at Moira, who's asshole is now also impaled on the fat cock of the man she's with, and she turns her head to wink at me as he fucks it slowly in and out.
Rachel, meanwhile, has somehow straddled the face of the member she's with, her legs over his shoulders, and he's licking her pussy as she bends down and takes his cock deep into her throat, her head bobbing as she sucks him off. The black man on the stage his still sawing his monster cock in and out of the Polynesian woman's asshole, only now he's reached out and grabbed her long mane of black hair and jerked her head back as he impales her.
She is sobbing with pleasure and begging him to fuck her ass harder, so loud that everyone in the audience can hear her. Suddenly he grunts through his clenched teeth, and it's obvious to everyone that he's spewing thick spurts of come into her ass, flooding it swingers swap partners and pounding in playboy mansion his semen.
She collapses on the bed and he falls on top of her, his cock still pulsing inside her asshole. The men in the audience applaud again, at least those that can see and have their hands free. I'm still slowly moving up and down, my ass penetrated by a different rigid cock. He's thrusting upward with his hips, driving it deep into me each time. The black man onstage has slid his cock out of the woman on the bed, cum oozing from her defiled asshole.
He moves to the side, and the third and last black man climbs up onto the bed, turning her over onto her back. He climbs between her legs as she raises them, bent at the knees. Holding himself up with his arms, and without a pause, without even touching his massive cock, it somehow finds the entrance to her beckoning cunt and he drives it inside with one hard thrust. The daughter who has been riding her father's big dick has now lifted herself off it, and her sister has guided it to the entrance to her ass.
I can't believe she can take his big cock there, as young as she is, but it's soon clear that this isn't the first time for her. She eases down, and her sister stuffs his cock into her ass with her fingers. Soon it's buried inside her as she bites her lip.
From somewhere, her sister has produced a strap-on dildo, and has fastened it around her slim hips.
She quickly moves up between her father's legs, and slides the dildo into her sister's pussy. I can't believe my eyes as I watch this depraved double fucking of such a young girl, while she watches her mother being savagely fucked on the bed by the black man. Her sister thrusts the fake cock into her as her father drives his cock into her ass, sandwiching her between their deeply-embedded cocks. And then I hear her voice, as a camera zooms in on her beautiful face, "Oooooh, god yes, FUCK me, both of you!
Make me COME!! The black man is pistoning his cock in and out of their mother's cunt with a silent relentless fury, in time with the frenzied drumbeat, his bone neckless bouncing against his chest. The woman is screaming out climax after climax, thrusting her hips up to meet the skewering cock.
Suddenly her body wrenches upward and she comes for the final time, clawing his back with her long fingernails as he snarls, drooling on her breasts as he slams his cock deep inside her.
He's coming, filling her welcoming cunt with his sperm until it backs up and oozes down her ass. Her body stays like that, arced upward, as she trembles from the fury of her orgasm…and finally collapses, sobbing as the black man continues to hot woman double pounded by black cocks her full of his semen. Her daughter, too, now screams as her father and sister plunge into her, her orgasm overwhelming her small, young body. "OH!!
OHH!!! OH!!! UHHHHH!!!! UHHHNNNNN!!! COMMMMMMIIIIIINNNNNNNNNNGGGGGGG!!!" This is the moment the audience has been waiting for, holding back for. The man I'm with suddenly groans and I feel his cock swelling and spurting in my ass. I wriggle on him, wanting to maximize his pleasure as he fills my ass with his pumping come. The man fucking Moira's ass is coming to, growling and burying his cock deep in her ass as he spews his sperm into her.
And Rachel is sucking hard on her man's prick, which is erupting in her mouth while she bathes his face with her own orgasmic nectar. She gulps down his come as he continues to flood her mouth with heavy spurts of his semen. Everywhere I look, men are coming, as well as many of the girls. The lights have gone off on the stage, and now it's no longer a show, just a big testosterone-fueled fuckfest.
The man whose cock has just flooded my ass with cum eases me upward until he slips out of me.
He thanks me, as if I just cashed a check for him or something, and starts looking around the room to see who else is available. Another man beckons to me nearby, and I crawl over and take his cock into my mouth. A third man moves up behind me and thrusts his cock into my pussy. Some other guy has pushed Moira up against the wall to the side of the theater, and is now fucking her from behind, her ass quaking with each of his thrusts.
Everywhere, people are fucking and sucking with reckless abandon. The three black men have come out into the audience, and the girls who aren't otherwise occupied are all over them, sitting on their faces and riding their monstrous cocks. Awhile later, after I've gulped down the sperm of the man I've been sucking on, and had my pussy flooded with another man's ejaculate, I look around and see Rachel. On her knees before her is one of the twin sisters, the one that had the strap-on, I think.
The girl is eagerly lapping the sloppy come out of Rachel's just-fucked pussy, while behind her, another man is skewering his cock in and out of her young cunt. Rachel turns to me and smiles, her face tense, and I can tell that she's coming. ******************************************************************************************** Several hours later, in my room, Rachel and Moira and I sit on my bed, naked.
We've all been fucked half to death, but let's face it, we've had a terrific time. We had a few mai tais, the men were decent to us, we all came a bunch of times, and how often do you get to see a sex show like the one we saw?
Now we're all showered and fresh again. "I heard those three black guys are from the Nairobi chapter," says Moira. "They were just visiting, and they got pressed into service because that was the guy's fantasy…to watch as his wife got fucked blondie gets banged on her very soft couch in the morning hardcore brunette three black guys.
I never saw three cocks like that. Maybe we should volunteer for the exchange program." We giggle in response. "I'm surprised he has any unfulfilled fantasies left," says Rachel. "Those twin girls of his are some fuck-bunnies! They're going to fit right in around here." "We should go see them and make friends," I say. "They're probably have a few questions." "All taken care of," replies Rachel with a smile.
"Party in their room in a half hour." "That reminds me, Rachel. How come all the men have such huge dicks, anyway? They're like the Master Race or something." Rachel laughs.
"Yeah, I don't think any of us will be much use in the real world when we leave The Order. All stretched out of shape by a bazillion massive cocks. Normal guys won't want to fuck us," she pouts. Moira chimes in with the explanation. "I guess it's on the application form somewhere. You have to meet certain…qualifications to be a member.
And they must check, because I haven't seen any exceptions to the rule. I've always wondered, like, who measures them. What a weird job THAT must be." "Yeah, cuz you have to get them hard to measure them," adds Rachel.
"Some guys can fool you that way. I know one guy here who looks really small, you know? So I'm sucking on him, wondering how he ever got into The Order, and all of the sudden, WHOA!! He's like three inches soft and 12 inches hard! I'm surprised he didn't faint from all that blood rushing to his dick." I'm curious about something else. "What amazes me is that they all seem to cum alexis fawx pussy eaten and lick by ryan ryans fingering and lesbians buckets!
I never saw so much sperm in my life!" "Oh, that one's easy, Mary," says Moira. "They're forbidden to fuck outside of The Order functions. They can't even jerk off. I don't know how they enforce that rule, but however they do it, there's no denying the results.
Some of these guys erupt like Mount Vesuvius." "I know," giggles Rachel. "I gave this guy a hand job once in the auditorium, and he came all over a guy in the row behind him! If I'd had my mouth on it, he'd have probably given me a fucking tonsillectomy." Moira laughs again and turns to me. "Don't believe her, Mary. What she didn't tell you is that that particular hand job lasted about an hour and half!
Honestly, she's such a tease!" Rachel suddenly peers at my little travel alarm clock. "We better go see the twins. Be prepared, because I think those two would rather eat pussy than breathe. And they brought a box full of toys that's downright scary!" We laugh again as we all put on our robes, and are still laughing as we run down the corridor to the twins' room.
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Mezijin
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The daughter who has been riding her father's big dick has now lifted herself off it, and her sister has guided it to the entrance to her ass. I can't believe she can take his big cock there, as young as she is, but it's soon clear that this...
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Rachel laughs. "Yeah, I don't think any of us will be much use in the real world when we leave The Order. All stretched out of shape by a bazillion massive cocks. Normal guys won't want to fuck us," she pouts. Moira chimes in with the...
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He moans, and I know by his reaction that I've found the key to this particular member's heart. Or maybe to his cock. Anyway, our attention returns to the action on the stage now. I glanced up at Rachel and she's still obediently slurping on her member's...
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"Damn, you're a bad girl, aren't you?" he says. "Ooooh, that's right, I'm such a nasty girl. Do you like fucking nasty sluts like me, and making them cum really hard on your cock?" I croon, giving his cock a squeeze.
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"Well, I was misinformed," I said, laughing too, stealing a line from a movie I saw once. Turns out I'm probably the only one here who just walked up do the door one day and asked to be allowed in. Some of them, like Rachel, were brought here by...
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"I heard those three black guys are from the Nairobi chapter," says Moira. "They were just visiting, and they got pressed into service because that was the guy's fantasy…to watch as his wife got fucked by three black guys. I never saw three cocks like that. ...
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I turn now to scan the audience, and I notice that another member is gesturing at me, probably because I'm the new girl. With some nervousness, I thread my way along the row and bend forward. "What can I do for you?" I ask. "Just sit with me...
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******************************************************************************************** Several hours later, in my room, Rachel and Moira and I sit on my bed, naked. We've all been fucked half to death, but let's face it, we've had a terrific time. We had a few mai tais, the men were decent to us, we all came...
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On the stage, the girls have bent forward and are both busy licking their father's cock. Once again, they move in unison, licking up and down the sides of his shaft. They meet at the top and kiss each other, their tongues swirling around the bulbous head. ...
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One of the girls has bent down and taken the other girl's nipple into her mouth, and is sucking it gently, rolling the other nipple with her fingertips. I can hear the other girl's gasp as her sister licks and sucks on her sensitive nipple. Then she returns...

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One in twenty women in the Western world experiences bouts of uncontrolled binge-eating and many of these are suffering from the eating disorder bulimia nervosa. Stringent dieting and making yourself vomit after overeating are common features of bulimia nervosa, as are depression, anxiety and feelings of worthlessness. This illness causes great distress to sufferers and those who care about them, but in recent years there have been real advances in treatment.
In this third edition, Peter Cooper's sympathetic and highly acclaimed guide gives a clear explanation of the disorder and the serious health issues that can result from it. He describes the treatments available today and, most importantly, sets out a self-help guide for those who want to tackle their difficulties with a step-by- step program. This program has been found in independent clinical research to be of substantial benefit to people with bulimia nervosa (Psychological Medicine, 2005). This book will also give friends and family a much clearer understanding of the illness and its treatment.
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Written in a language that is both clear and pragmatic.... It is eminently readable by patients and will serve as an invaluable aid to treatment.
I would recommend this book to anyone with bulimia nervosa.
A really helpful and practical way of tackling the enormous task of giving up bulimia.


Ready to kick the habit? Quitting smoking can be incredibly difficult without the support and right aids to help you stop for good. There are tons of fantastic products out there today that can help you quit smoking and can help you regain control of your life. Knowing a bit about some of the solutions may help you decide what product is going to work best for you and what product is truly going to make a life-changing difference. Smoking is undoubtedly addictive, but it doesn't have to define you. Here are the best products for quitting smoking so you can live a longer, healthier life.
The first most common type of stop smoking product is the patch. These are patches that are infused with nicotine that slowly releases into the bloodstream. The idea is that through the slow release of nicotine in the blood, you can stop your desire to smoke. These patches are often part of a regimen that lasts for a few months and that helps you to stop smoking as gently as possible. These patches are wonderful for those that want to gradually stop smoking. As the regimen goes on, the amount of nicotine in the patch is gradually decreased until eventually there is no nicotine in the patch at all and you are free of smoking. A popular brand is the NicoDerm CQ brand and each step of the process is about $40 per box.
Another great alternative are nicotine gums. These gums work on somewhat of the same principle as the patches but they are more of an as-needed product. Instead of applying a patch that you wear, you instead chew a piece of gum that has been infused with nicotine when you are craving a cigarette. The nicotine then goes into the bloodstream and is supposed to stop your desire to smoke. This is a good alternative to patches and is good for those that may also be following a patch regimen and simply need something that is going to help tide them over a bit more. A popular brand of the stop smoking gum you may consider is Nicorette which retails for about $40 a box but does vary depending on what level of the gum you choose. By level, this means the concentration of nicotine in the gum itself. There are a few different brands of nicotine gum including Nicorette, Zonic and many stores have their own store brands like Equate for Walmart and even a Walgreens' brand.
Another alternative to gum and patches is of course to go the prescription medication route. Prescription medication that works to help you quit smoking is going to work to interfere with the receptors in the brain that make you crave nicotine. These are going to be a daily drug that helps to block these receptors until you can go without smoking on your own. A popular medication that is prescribed to stop smoking is Chantix. This medication will vary in price depending on what your particular insurance covers and if the medication is covered at all on your plan. This type of medication has a very high success rate and can help you stop smoking for good.
It is always beneficial for people that feel they need help to quit smoking to take the time to find the therapy that is going to work best for them. What might work for one person does not necessarily mean it is going to work for another. Take the time to find the right solution for you if you want true success.


The pound-for-pound king's next assignment will be televised on CBS on September 12.
Boxing pound for pound king Floyd Mayweather (48-0, 26 KOs) will reportedly fight Andre Berto (30-3, 23 KOs) on September 12. A report on boxing website, The Sweet Science, claims that Mayweather, who dominated Manny Pacquiao on the way to a unanimous decision win in his last fight on May 2, will complete the last of his six-fight deal with Showtime against the 31-year-old. According to The Sweet Science, the fight will be televised on free-to-air CBS as a reward for fans who have supported Mayweather during his long career.


Amana Takaful customers can now receive service at Tree Top Hospital, and their insurance coverage for the bill will be settled directly with ATM, to provide quick and convenient service.
As one of the leading insurance providers, ATM is committed to provide its services from every possible corner of its geographical coverage. This partnership between Tree Top Hospital and ATM is aimed to provide customers with the best patient care experience.
Tree Top Hospital is committed towards providing quality services at competitive rates and strives to deliver excellence in healthcare in the Maldives.


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Q: C++20: how to convert from std::string to std::chrono::system_clock::time_point with maximum precision? I'm trying to convert some time point to string and back with high precision. I'm using C++20 stl library. It works well with the second precision, but I need milliseconds (or even microseconds) too.
Here is my program:
#include <chrono>
#include <format>
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <sstream>

int main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
    using namespace std;
    using namespace std::chrono;

    auto tp1 = system_clock::now();
    string src = format("{}", tp1);    // (1)
    stringstream ss{ src };

    system_clock::time_point tp2;
    ss >> parse("%F %T"s, tp2);        // (2)
    bool fail = ss.fail();
    string dst = format("{}", tp2);

    cout << "Source time:    " << src << endl;
    cout << "Converted time: " << dst << (fail ? " (FAILED)"s : " (no fails)"s) << endl;

    return 0;
}

Its output is below:
Source time:    2021-09-21 09:31:48.1934653
Converted time: 2021-09-21 09:31:48.0000000 (no fails)

Sub-seconds (milliseconds in this case) are lost.
Here is another problem - string (1) does not specify exactly what I need, but string (2) relies on some digits order. How can I specify milliseconds for those lines?
I've tested it on Windows 10 x64, Ms VIsual Studio 2019, Debug x64.
Thanks in advance!

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


"Gas and Grass" business allows people to purchase gas and medical marijuana in one stop.
Medical marijuana users can now buy pot while filling up their gas tanks in Colorado Springs.
"Gas and Grass" is the first gas station to open in Colorado Springs that's adjacent to a Native Roots medical marijuana dispensary.
Colorado does not allow pot shops to sell non-marijuana products. So, the gas station and pot shop have distinct entrances. However, medical marijuana patients that shop at Native Roots will get discounts on the gasoline, similar to a grocery store loyalty program.
– Read the entire article at KRDO News.


Patricio Sanchez, Councilman of Celebrations of the City council of Mazarrón, has verified this Thursday in the beach Bolnuevo the march of the last preparations in the municipal tent installed by the Consistory to receive great part of the acts of the Celebrations of the Miracle that begin this Friday 9 November with the proclamation by the young geographer from Mazarron, Daniel Moreno Muñoz.
Until November 18, Bolnuevo will be the main stage of celebrations that have on Sunday November 11 one of its main days with the Ascent of the Virgin of Bolnuevo from its hermitage to the parish church of San Andrés, after passing through the Garden of the Immaculate.
The transfer will start at 9:30 am.
On Thursday, November 15, the traditional Dramatized Reading of the Nine Declarations of the Miracle will be held by the Theater Group of the IES Domingo Valdivieso.
It will be, as usual, at 8:30 p.m. in the Sanctuary of La Purisima.
On Saturday, November 17, Day of the Miracle, will begin with a day dedicated to children with workshops and magic shows in the Tent of Bolnuevo.
In addition, there will be Fair 2x1 in the Fairground.
In the afternoon, the solemn Mass and Renewal of the Vow of the Villa de Mazarrón by the mayor of Mazarrón, Alicia Jiménez, would be celebrated in the Sanctuary of La Purísima Concepción.
Later, the Purísima Concepción de Bolnuevo will be moved in procession to the Parroquial Temple of San Andrés.
The big day of the Fiesta del Milagro will be on Sunday, November 18 with the Holy Mass in San Andrés from 07:30 hours and then transfer in Pilgrimage to the hermitage of Bolnuevo with traditional stops along the way.
There will be free bus service to facilitate travel.
The day will end on the beach with the usual moragas, barbecues and meetings between families, friends and visitors.
The presentation was attended by Manuel Gómez and Andrés Pérez, responsible for the neighborhood associations 'Gredas de Bolnuevo' and 'Virgen del Milagro'.


Diesel generators and kerosene lamps are amongst the least efficient ways of providing power services. Thus our solar panels displace more CO2 emissions per peak Watt that installing them on on-grid solar farms.
It is a myth that solar cannot drive high power appliances and machinery (especially rotational power). A single, simple 12 volt car battery provides 6kW of instantaneous torque to start your car and yet only stores 0.1 kWhrs. Batteries are sized to store enough energy and always have excess power capability.
Twenty years ago, people agonised that providing universal communications in Africa would exhaust the limited copper resources. Then we invented the mobile phone.
Today, people worry about the impact of a billion Africans seeking to use energy as profligately as the western world as incomes rise. Thanks to innovative technology Africa will not follow our footsteps.
Our emphasis on the business use of power in rural areas, and in strengthening the local economy power, will help those communities become more resilient to climate change and drought resilience in a myriad of ways.
Provision of Clean Solar Power: We displace expensive and polluting diesel and gasoline generators and kerosene lighting with renewable solar, clean power.
Power to enable access to Drip Irrigation: Electricity can allow pumping and drip-irrigation of scarce water to mitigate the effects of climate change. Scarcity of water is a key challenge in mitigating climate change, and the implementation of drip irrigation systems makes most efficient use of available water, delivering it to the roots of the plant when its needed.
Power for cooling & waste reduction: Increasing temperatures will increase the rate of decay of farm produce and shorten the field to table "shelf-life", increasing food wastage. Even moderate amounts of cooling (as opposed to full refrigeration) can dramatically reduce crop-wastage, improving nutrition; increasing incomes and providing higher quality, and hence easier to sell, produce. Small solar systems are well suited to providing these modest levels of cooling.
Save & Invest: Domestic solar systems provide cost savings to households enabling them to save money. Money to invest in better education; improved medicines or starting or expanding a small business or small-holding.
Better Health: Power at a health clinic improves the standard of care and allows temperature sensitive medicines and vaccines to be stored for longer. An improved health of the community significantly adds to climate resilience.
Improved Education: Power in schools will improve rural school results and allow adult education in the evening. Improved education is vital to allow new agricultural practises to be disseminated to combat the effects of climate change or to allow workers to transfer their skills to new jobs as society adapts to climate change.


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We all agree that we need a green alternative to fossil fuels. The problem is that palm oil, once trumpeted as a possible successor to crude oil has become a target for environmentalists and energy experts who claim that the palm oil industry causes more harm to the environment and its surrounding wildlife than drilling for crude.
Rudolf Diesel discovered plant derived biofuels in 1900, proving to the world that one could use peanut oil to power engines. This was the first experiment with eco-friendly ethanol based biofuel; corn, sugercane, soybeans, coconuts and later palm oil would join this family of bioenergy.
Palm oil is defined as carbon neutral because carbon emitted through use is absorbed proportionately by trees in the environment.
Palm oil is easily integrated into existing power generating infrastructure.
In terms of cost per barrel, it's the most cost efficient.
For its producers, global demand for palm oil is expected to create over 1.5 million jobs and grow foreign currency reserves.
As global demand for a cheaper, greener alternative to fossil fuel grows, a proportionate increase in land is designated for palm oil plantations. As a result, claims have arisen pointing out that plantations in the world's two top producers produce more carbon that is actually saved. Accounting for 85% of the world's palm oil production, Malaysia and Indonesia drain peat swamps to create new grounds for palm tree seedlings.
Swamps are essentially nature's carbon storage facilities; the draining of it releases carbon accumulated from hundreds of years of decomposing plant and animal life, unleashing an estimated 600 millon tons of carbon annually. The burning of forests to clear land for plantations adds another 1.4 billion tons.
As a result slash and burn activities also pollute the air of countries that neighbour the top producers.
According to an Alterra Research Centre report, Indonesia alone accounts for 8% of the world's emissions as a result of the 2 billon tons produced by palm oil plantations. It's slated to rise 4% annually.
Ecologically speaking, a domino effect of illegal logging (1. to clear land for palm 2. for timber sale) and wildlife habitats are irreversibly destroyed, threatening Sumatran tigers, elephants and orangutans.
Indonesia loses 2.8 million hectares of rainforest annually, according to the United Nations Environmental Programme. Indonesia will lose its forests by 2020 if this continues.
From land clearing to consumption, palm oil's carbon savings are outweighed by emissions from deforestation, burning and soil-carbon losses.
Government ministries to look into sustainable agriculture and strict management to disallow clearing of primary forests for plantations.
Reality is that the top producers usually suffer poor enforcement of regulations as a result of endemic corruption.
Palm oil is still a good alternative IF a sustainable method of production is found.
The only solution to reducing carbon emissions is to cut reliance on fossil fuels. Biofuels are an alternative, not a replacement after all.