text:
\section{Introduction}

Ultra hot Jupiters (UHJs) are gas giants on short orbital periods, typically around early type stars, with dayside temperatures of 2500 K or more. Bright star surveys, such as WASP \citep{Pollacco2006}, KELT \citep{Pepper2007, Pepper2012}, MASCARA \citep{Snellen2013}, are specialised for finding these planets as they are some of the best targets for testing atmospheric theories. This is principally because their high temperatures makes them ideal targets for atmospheric spectroscopy. They also make for convenient chemical laboratories as all of their atmospheric constituents are expected to be in gas phase on their daysides \citep{Parmentier2016}.

Recent works in the near infrared, supported by observations with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), have identified the key physics and chemistry that operate at these high temperatures, which can bias retrievals that have been honed on cooler planets. In particular, the dissociation of molecules at low pressures and high temperatures, as well as the opacity of H$^-$ and other molecules strongly influence UHJ spectra (\citealt{Bell2017, Arcangeli2018, Kitzmann2018, Kreidberg2018, Lothringer2018, Mansfield2018, Parmentier2018}).

UHJs are expected to be tidally locked, ensuring that their daysides are always heated by their host star while their nightsides are permanently dark.
Dayside emission spectra have shown that the majority of the incoming stellar flux must be re-emitted from the daysides of these planets, rather than re-distributed to the nightsides or reflected (e.g. \citealt{Charbonneau2005, Deming2005, Desert2011c, Desert2011d}).
However, these inferred dayside properties are not representative of their global atmospheres, and an understanding of these planets requires consideration of their full 3D atmospheres \citep{Line2016, Feng2016}.
To that end, phase-curve observations allow us to resolve the longitudinal variation in temperature on a planet, and constrain its atmospheric circulation \citep{Knutson2007, Borucki2009, Snellen2009}.
Spectroscopic phase curves, with instruments such as HST, allow us to further break the degeneracies between composition and temperature-structure from the day to the nightside of hot Jupiters \citep{Stevenson2014, Kreidberg2018}.

Phase-curve observations measure key observables, namely the day-to-night contrast of the planet and the brightness offset from the substellar point, that inform the relative balance of wind recirculation and dayside re-radiation \citep{Cowan2007}.
Circulation in hot Jupiters, to first order, can be seen as a balance of two key timescales. These are the radiative and advective timescales, that between them control how efficiently incident dayside flux can be re-distributed to the nightside of the planets \citep{Showman2002}.

Large brightness offsets have been observed in thermal phase curves of hot Jupiters, pointing toward longitudinally asymmetric temperature distributions. The majority of these planets have temperatures hotter east of the substellar point (see \citealt{Knutson2012, Cowan2012, Parmentier2017}). These eastward offsets are attributed to fast equatorial winds, and are reproduced in first order by Global Circulation Models (GCMs). In these models, it is shown that a super-rotating equatorial jet can form in a hot Jupiter atmosphere and efficiently re-circulate energy from the dayside to the nightside \citep{Showman2002, Showman2011}.  Several planets exhibit westward brightness offsets, the majority of which are dominated by reflected light. Hence these offsets are probing the cloud distribution which is anti-correlated with the temperature map. There are two exceptions to this: HAT-P-7b exhibits a time-variable phase-curve offset \citep{Armstrong2016}, and CoRoT-2b exhibits a strong westward offset in it's Spitzer phase curve \citep{Dang2018}. The time variable offset of HAT-P-7b may be explained by an oscillation of the equatorial wind triggered by MHD effects \citep{Rogers2017}. However, magnetic interactions are unlikely to explain the case of CoRoT-2b \citep{Hindle2019}, whose brightness offset may originate from asynchronous rotation \citep{Rauscher2014}.
The question remains how the observed circulation patterns extend from the classical hot Jupiters to the population of Ultra hot Jupiters, where the additional chemistry and physics that has been identified will influence their circulation.

Due to the high temperatures encountered in UHJ atmospheres, a third timescale is expected to be important, namely the dissipative, or drag, timescale. Strong drag is predicted to occur in the photospheres of UHJ, as their atmospheres should be partially ionized, leading to magnetic braking of waves on the dayside by the planetary magnetic field that acts to impede the formation of an equatorial jet \citep{Perna2010a}. While magnetic braking is not the only source of drag expected to occur in these atmospheres, its strength depends on the ionization fraction and therefore temperature of the atmosphere. Hence the expectation is that highly irradiated objects should have larger day-night contrasts, which is supported by several observations \citep{Komacek2017, Parmentier2017}.

\par
An ideal test case for these theories is the planet WASP-18b \citep{Hellier2009}, which has a high equilibrium temperature of 2413K \citep{Southworth2009} at a period of 0.94 days, placing it firmly in the population of ultra hot Jupiters. In particular, it has a high mass of 10 M$_{Jup}$, occupying the extreme end of the planetary mass regime. This mass places it close to the brown-dwarf regime, who are known to host magnetic fields with a range of field strengths. A planetary magnetic field could have several effects on the planet's observed phase curve and properties: on the day-night contrast through a magnetic drag \citep{Perna2010a}, on the brightness offset through magnetic instabilities \citep{Rogers2014, Dang2018}, or on the radius through Ohmic dissipation \citep{Batygin2010}.

In this work, we present an analysis of the spectroscopic phase curve observed with HST Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3), the third spectroscopic phase curve with HST to be published after WASP-43b and WASP-103b \citep{Stevenson2014, Kreidberg2018}.
In Section 2 we explain the observations and data reduction methods used. In Section \ref{Sec:Results} we present the results of the white-light phase curve fitting and phase-resolved emission spectra. In Section \ref{Sec:GCMs} we describe the Global Circulation Models used to interpret these results, and the broad properties of WASP-18b that are inferred from this comparison. In Section \ref{Sec:Drag} we further discuss the importance of drag and it's effect on Ohmic dissipation, as well as comparing models with different compositions.  We also place the results of this work in context with with previous analyses of spectroscopic phase-curves, in particular comparing to the UHJ WASP-103b. A final summary of our conclusions is presented in Section \ref{Sec:Conclusions}.

\section{Observations and Data Reduction}

\subsection{Observations}
\par
We observed one phase curve of the hot Jupiter WASP-18b with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), Cycle 21 Program GO-13467 (PI J. Bean). This phase-curve observation used a total of 18.5 HST orbits over two consecutive visits, covering 2 secondary eclipses and one primary transit of the system.  The data were obtained with the Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) aboard HST with the G141 grism, covering 1.1 to 1.7$\mu$m. Details of the observations can be found in \citet{Arcangeli2018} along with a full analysis of the dayside spectrum. In this work we focus on the spectroscopic phase curve. These visits were taken using the 512x512 subarray (SPARS10, NSAMP=15, 112s exposures) in the bi-directional spatial scanning mode, with a half orbit break just before the last secondary eclipse due to a necessary gyro-bias update.
We used our custom data reduction pipeline on the intermediate $ima$ outputs, outlined in \citet{Arcangeli2018}.

\subsection{Systematics correction}

\begin{figure*}[ht]
\includegraphics[scale=0.8]{raw_pc.pdf}
\caption{Raw observed phase curve of WASP-18b, before removal of systematics and stellar variation. The transit is shown in the inset. The observations cover two eclipses to establish a baseline, with one transit in the middle of the observations. There is an additional half-orbit gap in the observations at 20 hours due to a gyro bias update. Clear orbit-long systematics can be seen, as well as a visit-long slope, on top of the phase-curve variation. The two colours signify the exposures taken from each of the two spatial scan directions, where there is an offset due to the fixed read-out pattern of the detector. }
\label{fig:raw}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\includegraphics[scale=0.7]{vv2_residuals.pdf}
\caption{Effect of systematic, long-term slope model on extracted phase curve. Left panels: systematics corrected phase curve and best-fit model for the wavelength bin 1.27-1.30 $\mu$m. Right panels: the same residuals plotted in time. The red line is the mean of the nightside residuals. In both panels, the exposures used to calculate the nightside residuals are outlined in red. Using a linear visit-long systematics model degrades the precision of the light curve, introduces visible systematics in the residuals, and results in a significant negative nightside flux. }
\label{fig:vv2}
\end{figure*}

The reduced light curves are dominated by instrument systematics which must be removed in order to extract the planet signal and system parameters (see Figure \ref{fig:raw}). We parametrise the orbit long systematics with a single exponential in time and the visit long systematics with a quadratic function in time, as these have been shown to match well the instrument systematics intrinsic to HST observations \citep{Stevenson2014, Kreidberg2014a}. Consistent with previous analyses, we remove the first orbit of the visit due to the extreme ramp-amplitude, as well as the half-orbit before the second eclipse due to poor sampling of the ramp.
We parametrise the phase curve with a simple two sinusoid model, which is analogous to a Spherical Harmonics model of degree 2. \citet{Kreidberg2018} show that, while the Spherical Harmonics model performs best for the data they analyzed, different phase-curve models can lead to very different temperature maps for the same data. This is due to the intrinsic degeneracy between the measured signals, that can lead to different temperature maps for the same planet \citep{Cowan2012}.
For the case of WASP-18b, the large mass of the planet should cause significant tidal deformation of the stellar host. The magnitude of this effect is poorly constrained theoretically due to the uncertainty on the stellar density distribution (see Section \ref{Sec:starvar}).
This introduces another degeneracy in the extraction of the planet's signal, hence we choose not to explore different phase-curve models, and only constrain the day-to-night contrast and brightness offset of the planet's phase curve, as they remain consistent between different phase-curve models \citep{Kreidberg2018}. Finally, we do not include the reflected light component in our models, as the albedo of the planet is found to be A$_g<0.057$ \citep{Shporer2018}, which should contribute to <5\% of the total planetary flux at these wavelengths.

We first test our ability to detect the nightside flux in this data by fixing the in-eclipse fluxes to the baseline stellar flux level, and allowing the nightside level to be completely free. We found that we were unable to detect the nightside flux of the planet at a significant level, and in many cases the measured nightside of the planet was below the flux of the star, requiring a negative contribution from the planet which is unphysical (e.g. \citealt{Keating2017}). This is, in part, because the signal of the nightside is expected to be very small compared to the amplitude of the systematics, Fp/Fs<30 ppm for a nightside temperature of 1400K not unexpected for such a system \citep{PerezBecker2013}. Hence, we opted to enforce that the phase-curve model should never fall below the in-eclipse flux, after correcting for systematics and ellipsoidal variations. A stronger constraint would be to enforce that the brightness map of the planet should be non-negative \citep{Keating2018}. Since odd map harmonics discussed in \citet{Keating2018} are not constrained by our data, as they cannot be seen in the phase light curve, and their inclusion or exclusion can change the brightness map of the planet, we opt to only enforce that the phase light curve remain non-negative. We choose not to discuss the brightness map of the planet, as the conversion from phase light curve to brightness map is not unique \citep{Cowan2008}. We verify that, for our best fit parameters, the brightness map can also be made non-negative with the inclusion of odd map harmonics, and hence our results do not require an unphysical brightness map.

In order to reduce the number of degeneracies in our models, we explored the possibility of a linear visit long systematics model rather than a quadratic model. We found that the fit quality of the linear slope model was worse at all wavelengths  when compared to the quadratic model, both with and without a non-negative phase-curve prior. The linear slope also strongly favoured a negative nightside flux when the nightside was set free (shown in Figure \ref{fig:vv2}). Here the quadratic slope model resulted in a nightside flux of -107$\pm$46 ppm (consistent with zero at the 3$\sigma$ level) whereas the linear slope model found a nightside flux of -321$\pm$24 ppm. Finally, the residuals between the best-fit linear-slope model and the data showed clear systematic trends in time, indicating that the model was not fully capturing the data.

\begin{align}
M(t) = & \Big\{ \big[1+ \bm{E_C}\sin(4\pi(\phi(t)-E_\phi)) \nonumber \\
& \qquad + D_C\sin(2\pi(\phi(t)-D_\phi))\big]*T_0(t) \nonumber \\
& + \big[\bm{c_{fp}} + \bm{c_1}\cos(2\pi(\phi(t)-\bm{c_2})) \nonumber \\
& \qquad + \bm{c_3}\cos(4\pi(\phi(t)-\bm{c_4}))\big]*\bm{E_0}(t)\Big\} \nonumber \\
& *\bm{C_{scan}}*\big(1+\bm{V_1}t+\bm{V_2}t^2\big)*\big(1-\bm{R_{orb}}e^{-t_{orb}/\bm{\tau}}\big)
\label{Eq:model}
\end{align}

Equation \ref{Eq:model} shows the full model fitted to the data, where fitted parameters are shown in bold ($\phi$ is the orbital phase of the planet at a given time, $t$ is the time since the beginning of the visit, and $t_{orb}$ is the time since the beginning of an orbit). $T_0(t)$ and $\bm{E_0}(t)$ are the transit and eclipse models respectively, calculated using the batman package \citep{batman}, where we fit for the mid-eclipse time ($\bm{dt1}$) and eclipse depth (through the phase curve parameters). The stellar variations are parametrised by the magnitude of the ellipsoidal variations ({$\bm{E_C}$}), fixed to reach its minimum at transit and eclipse ($E_\phi=0$), while the Doppler boosting signal is fixed to our calculated value of 22 ppm (see Section \ref{Sec:starvar}). The planet signal is modelled by a two-component sinusoid, consisting of 5 free parameters ($\bm{c_{fp}}$, $\bm{c_{1-4}}$). Finally, the instrument systematics are parametrised by the model-ramp approach \citep{Kreidberg2014a, Stevenson2014}. This consists of a quadratic visit-long slope ($\bm{C_{scan}, V_1, V_2}$) and an exponential decay in time for each orbit ($\bm{R_{orb}, \tau}$). $\bm{C_{scan}}$ is the only parameter that is different for each scan direction, and both scan directions are fitted simultaneously. The exponential ramps in each orbit of HST are seen to be stable in time, but are significantly larger in the first orbits of a visit. We therefore allow the first two orbits of the visit, as well as the first orbit after the half-orbit gap, to be fitted with their own ramp amplitudes whilst fixing the other ramp amplitudes to all be equal. We therefore fit for 4 $\bm{R_{orb}}$ for each light-curve ($\bm{R_{1-4}}$).

For each of the wavelength dependent light-curves, the ramp timescale, the ellipsoidal variation, and the eclipse time are fixed to the white-light curve values ($\bm{\tau}, \bm{E_C}, \bm{dt1}$). The remaining parameters are fitted for each channel. We experiment with allowing the ellipsoidal variations to be fitted at each wavelength with a gaussian prior determined by the white-light curve fit, and our results remain consistent. This leads to a total of 16 free parameters for the white-light curve fits and 13 free parameters per spectroscopic channel.
We fix the remaining system parameters, such as the period and planet/star radius ratio, to values from \citet{Southworth2009}.

The rms of the residuals of the spectroscopic phase-curve fits is between 10-30\% above photon-noise for all bins. The resulting white-light curve fit is shown in Figure \ref{fig:pc} in black and the systematics-corrected data are shown in blue. We find that the residual rms of the best fit to the white-light curve is significantly above photon noise (105 ppm, or 65 ppm above), similar to \citet{Kreidberg2018}. We include a table of our best-fitting parameters in the appendix as well as a corner plot of the posteriors from the white-light curve fit.

\subsection{Estimation of Errors}
In order to estimate the errors on our fitted parameters and identify the degeneracies in the model we use a Markov-Chain Monte Carlo approach using the open-source {\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont emcee} code \citep{emcee}. Each of the parameters are given flat priors within an acceptable range.
We test the inter and intra chain convergence by employing the Gelmaan-Rubin diagnostic for each of our runs. We run chains of 2,000 steps with 50 walkers to achieve convergence over all parameters.

\section{Results}
\label{Sec:Results}
\subsection{Observed phase-curve properties}

The extracted white-light phase curve shows a large day-to-night contrast, with a peak at 964$\pm$25 ppm just before secondary eclipse and a minimum <32 ppm at 3$\sigma$ level of confidence just before the primary transit (see Figure \ref{fig:pc}). We find that day-night contrast is >0.96 in luminosity, defined here as the difference between the dayside and nightside phase-curve amplitude divided by the dayside amplitude. The peak of the phase curve comes before the secondary eclipse, with a 4.5$\pm$0.5 degree offset of the brightest point eastward in phase. We fit a blackbody for the planet to the dayside spectrum obtained with HST/WFC3, and find a dayside temperature of 2894$\pm$30 K. We place an upper limit on the nightside temperature of 1430~K at the 3$\sigma$ level. For the spectrum of the star, we use the ATLAS9 model atmospheres grid \citep{Castelli2004}, propagating uncertainty on the stellar effective temperature and planet-star radius ratio, taken from \citet{Hellier2009}. These uncertainties on the system parameters correspond to a systematic uncertainty of 25 K on the planet temperature.

These results are consistent with previous phase curves of WASP-18b by \citet{Maxted2013} using Spitzer photometry at 3.6 and 4.5~$\mu$m. They find no evidence of a brightness offset, at a 1$\sigma$ precision of 5 \& 9 degrees in their respective channels, and are unable to detect the nightside of the planet.

We extract the emission spectrum of the planet at different orbital phases (show in Figure \ref{fig:spectra}). We find that the phase-resolved spectra do not exhibit identifiable molecular features of water expected at these wavelengths. The spectra closely resemble blackbody emission at all phases, with decreasing temperature away from the secondary eclipse as expected for a tidally locked planet. This is likely explained by the dayside flux as measured by \citet{Arcangeli2018} dominating the emission spectrum at all phases due to the large day-night luminosity contrast (see also \citealt{Parmentier2018}, Fig. 10).

\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ | c || c | c |}
\hline
Wavelengths & Eastward Offset & Error \\
$\mu$m & degrees & degrees \\
\hline
\hline
1.14-1.17 & 5.1 & 2.5 \\
1.17-1.21 & 2.8 & 2.6 \\
1.21-1.24 & 3.8 & 2.1 \\
1.24-1.27 & 6.3 & 2.1 \\
1.27-1.30 & 5.4 & 2.0 \\
1.30-1.34 & 6.8 & 2.4 \\
1.34-1.37 & 4.5 & 1.9 \\
1.37-1.40 & 2.5 & 1.7 \\
1.40-1.44 & 6.8 & 2.0 \\
1.44-1.47 & 3.3 & 1.6 \\
1.47-1.50 & 5.8 & 1.7 \\
1.50-1.53 & 5.1 & 1.9 \\
1.53-1.57 & 3.4 & 1.7 \\
1.57-1.60 & 1.6 & 1.3 \\
\hline
1.14-1.60 & 4.5 & 0.5 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Measured brightness offsets for each spectroscopic phase curve. The offsets at each wavelength are consistent with the mean of 4.5$\pm$0.5 degrees to within one or two sigma.}
\label{Tab:Offs}
\end{table}

We additionally measure the offset of the brightest point in the phase curve in each of our 14 wavelength bins (shown in Table \ref{Tab:Offs}) and find that the offset remains constant with wavelength within our uncertainties. We therefore combined the measured offset from each wavelength bin to calculate a white-light curve offset of 4.5$\pm$0.5 degrees eastward in longitude. These brightness offsets are not directly equivalent to hot-spot offsets in the thermal map of the planet, as they measure the offset in integrated hemispheric brightness \citep{Cowan2008, Schwartz2017}. In future discussions we compare only to the brightness offset seen in our data, as the inversion from the light curve to a longitudinal brightness map is not unique.

\subsection{Ellipsoidal variations}
\label{Sec:starvar}
We explored the effects of tidal deformation of the star by the planet and of the planet by the star. Since the mass of the planet is large at 10 M$_{Jup}$, and the planet is only separated by 3.6 Stellar radii from the star, both can have a significant impact on the observed phase curve.

We use the equations supplied in \citet{Leconte2011b} and estimate that the stellar ellipsoidal variations are of order 200 ppm, or 400 ppm peak-to-peak. The size of these variations is uncertain due to the uncertainty on the stellar density distribution.
Since the ellipsoidal variations operate on the same timescale as our phase-curve model, they are a significant source of degeneracy. We include the magnitude of the ellipsoidal variations in our fits and remove them from our final light curves. The fitted magnitude of the stellar ellipsoidal variation is 201$\pm$26 ppm in the white-light curve, with a phase offset fixed such that the minima are at secondary eclipse and transit (shown as the cyan curve in Figure \ref{fig:pc}). We fixed the magnitude of the ellipsoidal variations to the white-light curve values in each of the spectroscopic phase curves.

Interestingly, our measurement of the stellar ellipsoidal variation is consistent with the independent measurement of the ellipsoidal variations by \citet{Shporer2018} to within the 1$\sigma$ confidence level. \citet{Shporer2018} measured the amplitude of the ellipsoidal variations as 194$\pm7$ ppm using observations from the \textit{TESS} spacecraft in the optical.
Additionally the dayside emission of WASP-18b measured with \textit{TESS} is consistent with our dayside emission spectrum, as discussed in \citet{Shporer2018}. However, while the planetary emission at other phases is consistent within the errorbars of \citet{Shporer2018} and this work, the differences in how the planetary signal is extracted make a comparison difficult. For instance the nightside flux in \textit{TESS} is measured at -24 ppm, whereas our approach enforces that the nightside signal is non-negative.
We do not fix our ellipsoidal variations to the more precise measurement from \citet{Shporer2018} in order to allow us to compare the two results as independent measurements. We do however test our analysis using their value of EC=194$\pm$7ppm, and find our conclusions unchanged. The most significant effect of including their more precise measurement is an increased precision on the phase curve at quadrature, where the ellipsoidal variations peak.

We estimate the inverse effect, the tidal deformation of the planet by the star, using the tables supplied in \citet{Leconte2011a} for a 10M$_J$ planet under high irradiation. We find that the expected size of the planet's variations are only an effective 0.25\% in radius, equivalent to 5ppm in the final light curve, which should be negligible at our precision and is well within the errors on the measured radius of the planet of $\pm6\%$ \citep{Southworth2009}.
We also estimate the effect of doppler boosting due to the radial velocity of the star on these light-curves to be about 22 ppm \citep{Mazeh2010}, and include it in our models fixed to this value. This is also consistent with the measurement of 24$\pm$6 ppm by \citet{Shporer2018}.

An additional effect of the ellipsoidal variations is that they may offset any measurements of the transit or eclipse depths when unaccounted for (e.g. \citealt{Cowan2012}). This effect is mitigated in the case of WASP-18b, as the planet's phase-curve variation within the HST/WFC3 bandpass is by coincidence nearly equal in magnitude to the ellipsoidal variations over the duration of the eclipse. We estimate the difference in the retrieved eclipse depths, when the phase-curve and ellipsoidal variations are fixed to our best-fit values versus when they are unaccounted for, and modelled as instrument systematics. When these effects are not accounted for, we find a relative change in eclipse depth of only 3 ppm over the whole spectrum, well below the precision of the data, and a systematic over-estimate of the eclipse depths (offset) of about 20 ppm or $\sim$2\% of the depth. These changes are within the 1-sigma errors of Arcangeli+2018. However, we stress that for other planets where these effects do not necessarily cancel, it has been shown that their treatment can significantly affect inferred eclipse depths \citep{Cowan2012, Kreidberg2018}.

\begin{figure*}
\includegraphics[scale=0.8]{pc_gcm_all.pdf}
\caption{Systematics-corrected HST/WFC3 white-light phase curve of WASP-18b (blue points) compared to suite of Global Circulation Models (coloured curves). In black is the best-fit model used to parametrize the planet signal, with two sinusoidal components for the phase-curve variation. In cyan are the stellar ellipsoidal variations, that have been subtracted from the phase curve (see Section~\ref{Sec:starvar}). GCMs shown are parametrized by 3 drag timescales indicated by line-styles and by 3 metallicities indicated by colours (-0.5, 0.0, and +0.5 relative to solar).}
\label{fig:pc}
\end{figure*}

\section{Comparing the phase curve of WASP-18b to Global Circulation Models}
\label{Sec:GCMs}

\begin{figure*}
\includegraphics[scale=0.58]{all_phase_spec.pdf}
\caption{ HST/WFC3 phase-resolved spectra at three different phases (dayside, nightside, and quadratures) compared to range of GCMs. Spitzer points are taken from the best-fit sinusoidal phase-curve model by \citet{Maxted2013}, where the nightside was fixed to zero flux, with errorbars taken from their eclipse depth measurements.
The phase bins shown are three broad bins: "Dayside" refers to orbits between phases 0.4-0.45 and 0.55-0.6, "Quadrature" to the average of phases 0.25-0.3 and 0.7-0.75, and "Nightside" to phases 0.05-0.25 and 0.75-0.95. The same binning is used for the GCM spectra shown.}
\label{fig:spectra}
\end{figure*}

\subsection{Global Circulation Models}

To interpret our data and determine the physical origin of the observed signals, we compare the extracted phase curve and spectra to 3D Global Circulation Models (GCMs). We produced a sample of circulation models, exploring the effects of changing drag and metallicity as these have been shown to determine the broad behaviour of hot Jupiter phase curves \citep{Showman2011,Kataria2015}. Here drag refers to any dissipative mechanism that can act to slow down wave propagation and reduce windspeeds.

The atmospheric circulation and thermal structure were simulated using the SPARC/MITgcm model \citep{Showman2009}. The model solves the primitive equations in spherical geometry using the MITgcm \citep{Adcroft2004} and the radiative transfer equations using a state-of-the-art one dimensional radiative transfer model \citep{Marley1999}. We use the correlated-k framework to generate opacities, based on the line-by-line opacities described in \citet{Visscher2006, Freedman2014}. Our initial model assumes a solar composition with elemental abundances of \citet{Lodders2002} and the chemical equilibrium gas phase composition from \citet{Visscher2006}. These calculations take into account the presence of H$^-$ opacities and the effect of molecular dissociation on the abundances, shown to be important for this class of planet \citep{Arcangeli2018, Kreidberg2018, Mansfield2018, Parmentier2018, Bell2018}. Additional heat transport by H$_2$ recombination is not included in our models \citep{Bell2018}. We used a timestep of 25s, ran the simulations for 300 Earth days, averaging all quantities over the last 100 days. The above modelling process is the same as that described in \citet{Parmentier2018}, using the WASP-18 system parameters from \citet{Southworth2009}.

We include additional sources of drag through a Rayleigh-drag parametrisation with a single constant timescale per model that determines the efficiency with which the flow is damped. We vary this timescale between models from $t_{drag}=10^{3-6}s$ (efficient drag), as well as a no drag model with $t_{drag}=\infty$. While all the models are radiatively dominated on the dayside, our range of drag strengths cover the transition from a drag-free, wind circulation case to a drag-dominated circulation.
This can be seen from the short radiative timescale of the dayside photospheres of our models, $t_{rad}\sim10^{2-3}$s, estimated using Eq. 10 from \citet{Showman2002} for a simple H$_2$ slab atmosphere. This is significantly shorter than other relevant timescales, such as the advective timescale at the equator, calculated as the ratio of the equatorial windspeed over the planet radius. The advective timescale is on the order of $10^4$s in our no drag model rising to $10^6$s in our efficient drag model ($t_{drag}=10^3$s), as the model atmospheres transition to drag-dominated circulations.

\subsection{Comparison of GCMs to data}

To first order, all of our Global Circulation Models show a large day-night contrast and small or no brightness offset, and broadly reproduce the observed phase curve of WASP-18b.
We find however that our baseline, solar-composition model with no additional drag sources fails to match the size of the day-night contrast in the phase-curve data (Figure~\ref{fig:pc}). This baseline model both under-predicts the dayside flux and over-predicts the nightside flux of the planet.
However, models with additional sources of drag, parametrised by a short drag timescale, are able to match better the dayside and nightside flux of the planet.
All of our efficient drag models match well the day-night contrast of the planet. We therefore find that we require additional drag sources to explain our observed day-night contrast of WASP-18b. We discuss the possible physical origins of this additional drag in Section~\ref{Sec:Magnets}.

When generating our GCMs, we held the system parameters fixed to literature values. We were not able to explore their full uncertainties as generating one model is already computationally expensive. However, uncertainties on the system parameters will lead to an additional uncertainties on the inferred best-fit models. Since the differences between the efficient drag models are so small, we cannot statistically choose between these models (see Table~\ref{Tab:gcms}).
Nevertheless, models with inefficient or no drag fail to reproduce the day-night contrast seen in the data and therefore the overall shape of the phase curve.
Hence we can conclude that we require some additional source of efficient drag to explain our observed phase curve, and the best-fitting models are those with $t_{drag}=10^3$s or $10^4$s.

We test whether enhanced or depleted metallicity might also explain the large day-night contrast without the need for additional drag sources \citep{Kataria2015}. We find however that the effect of changing metallicity alone, in our models of WASP-18b, is too small to explain the observations (see Figure~\ref{fig:pc}), but the effect of metallicity on the phase curve is different for these hot planets compared too cooler objects (see Section~\ref{Sec:MH}).

We also compare our GCMs to phase-resolved spectra extracted from the spectroscopic phase curve, as this allows us to study the wavelength dependence of our data. As seen in Figure \ref{fig:spectra}, we find that the spectra are best matched by the efficient drag models. The phase-resolved spectra are dominated by thermal emission from the dayside due to the large day-night luminosity contrast.

\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.3}
\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ | c | c | c | c |}
\hline
Model & Model & $\Delta\chi^2$ & $\Delta\chi^2$ \\
 t$_{drag}$ (s) & [M/H] &   & per datum \\
\hline
$10^3$ & -0.5 &  37 & 0.2 \\
$10^4$ & -0.5 &  0 & 0.0\\
no drag & -0.5 & 137 & 0.6 \\
$10^3$ & 0.0 &  23 & 0.1 \\
$10^4$ & 0.0 &  7 & 0.0 \\
no drag & 0.0 &  73 & 0.3 \\
no drag & +0.5 & 70 & 0.3\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Table of the fit quality between our circulation models and the measured phase curve of WASP-18b, relative to the best fitting model. Fit quality here is measured by the $\chi^2$ between the data and the circulation model.}
\label{Tab:gcms}
\end{table}

\section{Discussion}
\label{Sec:Drag}
\subsection{Drag in Global Circulation Models}
\label{Sec:Magnets}
\subsubsection{Sources of drag}

We infer the presence of an efficient drag source in the atmosphere of WASP-18b from our comparison to Global Circulation Models. We explore the origins of this drag, which could originate from a variety of sources, such as turbulence and instabilities \citep{Goodman2009,Li2010, Youdin2010}, or hydrodynamic shocks \citep{DobbsDixon2010, Rauscher2010, Heng2012, Fromang2016}. Alternatively, for hot planets whose atmospheres are partially ionized, magnetic fields may influence the circulation and create a magnetic drag \citep{Perna2010a, Batygin2013, Komacek2017}.
Magnetic drag, sometimes called "ion drag", is caused by the collision between the bulk neutral flow and the ionic component of the flow. Since the ionic component is subject to Lorentz forces but the neutral component is not, these ions can act as a drag and eventually dominate the circulation under the right conditions \citep{Zhu2005}.

Alkali metals in the dayside atmosphere of WASP-18b should be significantly thermally ionized \citep{Arcangeli2018, Helling2019}. Thus, if WASP-18b were to host a magnetic field, its circulation would be influenced by magnetic drag.
We use the formula described in \citealt{Perna2010a} (here Equation~\ref{Eq:drag}) to estimate what might be the efficiency of magnetic drag on this planet, parametrised through the timescale t$_{drag}$.

\begin{align}
\qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad t_{drag} \sim \frac{4\pi\rho\cdot\eta(n_e)}{B^2cos\theta} \quad \text{Perna et al. (2010a)}
\label{Eq:drag}
\end{align}

This timescale t$_{drag}$ is the timescale on which kinetic energy is dissipated by magnetic drag in the atmosphere. We calculated the ionization fraction in local chemical equilibrium for our circulation models with a modified version of the NASA CEA Gibbs minimization code~\citep[e.g.][]{Gordon1994,Parmentier2018}. This ionization fraction ($n_e$) is used to compute $\eta$, the resistivity, defined in \citet{Perna2010a}. B here is the magnetic field strength, $\rho$ is the density of the atmosphere, and $\pi-\theta$ is the angle between the magnetic field and the flow (assumed here that $\theta=0$ for the case of maximal efficiency).

We find that we can match a t$_{drag}$ of order $10^3$s at the substellar point, rising to $10^4$s elsewhere on the dayside, with a magnetic field strength of B=10 Gauss . The nightside drag timescale from our models is much longer, as the nightside is too cold for thermal ionization. This estimate shows that the short drag timescale inferred from our GCMs could reasonably be due to Lorentz forces. However, the inhomogeneity also highlights that our Rayleigh-drag parametrisation does not capture the full effects of magnetic drag, as for instance a magnetic drag timescale should vary throughout the atmosphere.

\subsubsection{Limitations of Rayleigh drag parametrisation}

In our GCMs, drag is parametrized by a simple Rayleigh drag \citep{Komacek2016} which aims to approximate any additional drag sources by one single dissipative timescale throughout the planet, without the need for finer resolutions or full MHD calculations. This parametrization is shown in Equation \ref{Eq:fdrag}, where the drag force per unit mass, $\mathcal{F}_{drag}$, is given as $\textit{\textbf{v}}$, the velocity of the flow, divided by $t_{drag}$, a single constant drag timescale.

\begin{align}
\qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \quad \mathcal{F}_{drag} = -\frac{\textit{\textbf{v}}}{t_{drag}}
\label{Eq:fdrag}
\end{align}

In the context of magnetic drag, this parametrization has three key problems. The first is that the magnetic drag is direction-dependent with respect to the magnetic field \citep{Batygin2013} seen as the $\theta$ term in Equation \ref{Eq:drag}. The second is that the strength of drag is spatially inhomogeneous, i.e. it is weaker in cooler regions where there is less ionization, such as the nightside hemisphere \citep{Rauscher2012}.
Finally, the atmospheric circulation itself can induce a toroidal magnetic field that is larger in amplitude than the dipole field of the planet, that can change both the strength and the direction of the Lorentz force~\citep{Rogers2014}.
All these aforementioned effects are not accounted for in our models which could limit our accuracy in predicting the shape of the phase curve.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[scale=0.48]{circ1.pdf}
\includegraphics[scale=0.48]{circ2.pdf}
\caption{Temperature and wind maps of WASP-18b taken from GCMs at a pressure level of 0.2 bar for two cases of drag. \newline \textbf{Top:} Efficient drag model (t$_{drag}=10^3$s), where the circulation is day-to-night and longitudinally symmetric. \newline \textbf{Bottom:} No drag model, the circulation to the nightside is more efficient and driven by an equatorial jet.}
\label{fig:circ}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Effect of a planetary magnetic field}

\subsubsection{Magnetic Circulation}
\citet{Batygin2013} explored further the effect of the directionally-dependent Lorentz-force on atmospheric circulation. Our GCMs with very efficient drag exhibit longitudinally symmetric day-night flow patterns (top panel of Figure~\ref{fig:circ}), as efficient drag shuts down Rossby and Kelvin waves in the dayside atmosphere that are responsible for the typical equatorial jet formation \citep{Showman2011}.
However \citet{Batygin2013} suggest that this should only occur on objects with low magnetic fields, typically with B<0.5 Gauss in strength. They predict that the majority of highly irradiated gas giant atmospheres should be dominated by zonal jets \citep{Showman2011}, such as those seen in our drag free models (bottom panel of Figure~\ref{fig:circ}). This is due to Lorentz-forces that act perpendicular to the magnetic field lines leading to circulation patterns with zonal jets, rather than simply damping the existing flow as in the Rayleignash-drag parametrization \citep{Batygin2013}.
In contrast, without considering magnetic effects, drag due to other schemes such as the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability should lead to a symmetric day-night flow with no brightness offset.
In this context, the presence of a brightness offset in our data might be an indication that magnetic effects are responsible for the observed circulation on WASP-18b, and therefore favour a magnetic drag scenario.

Magnetic drag should affect the circulation of cooler planets more than the Ultra hot Jupiters. As discussed in \citet{Perna2010a} for HD209458b ($T_{eq}$=1460K), magnetic drag may act to limit the wind speeds, but will not completely shut down re-circulation for magnetic fields with B<30 Gauss or so. This is because there is a direct dependence of the magnetic drag timescale on the resistivity of the atmosphere (see Equation~\ref{Eq:drag}). This resistivity depends strongly on the local temperature through the ionization fraction, which drops sharply even across the dayside of WASP-18b (see \citealt{Helling2019}, Figure 6).

\subsubsection{Ohmic dissipation in WASP-18b}
\label{Sec:Inflation}

Another consequence of a planetary magnetic field is Ohmic dissipation which has been proposed as a mechanism to explain hot Jupiter inflation \citep{Batygin2010, Perna2010b, Menou2012}. Here we consider what the effect of Ohmic dissipation would be on the measured radius of WASP-18b.

In the specific case of WASP-18b, there are two additional factors affecting the radius inflation by Ohmic dissipation due its high temperature and large mass. The first is that heating due to Ohmic dissipation should be less efficient in the presence of efficient drag, as the zonal winds that drive Ohmic dissipation are reduced in speed \citep{Menou2012}. The second is that inflation by Ohmic dissipation should be less efficient for higher mass planets \citep{Huang2012}. This is because the depth at which Ohmic power is deposited depends on the scale-height of the atmosphere, and energy should be deposited higher in massive planet atmospheres than less massive planets. This would reduce the effect of any additional heating by Ohmic dissipation on the observed radius of massive planets.

These effects combined predict that WASP-18b should not be significantly inflated by Ohmic dissipation.
Using predictions from \citet{Thorngren2018}, a 10 M$_{J}$ planet should have a maximum radius of 1.21 R$_{J}$ when inflation effects are not taken into account. The measured radius of WASP-18b is consistent with this value within one sigma (1.204$\pm$0.035 \citealt{Maxted2013}). The effect of inflation on the radius of high mass planets is harder to detect \citep{Miller2009}, however we can conclude that WASP-18b does not deviate from the scenario predicted by Ohmic dissipation. In Section \ref{Sec:Comparison}, we show that we can lift some of this degeneracy between mass and inflation efficiency by comparing to a lower mass UHJ, WASP-103b.

\subsection{Effect of Atmospheric Metallicity on the phase curve of WASP-18b}
\label{Sec:MH}

Previous work has shown that changes in atmospheric metallicity can affect global circulation in hot Jupiter atmospheres \citep{Showman2009, Kataria2015}.
For instance, increasing the metallicity in a classical hot Jupiter model typically acts to reduce the planet's nightside emission (e.g. WASP-43b, \citealt{Kataria2015}). This is because, as the metallicity increases, the abundances of molecular species increase leading to stellar light being absorbed higher in the atmosphere, at lower pressures.
The radiative timescale is shorter at lower pressures, leading to less efficient heat circulation to the nightside of the planet \citep{Showman2009}. Additionally, as more incident energy is re-irradiated from the dayside, the brightness temperature of the dayside increases with increasing metallicity for a classical hot Jupiter model \citep{Kataria2015}.

WASP-18b resides in a hotter regime, where for instance gas phase TiO becomes an important chemical species.
For WASP-18b, an increase in atmospheric metallicity changes the abundance ratio of gas phase TiO vs H$_2$O above the photosphere \citep{Parmentier2018}. While TiO absorption increases the temperature above the band-averaged WFC3 photosphere, the temperature at the WFC3 photosphere decreases, as correspondingly less stellar light reaches photospheric pressures.
Hence the planet's dayside is dimmer in the WFC3 bandpass in the higher metallicity case, but should be brighter in emission shorter than $1\mu m$, inside the TiO bandpass.
The reverse effect is seen when the metallicity is decreased: the temperature of the WFC3 photosphere is hotter but the nightside re-circulation is more efficient, leading to an increase in emission at all phases in the WFC3 bandpass.

Neither an enhancement or depletion of $\pm$0.5 in metallicity relative to solar is sufficient to match the observed phase curve of WASP-18b without including efficient drag in our models. However, there is a strong dependence of the nightside temperature with metallicity in our no-drag models (see Figures~\ref{fig:pc} and \ref{fig:spectra}).\par

\subsection{Constraints on the Redistribution}

The redistribution efficiency determines the amount of flux that is re-emitted from the dayside versus the amount of flux that is carried to the nightside. It can be defined through the ratio of the dayside temperature and the equilibrium temperature of the planet: $f=(T_d/T_{eq})^4$. Here $f=2$ refers to the dayside-only redistribution case, while $f=2.67$ refers to the no-redistribution case (where the dayside reaches the maximum temperature).
The redistribution efficiency can be used as a simple measure of the atmospheric circulation regime.
We show the redistribution efficiencies for each of our GCMs in Figure~\ref{fig:f} as the coloured points. All of our GCMs have redistribution factors between $2.2<f<2.5$.

These models for WASP-18b show that the redistribution efficiency is strongly dependent on metallicity in the case of no or weak drag. This can be seen as the steep dependence of redistribution efficiency with metallicity for the left-most points in Figure~\ref{fig:f} (the weak drag regime). The origin of this effect is described in Section~\ref{Sec:MH}.
For models with efficient drag, the dependence of redistribution on metallicity is greatly reduced. In these models the circulation becomes drag dominated and inefficient at all pressures, hence the effect of metallicity is less pronounced.

Typically the redistribution efficiency cannot be estimated solely from the dayside emission, as there is a known degeneracy between the albedo and the redistribution efficiency \citep{Cowan2011}. For UHJs, while the albedos are expected to be very small, we illustrate that the uncertainty on the equilibrium temperature limits any conclusions that could be drawn from the dayside alone. The redistribution efficiencies calculated in \citet{Arcangeli2018} adopted fixed stellar parameters during the retrieval process, fixing $T_{eq}=2477$ K. This is offset from our GCMs, calculated using slightly different stellar parameters, leading to $T_{eq}=2385$ K. We correct for this offset and include a systematic uncertainty of $\Delta f=\pm0.18$ from $\Delta T_{eq}=\pm44K$ \citep{Southworth2009}.  In Figure~\ref{fig:f}, we plot these modified metallicity/redistribution contours from \citet{Arcangeli2018}. Here we see that the uncertainty on $T_{eq}$ dominates over the retrieved errors, and needs to be included when retrieving the redistribution from the dayside alone.

\begin{figure}[h]
\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{f_redist.pdf}
\caption{Metallicity as a function of redistribution efficiency, comparing 1D modelling to our 3D GCMs. GCM outputs are shown by coloured markers, where marker styles indicate the drag strength in each model: from right to left t$_{drag}$=$10^3$s (triangles), $10^4$s (squares), $10^6$s (hexagon), and no-drag (circles). Markers are also coloured by $\chi^2$ between the corresponding GCM phase curve and our HST/WFC3 phase curve.
Retrieved redistribution efficiencies from \citet{Arcangeli2018} are shown by black contours, while in grey are the same contours including a systematic uncertainty on the equilibrium temperature of 44~K.}
\label{fig:f}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Comparison of two Ultra hot Jupiters}
\label{Sec:Comparison}

Spectroscopic phase curves with HST/WFC3 have been published for 3 exoplanets so far, WASP-43b \citep{Stevenson2014}, WASP-103b \citep{Kreidberg2018}, and WASP-18 (this work). Of these planets, WASP-18b and WASP-103b both belong to the class of Ultra hot Jupiters, while WASP-43b is in a cooler regime (T$_{eq}=1370$ K).
The inferred properties, spectra, and phase curves of these two UHJs have many similarities (see Table \ref{Tab:W103}). However, key differences between these planets remain, namely their masses, their radius anomalies, and their measured brightness offsets.

\begin{table}[ht]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ | c || c | c |}
\multicolumn{3}{c}{\textit{System Parameters}}  \\
\hline
System & WASP-18 & WASP-103 \\
\hline
\hline
Planet Mass $M_{J}$  & 10.43$\pm0.54$  & 1.49$\pm$0.09  \\
Planet Radius $R_{J}$ & 1.17$\pm0.07$ & 1.55$\pm$0.05 \\
Planet T$_{eq}$ & 2413$\pm44$ K & 2508$\pm73$ K  \\
Orbital Period & 22.6 h & 22.2 h \\
Stellar T$_{eff}$ & 6400$\pm100$ K & 6110$\pm$160 K \\
\hline
\multicolumn{3}{c}{\textit{Inferred Properties}}  \\
\hline
Day-night contrast & $\bm{>0.96}$ & 0.93  \\
Brightness offset & $\bm{-4.5^\circ\pm0.5}$ & -0.3$^\circ\pm$0.1  \\
Planet Metallicity & $-0.01\pm0.35$ & $1.36\pm0.36$ \\
Dayside Photosphere & 0.33 bar & 0.01 bar \\
Radius Anomaly & 0\% & 41\% \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Comparison of measured and inferred properties of the WASP-18 and WASP-103 Ultra hot Jupiter systems. System parameters are taken from \citet{Hellier2009, Southworth2009}; and \citet{Southworth2015}. Values in bold are from this work. Other inferred properties are taken from \citet{Arcangeli2018, Kreidberg2018}. Photospheric pressures here are the median contributing pressures of the dayside spectra over the HST/WFC3 G141 bandpass. The radius anomaly shown is the difference in radius between the measured value and the non-inflated model as a percentage of the measured radius taken from \citet{Thorngren2018}. }
\label{Tab:W103}
\end{table}

The differences between these two planets can shed further light on their atmospheric properties. A first major difference is in their observed circulations: WASP-18b has a small but significant phase-curve offset whereas the phase curve of WASP-103b appears longitudinally symmetric.
In the simple picture of circulation as a balance of the radiative and advective timescales \citep{Showman2002}, we would expect the day-night contrast of WASP-18b to be lower than WASP-103b, as the brightness offset should correspond to moderately efficient wind-driven circulation.
However the observed day-night contrast of WASP-18b is larger than WASP-103b, in conflict with this simple picture. As suggested in Section \ref{Sec:Magnets}, the observed offset of WASP-18b may be the result of a magnetic field, and an offset may not be present on WASP-103b if the planet were to host a weaker magnetic field, as might be expected from its lower mass \citep{Yadav2017}.

The second major difference is that WASP-103b is very inflated, while WASP-18b is consistent with a non-inflated model (see Section \ref{Sec:Inflation}). The radius of WASP-103b should be about 1.10 R$_{Jup}$ when no inflation mechanism is present \citep{Thorngren2018}. From the results of \citet{Miller2009}, an additional constant heat source of $10^{29}$ erg s$^{-1}$ could explain the inflated radius of WASP-103b. For this same additional heating, an inflated WASP-18b would have a radius of 1.3R$_{Jup}$ \citep{Miller2009}. This is marginally larger than the observed radius of WASP-18b by 2$\sigma$. Thus WASP-18b appears slightly less inflated than WASP-103b despite being around an almost identical star and at the same dayside temperature.
One inflation mechanism that can explain this difference is Ohmic dissipation as, for a fixed additional heating, it is less efficient and inflating the radii of a higher mass planet \citep{Huang2012}.

These two differences both highlight that there is a greater complexity behind the observed properties, such as the phase curve properties, in particular in the role that magnetic fields might play on the circulation or radius inflation. Importantly, we can use planets such as the UHJs as a test for inflation theories, as they occupy a parameter space where inflation models differ \citep{Sestovic2018, Thorngren2018}

\section{Conclusions}
\label{Sec:Conclusions}
We observed one full orbit phase curve of the ultra hot Jupiter WASP-18b. We find the peak signal from the dayside at an effective temperature of 2894$\pm$30 K and do not detect the nightside of the planet, placing an upper limit of 1430K at 3$\sigma$. We find a large day-night-contrast of >0.96 in luminosity and a small offset of the brightest point from the substellar point by 4.5$\pm$0.5 degrees.

We compare the extracted spectroscopic phase curve with Global Circulation modelling and find that the data can be best reproduced by models with efficient drag.
Models without additional drag sources fail to reproduce the day-night contrast seen in our data, hence we require an additional drag source to explain the observed day-night contrast. We also find that the behaviour of the phase curve of WASP-18b with metallicity is different from cooler planets, owing to the high temperature chemistry of TiO and water in the atmosphere of WASP-18b. In addition to this, we show that a metallicity enhancement or depletion in our models is not sufficient to match the observed day-night contrast without the presence of efficient drag.

We explore the origin of this efficient drag, and show that it could be due to Lorentz forces on ionized metals in the atmosphere from a magnetic field as weak as 10 Gauss. The effect of a magnetic field on the circulation may also explain the small brightness offset seen in our data, however our models do not explore the full dependence of the circulation on magnetic effects, which will require further studies.

Furthermore, we compare our results to the recently published phase curve of WASP-103b \citep{Kreidberg2018}. We find that the two planets are consistent with the expectation that more massive planets should be less inflated, and support the theory of Ohmic dissipation as an inflation mechanism. However, their different circulations point to a more complicated picture and suggest that other fundamental properties of these systems, such as their magnetic fields, may be different.

\subsection*{}
We thank N. Cowan for their thorough referee report that greatly improved the clarity of this work. We also thank D. Thorngren for providing tables of predicted planet radii used in this work, and C. Helling for many fruitful discussions.
J.M.D. acknowledges that the research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement no. 679633; Exo-Atmos). J.M.D acknowledges support by the Amsterdam Academic Alliance (AAA) Program.
Support for program GO-13467 was provided to the US-based researchers by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. J.L.B. acknowledges support from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation.

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text:
package com.conversantmedia.util.collection.spatial;

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import java.util.function.Consumer;
import java.util.Collection;

/**
 * Created by jcovert on 12/30/15.
 */
public interface SpatialSearch<T> {
    /**
     * Search for entries intersecting given bounding rect
     *
     * @param rect - Bounding rectangle to use for querying
     * @param t - Array to store found entries
     *
     * @return Number of results found
     */
    int intersects(HyperRect rect, T[] t);

    /**
     * Search for entries intersecting given bounding rect
     *
     * @param rect - Bounding rectangle to use for querying
     * @param consumer - callback to receive intersecting objects
     *
     */
    void intersects(HyperRect rect, Consumer<T> consumer);

    /**
     * Search for entries contained by the given bounding rect
     *
     * @param rect - Bounding rectangle to use for querying
     * @param t - Array to store found entries
     *
     * @return Number of results found
     */
    int search(HyperRect rect, T[] t);

    /**
     * Search for entries contained by the given bounding rect
     *
     * @param rect - Bounding rectangle to use for querying
     * @param consumer - callback to receive intersecting objects
     *
     */
    void search(HyperRect rect, Consumer<T> consumer);

    /**
     * Search for entries contained by the given bounding rect
     *
     * @param rect - Bounding rectangle to use for querying
     * @param collection - collection to receive results
     *
     */
    void search(HyperRect rect, Collection<T> collection);

    /**
     * returns whether or not the HyperRect will enclose all of the data entries in t
     *
     * @param t - entry
     *
     * @return boolean - Whether or not all entries lie inside rect
     */
    boolean contains(T t);

    /**
     * Add the data entry to the SpatialSearch structure
     *
     * @param t Data entry to be added
     */
    void add(T t);

    /**
     * Remove the data entry from the SpatialSearch structure
     *
     * @param t Data entry to be removed
     */
    void remove(T t);

    /**
     * Update entry in tree
     *
     * @param told - Entry to update
     * @param tnew - Entry to update it to
     */
    void update(T told, T tnew);

    /**
     * Get the number of entries in the tree
     *
     * @return entry count
     */
    int getEntryCount();

    /**
     * Iterate over all entries in the tree
     *
     * @param consumer - callback for each element
     */
    void forEach(Consumer<T> consumer);

    Stats collectStats();

}

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Ever send a quick text or email that was horribly misinterpreted by the recipient? What if you could signal the difference between sarcasm and seriousness with molded plastic? This idea from ConceptHunter for a touch-enhanced mobile phone uses morphing patterns of bumps, grooves, and spikes to clarify the emotional intent behind brief messages. Watch the video below to see!
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The Perfect 1-Week Charlottesville Vacation Itinerary
Ahhh, Charlottesville…
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This is a place where people come to get away from it all, sometimes for a weekend, other times… forever. John Grisham fell in love with the area, penning numerous bestsellers here. Sissy Spacek has lived in Charlottesville for more than four decades. Dave Matthews was a bartender here. Heck, even Edgar Alan Poe attended college in Charlottesville! It wasn't that long ago that the U.S. Bureau of Economic Research named Charlottesville, Virginia as "America's Happiest Place." And once you visit, you're sure to fall for C'ville too!
Creating a world-class vacation in Central Virginia can be overwhelming, with so much for all ages and interests. We've narrowed down the best things to see and do during your week-long getaway in Central Virginia… and here's our favorite suggestions for your Charlottesville vacation itinerary:
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Silverback Distillery
The only mother-daughter distilling duo in the nation, they produce award-winning gin, rye whisky, and bourbon overlooking the Blue Ridge Mountains.
Virginia Distillery
Using time-honored traditions, they produce an impeccable American Single Malt Whisky, "Courage & Conviction".
DAYS 2 & 3 – "MUST-SEE" HISTORY SIGHTS
If you're looking for a dose of history, you'll find it in Charlottesville (three Presidents lived here, and America's founding documents were written here). There's some things you just shouldn't miss, so here's our list of "must-see" places:
Thomas Jefferson's Monticello
No home better reflects the personality of its owner than Jefferson's architectural masterpiece (the only home in America recognized as a U. N. World Heritage Site).
The University of Virginia
Thomas Jefferson's "Academical Village", the Lawn and the Rotunda are iconic figures at one of America's premier universities. Also see Edgar Alan Poe's room while you're there.
James Madison's Montpelier
The lifelong home of the 4th U. S. President and the "Father of the Constitution", as well as his wife (Dolley), our country's first "First Lady".
James Monroe's Highland
The home of the 5th President of the U. S., author of the "Monroe Doctrine", and close friend of Thomas Jefferson.
Exchange Hotel & Civil War Museum
Once a hotel, then a Civil War hospital (serving more than 70,000 soldiers), then a Freedman's Hospital, and now a museum.
Walton's Mountain Museum
Visit the Childhood village of Earl Hamner, Jr. (the creator of "The Walton's"). The museum includes replicas of "Ike Godsey's Store", "John Boy's Room", and more.
DAY 4 – GET OUT AND EXPLORE
There's no better way to get a comprehensive "lay of the land" than to hop in your car and begin driving throughout Central Virginia. Though the following sights are not in our immediate area, they make a great day-trip:
Skyline Drive (the Local's Way)
A really nice "1/2 Day-Trip" from Prospect Hill, full of numerous roadside stands, hiking trails, scenic overlooks, country markets, and eating establishments: Take Hwy. 33 through Gordonsville, Barboursville, and Ruckersville (hit some antique shops while there, and eat lunch at Jack's Shop Kitchen). Drive to the "Swift Run Gap" entrance to the Shenandoah National Forest, then travel South on Skyline Drive. Drive slowly, so you don't miss the scenic overlooks and the waterfalls near the road. Exit Skyline Drive at Afton Mountain, pick up some great wines at Greenwood Gourmet Grocery (and the BEST macaroni & cheese, if you hit it right), and head back on Hwy. 250 (or Interstate 64 if you're tired of rural roads).
Poplar Forest
Thomas Jefferson's personal retreat near Lynchburg, he selected this property because of its distance from his public life. In keeping with his love of classical designs, this may be the first octagonal house built in the United States
Hollywood Cemetery
Richmond's large, sprawling cemetery with stunning views overlooking the James River. It is the final resting place of two U. S. Presidents, as well as Jefferson Davis (President of the Confederacy). In addition, there are 28 Confederate generals buried there (more than any other cemetery in the country).
Thomas Jefferson once owned this geological formation near Lexington. With a 215-foot arch (which spans 90 feet), Natural Bridge was one of the top tourist attractions of the new world during the 18th and 19th centuries, even mentioned by name in Melville's Moby Dick. The underlying trail, a 30-foot waterfall, and a nightly laser show are accessible to guests, but unfortunately Foamhenge (a full-size styrofoam replica of Stonehenge) has been removed.
Grand Caverns
America's oldest show cave (in operation since 1806), these limestone caverns wind for more than 3 miles underground with numerous flowstone, stalactite and stalagmite features. Located in the town of Grottoes (near Harrisonburg), the visitor's park also has hiking and biking trails, and hosts a yearly Bluegrass Festival.
DAY 5 & 6 – OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES & ATTRACTIONS
Charlottesville and Central Virginia offer a wide array of unique, outdoor things to do. You'll find something fun (and exhausting) for all ages during this part of your Charlottesville vacation itinerary:
Over 20,000 acres of waterfalls and spectacular views, including 500 miles of trails (plus 101 miles of the AT). And Skyline Drive is the breathtaking roadway that takes you through it all!
Hiking & Back-Packing
Virginia has 3 million acres of public outdoor recreation areas, including more than 2,200 hiking trails covering 3,189 miles. Our favorites include Crabtree Falls, Ragged Mountain, Humpback Rocks, and Spy Rock.
Lake Anna State Park has numerous hiking, biking, and horseback riding options (as well as panning for gold or a lazy beach day) on Virginia's 2nd largest lake. Several marinas rent pontoon boats, jet skis, or fishing charters for the day.
Carter Mountain Orchard
With dramatic views of downtown Charlottesville, you can pick your own peaches or apples. Don't miss the homemade apple cider doughnuts!
Blue Ridge Tunnel Trail
Built more than 150 years ago, this brick-lined tunnel carried railroad traffic beneath the Blue Ridge Mountains for three quarters of a century. Hikers and cyclists now use it to experience one of the most unique vantage points in the region.
Monticello Country Ballooning
Escape on a scenic sunrise flight over the tranquil Virginia countryside. Choose romantic flights for two, or take a group flight and meet other adventure-lovers.
James River Runners
Offering exciting tubing, canoeing, kayaking, rafting and camping trips down the scenic James River, this is the oldest and largest tubing company on the James River.
Spring Creek Golf Course
This nationally-recognized golf facility (#58 on Golf digest's "America's 100 Greatest Public Courses") is only 4 miles from Prospect Hill!
The Rivanna Trail
A 20-mile rustic, urban hiking trail network that winds through the heart of Charlottesville, meandering along streams, through forested buffers, and ultimately connecting six city parks.
DAY 7 – DISCOVER OUR LOCAL'S FAVORITES
As you see, Charlottesville is packed with fun and interesting things to see and do. But there are a few which are considered "must-do" by the locals… classic C'ville, you might say. These are our favorites… not explanation necessary, as they represent the best of all things Charlottesville!
Downtown Pedestrian Mall
The centerpiece of Charlottesville, a happening tourist destination, and a defining element of our civic culture. There's a certain laid-back hustle-and-bustle on this 8-block walkway… home to more than 120 shops, 30 restaurants, 10 art galleries, live performance venues, and a Saturday farmer's market.
Saunders-Monticello Trail
This 2-mile trail (which includes Central Virginia's most popular park) winds its way through a native hardwood forest, ending at Jefferson's Monticello. A 5% grade keeps it accessible to all.
A thriving "corner" of 70 bars, restaurants, bookstores, and night spots (across the street from the University of Virginia). The Corner is especially active at lunchtime, as faculty and students descend for their mid-day meals.
University of Virginia Cavaliers Sports
Leading the ACC with 27 NCAA Championships, including the 2019 NCAA Basketball Champs (and by default, the 2020?), the UVA Cavaliers always provide exciting and captivating championship-level sporting events!
Just 20 minutes from Charlottesville and only 4 miles from the Interstate, as you enter Prospect Hill's boxwood-lined driveway you'll be captivated by the serenity of this charming estate. That will set the tone for your entire visit to Central Virginia as you work through your Charlottesville vacation itinerary. Choose a historic room or cottage at our Charlottesville bed and breakfast, let us be your "basecamp," and your 1-week central Virginia vacation getaway will be complete. We look forward to seeing you soon!
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I'm pretty excited to once again team up with Damn Fine Print for the first project from their new studio in Stoneybatter, Dublin. It's the third limited edition print in our ongoing literary collaboration.
Inspired by the great Irish poet and playwright, Oscar Wilde's quote and lovingly screen-printed by hand on heavy 300gsm off-white paper with separate layers of red and turquoise ink to create a deep midnight blue mix.
Each print is screenprinted onto 700 x 500 mm cuts of paper, signed and limited to just 161 pressings to mark the anniversary of Wilde's birthday (October 16, 1854).
Not happy to rest there we used a cheeky glow-in-the-dark ink for a second hidden layer, giving a whole new image when the lights go out at night.
All prints are €80, signed and numbered and carefully rolled and packaged in a sturdy postal-friendly tube.


The Ringlet Round Cocktail Table with 4 Upholstered Seats by Klaussner International at Powell's Furniture and Mattress in the Fredericksburg, Richmond, Charlottesville, Virginia and Maryland area. Product availability may vary. Contact us for the most current availability on this product.
The Ringlet collection is a great option if you are looking for Contemporary furniture in the Fredericksburg, Richmond, Charlottesville, Virginia and Maryland area.
Browse other items in the Ringlet collection from Powell's Furniture and Mattress in the Fredericksburg, Richmond, Charlottesville, Virginia and Maryland area.


David Sparks just explained in Macworld once again why plain text is best. This prompted me to update several entries from April and March on taking notes on a Mac. In this post, I describe some recent software developments and share experience in naming notes. The advice is primarily for Mac users although note naming tips may be useful for everyone.
For naming notes, I use the system described in this post, which is now somewhat refined and simplified. First of all, I stopped using a colon as a separation symbol because it takes longer to type it on iPhone and iPad and because some operating systems don't like colons in file names. So I follow MacSparky in replacing the column with an "x". What used to be "ref:energy:security" became "refxenergyxsecurity".
Secondly, I simplified the leading element in my notes names. What used to be "refxenergyxsecurity" is now "rxes". It works very well for me that all the reference notes start with "rx" and then there are only 4-5 two-letter acronyms for the areas in which I keep references. It is very easy to remember so I do not need to think much about the leading element in the note name. I try to add all substantive information in the note title anyway, so a typical title is: "rxes quote from uk energy security review 2007". A note with such name is easy to both sort by the name and find by the word in the title. I use OpenMeta tags if I want more refined classification for my reference notes. The same convention applies to project notes, for example "esxcosus phone meeting with editor 110601" is a note related to my publication project "COSUS" (Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability) which belongs to my research area "es". (If you wonder about the difference between reference and project notes, it is the same as between project and reference files).
Most of my notes are reference or project notes. There is also a small number of constantly updated notes (for example, the things I want to discuss with a particular person or ideas for a publication). As described in this geeky entry, I like to add lines to such notes on the fly using LaunchBar, without even opening my note-taking application. Thus I want these 'running' notes to have unique and yet easily remembered names. At the moment I mostly use only two types of such names: "dsx" (for 'Discuss') and "idxx" (for 'Ideas'). As long as I can remember these two things, it works well.
A few words about the software. In Spring, I started to use nvALT, a fork of Notational Velocity and I've been very happy with it ever since. It is very similar to Notational Velocity but has a slightly more friendly user interface and a couple of other great features. For example, it allows Full-Screen editing which is great for writing. Thus, NValt gives you the "power of a blank sheet" mentioned by Adam Lisagor in his conversation with MacPowerUsers. Similarly to Notational Velocity, nvALT uses OpenMeta tags which is critical for organizing my reference files and notes. There is an easy shortcut to tag any note (⌘-Shft-T) from within nvALT and, of course, you can tag them in the same way you tag any reference file, because your notes are simply text files.
What has been a recent bonus for me is that from last month nvALT synchronizes not only notes but also tags with SimpleNote. This means that I can see, add, and change my OpenMeta tags on iPhone or iPad. Having one system of tags for all your files on all devices is really handy!
This entry was posted in Notes, Tags and folders and tagged Launchbar, NValt, OpenMeta. Bookmark the permalink.
I'm using NotesDeck so my school notes show up on all my devices instantly (iPad, Mac and iPhone). NotesDeck syncs with Evernote and Dropbox so all my notes from other apps are already in it. On Mac you can set hot keys for different folders and jump right into full screen notes.
So much cleaner than that yellow Notes app. Much more professional.
I also have developed similar file naming system. I am trying to automat filenaming (note titles) in nvALT using Alfred workflows. Have u tried them?


OK, so maybe size does matter, at least when it comes to diamonds. Seemingly, larger than life diamonds are in the news (and on the auction block) much more frequently these days. Earlier this year, we saw the Lesedi La Rona, the largest diamond found in the past hundred years go up for auction. The Lesedi, found in November 2015, wasn't the only big gem discovered that week. Two other huge diamonds were found from the same mine within 72 hours – a 374 carat diamond which hasn't been named and an 812.77 carat diamond called The Constellation.
More remarkable still is the streak of large-diamond discoveries over the past few decades: by one reckoning about as many supersize diamonds (those that weigh 200 carats or more) have been unearthed in the past two decades as were found in the rest of the 20th century. Moreover, this streak seems to be growing hotter. Half of the 20 biggest diamonds discovered since 2000 have been quarried in the past three years.
Miners are getting better at locating and preserving big diamonds. Computer processing power has played a key role. For years, miners have used X-ray machines to help identify diamonds hidden within masses of rock, because they fluoresce when bombarded with rays. Now, with the aid of faster computers, sorting machines can use X-rays to scan tons of rock being carried on conveyor belts towards the crushers and instantly analyze the composition of each rock. When a diamond is spotted, the machine can divert the rock to save the stone from being crushed into smaller pieces.
How will this trend translate to everyday jewelry? Does this mean that the expectations of diamond size will increase? What about the cost? Studies suggest that most women think of two carats as a decent-sized diamond, and a noticeably big diamond would be three carats and above. Of course, depending on where you are in the U.S., the answer will differ. The West and East Coasts tend to buy a bigger average center stone, so their perception of 'big' is going to be different than someone in the middle of the country. In New York, the average ranges from 1.5-2 carats, while women in the Midwest typically wear between .5 and 1-carat diamonds. But petite rings are also making a comeback. As millennials enter the market for rings, I am sure the trends will change again.
In the meantime miners are working to understand how to crack open diamond-bearing rock (in a word, gently). These efforts are worthwhile because the prices of bigger diamonds rise dramatically. A top-quality one-carat cut diamond might sell for at least $30,000, but a much rarer 100-carat stone will sell for $20m (a price per carat of $200,000).
Of course, you won't see a Lesedi-sized diamond in an engagement ring any time soon. (And really, you probably don't want to carry that sized rock around anyway!) You can however view impressively large diamonds in the Harry Winston Gallery at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. The first public viewing in America of the 187.7-carat Diavik Foxfire diamond is taking place Nov. 17, 2016 to Feb. 16, 2017. It will be presented alongside the Hope diamond.
Source: 1843 Magazine, The Great Big Diamond Boom; BBC News, Why have so many huge diamonds been found recently?
Can A Diamond Be Too Big?


Top 8 KOF provided by bgcallisto.
Illinois vs Minnesota 5v5 provided by The Blackrose.
GGs to everybody at Frosty's VI this year. This is the most entrants we ever had for KOFXIII at Frosty's. We have bigger plans for KOF next year. Looking forward to seeing more and more players. Midwest KOF represent.
I'm glad to see a number of familiar faces that made it out. Also saw some new ones come out. Thanks to everyone that came and participated. Hopefully we're even larger next year.
I'm glad we came out. Lots of fun, great venue, cool peeps, no drama (at least on our end) and good competition. It seems that we (Minnesota) need to level up a bit more for UFGT and next Frosty's next year for we wont be in the same placing arrangements and do better.
I'm also glad that people are interested in the team DC idea. 2014 is gonna be a great year!


text:
Cop discovers ups and downs of early retirement
January 19, 2017 Reprints
Off Beat More + Less -
A 47-year-old former New York Police Department lieutenant appears to be on a roll(ercoaster) with early retirement.
New York city officials say they are now investigating John Bruzzese, an officer who retired in 2008 after being injured in an elevator accident, one that he said left him unable to perform daily tasks, the New York Daily News reported Saturday. The officer also claimed panic attacks and fear of crowds stemming from the 9/11 terrorist attack in New York City.
Before receiving a pension of at least $44,000 a year through his NYPD disability pension and $48,872 a year in Social Security disability insurance, Mr. Bruzzese wrote in an application for Social Security disability insurance in 2010: "I cannot work. I have difficulty carrying (stuff) things, physical labor causes me great pain. I can't play sports anymore, I can't stand or sit for long periods of time, I can't bend over without great pain, I can't carry my children. I don't play any sports… At times I have someone help me put on, take off and tie my shoes. I bathe myself but don't wash lower legs with the wash cloth."
But photos from a 2015 family trip to an amusement park provided to the New York Daily News by a source show Mr. Bruzzese smiling with hands in the air aboard at least five high-flying rollercoasters.
A neighbor has also claimed to newspaper reporters that he has seen Mr. Bruzzese playing basketball outside of him home, according to the newspaper.
Travelers must pay in squirrel dinner coverage dispute
Travelers Insurance Co. remains on the hook for $300,000 worth of damages in a 2012 apartment complex fire in Holland, Michigan, caused by squirrel dinner preparations.
School's email allegedly being held for ransom by fired IT worker


text:
How much do small businesses contribute to GDP Canada?
How much do small businesses contribute to GDP?
What percentage of Canada's economy is small business?
How important is small business to the Canadian economy?
What contributes the most to Canada GDP?
Are small businesses the backbone of the economy?
How much money does small business make for the economy?
How much of the workforce is employed by small businesses?
How much do small businesses make in Canada?
How much tax do small businesses pay in Canada?
Why small businesses are good for the economy?
What is the contributions of small business to the economy?
How many percent of small businesses fail?
Although the Territories (97.0%) and Manitoba (97.6%) have the lowest percentages, small businesses are still the main employers in these provinces. Small- to medium-sized businesses contribute to approximately 38.4% of Canada's gross domestic product (GDP).
Small business constitutes a major force in the U.S. economy. There are more than twenty-seven million small businesses in this country, and they generate about 50 percent of our gross domestic product (GDP).
As of December 2019, the Canadian economy totaled 1.23 million employer businesses. Of these, 1.2 million (97.9 percent) were small businesses, 22,905 (1.9 percent) were medium-sized businesses and 2,978 (0.2 percent) were large businesses.
Small businesses are the backbone of the Canadian economy and will play a crucial role in Canada's economic recovery from COVID-19, creating jobs and growth in the months and years to come.
IT IS IMPORTANT: You asked: How do you write a formal business letter?
As with other developed nations, the country's economy is dominated by the service industry which employs about three quarters of Canadians. Canada has the third highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$33.2 trillion in 2019.
Nationally, small businesses account for 48 percent of all American jobs and contribute 43.5 percent of U.S. Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Even though these businesses are considered the "backbone of the economy," small businesses have faced an economic and existential crisis during the COVID-19 pandemic.
According to the U.S. Small Business Administration, small businesses create over 66% of net new jobs. A new report also shows that small businesses account for 44% of total U.S. economic activity.
How many people work in small businesses? Small businesses employ 60.6 million people, which makes 47.1 percent of the U.S. private workforce, on a percentage basis.
Data from Statistics Canada show that two-thirds of Canadian small business owners are earning less than $73,000, and employers earning less than $40,000 outnumber those earning more than $250,000 by four to one.
In Canada's federal tax system, the small business tax rate is the tax rate paid by a small business. As of 2019, the small business tax rate is 9% The general corporate tax rate is 28%. Additionally, each province or territory operates its own corporate tax system, with varying treatment for small businesses.
IT IS IMPORTANT: What is a good annual revenue for a small business?
Small businesses contribute to local economies by bringing growth and innovation to the community in which the business is established. Small businesses also help stimulate economic growth by providing employment opportunities to people who may not be employable by larger corporations.
According to the World Trade Organization, small-and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) represent over 90 per cent of the business population, 60-70% of employment and 55% of GDP in developed economies. SMEs therefore do not just significantly contribute to the economy – they ARE the economy.
According to statistics published in 2019 by the Small Business Administration (SBA), about twenty percent of business startups fail in the first year. About half succumb to business failure within five years. By year 10, only about 33% survive.


For some time – since well before the introduction of the Free Tram Zone – I've seen uniformed Australia Post employees with small delivery carts on board trams in central Melbourne.
At first I wondered if this was a good use of space on a tram, given how crowded they can get.
But I think it's arguable that it's Australia Post being smart about moving (at least some) letters and parcels around a busy urban environment, quickly and cheaply and without taking up the road space that the usual van fleet would take.
Now it turns out Amazon is doing something similar in New York City on the subway.
Once upon a time many cities had freight trams. Perhaps this is the 21st century version of that.
And perhaps it's yet more evidence that the wheels of commerce can adapt to not requiring motor vehicles to survive and thrive.
Next → Next post: Where are the ads?
I've seen this for several years, too, and wondered if the postal workers were given annual travel passes as part of their jobs. At my CBD office we have a couple of spare mykis for staff to use if they need to make work-related PT trips during the day – generally they are used by execs who drive to work.
In the "old days" (when there were conductors who sold you tickets), the posties used the trams in the CBD. Apparently there was a special deal between the M&MTB and the PMG, because the posties had special pre-paid tickets that the conductor was supposed to clip. The posties seemed to be quite happy when the conductor "accidentally" only nicked the side of the ticket instead of in the section square. One suspects that the ticket was then re-used so the postie had a "free" trip home!
What about the dabbawalas in Bombay.
Top Gear tried to compete against them and lost. So did Hamish and Andy.
Given that the Gold Coast has trams that can accommodate surf boards. Surely they can make metro trains that allow dabba wallas to ply their trade for the next 100 years.
Meanwhile ANZ runs a shuttle bus the length of Collins St between their two buildings at 55 Collins and Docklands, even though there are frequent, free trams providing a door-to-door service.
There was a mail train on the London underground until dickheads decided to ride and then smash it and posted the resulting video to Youtube.
Melbourne once had suburban parcel trains. They may have only stopped at stations that had a parcel counter, such as Upper Fertree Gully once did.
It reminds me of this: Duncan Gay says no one would carry a fridge on a Sydney tram? Challenge accepted.
I've done a 10kg sack of rice on a Sydney train, and more recently, general luggage on a shinkansen (Japanese bullet train). But one has to be quite nimble on a shinkansen, because the timetables are very precise (they cannot delay departure for more than a few seconds, eg for slow loading passengers).


The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) is a federal law that affords students certain rights with respect to their education records, in particular the privacy of those records. Relay fully complies with the provisions outlined in FERPA.
Students may obtain a copy of the Relay's Guidelines for Compliance with the FERPA.
These Relay's Guidelines for Compliance with FERPA are available from OAE.
Requests to review records, for copies of the statute or its attendant regulations, or for additional information concerning FERPA should be directed to support@relay.edu.
All students are required to sign the enrollment agreement, which grants Relay authorization to share reports on their academic performance and conduct in the program with designated representatives of the school which employs them, an educational program for which they perform services, the teacher preparation program in which they are a participant, any entity that funds their Relay education, or/and external evaluation firms and research partners that Relay hires or contracts with. These reports may include without limitation students' academic progress, grades and evaluations, completion of degree, compliance with state, certification and immunization requirements, timeliness of tuition and fee payment, disciplinary actions, and continued enrollment status. The enrollment agreement grants Relay authorization to determine in its sole discretion the schedule for providing this information and the information to be provided at the time.
Students also authorize Relay to request regular reports on their employment in the school which employs them, information related to their performance and evaluation(s), and de-identified performance data on the P—12 students in their classroom throughout their enrollment at Relay, and after they leave Relay.
Pursuant to FERPA and the FERPA regulations, Relay hereby designates the following student information as "directory information": name, dates of attendance, school of employment, teaching assessment, class, previous institution(s) attended, program of study/academic program, enrollment status (e.g., full or part time), degree(s) conferred (including dates), and honors and awards (including graduation honors). Email addresses are directory information for internal purposes only and will not be made available to the general public except in specified directories from which students may opt out.
Directory information may be disclosed for any purpose. Under federal law, address information, telephone listings, and date and place of birth are also considered directory information for military-recruitment purposes. "Address" refers to both physical mailing address and email address. All other information not listed as directory information will not be disclosed.
Currently enrolled students have the right to refuse disclosure of this information. To do so, students must complete the directory information nondisclosure form, which can be downloaded from Support Center and submitted to support@relay.edu. A hold will be placed on the release of directory information, and it will remain in effect until students file a written request to remove it.
If students do not specifically request the withholding of directory information by filing the directory information nondisclosure form, Relay assumes that they approve of the disclosure of such information. Relay disclaims any and all liability for inadvertent disclosure of directory information designated to be withheld.
"Education records" available for review are defined as those records, files, documents, and other materials that contain information directly related to students and are maintained by Relay. The form in which the information is maintained by Relay does not matter; for example, computerized or electronic files, audiotape or videotape, photographic images, film, etc., with such information are "education records." This includes communications and documents distributed or received by email, or other similar Relay systems that are retained in these systems, either by the sending or receiving party. In general, the records maintained by Relay that are available for students' review are records pertaining to admissions, academic performance, advising, financial aid, and billing. Students have the right to review original documents from their files.
Records that contain information relating to individuals who no longer are students at Relay and that are not directly related to their attendance as students, e.g., alumni records.
Grades or peer-graded papers before they are collected and recorded by a faculty member.
Relay will release student records only upon receipt of a written request from students. Students may request records via Support Center. Requests must be submitted to OAE per the directions on the form. Upon receipt of the form, Relay will release the appropriate student records. This information may also be furnished to agencies or individuals authorized by law to review such records.
What is Relay's open-door policy?


Identifying Tropical Important Plant Areas of New Guinea, Indonesiato protect socio-economically important plant species.
The assessment of Important Plant Areas (IPAs) offers a practical but rigorous means of identifying site-based conservation priorities. IPAs are aligned to Target 5 of the CBD's 'Global Strategy for Plant Conservation' and so offer an important step towards fulfilling national CBD targets.
The tropical island of New Guinea has a relatively large amount of intact habitats remaining and has been designated as one of the three remaining tropical Wilderness areas by Conservation International. This project is part of Kew's Tropical Important Plant Areas (TIPA) programme and will work with in-country partners, especially Universitas Papua, to identify important plant areas in Indonesian New Guinea with an emphasis on the Bird's Head peninsula (the Vogelkop) in West Papua Province.
Kew has been actively working in New Guinea and has undertaken many expeditions both to the Indonesian side of the island as well as Papua New Guinea. Kew has developed a comprehensive database of all the collections of several families and will be expanding this across a range of ecologically important plant groups. Kew staff are naming, databasing and georeferencing all incoming material of these groups. Kew is developing proposals in conjunction with partners to undertake activities, including workshops, training, expeditions and community work in the Bird's Head.
Consultative capacity building workshops on a range of subjects with partners in New Guinea, providing data and expertise needed to inform selection of protected areas. Training to include plant identification, red-listing, seed-banking, ethnobotany.
Avoiding extinction of Indonesian New Guinea's endemic, threatened and socio-economically important plant species through inclusion in Important Plant Areas with national and/or community protection, complementing the future development plan of West Papua Province which has been designated as Indonesia's first conservation province.
Producing a complete database of all specimens from the island in key ecological groups, for example legumes, Ericaceae, palms, Moraceae etc.
Publication of guides for identification.
Fact sheets for each Important Plant Area (TIPA) identified.
Trees of New Guinea book published.
Book on the Important Plant Areas of Guinea.