text:
1Etymology
2Characteristics
2.1Common elements
2.2Stages
2.3Clinical circumstances
2.4After-effects
3Historical reports
4Near-death studies
5Clinical research in cardiac arrest patients
5.1Parnia's study in 2001
5.2Van Lommel's study
5.3Awareness during Resuscitation (AWARE) study
5.4AWARE II
5.5Meditation-Induced NDEs
6Explanatory models
6.1Spiritual or transcendental theories
6.2Psychological explanations
6.2.1Depersonalization model
6.2.2Expectancy model
6.2.3Dissociation model
6.2.4Birth model
6.3Physiological explanations
6.3.1Neuroanatomical models
6.3.2Neurochemical models
6.3.3Multi-factorial models
6.3.4Low oxygen levels (and G-LOC) model
6.3.5Altered blood gas levels models
6.3.6Other models
7Cross-cultural aspects
10Further reading
Personal experiences associated with impending death
For other uses, see Near Death Experience (disambiguation).
"Near death" redirects here. For the comics, see Near Death (comics).
A near-death experience (NDE) is a profound personal experience associated with death or impending death which researchers claim share similar characteristics. When positive, such experiences may encompass a variety of sensations including detachment from the body, feelings of levitation, total serenity, security, warmth, the experience of absolute dissolution, and the presence of a light. When negative, such experiences may include sensations of anguish, distress, a void, devastation, and vast emptiness. People often report seeing hellish places and things like their own rendition of "the devil."[1][2][3]
Explanations for NDEs vary from scientific to religious. Neuroscience research hypothesizes that an NDE is a subjective phenomenon resulting from "disturbed bodily multisensory integration" that occurs during life-threatening events.[4] Some transcendental and religious beliefs about an afterlife include descriptions similar to NDEs.[2][5][6][7][8]
In the U.S., an estimated 9 million people have reported an NDE, according to a 2011 study in Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Most of these near-death experiences result from serious injury that affects the body or brain.[9]
Ascent of the Blessed by Hieronymus Bosch is associated by some NDE researchers with aspects of the NDE.[10][11]
The equivalent French term expérience de mort imminente ("experience of imminent death") was proposed by French psychologist and epistemologist Victor Egger as a result of discussions in the 1890s among philosophers and psychologists concerning climbers' stories of the panoramic life review during falls.[12][13] In 1892 a series of subjective observations by workers falling from scaffolds, war soldiers who suffered injuries, climbers who had fallen from heights or other individuals who had come close to death (near drownings, accidents) was reported by Albert Heim. This was also the first time the phenomenon was described as clinical syndrome.[14] In 1968 Celia Green published an analysis of 400 first-hand accounts of out-of-body experiences.[15] This represented the first attempt to provide a taxonomy of such experiences, viewed simply as anomalous perceptual experiences, or hallucinations. In 1969, Swiss-American psychiatrist and pioneer in near-death studies Elisabeth Kübler-Ross published her book On Death and Dying: What the Dying Have to Teach Doctors, Nurses, Clergy, and Their Own Families. These experiences were also popularized by the work of psychiatrist Raymond Moody, who in 1975 coined the term "near-death experience" as an umbrella term for the different elements (out of body experiences, the "panoramic life review", the Light, the tunnel, or the border).[14] The term "near-death experience" had already been used by John C. Lilly in 1972.[16]
Characteristics[edit]
Common elements[edit]
Researchers have identified the common elements that define near-death experiences.[6] Bruce Greyson argues that the general features of the experience include impressions of being outside one's physical body, visions of deceased relatives and religious figures, and transcendence of egotic and spatiotemporal boundaries.[17] Many common elements have been reported, although the person's interpretation of these events often corresponds with the cultural, philosophical, or religious beliefs of the person experiencing it. For example, in the US, where 46% of the population believes in guardian angels, they will often be identified as angels or deceased loved ones (or will be unidentified), while Hindus will often identify them as messengers of the god of death.[18][19]
Common traits that have been reported by NDErs are as follows:
A sense/awareness of being dead.[6]
A sense of peace, well-being, and painlessness. Positive emotions. A sense of removal from the world.[6]
An out-of-body experience. A perception of one's body from an outside position, sometimes observing medical professionals performing resuscitation efforts.[6][20]
A "tunnel experience" or entering a darkness. A sense of moving up, or through, a passageway or staircase.[6][20]
A rapid movement toward and/or sudden immersion in a powerful light (or "Being of Light") which communicates telepathically with the person.[21]
An intense feeling of unconditional love and acceptance.[22]
Encountering "Beings of Light", "Beings dressed in white", or similar. Also, the possibility of being reunited with deceased loved ones.[6][20]
Experiencing euphoric environments.[23]
Receiving a life review, commonly referred to as "seeing one's life flash before one's eyes".[6]
Approaching a border or a decision by oneself or others to return to one's body, often accompanied by a reluctance to return.[6][20]
Suddenly finding oneself back inside one's body.[24]
Connection to the cultural beliefs held by the individual, which seem to dictate some of the phenomena experienced in the NDE, but more so affects the later interpretation thereof.[18][page needed]
Meeting the dead and hallucinating ghosts in an after-life environment.[23]
It is also important not to confuse an out-of-body experience (OBE) with a near-death experience. An OBE is a part of an NDE, but most importantly, can happen in other instances than when a person is about to die, such as fainting, deep sleep, and alcohol or drug use,[25] where there are many cases of people claiming to have lived through an OBE, seeing the world outside of their physical body.
Stages[edit]
A 1975 study conducted by psychiatrist Raymond Moody, MD, PhD, on around 150 patients who all claimed to have witnessed an NDE stated that such an experience has nine steps.
The exact description of these nine steps, through Dr Moody's study, are:[25]
Sudden peace and relief from pain.
Perception of a relaxing sound or other-worldly music.
Consciousness or spirit ascending above the person's body and remotely viewing the attempts at resuscitation from the ceiling (autoscopy).
The person's spirit leaving the earthly realm and ascending rapidly through a tunnel of light in a universe of darkness.
Arriving at a brilliant "heavenly place."
Being met by "people of the light," who are usually deceased friends and family, in a joyous reunion.
Meeting with a deity that is often perceived as their religious culture would have perceived them, or as an intense mass emitting pure love and light.
In the presence of the deity, the person undergoes an instantaneous life review and understands how all the good and bad they have done has affected them and others.
The person returns to their earthly body and life, because either they are told it is not their time to die, or they are given a choice and they return for the benefit of their family and loved ones.
Moody also explained how not every NDE will have each and every one of these steps, and how it could be different for every single experience. Due to the potential confusion or shock attributed to those who experience near-death experiences, it is important to treat them in a calm and understanding way right after their return from the After-Life.
Dr Moody describes the correct approach to an NDE patient is to "Ask, Listen, Validate, Educate, and Refer"[25]
Kenneth Ring (1980) subdivided the NDE on a five-stage continuum, using Moody's nine step experiment as inspiration. The subdivisions were:[26]
Body separation
Entering darkness
Entering another realm of existence, through the light
Entering darkness, seeing the light
There is also a final stage in NDEs, which is the person in question returning to their life on Earth.[27]
Charlotte Martial, a neuropsychologist from the University of Liège and the University Hospital of Liège who led a team that investigated 154 NDE cases, concluded that there is not a fixed sequence of events.[28] Yvonne Kason MD classified near-death experiences into three types: the "Out-of-Body" type, the "Mystical" or "White-Light" type, and the "Distressing" type.[29]
Clinical circumstances[edit]
Kenneth Ring argues that NDEs experienced following attempted suicides are statistically no more unpleasant than NDEs resulting from other situations.[30]
In one series of NDEs, 22% occurred during general anesthesia.[31]
Bruce Greyson declares in his study that overall NDEs have a lack of precision in diagnosis, so Dr. Greyson ventured in the study of common effects, mechanisms, sensations and reactions revealed through NDE's survivors by creating a questionnaire composed of 80 characteristics linked to NDE. He performed many studies averaging 70 responders per study. Nevertheless, he believed that his preliminary form wasn't precise enough, so Dr. Greyson went on to extend his research through tests and analysis collecting essential data that resulted in him coming up with an exemplary scale for many researchers to use for their studies that goes as follows:[32]
Bruce Greyson's Composition of Final NDE Scale[32]
Component and Question
Weighted Response
Did time seem to speed up? 2 = Everything seemed to be happening all at once
1 = Time seemed to go faster than usual 0= Neither
Were your thoughts speeded up? 2 = Incredibly fast
1 = Faster than usual 0= Neither
Did scenes from your past come back to you? 2 = Past flashed before me, out of my control
1 = Remembered many past events 0= Neither
Did you suddenly seem to understand everything? 2 = About the universe
1 = About myself or others 0= Neither
Did you have a feeling of peace or pleasantness? 2 = Incredible peace or pleasantness
1 = Relief or calmness 0= Neither
Did you have a feeling of joy? 2 = Incredible joy
1 = Happiness 0= Neither
Did you feel a sense of harmony or unity with the universe? 2 = United, one with the world
1 = No longer in conflict with nature 0= Neither
Did you see or feel surrounded by a brilliant light? 2 = Light clearly of mystical or other-worldly origin
1 = Unusually bright light 0= Neither
Were your senses more vivid than usual? 2 = Incredibly more so
1 = More so than usual 0= Neither
Did you seem to be aware of things going on elsewhere, as if by ESP? 2 = Yes, and facts later corroborated
1 = Yes, but facts not yet corroborated 0= Neither
Did scenes from the future come to you? 2 = From the world's future
1 = From personal future 0= Neither
Did you feel separated from your physical body? 2 = Clearly left the body and existed outside it
1 = Lost awareness of the body 0= Neither
Did you seem to enter some other, unearthly world? 2 = Clearly mystical or unearthly realm
1 = Unfamiliar, strange place 0= Neither
Did you seem to encounter a mystical being or presence? 2 = Definite being, or voice clearly of mystical or other-worldly origin
1 = Unidentifiable voice 0= Neither
Did you see deceased spirits or religious figures? 2 = Saw them
1 = Sensed their presence 0= Neither
Did you come to a border or point of no return? 2 = A barrier I was not permitted to cross; or "sent back" to life involuntarily
1 = A conscious decision to "return" to life 0= Neither
According to the Rasch rating-scale, this sixteen multiple choice questionnaire can be universally applied to all NDEs. It yields the same results no matter the age and gender of the victim, the intensity of the experience, or how much time elapsed between taking the survey and the NDE itself. With the results ranging from 0 to 32, the average score is 15 and the one standard deviation below the mean is 7. Scores below 7 are a subtle NDE while 8 is considered a "deep" one. A NDE recorded above 8 is stated to be intense.[33]
This scale has helped many researchers advance and enrich their discovery, most notably, Dr. Long. Jeffrey Long set out to discover the 'reality' of near death experiences mostly linked to cardiac arrest victims by using this scale and reviewing NDERF studies.[34] His first line of evidence shows that 835 out of 1122 NDE victims seemed to feel an increase in alertness and consciousness while studies proved no sign of electrical brain activity. His second line of evidence studies the increase of accuracy developed by NDE survivors defining their resuscitation process with a 97.6% accuracy rate. Dr. Long goes even further in his research with 7 more lines of evidence that all point to realism in NDE experiences, yet all of them not being verifiable or defined by today's medical advances and technology. Having such an abnormally large amount (95.6% out of 1000 participants) of NDE victims proclaiming NDEs as real experiences, it is reasonable to assume that they might be inexplicably real. In short, a doctors research combined with 35 years worth of research has only promoted NDE as medically inexplicable, yet most probably a real phenomenon.[35]
After-effects[edit]
NDEs are associated with changes in personality and outlook on life.[6] Ring has identified a consistent set of value and belief changes associated with people who have had a near-death experience. Among these changes, he found a greater appreciation for life, higher self-esteem, greater compassion for others, less concern for acquiring material wealth, a heightened sense of purpose and self-understanding, desire to learn, elevated spirituality, greater ecological sensitivity and planetary concern, a feeling of being more intuitive,[6] no longer worrying about death, and claiming to have witnessed an afterlife.[36] While people who had experienced NDEs become more spiritual, it doesn't mean they become necessarily more religious.[37] However, not all after-effects are beneficial[38] and Greyson describes circumstances where changes in attitudes and behavior can lead to psychosocial and psychospiritual problems.[39]
Historical reports[edit]
NDEs have been recorded since ancient times.[40] The oldest known medical report of near-death experiences was written by Pierre-Jean du Monchaux, an 18th-century French military doctor who described such a case in his book "Anecdotes de Médecine".[41] Monchaux hypothesized that an influx of blood in the brain stimulated a strong feeling in the individual, and therefore caused a near-death experience.[41] In the 19th century a few studies moved beyond individual cases - one privately done by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[42] and one in Switzerland. Up to 2005, 95% of world cultures are known to have made some mention of NDEs.[40]
A number of more contemporary sources report the incidence of near death experiences as:
17% amongst critically ill patients, in nine prospective studies from four different countries.[43]
10–20% of people who have come close to death.[14]
Near-death studies[edit]
Main article: Near-death studies
Bruce Greyson (psychiatrist), Kenneth Ring (psychologist), and Michael Sabom (cardiologist), helped to launch the field of near-death studies and introduced the study of near-death experiences to the academic setting. From 1975 to 2005, some 2,500 self-reported individuals in the US had been reviewed in retrospective studies of the phenomena[40] with an additional 600 outside the US in the West,[40] and 70 in Asia.[40] Additionally, prospective studies had identified 270 individuals. Prospective studies review groups of individuals (e.g., selected emergency room patients) and then find who had an NDE during the study's time; such studies cost more to perform.[40] In all, close to 3,500 individual cases between 1975 and 2005 had been reviewed in one or another study. All these studies were carried out by some 55 researchers or teams of researchers.[40]
Melvin L. Morse, head of the Institute for the Scientific Study of Consciousness, and colleagues[20][44] have investigated near-death experiences in a pediatric population.[45]
Clinical research in cardiac arrest patients[edit]
Parnia's study in 2001[edit]
In 2001, Sam Parnia and colleagues published the results of a year-long study of cardiac arrest survivors that was conducted at Southampton General Hospital. 63 survivors were interviewed. They had been resuscitated after being clinically dead with no pulse, no respiration, and fixed dilated pupils. Parnia and colleagues investigated out-of-body experience claims by placing figures in areas where patients were likely to be resuscitated on suspended boards facing the ceiling, not visible from the floor. Four had experiences that, according to the study criteria, were NDEs but none of them experienced the out-of-body experience. Thus, they were not able to identify the figures.[46][47][48]
Psychologist Chris French wrote regarding the study "unfortunately, and somewhat atypically, none of the survivors in this sample experienced an out of body experience".[47]
Van Lommel's study[edit]
Pim van Lommel
In 2001, Pim van Lommel, a cardiologist from the Netherlands, and his team conducted a study on NDEs including 344 cardiac arrest patients who had been successfully resuscitated in 10 Dutch hospitals. Patients not reporting NDEs were used as controls for patients who did, and psychological (e.g., fear before cardiac arrest), demographic (e.g., age, sex), medical (e.g., more than one cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)), and pharmacological data were compared between the two groups. The work also included a longitudinal study where the two groups (those who had had an NDE and those who had not had one) were compared at two and eight years, for life changes. One patient had a conventional out of body experience. He reported being able to watch and recall events during the time of his cardiac arrest. His claims were confirmed by hospital personnel. "This did not appear consistent with hallucinatory or illusory experiences, as the recollections were compatible with real and verifiable rather than imagined events".[48][49]
Awareness during Resuscitation (AWARE) study[edit]
While at University of Southampton, Parnia was the principal investigator of the AWARE Study, which was launched in 2008.[13] This study which concluded in 2012 included 33 investigators across 15 medical centers in the UK, Austria and the US and tested consciousness, memories and awareness during cardiac arrest. The accuracy of claims of visual and auditory awareness was examined using specific tests.[50] One such test consisted of installing shelves, bearing a variety of images and facing the ceiling, hence not visible to hospital staff, in rooms where cardiac-arrest patients were more likely to occur. The results of the study were published in October 2014; both the launch and the study results were widely discussed in the media.[51][52]
A review article analyzing the results reports that, out of 2,060 cardiac arrest events, 101 of 140 cardiac arrest survivors could complete the questionnaires. Of these 101 patients 9% could be classified as near-death experiences. Two more patients (2% of those completing the questionnaires) described "seeing and hearing actual events related to the period of cardiac arrest". These two patients' cardiac arrests did not occur in areas equipped with ceiling shelves hence no images could be used to objectively test for visual awareness claims. One of the two patients was too sick and the accuracy of her recount could not be verified. For the second patient, however, it was possible to verify the accuracy of the experience and to show that awareness occurred paradoxically some minutes after the heart stopped, at a time when "the brain ordinarily stops functioning and cortical activity becomes isoelectric (i.e. without any discernible electric activity)." The experience was not compatible with an illusion, imaginary event or hallucination since visual (other than of ceiling shelves' images) and auditory awareness could be corroborated.[48]
AWARE II[edit]
As of May 2016[update], a posting at the UK Clinical Trials Gateway website described plans for AWARE II, a two-year multicenter observational study of 900-1500 patients experiencing cardiac arrest, which said that subject recruitment had started on 1 August 2014 and that the scheduled end date was 31 May 2017.[53] The study was extended, continuing until 2020.[54] In 2019, a report of a condensed version of the study with 465 patients was released. Only one patient remembered the auditory stimuli while none remembered the visual.[53]
Meditation-Induced NDEs[edit]
A three-year longitudinal study has revealed that some Buddhist meditation practitioners are able to willfully induce near-death experiences at a pre-planned point in time. Unlike traditional NDEs, participants were consciously aware of experiencing the meditation-induced NDE and retained control over its content and duration.[55] The Dalai Lama has also asserted that experienced meditators can deliberately induce the NDE state during meditation, being able to recognize and sustain it.[56]
Explanatory models[edit]
In a review article, psychologist Chris French[47] has grouped approaches to explain NDEs in three broad groups which "are not distinct and independent, but instead show considerable overlap": spiritual theories (also called transcendental), psychological theories, and physiological theories that provide a physical explanation for NDEs.
Spiritual or transcendental theories[edit]
French summarizes this model by saying: "the most popular interpretation is that the NDE is exactly what it appears to be to the person having the experience".[47] The NDE would then represent evidence of the supposedly immaterial existence of a soul or mind, which would leave the body upon death. An NDE would then provide information about an immaterial world where the soul would journey upon ending its existence on earth.[47]
According to Greyson[14] some NDE phenomena cannot be easily explained with our current knowledge of human physiology and psychology. For instance, at a time when they were unconscious, patients could accurately describe events as well as report being able to view their bodies "from an out-of-body spatial perspective". In two different studies of patients who had survived a cardiac arrest, those who had reported leaving their bodies could describe accurately their resuscitation procedures or unexpected events, whereas others "described incorrect equipment and procedures".[14] Sam Parnia also refers to two cardiac arrest studies and one deep hypothermic circulatory arrest study where patients reported visual and/or auditory awareness occurring when their brain function had ceased. These reports "were corroborated with actual and real events".[57][48]
Five prospective studies have been carried out, to test the accuracy of out of body perceptions by placing "unusual targets in locations likely to be seen by persons having NDEs, such as in an upper corner of a room in the emergency department, the coronary care unit, or the intensive care unit of a hospital." Twelve patients reported leaving their bodies, but none could describe the hidden visual targets. Although this is a small sample, the failure of purported out-of-body experiencers to describe the hidden targets raises questions about the accuracy of the anecdotal reports described above.[14]
Some patients floated in the opposite direction of the targets
Some patients were floating just above the body thus not high enough to see the targets
One patient reported that he was too focused on observing the body to look for any targets. Also, he alleges that he would be able to see them if he had told him to look for them.
Psychologist James Alcock has described the afterlife claims of NDE researchers as pseudoscientific. Alcock has written the spiritual or transcendental interpretation "is based on belief in search of data rather than observation in search of explanation."[58] Chris French has noted that "the survivalist approach does not appear to generate clear and testable hypotheses. Because of the vagueness and imprecision of the survivalist account, it can be made to explain any possible set of findings and is therefore unfalsifiable and unscientific."[59]
Psychological explanations[edit]
French summarises the main psychological explanations which include: the depersonalization, the expectancy and the dissociation models.[47]
Depersonalization model[edit]
A depersonalization model was proposed in the 1970s by professor of psychiatry Russell Noyes and clinical psychologist Roy Kletti, which suggested that the NDE is a form of depersonalization experienced under emotional conditions such as life-threatening danger, potentially inescapable danger, and that the NDE can best be understood as a hallucination.[47][60][61][62][63] According to this model, those who face their impending death become detached from the surroundings and their own bodies, no longer feel emotions, and experience time distortions.[14]
This model suffers from a number of limitations to explain NDEs for subjects who do not experience a sensation of being out of their bodies; unlike NDEs, experiences are dreamlike, unpleasant and characterized by "anxiety, panic and emptiness".[14] Also, during NDEs subjects remain very lucid of their identities, and their sense of identity is not changed unlike those experiencing depersonalization.[14]
Expectancy model[edit]
Another psychological theory is called the expectancy model. It has been suggested that although these experiences could appear very real, they had actually been constructed in the mind, either consciously or subconsciously, in response to the stress of an encounter with death (or perceived encounter with death), and did not correspond to a real event. In a way, they are similar to wish-fulfillment: because someone thought they were about to die, they experienced certain things in accordance with what they expected or wanted to occur. Imagining a heavenly place was in effect a way for them to soothe themselves through the stress of knowing that they were close to death.[47] Subjects use their own personal and cultural expectations to imagine a scenario that would protect them against an imminent threat to their lives.[14]
Subjects' accounts often differed from their own "religious and personal expectations regarding death" which contradicts the hypothesis they may have imagined a scenario based on their cultural and personal background.[14]
Although the term NDE was first coined in 1975 and the experience first described then, recent descriptions of NDEs do not differ from those reported earlier than 1975. The only exception is the more frequent description of a tunnel. Hence, the fact that information about these experiences could be more easily obtained after 1975 did not influence people's reports of the experiences.[14]
Another flaw of this model can be found in children's accounts of NDEs. These are similar to adults', despite children being less strongly affected by religious and cultural influences about death.[14]
Dissociation model[edit]
The dissociation model proposes that NDE is a form of withdrawal to protect an individual from a stressful event. Under extreme circumstances, some people may detach from certain unwanted feelings in order to avoid experiencing the emotional impact and suffering associated with them. The person also detaches from one's immediate surroundings.[47]
Birth model[edit]
The birth model suggests that near-death experiences could be a form of reliving the trauma of birth. Since a baby travels from the darkness of the womb to light and is greeted by the love and warmth of the nursing and medical staff, and so, it was proposed, the dying brain could be recreating the passage through a tunnel to light, warmth and affection.[47]
Reports of leaving the body through a tunnel are equally frequent among subjects who were born by cesarean section and natural birth. Also, newborns do not possess "the visual acuity, spatial stability of their visual images, mental alertness, and cortical coding capacity to register memories of the birth experience".[14]
Physiological explanations[edit]
A wide range of physiological theories of the NDE have been put forward including those based upon cerebral hypoxia, anoxia, and hypercapnia; endorphins and other neurotransmitters; and abnormal activity in the temporal lobes.[47]
Neurobiological factors in the experience have been investigated by researchers in the field of medical science and psychiatry.[64] Among the researchers and commentators who tend to emphasize a naturalistic and neurological base for the experience is the British psychologist Susan Blackmore (1993), with her "dying brain hypothesis".[65]
Neuroanatomical models[edit]
Neuroscientists Olaf Blanke and Sebastian Dieguez (2009),[66] from the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland, propose a brain-based model with two types of NDEs:
"type 1 NDEs are due to bilateral frontal and occipital, but predominantly right hemispheric brain damage affecting the right temporal-parietal junction and characterized by out of body experiences, altered sense of time, sensations of flying, lightness vection and flying"[4]
"type 2 NDEs are also due to bilateral frontal and occipital, but predominantly left hemispheric brain damage affecting the left temporal parietal junction and characterized by feeling of a presence, meeting and communication with spirits, seeing of glowing bodies, as well as voices, sounds, and music without vection"[4]
They suggest that damage to the bilateral occipital cortex may lead to visual features of NDEs such as seeing a tunnel or lights, and "damage to unilateral or bilateral temporal lobe structures such as the hippocampus and amygdala" may lead to emotional experiences, memory flashbacks or a life review. They concluded that future neuroscientific studies are likely to reveal the neuroanatomical basis of the NDE which will lead to the demystification of the subject without needing paranormal explanations.[4]
Animation of the human left temporal lobe
French has written that the "temporal lobe is almost certain to be involved in NDEs, given that both damage to and direct cortical stimulation of this area are known to produce a number of experiences corresponding to those of the NDE, including OBEs, hallucinations, and memory flashbacks".[47]
Vanhaudenhuyse et al. 2009 reported that recent studies employing deep brain stimulation and neuroimaging have demonstrated that out-of-body experiences result from a deficient multisensory integration at the temporoparietal junction and that ongoing studies aim to further identify the functional neuroanatomy of near-death experiences by means of standardized EEG recordings.[67]
According to Greyson[14] multiple neuroanatomical models have been proposed where NDEs have been hypothesized to originate from different anatomical areas of the brain, namely: the limbic system, the hippocampus, the left temporal lobe, Reissner's fiber in the central canal of the spinal cord, the prefrontal cortex, and the right temporal lobe.
Blanke et al.[4] admit that their model remains speculative due to the lack of data. Likewise Greyson[14] writes that although some or any of the neuroanatomical models proposed may serve to explain NDEs and pathways through which they are expressed, they remain speculative at this stage since they have not been tested in empirical studies.[14]
Neurochemical models[edit]
Some theories explain reported NDE experiences as resulting from drugs used during resuscitation (in the case of resuscitation-induced NDEs) ─ for example, ketamine ─ or from endogenous chemicals that transmit signals between brain cells, neurotransmitters:[47]
In the early eighties, Daniel Carr wrote that the NDE has characteristics that are suggestive of a limbic lobe syndrome and that the NDE can be explained by the release of endorphins and enkephalins in the brain.[68][69] Endorphins are endogenous molecules "released in times of stress and lead to a reduction in pain perception and a pleasant, even blissful, emotional state."[47]
Judson and Wiltshaw (1983) noted how the administration of endorphin-blocking agents such as naloxone had been occasionally reported to produce "hellish" NDEs.[70] This would be coherent with endorphins' role in causing a "positive emotional tone of most NDEs".[47]
Morse et al. 1989 proposed a model arguing that serotonin played a more important role than endorphins in generating NDEs,[71] "at least with respect to mystical hallucinations and OBEs".[47]
A 2019 large-scale study found that ketamine, Salvia divinorum, and DMT (and other classical psychedelic substances) are linked to near-death experiences.[72]
According to Parnia, neurochemical models are not backed by data. This is true for "NMDA receptor activation, serotonin, and endorphin release" models.[48] Parnia writes that no data has been collected via thorough and careful experimentation to back "a possible causal relationship or even an association" between neurochemical agents and NDE experiences.[57]
Multi-factorial models[edit]
The first formal neurobiological model for NDE, included endorphins, neurotransmitters of the limbic system, the temporal lobe and other parts of the brain.[73] Extensions and variations of their model came from other scientists such as Louis Appleby (1989).[74]
Other authors suggest that all components of near-death experiences can be explained in their entirety via psychological or neurophysiological mechanisms, although the authors admit that these hypotheses have to be tested by science.[75]
Low oxygen levels (and G-LOC) model[edit]
Low oxygen levels in the blood (hypoxia or anoxia) have been hypothesized to induce hallucinations and hence possibly explain NDEs.[18][47] This is because low oxygen levels characterize life-threatening situations and also by the apparent similarities between NDEs and G-force induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC) episodes.
These episodes are observed with fighter pilots experiencing very rapid and intense acceleration that result in lack of sufficient blood supply to the brain. Whinnery[76] studied almost 1000 cases and noted how the experiences often involved "tunnel vision and bright lights, floating sensations, automatic movement, autoscopy, OBEs, not wanting to be disturbed, paralysis, vivid dreamlets of beautiful places, pleasurable sensations, psychological alterations of euphoria and dissociation, inclusion of friends and family, inclusion of prior memories and thoughts, the experience being very memorable (when it can be remembered), confabulation, and a strong urge to understand the experience."[47][76]
However, acceleration-induced hypoxia's primary characteristics are "rhythmic jerking of the limbs, compromised memory of events just prior to the onset of unconsciousness, tingling of extremities ..." that are not observed during NDEs.[18] Also G-LOC episodes do not feature life reviews, mystical experiences and "long-lasting transformational aftereffects", although this may be due to the fact that subjects have no expectation of dying.[47]
Also, hypoxic hallucinations are characterized by "distress and agitation" and this is very different from near-death experiences which subjects report as being pleasant.[14]
Altered blood gas levels models[edit]
Some investigators have studied whether hypercarbia or higher than normal carbon dioxide levels, could explain the occurrence of NDEs. However, studies are difficult to interpret since NDEs have been observed both with increased levels as well as decreased levels of carbon dioxide, and finally, some other studies have observed NDEs when levels had not changed, and there is little data.[18]
Other models[edit]
French said that at least some reports of NDEs might be based upon false memories.[77]
According to Engmann (2008) near-death experiences of people who are clinically dead are psychopathological symptoms caused by a severe malfunction of the brain resulting from the cessation of cerebral blood circulation.[78] An important question is whether it is possible to "translate" the bloomy experiences of the reanimated survivors into psychopathologically basic phenomena, e.g., acoasms (nonverbal auditory hallucinations), central narrowing of the visual field, autoscopia, visual hallucinations, activation of limbic and memory structures according to Moody's stages. The symptoms suppose a primary affliction of the occipital and temporal cortices under clinical death. This basis could be congruent with the thesis of pathoclisis—the inclination of special parts of the brain to be the first to be damaged in case of disease, lack of oxygen, or malnutrition—established eighty years ago by Cécile Vogt-Mugnier and Oskar Vogt.[79]
Professor of neurology Terence Hines (2003) claimed that near-death experiences are hallucinations caused by cerebral anoxia, drugs, or brain damage.[80]
Greyson has called into question the adequacy of the materialist mind-brain identity model for explaining NDE's.[31] An NDE often involves vivid and complex mentation, sensation and memory formation under circumstances of complete disabling of brain function during general anesthesia or near-complete cessation of cerebral blood flow and oxygen uptake during cardiac arrest. Materialist models predict that such conscious experiences should be impossible under these conditions.[dubious – discuss] The mind-brain identity model of classic materialist psychology may need to be expanded to adequately explain an NDE.[citation needed]
Cross-cultural aspects[edit]
Gregory Shushan published an analysis of the afterlife beliefs of five ancient civilizations[81] and compared them with historical and contemporary reports of near-death experiences, and shamanic afterlife "journeys". Shushan found similarities across time, place, and culture that he found could not be explained by coincidence; he also found elements that were specific to cultures; Shushan concludes that some form of mutual influence between experiences of an afterlife and culture probably influence one another and that this inheritance, in turn, influences individual NDEs.[82]
In contrast, it has been argued that near-death experiences and many of their elements such as vision of God, judgment, the tunnel, or the life review are closely related to religious and spiritual traditions of the West. It was mainly Christian visionaries, Spiritualists, Occultists, and Theosophists of the 19th and 20th century that reported them.[83]
However, according to Parnia, near-death experiences' interpretations are influenced by religious, social, cultural backgrounds. However, the core elements appear to transcend borders and can be considered universal. In fact, some of these core elements have even been reported by children (this occurred over many months, whilst playing and communicated using children's language). In other words, at an age where they should not have been influenced by culture or tradition.[48] Also, according to Greyson,[14] the central features of NDEs are universal and have not been influenced by time. These have been observed throughout history and in different cultures.
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"I was beginning to establish myself until I got injured and then I found it difficult to get back in to the first team.
"I want to have a good pre-season to get myself fitter and be challenging for a regular place."
Murphy, who came up through the youth ranks at the Alex, said the team must put last term's relegation to the back of their minds and look to the future.
He added: "Everyone was disappointed with what happened last season and we all feel responsible.
"But we can't influence what has gone on in the past.
"We can only look forward and pick ourselves up and make sure we are ready for next season which we all know will be tough."

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Clinical Features of Refractory Ascites in Outpatients
Departamento de Gastroenterologia - FM/MGT
Artigos e Materiais de Revistas Científicas - FM/MGT
CALY, Wanda Regina ; ABREU, Rodrigo Martins ; BITELMAN, Bernardo ; CARRILHO, Flair Jose ; ONO, Suzane Kioko
Is part of: CLINICS, v.72, n.7, p.405-410, 2017
OBJECTIVES: To present the clinical features and outcomes of outpatients who suffer from refractory ascites. METHODS: This prospective observational study consecutively enrolled patients with cirrhotic ascites who submitted to a clinical evaluation, a sodium restriction diet, biochemical blood tests, 24 hour urine tests and an ascitic fluid analysis. All patients received a multidisciplinary evaluation and diuretic treatment. Patients who did not respond to the diuretic treatment were controlled by therapeutic serial paracentesis, and a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt was indicated for patients who required therapeutic serial paracentesis up to twice a month. RESULTS: The most common etiology of cirrhosis in both groups was alcoholism [49 refractory (R) and 11 non-refractory ascites (NR)]. The majority of patients in the refractory group had Child-Pugh class B cirrhosis (p=0.034). The nutritional assessment showed protein-energy malnutrition in 81.6% of the patients in the R group and 35.5% of the patients in the NR group, while hepatic encephalopathy, hernia, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, upper digestive hemorrhage and type 2 hepatorenal syndrome were present in 51%, 44.9%, 38.8%, 38.8% and 26.5% of the patients in the R group and 9.1%, 18.2%, 0%, 0% and 0% of the patients in the NR group, respectively (p=0.016, p=0.173, p=0.012, p=0.012, and p=0.100, respectively). Mortality occurred in 28.6% of the patients in the R group and in 9.1% of the patients in the NR group (p=0.262). CONCLUSION: Patients with refractory ascites were malnourished, suffered from hernias, had a high prevalence of complications and had a high postoperative death frequency, which was mostly due to infectious processes.
Name: art_CALY_Clinical_Features_of_Refractory_Ascites_i ...
Description: publishedVersion (English)
Artigos e Materiais de Revistas Científicas - FM/MGT [776]
Artigos e Materiais de Revistas Científicas - HC/ICHC [8292]
Artigos e Materiais de Revistas Científicas - HC/InRad [805]
Instituto de Radiologia - HC/InRad
Artigos e Materiais de Revistas Científicas - LIM/07 [233]
LIM/07 - Laboratório de Gastroenterologia Clínica e Experimental


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text:
South Working - Lavorare dal Sud
This project aims to quickly improve the economy of the Southern regions of Italy, by increasing the number of people who work permanently remotely for employers located elsewhere, in Northern Italy or abroad. COVID-19 sent a shock-wave through labor markets, by imposing telework for large sets of workers. In this context, many workers are reconsidering their priorities and would like to be able to work from anywhere. This may represent a positive input for Southern economies, which could attract talent both among those who were part of the "brain drain" and among people who are not originally from the South.
Main Project Activities:
• Development of a value chart of South Working and an appendix on the rights of the south worker
• Advocacy and bottom-up awareness raising
• Establishment of an observatory to study the phenomenon of South Working
• Support to stakeholders (e.g. workers, firms)Over the past months, South Working has:
• Established collaborations with research centres and institutions to further study the phenomenon. For example, the project recently partnered with Fondazione con il Sud
• Undertaken a mapping of co-working spaces
• Undertaken and analysed results from a survey of almost 2000 respondents and developed a focus section for the annual report of SVIMEZ (the association for the development of industry in Southern Italy)
• Achieved more than 10000 followers of the Facebook project page
• Engaged with thousands of interested workers and enterprises and featured "stories of south working" and "south working possible" on social media
• Ensured broad presence in national media (e.g. ANSA, Sky TG 24, Il Foglio, Repubblica, among others)
World Economic Forum projects may be republished in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License, and in accordance with our Terms of Use.


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Multiple sclerosis is a disease that affects the nerve cells of the body. Find out the causes, symptoms, and the treatment of this condition, through this Buzzle article.


text:
package bankSystem.entity;

import java.io.Serializable;
import java.util.Date;

public class VIPAccount extends Account implements Serializable  {
	/**
	 *
	 */
	private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
	private Date excessStart;
	private boolean isFrozen;
	private double accBalanceThisMonth;
	private short accFailMonths;
	private static final int openLimit = 1000000;
	private static final int excessLimit = 100000;

	public static int getOpenlimit() {
		return openLimit;
	}

	public static int getExcesslimit() {
		return excessLimit;
	}

	public static boolean isBalanceEnough(double balance){
		return balance >= openLimit;
	}

	public VIPAccount() {
		// TODO Auto-generated constructor stub
		super();
		excessStart = new Date();
		isFrozen = false;
		accBalanceThisMonth = 0.0;
		accFailMonths = 0;
	}

	public VIPAccount(String id, AccountType type, double balance, Date openDate) {
		super(id, type, balance, openDate);
		// TODO Auto-generated constructor stub
		excessStart = new Date();
		isFrozen = false;
		accBalanceThisMonth = 0.0;
		accFailMonths = 0;
	}

	public VIPAccount(String id, String type, double balance, Date openDate) {
		super(id, type, balance, openDate);
		// TODO Auto-generated constructor stub
		excessStart = new Date();
		isFrozen = false;
		accBalanceThisMonth = 0.0;
		accFailMonths = 0;
	}

	public VIPAccount(String id, String type, double balance, Date openDate, Date excessStart,
			boolean isFrozen, double accBalanceThisMonth, short accFailMonths) {
		super(id, type, balance, openDate);
		// TODO Auto-generated constructor stub
		this.excessStart =  excessStart;
		this.isFrozen = isFrozen;
		this.accBalanceThisMonth = accBalanceThisMonth;
		this.accFailMonths = accFailMonths;
	}

	public Date getExcessStart() {
		return excessStart;
	}

	public void setExcessStart(Date excessStart) {
		this.excessStart = excessStart;
	}

	public boolean isFrozen() {
		return isFrozen;
	}

	public void setFrozen(boolean isFrozen) {
		this.isFrozen = isFrozen;
	}

	public double getAccBalanceThisMonth() {
		return accBalanceThisMonth;
	}

	public void setAccBalanceThisMonth(double accBalanceThisMonth) {
		this.accBalanceThisMonth = accBalanceThisMonth;
	}

	public short getAccFailMonths() {
		return accFailMonths;
	}

	public void setAccFailMonths(short accFailMonths) {
		this.accFailMonths = accFailMonths;
	}
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<!--
   ~ Copyright 2015 Rudson Lima

   ~ Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
   ~ you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
   ~ You may obtain a copy of the License at

   ~ http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0

   ~ Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
   ~ distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
   ~ WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
   ~ See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
   ~ limitations under the License.
-->

<RelativeLayout xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/android"
    xmlns:tools="http://schemas.android.com/tools"
    android:layout_width="match_parent"
    android:layout_height="match_parent"
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    tools:ignore="MissingPrefix">

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        android:layout_width="match_parent"
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        android:contentDescription="@string/clear"
        android:scaleType="fitXY" />

    <br.liveo.ui.RoundedImageView
        android:id="@+id/userPhoto"
        android:layout_width="@dimen/userPhoto_layout_width"
        android:layout_height="@dimen/userPhoto_layout_height"
        android:layout_alignParentStart="true"
        android:layout_alignParentLeft="true"
        android:layout_alignParentTop="true"
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text:
Nella religione ebraica lo Shabbat (detto anche Shabbath, Shabbos secondo la pronuncia ashkenazita, Shabbes come dicono i religiosi in yiddish, Shabat o anche Sciabbadde), in ebraico: שבת, è la festa del riposo, che è celebrata ogni sabato.

Etimologia
La parola ebraica Shabat proviene dal verbo ebraico shabat, che letteralmente significa "smettere", inteso come smettere di compiere alcune azioni. Tuttavia l'origine si potrebbe anche ricollegare alla radice שֶׁבַע (shev'ah), che significa sette. L'ebreo osservante dello Shabat viene definito Shomer Shabat: osserverai e custodirai.

Interpretazione
Sebbene "Shabat" o la sua versione anglicizzata "Sabbath" siano universalmente tradotti come "riposo" o "tempo del riposo", una traduzione più letterale sarebbe "lo smettere" con l'induzione a "smettere di lavorare". Poiché Shabat è il giorno della cessazione del lavoro, sebbene il riposo ne sia un'implicazione, non è necessariamente una connotazione della parola stessa.

In alternativa a questa interpretazione, vi è traccia linguistica di questo termine presso le lingue Accadiche. Secondo la mitologia, dopo sei generazioni di dei (nel racconto babilonese Enuma Elish), nella settima generazione (in accadico shapattu o shapath/sabath), i nuovi dei, i figli e le figlie di Enlil e Ninlil, si rifiutarono di svolgere i loro doveri e continuarono nella loro opera di creazione; così Enki consiglia di creare i servi degli dei, l'umanità, fatti di sangue e argilla.

Questa considerazione contribuisce anche a chiarire la questione teologica sul perché, nel settimo giorno della creazione, così come riportato nel libro della Genesi, Dio abbia avuto bisogno di riposare. Una volta compreso che Dio non ha riposato ma piuttosto ha smesso di lavorare si rientra in un'ottica biblicamente più aderente alla figura di un Dio onnipotente che non ha necessità del riposo.
Ferma restando questa doverosa chiarificazione, questa voce seguirà la traduzione più comunemente accettata di Shabat con "riposo sabatico".

Definizione
Il precetto di osservare lo Shabbat è ripetuto più volte nella Torah; la citazione più conosciuta è nei Dieci Comandamenti (Esodo 20;8-11 e Deuteronomio 5;12-15), ma tale precetto viene ripetuto in Esodo 31:12-17 e 35;2-3, Levitico 19;3 e 19;30, 23;3, oltre a venir riferito dal profeta Isaia (56;4-6). Esistono poi numerose altre citazioni sullo Shabbat nel Tanakh.

Poiché la halakhah (la legge ebraica) identifica l'inizio del giorno con il tramonto, lo Shabbat inizia con il tramonto del venerdì sera e termina con quello del sabato sera (per la precisione con l'apparizione della terza stella nel cielo).

Status di festività

Sebbene lo Shabbat non sia considerata una festività da molte altre culture e religioni, l'ebraismo gli riconosce lo status di gioiosa festività. La halakhah riconosce lo Shabbat come la festività più importante del calendario ebraico.

 È la prima festività menzionata nella Bibbia e Dio è stato il primo a osservarlo.
 Nella Liturgia lo Shabbat viene paragonato a una sposa, una regina o un re, come riporta il Mishneh Torah.
 La lettura della Torah durante lo Shabbat è divisa in sette chiamate, un numero maggiore di qualsiasi altra festività, anche dello Yom Kippur.
 Si dice che il Messia verrà se tutti gli ebrei avranno osservato per due volte di seguito lo Shabbat (Talmud, trattato sullo Shabbat 118).
 La pena biblica per la violazione dello Shabbat è più grave di quella che deriva dalla violazione di una qualsiasi altra festività.

Scopo
Nel Tanakh (Bibbia Ebraica) e nel Siddur (il libro di preghiere ebraiche) si descrive lo Shabbat come avente due scopi:
 il ricordo della redenzione del popolo ebraico dalla schiavitù in Egitto;
 il ricordo della creazione dell'universo da parte di Dio: nel settimo giorno Dio terminò il proprio lavoro.

Azioni obbligatorie
Secondo la religione ebraica agli ebrei è comandato da Dio di ricordare e osservare lo Shabbat. Queste due azioni sono rappresentate dall'accensione di due candele all'inizio dello Shabbat.

Sebbene molte delle regole dello Shabbat siano restrittive, il quarto dei Dieci comandamenti nell'Esodo ispira l'aspetto positivo dello shabbat:
 recitare il Kiddush su una coppa di vino la sera e la mattina, sottolineando la santità del giorno;
 recitare la Havdalah alla conclusione dello Shabbat (su una coppa di vino, spezie profumate e una candela)
 consumare tre pasti completi che includano la Challah, il classico pane del sabato e carne (secondo la gran parte delle tradizioni);
 studiare la Torah.

Azioni vietate
La Halakhah proibisce al popolo ebraico lo svolgimento di qualsiasi forma di "melachah" (lavoro plurale: melachot) durante lo Shabbat. Le Melachot non si riferiscono a quello che viene normalmente considerato lavoro, né coincide con la definizione di lavoro che dà la fisica. Si riferisce invece a 39 attività che il Talmud vieta di svolgere durante lo Shabbat agli Ebrei.

Numerosi studiosi di Torah hanno osservato che queste attività hanno in comune l'aspetto creativo o l'esercizio del controllo reciproco o dell'ambiente.
Queste attività sono state collegate a quelle necessarie per il regolare svolgimento dell'attività del Tempio di Gerusalemme. Si tratta quindi delle attività necessarie per la preparazione del Pane, degli abiti dei sacerdoti, per la preparazione dei sacrifici, per la scrittura e correzione dei rotoli della Torah, per la costruzione e manutenzione del tempio stesso.
Il divieto del lavoro durante lo Shabbat viene infatti enunciato, nella Torah, poco dopo le istruzioni per la realizzazione dell'Arca santa.

Le 39 attività sono (Mishnah Shabbat 7:2):
 Arare;
 Seminare;
 Mietere;
 Formare covoni;
 Trebbiare;
 Ventilare;
 Selezionare;
 Setacciare;
 Macinare;
 Impastare;
 Cuocere;
 Tosare;
 Lavare;
 Cardare;
 Tingere;
 Filare;
 Tendere;
 Costruire un setaccio;
 Tessere;
 Dividere due fili;
 Legare;
 Slegare;
 Cucire;
 Strappare;
 Cacciare;
 Macellare;
 Scuoiare;
 Salare la carne;
 Disegnare;
 Lisciare;
 Tagliare;
 Scrivere;
 Cancellare;
 Costruire;
 Demolire;
 Spegnere un fuoco;
 Accendere un fuoco;
 Dare l'ultima mano per terminare un lavoro;
 Trasportare al di fuori della propria abitazione.

Le 39 melachot non sono tanto attività quanto categorie di attività. Ad esempio, se setacciare tradizionalmente si riferisce alla separazione del grano dal loglio, nell'accezione talmudica si riferisce alla separazione di qualsiasi sostanza mischiata che renda immangiabile un cibo. In questo senso filtrare dell'acqua per renderla potabile ricade nell'attività del setacciare, così come la pulitura di un pesce dalle spine. Durante lo Shabbat è proibito viaggiare, per esempio oltre alcune miglia al di là della città in cui si abiti o soggiorni. A ogni modo, quando una vita umana è in difficoltà, all'ebreo non è solo consentito ma piuttosto prescritto di violare qualsiasi regola dello shabbat per tentare di aiutare la persona, con ogni mezzo e in ogni momento.

Osservanza
Lo Shabbat è un giorno di celebrazione così come di preghiera. Tre pasti sono consumati durante lo Shabbat: il venerdì sera, sabato a pranzo e nel pomeriggio di sabato prima della conclusione dello Shabbat. Tutti gli ebrei sono incoraggiati a presenziare alle funzioni presso la Sinagoga durante lo Shabbat anche se non lo fanno abitualmente durante la settimana.

A eccezione dello Yom Kippur, tutti i digiuni vengono posticipati di un giorno se coincidono con lo Shabbat.

Attività permesse
Durante lo Shabbat le seguenti attività sono permesse e incoraggiate:
 far visita a parenti e amici (purché raggiungibili a piedi considerati i problemi di trasporto)
 passare lo shabbat con un proprio familiare
 assistere alla funzione in Sinagoga
 ospitare parenti e amici a dormire per lo Shabbat (hachnasat orchim, ospitalità) o quanto meno per uno dei pasti
 cantare brani popolari e salmi
 leggere, studiare e discutere di Torah, i commentari, il Talmud, la Halakha e i Midrash
 secondo la Kabbalah (misticismo ebraico), avere rapporti sessuali tra marito e moglie.

Le seguenti attività sono in accordo con la halakha, ma non sono obbligatorie:
 fare giochi da tavolo (attività permessa, ma sconsigliata)
 leggere letteratura ebraica, possibilmente non giornali o riviste

Citazione
Il filosofo ebreo Abraham Joshua Heschel scrive dello Shabbat:

Lo shabbat nel cristianesimo
I cristiani, dopo la predicazione di Paolo, hanno cominciato a celebrare il giorno di domenica, giorno della risurrezione di Cristo, abbandonando così gradualmente il sabato.

Lo Shabbat nelle altre religioni
Lo Shabbat diede origine ai diversi giorni di preghiera e di astensione dal lavoro delle altre religioni monoteiste che dalla religione ebraica derivarono.

Il giorno del riposo secondo la maggioranza della religione Cristiana è la domenica. Tuttavia i Battisti del settimo giorno, la Chiesa Cristiana Avventista del Settimo Giorno, gli Avventisti del Settimo Giorno del Movimento di Riforma, la Chiesa avventista del riposo sabatico, il Giudaismo messianico, la House of Yahweh, i Davidiani, la Vera Chiesa di Gesù e la Chiesa avventista del riposo sabatico osservano il riposo dalla sera del venerdì a quella del sabato, così come raccomandato dalla Bibbia.

L'Islam ha un giorno di preghiera pubblica il venerdì. Diverse fonti non islamiche testimoniano, tuttavia, che i musulmani mantennero una tipologia di riposo simile allo Shabat per circa due secoli dopo la predicazione di Maometto. Tra questi menzioniamo il Tongdian di Du Huan, testo cinese in più volumi databile al IX secolo d.C.

Musica sacra

Nei tempi moderni molti compositori hanno scritto la musica sacra per il  Kabbalat Shabbat  tra cui:
 Robert Strassburg
 Samuel Adler.

Note

Bibliografia
 The Encyclopaedia Judaica, voce "Shabat", Keter Publishing House Ltd
 Abraham J. Heschel, Il sabato: il suo significato per l'uomo moderno, trad. di  Lisa Mortara ed Elena Mortara Di Veroli, Rusconi, Milano, 1972;  Garzanti, Milano, 1999;
 AA.VV., Il sabato nella tradizione ebraica, a cura di Giuseppe Trotta, Morcelliana, Brescia, 1991
 Isidor Grunfeld, Lo shabbath : guida alla comprensione e all'osservanza del sabato, Giuntina, Firenze, 2000
 Clara ed Elia Kopciowski , Le pietre del tempo: il popolo ebraico e le sue feste, Àncora, Milano, 2001

Voci correlate
 Eruv
 Lista di preghiere e benedizioni ebraiche
 Shabbat speciali

Collegamenti
 Shabat

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

Festività ebraiche

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Canadian streaming service Shomi, has announced it will be shutting down operations as of November 30th.
The cult SVOD service, launched just over two years ago, and had experienced challenges growing its subscriber base.
In addition to this, one of Shomi's two parent companies, Rogers Communications, announced it was expecting a loss on investment of approximately $100-140 million in its third quarter ending September 30, 2016 relating to the carrying value of its investment and a provision related to future liabilities in Shomi.
Rogers and Shaw Communications launched Shomi in November 2014 in an effort to grab the attention of a growing number of people watching TV and movies online. At first, the service was only available to the companies' TV and Internet subscribers, but it was expanded to everyone in Canada in May 2015 as it tried to compete with Netflix and other similar web streaming services.
Current Shomi members can keep streaming and binge-watching their favourite shows and movies online, via their Shaw or Rogers set-top box, on select tablets, mobile devices, Xbox 360 and Xbox One, Apple TV, Chromecast, and PS4 until November 30th 2016.


text:
[Recruitment] Reddit Farms; Tag: #U9UUJ9; English; Currently Open for Level 50+
Thread: [Recruitment] Reddit Farms; Tag: #U9UUJ9; English; Currently Open for Level 50+
lululux
Name: Reddit Farms (but we have nothing to do with Reddit; that was the name when I joined...2?...3?...years ago and we don't feel like changing it now)
Tag: #U9UUJ9
Currently open to all players level 50+ (current players range from level 63 through 132).
Hi guys! We're a very chill and friendly neighborhood. We used to have a lot of players, but many of them have become inactive, so we're looking for new players to join us! The people who remain in our hood tend to be daily/regular players.
We've been in the Champions League almost from the start (we are occasionally demoted, but tend to get promoted back into the league in the next derby.) We don't demand that all derby tasks be 320s, but we try to stay above 310 for all of them. We don't expect members to spend diamonds.
We're looking for people who like to play, like the derby, and like to share/trade without being overly gung-ho or super competitive about the game. You don't have to play in the derby, but it's a plus if you do. And people who are willing to sell/trade expansion materials are especially welcome
Come join us! We're currently completely open to everybody over level 50, but we'll probably change to "request to join" in a couple of weeks after this is posted.
Feel free to PM me with any questions or, if you join our neighborhood, to say hi!
casual, champions league, english, neighborhood, recruitment


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Nivetha Net Worth-2022, Age, Height, Weight & Contact Number
The world-renowned Nivetha Thomas is an actress, singer, martial arts expert and martial arts consultant. She has been married to the late Ronald Williams since 1984 and they have two children. She has been rewarded with being one of the most sought after actresses in Hollywood. Nivetha Thomas is famous for her roles in Kill Bill, Blow, The Matrix series and Kung Pow Enter the Fist.
To know how much Nivetha Thomas makes per hour, you must first know how she makes on the films. Her salary as an actress is based on how much she gets paid for each scene that she appears in. If she appears in more than ten scenes, her pay per scene will be higher. For example, if she appears in ten films and her films have a total budget of one million dollars then her pay per film will be about eleven thousand dollars.
Nivetha Full biography
Full Name Nivetha
Date of Birth 2, November1995
The second question on how much Nivetha Thomas gets paid is how much she actually makes per year. There are some people who work very hard in their careers and some of them also have average salaries. However, Nivetha Thomas has been able to establish herself in the entertainment industry with her consistent net worth. As of this writing, she has three films in the can, including Kill Bill and Black Rain. In addition, she has also appeared in Kung Pow Enter the Fist, Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon, and Iron Man. These three films have grossed over three hundred and forty million dollars worldwide.
To put her pay per picture earnings into perspective, she only makes between six and eight thousand dollars per movie. These are her low-ball figures because sometimes she receives a portion of the money upfront as bonus. For example, in Kill Bill, she receives seventy-five percent of the profit. Other movies receive more or less a percentage of her pay per picture.
Nivetha Thomas has worked with some of the finest actors in Hollywood. She has worked with Bruce Lee on the movie "The Replacements," and she also worked with Tom Cruise on one of his movies. She also was a stuntman for many years before being an actress. She has also had varied careers like being a dancer, a writer, and even a secretary. When it comes to acting, her resume is very impressive.
Nivetha Thomas has also been married and divorced four times. Her married life spans over thirty years. Her current partner is Larry Geller. Nivetha Thomas has achieved a great deal of success throughout her life, and she continues to rise in the acting ranks.
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