text:
The Null Device
Coalition-building
The Australian federal government adds another ally to its culture-war Coalition of Willing, with the Special Minister of State addressing a dinner by a militantly anti-gay Christian group known as Salt Shakers:
The Salt Shakers website says it is time to stop pandering to the gay minority group, especially as homosexual sex is still the main cause of HIV/AIDS in Australia.
"By lending his credibility to a hate group like Salt Shakers, Senator Abetz is undermining the Howard Government's commitment to tolerance of homosexuals and religious minorities," Mr Croome said.
("Commitment to tolerance"?)
And so, the courtship dance between the Australian conservative government and a rising US-style religious right continues. Which suggests that, far from being in decline, Australian wowserism is remaking itself in the image of the tremendously politically sophisticated US religious right and attempting to make the (increasingly misnamed) Liberal Party its own (much as happened with the Republican Party in the US).
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text:
No snags today!
No snags today! (I have been a bit tardy in putting this up..sorry)
How can you have an election and there be nobody selling things to the waiting voters? The answer: nobody in line, so no rush for fast food! The booths for Nicaragua's Election Day were all open, we had heard about it and planned well in advance with some thoughts schools would be closed for a whole month. We all knew it was Election Day because of the media talk. But come the day to vote, Sunday the 6th was like every other Sunday. Quiet. No fanfare, no noise, no political posturing even a week before. Why so?
Lots of conjecture. People we spoke to on the street said they would vote but later because there was little rush; others said they would not vote because there was no doubt: Daniel will win. They insisted that Daniel Ortega, the current President and former Sandinista Commander, and his astute wife, who has been made Vice President, have complete control of the country since they came (back) into power in about 2000 and that the election was rigged. There is perhaps always that cry from losing opposition parties but there could be some merit to it given the constitution was conveniently changed to allow Daniel to run a third time and for his wife to become Vice President. Further, some people even said that the key opposition leaders sold out this time, or at least, didn't fight hard enough when they became ineligible to run. They became ineligible because of a relatively minor misdemeanour: we read that they cut trees down on their properties and so broke environmental laws.
So what does this all mean? Is it bad? When there is corruption at the highest level and the system of justice compromised it is not a good sign of security and prosperity for all. And by many accounts that is happening in Nicaragua. However, Nicaragua certainly appears to have prospered in recent years and there is relative stability in contrast to neighbouring countries. For example, the crime rate in Honduras and El Salvador is excessive, and border insecurity high in other Latin American States. In Managua we have certainly observed far more middle class since the 1990's, far more modern cars on the road, and many more people with apparent expendable income. There are more hospitals in Managua too that rate well internationally, and private schools as well. On the island where we live, however, little of that has impacted and people still complain there is no work, costs are higher and yet their average salaries still hover at about US $140 a month. In schools and government centres only Sandinistas pro Daniel are given work, which means many educated people are unemployed. The only chance of work for them or in particular uneducated people (the majority here!) is domestic work or selling goods on the street or labouring work in plantations but, again, there are a plethora of people already doing this work and income is low. In the main there is little security of regular income.
So people just maintain their routine, and remain 'entrenched' in their daily habits. Central to that is the church which currently is celebrating the festivities surrounding their patron Saint San Diego of Alcalala. Every morning at 4.30am and every afternoon at 5.00pm there is a mass, after which a life size figure of the beloved Franciscan priest is ushered to houses who have requested his presence for the day or night. Fire works and kids with their drums accompany the processions to the houses where they plead for mercy and divine help in the coming year. As part of their plea, the family hosting San Diego hand out all sorts of goods to the adoring and waiting community. To our secular eye it is a tad misguided but it is a popular community event and a key thread in the hope that emboldens the people. Our kids in our 'Casa' are involved, so attendances at our activities are affected: most have been up all night celebrating and are too tired to go to school or come to our centre. But that is life here.
And so too are the elections, and coping with the realities of dictatorships: you just keep going. I asked one person: what will change with the election? Nothing. So, for this election, complete disinterest. And therefore no snags this Election Day.
There was much more interest in the US Election, and the outcome has significant effects here and throughout Latin America, let alone the world.


text:
Q: How to redirect to a page without using stack navigator in React Native? Is there any way to create a sample login page and a home page in React native without using stack Navigator?

A: Yes. You can create your own navigation. Even react-navigation is a library built by components. If you are building your own navigation it will take more time and effort.
There are several navigation solutions are available for react-native. You should use one of this unless it is not fitting your need.
Some of the popular navigation solutions,
ReactNavigation - Js implementation
ReactNativeNavigation - Native implementation
React Native Router - Js implementation
An advantage of using navigation solutions out there is they got 100s of contributors. The solution is made by more than one person. Unity is strength. These libraries are updated frequently by adding more features and fixing bugs.
Using one of these solutions(libs) is a wise choice up to me.
Still, you wanna build your own navigation. Please follow Build Your Own Navigation

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Your healthcare provider will take your medical history and may do a physical exam. This is to be sure you are in good health before the procedure. You may also have blood tests and other diagnostic tests.
Avoid strenuous activity for at least 4 weeks. Ask your healthcare provider when it may be safe to drive again. Check your incision site for signs of infection. These include redness, swelling, pain, and the development of a bulge.
Your healthcare provider may order CT scans at regular intervals. These will check for leaks, any breakdown of your graft, and other problems.
Ask your provider what types of foods to eat and what types of foods to avoid. The recommended diet will depend on all of your healthcare needs.


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text:
Meghan Markle "Can Play Herself" in The Crown
The Crown's Executive Producer Says Meghan Markle "Can Play Herself" on the Show
Plus, she weighs in on Camilla and Diana's debuts in the third season.
By Caroline Hallemann Published: Mar 13, 2018
The Crown is about to get more complicated. According to executive producer Andy Harries, CEO of Left Bank, the closer the storyline gets to the present day, the more involved the legal challenges faced by the production could become. "It's called libel," he said while on a panel at the INTV Conference in Jerusalem alongside Left Bank creative director Suzanne Mackie and production designer Martin Childs, according to Variety.
"As you get nearer to the present day, there are a lot more people who are alive and well," Harries said.
But that isn't stopping the popular Netflix series about Queen Elizabeth's reign from charging through the 20th century. Season three, which begins filming in July, will reportedly stretch to 1976, introducing both a young Lady Diana and a young Camilla Parker Bowles.
"Those are going to be extraordinary, those episodes," Mackie said.
She's also ready for the show to enter the true modern day. "I want to see an episode where Trump comes to Buckingham Palace," Mackie said, also teasing that Meghan Markle, the American actress set to marry Prince Harry on May 19, "can play herself."
In addition to the plot and potential casting of future seasons, the wide-ranging conversation also covered issues of equal pay, an interesting topic given that the entire show will be recast for season three. Olivia Colman is tapped to play the Queen, and while Helena Bonham Carter is rumored to be playing Princess Margaret, and Hugh Laurie is reportedly in talks to play Philip, nothing has been confirmed yet.
Matt Smith, who played Prince Philip in seasons one and two, was paid more than Claire Foy, the producers revealed, due to his previous fame from "Doctor Who," but "going forward, no one gets paid more than the Queen," Mackie said.
What the Stars of 'The Crown' Are Doing Next
Everything We Know About 'The Crown' Season 3
Caroline Hallemann
Digital Director
As the digital director for Town & Country, Caroline Hallemann covers culture, entertainment, and a range of other subjects
Netflix Favorites
The True Story Behind Gunther's Millions
Everything We Know About Bridgerton's Third Season
The Crown Will Return for a 6th Season
Who Plays Francesca Bridgerton?
Harry and Meghan Announce New Netflix Series
How to Watch The Crown
Season 5 Is Finally Here
Everything We Know About the Bridgerton Prequel
All the Hidden References in Netflix's Wednesday
See a First Look at Emily in Paris Season 3
Everything We Know About '1899'
The Crown Is Maybe Getting a Prequel


text:
Autographa Medii Aevi (CCAMA 4)
A. Derolez
The Autograph Manuscript of the Liber Floridus
A Key to the Encyclopedia of Lambert of Saint-Omer.
IV+210 p., + 42 pl., 155 x 245 mm, 1998
Languages: English, Latin
Vol. IV of the series Autographa Medii Aevi is a study of the original manuscript of the Liber Floridus (Ghent, University Library, MS 92). This encyclopedical compilation of the early twelfth century (finished 1121) was composed, written and illustrated by an obscur canon of the Chapter of our Lady in Saint-Omer (France, dépt. du Pas de Calais). It may be considered one of the earliest illustrated medieval encyclopedias and its maps, diagrams and pictures (some of them masterpieces of Romanesque art) are world-famous. Due to its apparent lack of logical structure, however, Lambert's work has often been dismissed as an unorganized compilation. Against this still prevailing opinion the present book shows that the encyclopedia is the expression of a highly personal global view of the world. It was to be a brilliant synthesis, pervaded by an emphatic sense of symbolism, allegory and eschatology. The close codicological and textual analysis of the complete work shows also why Lambert failed to achieve his object in its full splendour; how especially external circumstances have caused a gradual weakening of the original train of thought as well as of the original beauty of the manuscript. The book focuses on the fundamental links between Lambert's thoughts and the material structures he had to create to give them their place in his book. Prof. Derolez has specialized for more than thirty years into the study of the Liber Floridus. In 1968 he edited the original manuscript in a celebrated facsimile and text edition. In 1978 his doctoral thesis on Lambert's work was published. The present work is the synthesis of a life's research. For the first time the complicated genesis of the Liber Floridus is unraveled in an international language. The reader can easily follow the argument thanks to the fluent style and the numerous diagrams in the text; the latter demonstrate the making of the gatherings into their present complicated structures as ne
Corpus Christianorum Medieval Latin Series
Autographa Medii Aevi
Palaeography, Scripts & Manuscript Studies
General palaeographical studies
Autograph manuscripts
Comparative & cultural studies through literature
The Development of Literate Mentalities in East Central Europe
Adamska et al. Bessarion Scholasticus: A Study of Cardinal Bessarion's Latin Library
Monfasani Forms of Individuality and Literacy in the Medieval and Early Modern Periods
Arlinghaus Uses of the Written Word in Medieval Towns
Mostert et al. Strategies of Writing
Schulte et al. Between the Text and the Page
Anderson et al. Zwischen Pragmatik und Performanz
Dartmann et al.


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text:
\section{Introduction}
A single electron crosses the event horizon of an otherwise neutral massive black-hole sitting at the centre of a Galaxy. From this moment on, the space-time  topology changes dramatically. All of the sudden, a Cauchy Horizon develops, the time-like space-time singularity becomes space-like. From now on, it is conceivable that an in-falling system crosses the hole's  horizon, then the Cauchy horizon, thus avoiding  crushing at the singularity and finally emerges in another Universe \cite{hawkingellis}.  The effect of such a tiny charge on the space-time topology  of a massive black-hole sounds disturbing and unreasonable. In order to  shed some light on such a scenario we look at an idealized  situation, charge fluctuations  of a black-hole in equilibrium with photons and an electron-positron plasma inside a spherical cavity; the overall  charge of the system vanishes, as well as the mean charge of the black-hole.

\section{A Schwarzschild Black Hole in Thermal Equilibrium with Radiation and a Plasma}

Let  $E_\pm$ and $S_\pm$ represent the energy and entropy of the electron-positron plasma and $X=N_+-N_-$ the  excess number of positrons over electrons; $E_\gamma$ and $S_\gamma$ stand for the radiation's energy and entropy, respectively and $S_{bh}$ and $M$, the corresponding quantities for the black-hole.
The total entropy, energy  are:
\begin{eqnarray}
S_{tot}&=&S_{BH} + S_\pm +S_\gamma \nonumber \\
E_{tot}&=&M + E_\pm +E_\gamma
\label{energy}
\label{xconstraint}
\end{eqnarray}
and the charge conservation constraint
\begin{equation}
0= Q+e X
\label{charge}
\end{equation}
must be fullfliled .

With the the appropriate number of particles per mode $n(\omega)$, we can calculate the total energy and the total number of particles:
\begin{eqnarray}
E&=& \int d\Sigma^0 \int d^3p \int g(p) \omega \epsilon n(\epsilon) \nonumber\\
N&=& \int d\Sigma^0 \int d^3p \int g(p)  n(\epsilon)
\end{eqnarray}
where $g(p)$  counts the degeneracy. The black-hole entropy is given by Bekenstein's formula ~\cite{yakov} :
\begin{equation}
S_{BH} =\frac{1}{4\hbar} (4\pi r_+)^2
\end{equation}
where $r_+= M+\sqrt{M^2-Q^2}$.

The radiation and plasma energies are
\begin{eqnarray}
  E_\gamma &=& \frac{4\pi^3}{15 \hbar^3}  \beta^{-4} \int _{r_+}^R  r^2\sqrt{g_{rr}} dr \nonumber\\
  E_\pm &=&  \frac{4}{\pi \hbar^3}  \int _{r_+}^R r^2\sqrt{g_{rr}} dr \int\left[ \epsilon \left (n_++n_-\right)\right. \nonumber\\
&+&\left. \frac{e Q}{r} (n_+-n_-) \right]p^2 dp
 \label{E+-}
\end{eqnarray}
where $n_\pm$ represent the electron-positron populations:
 \begin{equation}
 n_\pm=\frac{1}{e^{\beta(\epsilon \pm \nu)}+1}
 \end{equation}
with
  \begin{equation}
  \nu =eQ \mu + \frac{eQ}{r}
  \label{nu}
  \end{equation}
Here $\mu$ stands for the chemical potential in units of $eQ$, $eQ/r$ for  the electrostatic potential energy and $\epsilon=\sqrt{p^2+m^2}$. As either $e\rightarrow 0$ or   $Q\rightarrow 0$ the difference $n_+-n_- \rightarrow 0$, as it should;  $R$ is the coordinate radius of a spherical confining vessel containing the hole, the radiation and plasma.

The entropy of the radiation is easily calculated from ~eq.(\ref{E+-}) via the first law of thermodynamics, but we prefer to calculate the
 plasma entropy  explicitly because the charge conservation constraint must be considered. Accordingly:
\begin{eqnarray}
  S_\gamma &=& \frac{16\pi^3}{45 \hbar^3}  \beta^{-3} \int _{r_+}^R  r^2\sqrt{g_{rr}} dr \nonumber\\
  S_\pm &=& \frac{4\beta}{\pi \hbar^3}  \int _{r_+}^R r^2\sqrt{g_{rr}} dr \int
\left[ \left( \epsilon  +\frac{p}{3}\frac{d\epsilon}{dp}\right)    \left (n_++n_-\right) \right.\nonumber\\
&+&\left. \nu  (n_+-n_-)\right]p^2 dp
\label{S+-}
\end{eqnarray}
 The term $\frac{p}{3} \frac{d\epsilon}{dp}$ results from the integration by parts of the logarithmic contribution to the entropy. The unbalance on the number of charge carriers is
  \begin{equation}
  X=N_+ -N_-= \frac{4}{\pi \hbar^3} \int _{r_+}^R  r^2\sqrt{g_{rr}} dr \int  \left (n_+- n_-\right) p^2 dp
  \label{X}
 \end{equation}
 The chemical potential  turns out to be of the same order as $Q$ itself; accordingly $\mu  \sim \mathcal{O}(Q^0)$ and $\nu \sim \mathcal{O}(Q)$. Expanding the population number up to the second order in $Q$ gives
\begin{eqnarray}
n_\pm &=&\frac{1}{e^{\beta \epsilon}+1} \mp \frac{\beta \nu}{4}\frac{1}{ \cosh^2(\beta \epsilon/2)}+ \frac{(\beta \nu)^2}{8}\frac{\sinh(\beta \epsilon/2)}{\cosh^3(\beta \epsilon/2)}  +\dots \nonumber\\
& &
\end{eqnarray}
Having in mind this expansion and the definition of $\nu$ [eq.(\ref{nu})], we can write for the plasma total energy [eq.(\ref{E+-})]:
\begin{widetext}
\begin{eqnarray}
E_\pm&=& \frac{7\pi^3}{15\hbar^3}
A\left(m \beta\right) \beta^{-4} \int_{r_+}^{R}  r^2 \sqrt{g_{rr}} dr \nonumber  \\
 & +&\frac{2\pi}{\hbar^3} e^2 Q^2 \beta^{-2}
\left[ B\left(\frac{m\beta}{2}\right) \mu^2 \int_{r_+}^{R}  r^2 \sqrt{g_{rr}} dr+2\mu
 \left( B\left(\frac{m\beta}{2}\right) -   \frac{1}{3}  C\left(m \beta\right)
  \right) \int_{r_+}^{R}  r \sqrt{g_{rr}} dr   \right. \nonumber\\
& +&\left. \left(B\left(\frac{m\beta}{2}\right)-\frac{2}{3} C\left(m \beta\right)\right) \int_{r_+}^{R}  \sqrt{g_{rr}} dr \right]
\end{eqnarray}
\end{widetext}
 and for the entropy [eq.(\ref{S+-})],
 \begin{widetext}
\begin{eqnarray}
S_\pm&=& \frac{2 \pi}{3\hbar^3}\beta^{-3}\left[\frac{14 \pi^2}{15} D(m\beta) +(m\beta)^2 E(m\beta)\right]\int_{r_+}^{R}  r^2 \sqrt{g_{rr}} dr \nonumber \\
&+&\frac{2\pi}{3\hbar^3}e^2 Q^2 \beta^{-1} \left[ 4 F\left(\frac{m\beta}{2}\right)+\frac{3}{\pi^2}(m\beta)^2 G\left(\frac{m\beta}{2}\right)-2 C(m\beta)\right] \int_{r_+}^{R}  (\mu r +1)^2 \sqrt{g_{rr}} dr ;
\end{eqnarray}

last, for the charge unbalance
\begin{equation}
X=-\frac{4 \pi e Q}{3\hbar^3}\beta^{-2} C\left(\frac{m \beta}{2}\right) \int_{r_+}^{2M}  \sqrt{g_{rr}}dr (\mu r^2 +r)
\label{XX}
\end{equation}
\end{widetext}
Where we defined the functions:
\begin{eqnarray}
A(x)&=&\frac{120}{7 \pi^4} \int_0^\infty \frac{1}{e^\chi+1}\chi q^2 dq \\
B(x)&=&\frac{8}{\pi^2} \int_0^\infty \frac{ \sinh \chi }{\cosh^3 \chi}\chi q^2 dq \\
C(x)&=&\frac{12}{\pi^2} \int_0^\infty \frac{1}{\cosh^2 \chi} q^2  dq \\
D(x)&=&\frac{120}{7\pi^4} \int_0^\infty \frac{1}{e^\chi+1}\frac{q^4 dq}{\chi }
\end{eqnarray}
\begin{eqnarray}
E(x)&=&\frac{12}{\pi^2} \int_0^\infty \frac{1 }{e^\chi+1}\frac{q^2 dq}{\chi} \\
F(x)&=&\frac{8}{\pi^2} \int_0^\infty \frac{  \sinh \chi}{ \cosh^3 \chi}\frac{ q^4 dq}{\chi} \\
G(x)&=&2 \int_0^\infty \frac{\sinh(\chi)}{\cosh^3 \chi }\frac{q^2  dq}{\chi}
\end{eqnarray}
with
\begin{equation}
\chi=\sqrt{q^2 +x^2}
\end{equation}
The numerical factors in these definitions were chosen such that in the ultra-relativistic limit  $x=m \beta\rightarrow 0$ all these functions $ \rightarrow 1$. One should bear in mind that up to the second order in $Q$
\begin{equation}
\int_{r_+}^R \sqrt{g_{rr}}r^2 dr= I_2 +\left(\frac{Q}{2M}\right)^2 \left[ \frac{R^3}{\sqrt{1-2M/R}}- 3 I_2+M I_1\right]
\end{equation}
where we defined
\begin{equation}
I_n = \int_{2M}^R \frac{r^n}{\sqrt{1-\frac{2M}{r}}}dr
\label{sti}
\end{equation}
In this paper we  consider only  the ultra-relativistic approximation, as it keeps the essentials of the problem and is amenable  analytically. Then, to the relevant order in $Q$ we find the total energy by adding the radiation, the plasma and the black hole energies
\begin{widetext}
\begin{eqnarray}
E_{total}&=&M+ \frac{11 \pi^3}{15\hbar^3} \beta^{-4} \left[I_2 +\left(\frac{Q}{2M}\right)^2 \left(\frac{R^3}{\sqrt{1-2M/R}}-3I_2+MI_1\right)\right] \nonumber\\
&+&\frac{2\pi}{\hbar^3}e^2 Q^2 \beta^{-2}\left[ \mu^2 I_2 +\frac{4\mu}{3} I_1+\frac{1}{3}I_0\right]
\end{eqnarray}
\end{widetext}
Similarly, adding the  black hole, radiation and plasma entropies
\begin{widetext}
\begin{eqnarray}
S_{total}&=& \frac{\pi}{\hbar} \left(M+\sqrt{M^2-Q^2}\right)^2+ \frac{44 \pi^3}{45\hbar^3} \beta^{-3} \left[I_2 +\left(\frac{Q}{2M}\right)^2 \left(\frac{R^3}{\sqrt{1-2M/R}}-3I_2+MI_1\right)\right] \nonumber\\
&+&\frac{4\pi}{3\hbar^3}e^2 Q^2 \beta^{-1}\left[ \mu^2 I_2 +2 \mu I_1+I_0\right]
\end{eqnarray}
\end{widetext}
Our last ingredient is the constraint [eq.(\ref{charge})] which can be immediately solved with the help of  eq.(\ref{XX}):
\begin{equation}
\mu=\frac{3\hbar^3}{4\pi e^2 I_2}\beta^2 -\frac{I_1}{I_2}
\label{mu}
\end{equation}
\subsection*{Conditions of Thermal Equilibrium, Charge Fluctuations and Stability }
We are interested on equilibrium configurations of a Schwarzschild  configuration ($Q=0$) with the thermal bath of radiation and  plasma. They follow  are from the first and second derivatives of the total entropy with respect to $M$ and $Q$, in the limit $Q \rightarrow 0 $. In this limit,  the first and the second derivatives of the total entropy with respect to the mass are identical to those of an uncharged black hole, meaning that the BH temperature is identical to that of the Schwarzschild black hole and the stability condition (positive specific heat) yields identical results of those  obtained by by Pavon and others many years ago ~\cite{pavon1}-~\cite{pavon2}. As a side remark,  $\beta (Q) $ obtained from the first derivative of $M$ ( before letting $Q\rightarrow 0$ ) depends upon  $Q$ only quadratically and  $\left.\frac{\partial \beta}{\partial Q}\right|_0=0 $ but   $\left.\frac{\partial^2 \beta}{\partial Q^2}\right|_0 \neq0$. Also the total entropy depends only quadratically upon $Q$; consequently its first derivative with respect to the charge vanishes   as $Q \rightarrow 0 $, the Schwarzschild solution is an equilibrium configuration. The second derivatives of the entropy with respect to $Q$ will provide us information about the charge fluctuations and stability of the equilibrium. From the energy conservation constraint [eq.(\ref{energy})] we calculate $ \left(\frac{\partial^2 E_{tot}}{\partial Q^2}\right)_{Q=0}=0$, obtaining :
\begin{widetext}
\begin{equation}
I_2 \left(\frac{\partial^2 \beta}{\partial Q^2}\right)_{Q=0} =\frac{\beta}{8M^2} \left( \frac{R^3}{\sqrt{1-2M/r}}-3I_2 +M I_1\right) +\frac{15 e^2 \beta^3}{11 \pi^2} \left(\mu^2 I_2 +\frac{4 \mu}{3} I_1 +\frac{1}{3} I_0 \right)
\end{equation}
\end{widetext}
Next, we calculate the second derivative of the entropy,  substitute  the previous result for the second derivative of $\beta$ and take into account the charge conservation condition [eq.(\ref{mu})]. Recalling  the Bekenstein-Hawking temperature $\hbar \beta=8\pi M$, we get
\begin{widetext}
\begin{eqnarray}
\left. \frac{\partial^2 S_{total}}{\partial Q^2}\right|_0=-\frac{4\pi}{\hbar}-
\frac{11}{960 M^2 } \left(3i_2-\frac{\rho^3}{\sqrt{1-\rho^{-1}}} - \frac{1}{2} i_1\right)
 -\frac{3\pi^2}{16 e^2 i_2}+\frac{8\pi }{\hbar}\frac{i_1}{i_2}+
 \frac{e^2 }{3\hbar}\left(i_0-\frac{i_1^2}{i_2}\right) \nonumber\\
 \label{final}
\end{eqnarray}
\end{widetext}
In the above expression we defined
 \begin{equation}
 i_n(\rho)=\int_1^\rho \frac{x^n}{\sqrt{1-x^{-1}}} dx
 \end{equation}
 with $\rho =R/2M$ .
 In the limit $R>>M$, the inverse of the third term in eq. (\ref{final})  can be expressed in the form
 \begin{equation}
( \Delta Q^2)_{stat}=\frac{4\pi e^2 R^3 T_{bh}^3}{9 \hbar^3}
 \end{equation}
 and corresponds to  thermal fluctuations on the number of charge carriers. The  inverse of the first term corresponds to fluctuations
 \begin{equation}
 (\Delta Q^2)_{qg}=\frac{\hbar}{4\pi}  .
 \end{equation}
 which do not depend upon the temperature of the plasma, so it is not a thermal fluctuation. It neither depends on the size of the vessel;   tracking   back its origin, it comes from  the second derivative of the black hole entropy  itself so it does not depend  on any of the plasma properties.
\section{Open Questions}
 The parenthesis in second term appearing in  eq.(\ref{final}) is positive defined and as $\rho>>1$ it tends to $\rho/2$, the larger the vessel the more stable is the system. Together with the fourth term, it does not depend upon the charge of the charge carriers and this  is quite weird. The last term is positive defined and grows linearly with $\rho$: it  might represent a threat to the stability of the system. We should   bear in mind that we considered the  ideal situation where the wall of the vessel is a perfect mirror.  Charge fluctuations that arise from interactions of the plasma with atoms of the wall must also be  considered and the question is whether these  fluctuations at the wall of confining cavity do stabilize the system. We suggest that $(\Delta Q^2)_{qg}$ is an intrinsic uncertainty of the hole's charge, it has nothing to do with the charged particles of the plasma being absorbed and emitted by the hole; it is a genuine  quantum mechanical uncertainty of the hole's charge.  Surprisingly,  $\sqrt{\Delta Q^2)_{qg}}$ is very close to the electron charge. Does it hint to a bridge between gravity, quantum theory and particle physics ? Should $ (\Delta Q^2)_{qg}$  indeed turn out to be  a pure quantum mechanical uncertainty  of the hole's as we conjectured,   the black hole is never strictly uncharged an there is a quantum mechanical throat at the Cauchy Horizon  where information can leak to another Universe. Then, it is quite legitimate to ask whether this could solve the the information paradox and the conversion of pure states into mixed ones. Furthermore,  how  does it come that some of the terms in the expression for the fluctuations do not depend upon the charge of the charge carriers ?

\begin{acknowledgments}
 I am thankful to Prof. J. D. Bekenstein for  enlightening comments.
 \end{acknowledgments}

\begin{quotation}
\flushleft
\bibitem{hawkingellis}  {Hawking, S. W.; Ellis, G. F. R:  The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time. New York: Cambridge University Press  (1973).}
\bibitem{yakov}  {Bekenstein, Jacob D.. "Black holes and entropy". Physical Review D 7 (8): 2333, 2346. (1973).}
\bibitem{pavon1}{General Relativity and Gravitation ,D. Pavon, W. Israel , Vol. 16, Issue 6, pp 563-568 (1984).}
\bibitem{parentani}{R Parentani, J Katz, I Okamoto,  "Thermodynamics of a black hole in a cavity Classical and Quantum Gravity" - iopscience.iop.org (1995).}
\bibitem{pavon2}{D Pavon, J.M. Rubi,  " On some properties of the entropy of a system containing a black hole, General relativity and gravitation,  - Springer (1985).}
 \bibitem{hawking} {Hawking, S. W. (2005). "Information Loss in Black Holes ". arxiv.org/pdf/hepth/0507171.}
\end{quotation}\noindent

\end{document}

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Posts Tagged civil war
"Veterans of the Late Unpleasantness": A Brief History of the Grand Army of the Republic
July 19, 2021 Archive Insight
Artwork Used in a Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.) Hall in Bath, Maine, circa 1866 / THF119558
Following the end of the Civil War, numerous fraternal veterans' societies were formed. These societies enabled veterans to socialize with individuals who had similar experiences and also allowed them to work towards similar goals.
Dr. Benjamin Franklin Stephenson formed the Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.) for all honorably discharged Union veterans on April 6, 1866, in Decatur, Illinois, and it quickly grew to encompass ten states and the District of Columbia. The G.A.R.'s growth was astronomical, peaking in the 1890s with nearly 400,000 members spread out through almost 9,000 posts in all 50 states, as well as a few in Canada, one in Mexico, and one in Peru. These posts were organized into departments, which were typically divided by state, but could include multiple states depending on the population of Union veterans in the area.
Woman's Relief Corps (W.R.C.) Conductor Badge, 1883-1920 / THF254030
Daughters of Union Veterans of the Civil War Membership Badge, circa 1900 / THF254033
The tenets of the G.A.R. were "Fraternity, Charity, and Loyalty," and are depicted in the seal of the G.A.R. The fraternity aspect was met by fraternal gatherings such as meetings, as well as annual reunions known as encampments at the departmental and national level. Charity was demonstrated through fundraising for veterans' issues, including welfare, medical assistance, and loans until work could be found, as well as opening soldiers' and sailors' homes and orphanages. Loyalty was demonstrated in several ways, including erecting monuments, preserving Civil War sites and relics, donating cannons and other relics to be displayed in parks and courthouses, and donating battle flags to museums. The G.A.R. was assisted in all of their work by their auxiliary organizations, known as the Allied Orders of the G.A.R.: the Women's Relief Corps, Ladies of the Grand Army of the Republic, Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW), the Auxiliary to the SUVCW, and the Daughters of Union Veterans of the Civil War—all of which are still active today.
Additionally, the G.A.R. was instrumental in having the tradition of memorializing the dead and decorating their graves recognized as the federal holiday Memorial Day, formerly known as Decoration Day. From its origins in smaller, localized observances throughout the country, it gained national recognition after Commander-in-Chief General John A. Logan issued a proclamation on May 30, 1868. Programs like the one above detail the order of events of these celebrations, and some even detail how to appropriately contribute.
Members of the Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.) Visiting Mount Vernon, September 21, 1892 / THF254036
The annual and national encampments were not just big events for the G.A.R. and the Allied Orders of the G.A.R, but also for the railroads and cities in which the encampments were held. Railroad companies, such as the Maine Central Railroad Company, advertised the encampments and offered round-trip tickets to attendees. A typical schedule of events for encampments included speeches, business meetings where delegates voted on resolutions and other organizational business, receptions for the G.A.R. and the Allied Orders, parades reminiscent of the Grand Review of the Armies following the end of the Civil War, campfire activities, concerts, outings to nature or historic points of interest, and reunions of other groups, including regimental and other veteran organizations. Attendees to the 1892 Washington, D.C., National Encampment were able to visit Mount Vernon.
Members would show up in their uniforms, which often included hats with G.A.R. insignia, as well as their G.A.R. membership badge, an example of which can be seen above. Membership badges denoted the wearer's rank at the time they mustered out and would also show what rank within the G.A.R. they held; Commander-in-Chief badges would be substantially more ornate.
In addition to their membership badges, attendees would also represent their home state, posts, or departments with ribbons or badges stating where they were from. An example is the Forsyth Post badge used at the 1908 Toledo, Ohio National Encampment. These ribbon badges are all unique to the host city—for instance, Detroit's national encampments' badges featured an image of Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac sailing to Detroit, signifying the city's founding in 1701; national encampments held in California typically featured a grizzly bear, like their state flag; Denver's 1905 National Encampment featured a cowboy on a bucking bronco; and Holland, Michigan's 1904 and 1910 Annual Encampments featured wooden shoes and windmills.
Badges help tell the story of the G.A.R., and make these events more relatable to modern audiences—who hasn't bought a souvenir on vacation or at an event? Beginning in 1882, The G.A.R. produced official souvenir badges for purchase in addition to the membership badges. Some of these souvenirs were made from captured Confederate cannons authorized for destruction by acts of Congress. In the case of the G.A.R., badges were so important that in the 50th Congress, 1st Session, a bill (Report No. 784) was passed to "prevent the unlawful wearing of the badge or insignia of the Grand Army of the Republic or other soldier organizations."
Watching the highly decorated G.A.R. members march in the parade was a sight that drew many thousands of spectators wherever the encampments were held. The members would have likely marched in their G.A.R. uniforms, which included a double-breasted, dark blue coat with G.A.R. buttons and a hat (either kepi or slouch felt) with G.A.R. insignia. Other uniform pieces, such as leather gauntlets with G.A.R. insignia, are known to exist, but they do not appear to be commonplace. As they had done in the Grand Review of the Armies, they would march with their flags. In 2013, one such flag was conserved by The Henry Ford, as documented in this blog post: "Conserving a G.A.R. Parade Flag."
Grand Army of the Republic Parade at Campus Martius, Detroit, Michigan, 1881 / THF623825
As the G.A.R. members aged, the number capable of walking an entire parade route dwindled, but luckily for them, the rise of the automobile ensured that they could still participate. For veterans who did not take their personal automobiles to the encampments, calls were sent out to round up enough vehicles to provide each veteran with a car for the parade. In the case of the 1920 Indianapolis National Encampment, John B. Orman, Automobile Committee Chairman, sought to get enough automobiles for all of the veterans requiring them and said "The 'boys' of '61 are no longer boys. Today the distance from the monument erected to their memory to Sixteenth Street is longer than the red road from Sumter to Appomattox." Local dealerships loaned their cars for the parade, much like today's parade sponsors sending cars or attaching their names to floats in parades.
At the 83rd and final G.A.R. National Encampment, held in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1949, six of the last sixteen G.A.R. members not only made the trip to Indianapolis but were able to "march" in the final parade—thanks to the automobile.
Joseph Clovese, one of the six to have participated in the final parade, can be seen with fellow G.A.R. members adorned with their G.A.R. badges on his Find a Grave page. Clovese was born into slavery on a plantation at St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, in 1844. He joined the Union Army during the siege of Vicksburg as a drummer boy, and then later became an infantryman in the 2nd Missouri Colored Infantry Regiment (later the 65th U.S. Colored Troops Regiment). Following the war, Clovese worked on riverboats on the Mississippi River and assisted with the construction of the first telegraph line between New Orleans, Louisiana, and Biloxi, Mississippi.
Clovese received a citation and medal at the "Blue and Gray" reunion, the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg in 1938. At age 104, he moved to Pontiac, Michigan, with his niece, and, according to his obituary in the New York Times, he would take daily walks and was hardly ever ill. He died July 13, 1951, in the Dearborn Veterans Hospital at the age of 107. More information about his long and fascinating life, as well as additional photos of him wearing his G.A.R. badges, can be seen in his Fold3 Gallery.
The G.A.R. officially dissolved in 1956 with the death of the last member, Albert Woolson, but the spirit of the organization lives on through the Allied Orders of the G.A.R.
For additional looks at the G.A.R., check out the other G.A.R. artifacts in our Digital Collections and read a past blog post, "Fraternity, Charity, Loyalty: Remembering the Grand Army of the Republic."
Laura Myles is Collections Specialist at The Henry Ford.
philanthropy, holidays, Civil War, African American history, veterans, Grand Army of the Republic, by Laura Myles
"A Signal Success": The Barrier-Breaking Story of Martha Coston
March 26, 2021 Archive Insight
Image of Martha Coston from her 1886 autobiography. (Not from the collections of The Henry Ford.)
Inventor Martha Coston overcame 19th-century gender stereotypes to help change the course of the Civil War, as well as boating safety. In 1848, tragedy struck when Martha's husband, a successful inventor formerly employed in the Washington Navy Yard, died as a result of chemical exposure from his gas lighting experiments. His death was followed by the deaths of two of their children and a mother Martha was close to, and a relative mishandling Martha's remaining money. Martha was left a single mother with minimal support.
Sylvic Gas Light, B. Franklin Coston, Patentee, Washington City, D.C. N.B., Gas Light Generator, 1845. / THF287321
Martha needed a way to support herself and her two remaining children. Within her husband's papers, she discovered drawings for a pyrotechnic night signal that could be used by ships to communicate. After finding that the invention didn't work, she took on years of experiments in hopes of creating a functional signal flare. With no knowledge of chemistry or scientific methodology, Martha relied on others for help. Men often ignored her, didn't take her seriously, or deceived her.
Section of the First Transatlantic Cable, 1858. / THF77301
The signal set used three colors to create coded messages. As a patriotic woman, Martha wanted flares that burned red, white, and blue. While she had developed recipes for red and white, blue remained elusive. A breakthrough came in 1858, when Martha was in New York City watching fireworks during celebrations for the first transatlantic cable.
Illustration from an 1858 Harper's Weekly depicting the New York translatlantic cable firework celebration. / THF265993
Inspired by the fireworks, Martha wrote New York pyrotechnists looking for a strong blue, corresponding under a man's name for fear that she would be ignored. Instead of a blue, Martha was able to locate a recipe for a brilliant green. In 1859, Patent No. 23,536, a pyrotechnic night signal and code system, was granted, with Martha Coston as administrator—and her late husband as the inventor.
U.S. Army Model 1862 Percussion Signal Pistol, circa 1862. / THF170773
The U.S. Navy showed high interest in Martha's invention, but stalled the purchase of the patent until 1861, after the Civil War erupted. With a blockade of Southern ports in place, the Navy needed Martha's flares to communicate. Her business, the Coston Manufacturing Company, produced the flares and sold them at cost for the duration of the war. New York gun manufacturer William Marston produced the signal pistol above to exclusively fire Coston's multicolored signal flare.
A carte-de-visite depicting the "Official Escorts for the Japanese Ambassador's Visit to the United States," circa 1860. Admiral David Dixon Porter is pictured right. / THF211796
In her 1886 autobiography, A Signal Success: The Work and Travels of Mrs. Martha J. Coston, Martha acknowledged the use of her flares in the success of the blockade. Confederate ships known as blockade-runners regularly sailed at night, and Coston's flares helped Union ships pursue these runners effectively, often resulting in prize money for the ship's officers. Admiral David Porter, pictured on the right above, wrote Martha about the impact her flares had on military operations, saying:
"The signals by night are very much more useful than the signals by day made with flags, for at night the signals can be so plainly read that mistakes are impossible, and a commander-in-chief can keep up a conversation with one of his vessels."
In January 1865, Wilmington, North Carolina, remained the last open port of the Confederacy. To cut the port off, Admiral David Porter and Major General Alfred Terry coordinated a joint assault of sea and land forces. The ensuing conflict, known as the Battle of Fort Fisher, resulted in a Union victory.
Illustration from an 1865 Harper's Weekly depicting the fall of Fort Fisher. / THF287568
According to Admiral Porter, Martha Coston's flares played a critical role. He later reminisced, "I shall never forget the beautiful sight presented at ten o'clock at night when Fort Fisher fell.... The order was given to send up rockets without stint and to burn the Coston Signals at all the yard-arms."
After the war, Martha Coston continued to improve upon her invention, filing several more patents—this time in her own name. When the United States Life-Saving Service, precursor to the United States Coast Guard, began using the Coston flare, Martha's invention became standard safety equipment for all boating vessels. Worldwide adoption of her invention led to the success of Martha's business, Coston Supply Company, which focused on maritime safety and stayed in business until the late 20th century.
Illustration from an 1881 Harper's Weekly depicting the United States Life-Saving Service using the Coston flare. / THF287571
Ryan Jelso is Associate Curator, Digital Content, at The Henry Ford.
#THFCuratorChat, women's history, inventors, Civil War, by Ryan Jelso
"The Better Angels of Our Nature": President Lincoln's First Inaugural Address
February 25, 2021 Archive Insight
Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States / THF118582
March 4, 1861: Inauguration Day. Abraham Lincoln, the President-elect, takes the oath of office to become the 16th President of the United States. It was an uncertain time. The country was torn over the issue of slavery. For years, a tenuous arrangement had been maintained between free and slaveholding states, but now many Americans—on both sides—seemed unwilling to compromise. The Democratic Party had fractured over the issue. Two Democrats and a former Whig, each with differing views, vied to become president in 1860. This left the Republican Party, which wanted to limit slavery, with an opportunity for an electoral victory.
Lincoln, the Republican Party candidate, was elected by a minority of eligible voters, winning mainly Northern and Western states—enough for an electoral majority—but receiving little or no support from the slaveholding South. Since Lincoln's election in November 1860, seven Southern states had seceded from the Union, and many Americans feared the other eight slave states would follow. Americans anxiously waited to hear from their new president.
Campaign Button, 1860 / THF101182
In his inaugural address, Lincoln tried to allay the fears and apprehensions of those who perceived him as a radical and those who sought to break the bonds of the Union. More immediately, his address responded to the crisis at hand. Lincoln, a practiced circuit lawyer, laid out his case to dismantle the theory of secession. He believed that the Constitution provided clear options to change government through scheduled elections and amendments. Lincoln considered the more violent option of revolution as a right held by the people, but only if other means of change did not exist. Secession, Lincoln argued, was not a possibility granted by the founders of the nation or the Constitution. Logically, it would only lead to ever-smaller seceding groups. And governing sovereignty devolved from the Union—not the states, as secessionists argued. Finally, if the Constitution was a compact between sovereign states, then all parties would have to agree to unmake it. Clearly, President Lincoln did not.
Lincoln did not want conflict. His administration had yet to govern, and even so, he believed that as president he would have "little power for mischief," as he would be constrained by the checks and balances framed in the Constitution. Lincoln implored all his countrymen to stop and think before taking rash steps. But if conflict came, he would be bound by his presidential oath to "preserve, protect, and defend" the government.
Lincoln concluded his case with the most famous passages in the speech—a call to remember the bonds that unify the country, and his vision of hope:
"I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained it must not break our bonds of affection. The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature."
Lincoln's appeal, however, avoided the cause of the onrushing war—slavery. Failing to take this divisive issue head-on only added to its polarizing effect. Many Americans in the North found Lincoln's speech too conciliatory. Southerners thought it threatened war. And the nation had little time to stop and think. Immediately after his inauguration, Lincoln had to decide whether to resupply Fort Sumter, the U.S. military post in Charleston harbor, the heart of secession. In April, the "bonds of affection" broke.
Lincoln had hoped that time and thoughtful deliberation would resolve this issue—and in a way it did. The tragedies of war empowered Lincoln to reconsider his views. His views on slavery and freedom evolved. No longer bound, Lincoln moved toward emancipation, toward freeing enslaved Americans, and toward his "better angels."
Engraving, "The First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation Before the Cabinet" / THF6763
To read Lincoln's First Inaugural Address, click here.
Andy Stupperich is Associate Curator, Digital Content, at The Henry Ford.
Civil War, presidents, Abraham Lincoln, by Andy Stupperich
The Incredible Life of Frederick Douglass
The story of Frederick Douglass's life is, at turns, tragic and awe-inspiring. He is a testament to the strength and ingenuity of the human spirit. The Henry Ford is fortunate to have some materials related to Douglass, as well as to the many areas of American history and culture he touched. What follows is an exploration of Frederick Douglass's story through the lens of The Henry Ford's collection, using our artifacts as touchpoints in Douglass's life.
This portrait of Douglass was taken circa 1860, around the time Abraham Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States. / THF210623
Early Life & Escape
Born into slavery in Talbot County, Maryland, Frederick Douglass was named Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey by his enslaved mother, Harriet Bailey. Tragically, Douglass only saw his mother a few times before her early death, when Douglass was just seven years old. Though he had few memories of his mother, he recalled her fondly and was proud to learn that she also knew how to read. He wrote that he was "quite willing, and even happy, to attribute any love of letters I possess" to his mother. Few enslaved people could read at that time—Douglass's pride in his mother was certainly justified.
In 1826, Douglass was sent to Baltimore, Maryland, to live with the family of Hugh and Sophia Auld—extended family of his master, Aaron Anthony. This move to Baltimore would be transformative for Douglass. It not only exposed Douglass to the wider world, but was also where Douglass learned to read.
Douglass was initially taught to read by Sophia Auld, who considered him a bright pupil. However, the lessons were put to a stop by Hugh Auld. It was not only illegal to teach an enslaved person to read, but Hugh also believed literacy would "ruin" Douglass as a slave. In a sense, Douglass agreed, as he came to understand the vast power of literacy. Douglass would later remark that "education and slavery are incompatible with each other."
Douglass was determined to read. He "converted to teachers" some of the friendlier white children in the neighborhood. They showed him a school reader entitled The Columbian Orator, by Caleb Bingham, that he came to rely upon. In 1830, he purchased his own copy for 50 cents. The book—a collection of exceptional oration, poems, dialogue, and tips on the "art of eloquence"—became a great inspiration to Douglass. He carried it with him for many years to come.
"The Columbian Orator" features a discussion between an enslaved person and their master which impressed Douglass. The enslaved person's dialogue—referred to as "smart" by Douglass—resulted in the man's unexpected emancipation. / THF621972, THF621973
As recollected in his first memoir, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, published in 1845, Douglass's teenage years were some of his most challenging. He became viewed as a "troublemaker." He was hired out to different farmers in the area, including one who had the reputation as an "effective slave breaker" and was especially cruel. Knowing that a larger world awaited and facing a terrible quality of life, Douglass attempted an escape in 1836. The escape failed and he was put in jail. Douglass was surprised to be released. He was sent not to the deep South as he had feared, but instead, back to Baltimore and the family of Hugh Auld, to learn the trade of caulking at the shipyards. While working there, Douglass was subjected to the animosities of his white coworkers, who beat him mercilessly—and were never arrested for it because a white witness would not testify and the word of a Black man was not admissible. He continuously dreamt of escape.
In this first memoir, Douglass provides great detail into his early life. However, because he was still a fugitive at the time of publication, he omitted details related to his escape. / THF8133
Recalling the ships on Chesapeake Bay, Douglass wrote:
"Those beautiful vessels, robed in purest white, so delightful to the eye of the freemen, were to me so many shrouded ghosts, to terrify and torment me with thoughts of my wretched condition. You are loosed from your moorings and are free; I am fast in my chains and am a slave! You move merrily before the gentle gale, and I sadly before the bloody whip!"
The ships' freedom taunted him.
On September 3rd, 1838, Douglass courageously escaped slavery. Dressed as a sailor and using borrowed documents, he boarded a train, then a ferry, and yet another train to reach New York City—and freedom. His betrothed, a free Black woman named Anna Murray, followed, and soon after they were married. Frederick and Anna Murray Douglass moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts, with hopes that Frederick could find work as a caulker in the whaling port. Instead, he took on a variety of jobs—but, finally, the money he earned was fully his.
The American Anti-Slavery Society & the Abolitionists
While living in New Bedford, Douglass encountered William Lloyd Garrison's abolitionist newspaper, The Liberator, for the first time. Douglass later wrote that the paper "took its place with me next to the Bible." The Liberator introduced to Douglass the official abolitionist movement.
In August of 1841, Douglass attended an abolitionist convention. In an impromptu speech, he regaled the audience with stories of his enslaved past. William Lloyd Garrison and other leading abolitionists noticed—Douglass's career as an abolitionist orator had begun. Douglass became a frequent speaker at meetings of the American Anti-Slavery Society. His personal story of life enslaved humanized the abolitionist movement for many Northerners—and eventually, the world.
In 1845, he published his first memoir, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. By 1847, it had already sold more than 11,000 copies! This would be followed by two more memoirs: My Bondage and Freedom in 1855 and Life and Times of Frederick Douglass in 1881.
This copy of William Lloyd Garrison's The Liberator was published on August 16, 1839—around the time when Douglass first encountered the paper. / THF621979
Women's Suffrage
Douglass was also supportive of the women's suffrage movement. He spoke at the famous Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 in support of women's rights. In fact, the motto of his newspaper, The North Star, was "Right is of no sex—Truth is of no color—God is the Father of us all, and we are brethren."
While Douglass forcefully supported women's suffrage, some of his actions put him at odds with others in the movement. He supported the adoption of the 14th amendment, ratified in 1868, which guaranteed equality to all citizens—which included Black and white males, including the formerly enslaved. It did not include women. He also supported adoption of the 15th amendment, ratified in 1870, which secured Black males the right to vote. Again, the amendment excluded women. Although a dedicated women's rights activist, Douglass supported the adoption of the 14th and 15th amendments as he believed the matter to be "life or death" for Black people. This put him in disagreement with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, two of the leaders of the women's suffrage movement, as well as his friends. Despite this disagreement about timing, Douglass would continue to lecture in support of women's equality and suffrage until his death.
John Brown's Raid
Douglass was well-acquainted with famous abolitionist leader John Brown, first meeting him in 1847 or 1848. Brown became known for leading a raid on the armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in 1859, intending to create an "army of emancipation" to liberate enslaved people. Douglass and Brown spoke shortly before John Brown's raid. Brown had hoped that Douglass would join him, but Douglass declined. He believed that Brown was "going into a perfect steel trap, and that once in he would not get out alive."
Douglass was right. Brown was captured during the raid and was subsequently tried, convicted, and executed. Brown became seen as an anti-slavery martyr, as the below print shows. Henry David Thoreau remarked about him, "No man in America has ever stood up so persistently and effectively for the dignity of human nature…"
A letter from Douglass was found among John Brown's belongings, leading to warrants for Douglass's arrest as a conspirator. He was lecturing in Philadelphia at the time of the discovery. John Hurn, Philadelphia's telegraph operator, was sympathetic to the abolitionist cause. He received a dispatch for the sheriff calling for Douglass's arrest and both sent a warning to Douglass and delayed relaying the dispatch to the sheriff. Douglass fled and made it to Canada, narrowly escaping arrest. He then went abroad on a lecture tour, resisting apprehension in the States.
The text on this Currier & Ives print reads "John Brown—The Martyr: Meeting a Slave Mother and her Child on the steps of Charlestown Jail on his way to Execution. Regarding them with a look of compassion Captain Brown stooped and kissed the Child then met his fate." This did not actually occur, but became popular lore, as well as the subject of artwork and literature. / THF8053
The Civil War & Abraham Lincoln
In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the United States. At the time, Douglass was not optimistic about the cause of abolition under Lincoln's presidency. As tensions between the North and South grew and Civil War loomed, Douglass welcomed the impending war. As biographer David Blight states, "Douglas wanted the clarity of polarized conflict."
Douglass got involved in the war effort through the recruitment of Black soldiers. Two of his sons, Charles and Lewis, joined the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, the second Black regiment in the Union Army. Douglass first met President Abraham Lincoln in August 1863, when he visited the White House to discuss grievances against Black troops. Even without an appointment and a room full of people waiting, Douglass was admitted to see Lincoln after just a few minutes.
Two of Frederick Douglass's sons, Lewis and Charles, fought with the 54th Massachusetts Colored Regiment. Lewis Douglass was appointed Sergeant Major, the highest rank that a Black person could then hold. / THF73704
Douglass would go on to advise Lincoln over the following years. After Lincoln's second inaugural address, he asked Douglass his thoughts about it, adding, "There is no man in these United States whose opinion I value more than yours."
On February 1, 1865, Lincoln approved the Joint Resolution of the United States Congress proposing the 13th Amendment to the Constitution—the "nail in the coffin" for the institution of slavery in the United States. But before the 13th Amendment could be ratified, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on April 15, 1865. While Douglass and Lincoln certainly disagreed on many topics, Douglass remembered him fondly. In his eulogy, Douglass called Lincoln "the Black man's president: the first to show any respect to their rights as men."
After the Civil War and even after Reconstruction, Douglass held high-ranking government appointments—often becoming the first Black person to do so. Douglass was appointed the Minister Resident and Consul General to Haiti in 1889.
While Douglass certainly supported the 13th Amendment's abolition of slavery, he did not think it went far enough. He remarked, "Slavery is not abolished until the black man has the ballot. While the legislatures of the south retain the right to pass laws making any discrimination between black and white, slavery still lives there." / THF118475
Douglass continued to lecture in support of his two primary causes—racial equality and women's suffrage—until the very end. On February 20, 1895, he attended a meeting of the National Council of Women, went home, and suffered a fatal heart attack. He was 77 years old.
Frederick Douglass remains one of the most inspirational figures in American history. We can still feel the weight of the words he wrote and spoke, more than 125 years after his passing. Douglass said, "Memory was given to man for some wise purpose. The past is … the mirror in which we may discern the dim outlines of the future and by which we may make it more symmetrical." This work continues.
Frederick Douglass remains a powerful symbol of the fight for racial justice and equality. Here, his image graces the cover of Ebony Magazine's issue celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation. / THF98736_REDACTED
Katherine White is Associate Curator, Digital Content, at The Henry Ford. She appreciated the recently published book by David Blight, Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom, as she conducted research for this post.
Civil Rights, #THFCuratorChat, Abraham Lincoln, Civil War, education, women's history, voting, by Katherine White, books, African American history
Anniversary of the Thirteenth Amendment
December 4, 2020 Archive Insight
Joint Resolution of the United States Congress, Proposing the 13th Amendment to abolish slavery, February 1, 1865 / THF118475
December 6, 2020, marks the 155th anniversary of the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment, which legally abolished slavery.
The Emancipation Proclamation, first made public by President Abraham Lincoln in September 1862, laid the foundation for this amendment. With this presidential proclamation and executive order, President Lincoln hoped to counteract severe Union losses during the Civil War by calling on all Confederate states to rejoin the Union within 100 days (by January 1863) or the proclamation would declare enslaved people "thenceforward, and forever free." On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln proceeded to sign this document, announcing freedom to all enslaved people in the Confederacy. It helped enlist needed support for the war from abolitionists and pro-union and anti-war supporters. But it was not a legal document, and Lincoln knew it.
President Lincoln and his allies in Congress soon began working to enact a constitutional amendment that would legally abolish slavery. Various versions were brought before Congress until, on April 8, 1864, the strongly pro-Union Senate approved this version of the Thirteenth Amendment as we know it today:
Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
However, this amendment failed to pass in the House of Representatives, whose members were more split on their views. The amendment stalled until November of that year, when, upon his own reelection and with like-minded Republican gains in the House, President Lincoln urged members of the Congress to reconsider the measure and give it their utmost urgency. He enlisted members of his Cabinet and selected allies in the House to help him sway enough House member votes for the amendment to pass.
On January 31, 1865, it barely squeaked by with the requisite two-thirds majority. Upon learning of the final vote, pro-Union and anti-war members of the House erupted in shouts and cheers, while outside spectators who had filled the Capitol's galleries (both Black and white) wept tears of joy.
On February 1, 1865, members of Congress signed this Joint Resolution of the Thirteenth Amendment, indicating that it had passed by both the Senate and the House of Representatives but had yet to receive state ratification. Although not legally required to do so, President Lincoln signed it as well. Immediately, Lincoln's foes in both Congress and the press criticized him for wielding unseemly presidential power. But Lincoln was undeterred. Celebrating that evening, Lincoln happily announced, "This amendment is a King's cure for all evils. It winds the whole thing up."
It did help wind up the war. Its primary motive was, in fact, to preserve the Union by destroying the cornerstone of the Southern Confederacy. Sadly, on April 15, just as the war was winding down, President Lincoln was assassinated. Afraid that slavery might be re-established by individual states, Radical Republicans in Congress determinedly pushed the Thirteenth Amendment forward for state ratification. It was finally ratified by the requisite three-quarters of states on December 6, 1865—the date we are now commemorating.
Unfortunately, the Thirteenth Amendment was not a "cure for all evils." Some Southern states were already instituting black codes, denying African Americans basic rights. The Thirteenth Amendment was followed by a Fourteenth and a Fifteenth—legally guaranteeing African Americans the basic rights of citizenship and the ability to vote. But these were just legal documents. Enforcing them was another matter, one fraught with violence and discrimination. African Americans would face an ongoing struggle for freedom and justice.
This is one of a limited number of original manuscript copies known to survive of the February 1, 1865, Joint Resolution of the US Congress, proposing the Thirteenth Amendment to abolish slavery. Lincoln's signature was added by another hand.
Donna R. Braden is Senior Curator and Curator of Public Life at The Henry Ford.
Abraham Lincoln, Civil War, Civil Rights, by Donna R. Braden, African American history
Freedmen's Bureau – Exercising Citizenship
February 5, 2019 Archive Insight
President Abraham Lincoln signed The Freedmen's Bureau Act on March 3, 1865. That Act created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands as part of the War Department. It provided one-year of funding, and made Bureau officials responsible for providing food, clothing, fuel, and temporary shelter to destitute and suffering refugees behind Union lines and to freedmen, their wives, and children in areas of insurrection (in other words, within the Confederate States). The legislation specified the Bureau's administrative structure and salaries of appointees. It also directed the Bureau to put abandoned or confiscated land back into production by allotting not more than 40 acres to each loyal refugee or freedman for their use for not more than three years, at a rent equal to six percent of its 1860 assessed value, and with an option to purchase. The Bureau assumed additional duties in response to freed people's goals, namely building schools, negotiating labor contracts, and mediating conflicts.
Lincoln supported the Bureau because it fit his plan to hasten peace and reconstruct the nation, but after Lincoln's assassination, support wavered. The Freedmen's Bureau Act of 1866 provided two years of funding. During 1868, increasing violence and for a return to state authority undermined the goals of freed people and the Bureau that worked for them. The Freedmen's Bureau Act of 1868 authorized only the educational department and veteran services to continue. All other operations ceased effective January 1, 1869.
Collections at The Henry Ford help document public perceptions of the Freedmen's Bureau as well as actions taken by Bureau advocates. Letters, labor contracts, and newspapers indicate the contests that played out as the Bureau tried to introduce a new model of economic and social justice and civil rights into places where absolute inequality based on human enslavement previously existed. The Bureau did not win the post-war battle for freedmen's rights. Congress did not reauthorize the Bureau, and it ceased operations in mid-1872.
Bureau appointees went to work at the end of the Civil War in 1865 to serve the interests of four-million newly freed people intent on exercising some self-evident truths itemized in the Declaration of Independence:
That all men are created equal
That they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights
That among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.
Engraved Copy of the 1776 Declaration of Independence, Commissioned by John Quincy Adams, Printed 1823.
With freedom came responsibility to sustain the system of government that "We the People" constituted in 1787, and that the Union victory over secession reaffirmed in 1865. Little agreement over the best course of action existed. The national government extended the blessings of liberty by abolishing slavery with the Thirteenth Amendment, ratified in 1865. It established the Freedmen's Bureau which advocated for the general welfare of newly freed people.
Book, "The Constitutions of the United States, According to the Latest Amendments," 1800. THF 155864
Joint Resolution of the United States Congress, Proposing the 13th Amendment to Abolish Slavery, 1865. THF118475
Expanding liberty and justice came at a price, both economic and human. Every time freed people exercised new-found liberty and justice, others resisted, perceiving the expansion of another person's liberty as a threat to their own. The Bureau operated between these factions, as an 1868 illustration from Harper's Weekly depicted. The newspaper claimed that the Bureau was "the conscience and common-sense of the country stepping between the hostile parties, and saying to them, with irresistible authority, 'Peace!'."
"The Freedmen's Bureau," Harper's Weekly, July 25, 1868, pg. 473. 2018.0.4.38. THF 290299
Building a new southern economy went hand in hand with expanding social justice and civil rights. Concerned citizens and commanding officers knew that African Americans serving in the U.S. Colored Troops had money to save. They started private banks to meet the need. The U.S. Congress responded with "An Act to Incorporate the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company." Lincoln signed the legislation on March 3, 1865, the same day he signed "An Act to Establish a Bureau for the relief of Freedmen and Refugees." Agents of the public Freedmen's Bureau worked closely with staff at the private Freedman's Bank because freed people needed the economic stability the bank theoretically provided.
At least 400,000 people, one tenth of the freed population, had an association with a person who opened a savings account in the 37 branches of the savings bank that operated between 1865 and 1874. This included Amos H. Morrell, whose daughter's heirs resided in the Mattox House. Soldiers listed on the Muster Roll of Company E, 46th Regiment of United States Colored Infantry, also appear in records of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company. Charles Maho, a private in Company E, 46th USCT, opened an account on August 13, 1868. He worked in a tobacco factory at the time. His brother in arms, James Parvison/Parkinson, also a private, opened an account on December 1, 1869 and his estranged wife, Julia Parkerson opened an account on May 14, 1870.
Mattox Family Home, circa 1880
"Muster Roll for Company E, 46th Regiment of United States Colored Infantry, April 30-June 30, 1865" - Unknown - Rank 2 THF 96529
Freedmen's Bureau officials encouraged deposits into the Freedmen's Bank. This helped freed people become accustomed to saving the coins they earned, literally the coins that symbolized their independence as wage earners. Sadly, Bureau officials often assured account holders that their investments were safe. The deposits were not protected by the national government, however, and when the bank closed in 1874 it left depositors penniless and petitioning for return of their investments.
One-cent piece. Minted in 1868. THF 173625 (front) and THF 173624 (back)
Three-cent piece (made of nickel). Minted in 1865. THF 173623 (front) and THF 173622 (back).
The U.S. Congress authorized the Bureau to collect and pay out money due soldiers, sailors, and marines, or their heirs. Osco Ricio, a private in Company E, 46th U.S. Colored Infantry, who enlisted for three years in 1864, but was mustered out in 1866, made use of this service in his effort to secure $187 due him.
Freedmen's Bureau staff mediated between freed people and employers, negotiating contracts that specified work required, money earned, and protection afforded if employers reneged on the agreement. A blank form, printed in Virginia in 1865, included language common to an indenture – that the employer would provide "a sufficiency of sound, wholesome food and comfortable lodging, to treat him humanely, and to pay him the sum of _____ Dollars, in equal monthly instalments of ____ Dollars, good and lawful money in Virginia."
Freedman's Work Agreement Form, Virginia, 1865 Object ID 2001.48.18. THF 290704
Another pre-printed form reinforced terms of enslavement, that the work should be performed "in the manner customary on a plantation," even as it confirmed the role of Freedmen's Bureau agents as adjudicator. Freedman Henry Mathew, and landowner R. J. Hart, in Schley County, Georgia, completed this contract which legally bound Hart to furnish Mathew "quarters, food, 1 mule, and 35 acres of land" and to "give. . . one-third of what he [Mathew] makes." This type of arrangement became the standard wage-labor contract between landowners and sharecroppers, paid for their labor with a share of the crops grown on the land.
Freedman's Contract for a Mule and Land, Dated January 1, 1868. THF 8564
Many criticized sharecropping as another form of unfree labor rather than as a fair labor contract. Close reading confirms the inequity which often took the form of additional work that laborers performed but that benefitted owners. In the case of Hart and Mathew, Mathew had to repair Hart's fencing which meant that Mathew realized only one-third return on his labor investment in the form of a crop perhaps more plentiful because of the fence. Hart claimed the other two-thirds of the crop plus all of the increased value of fencing.
Isaac Yarbro/Yarbrough, private in Company E, 46th USCT, negotiated a contract with A. H. Elliott of Ouachita County, Arkansas, on January 1, 1867. Elliott furnished land, stock, and farming tools. Yarbrough furnished labor and his own rations. After marketing the cotton crop, the contract stipulated that Yarbrough would receive one third "of the cotton made by him as compensation in full for his labor and rations furnished by him." Furthermore, Yarbrough, when not occupied making the cotton crop, would "do any other work that A. H. Elliott may see proper to have done on his plantation and without farther compensation."
Freed people wanted access to education to learn what they needed to make decisions as informed and productive citizens.
Harper's Weekly, a New York magazine, often featured freedmen's schools that resulted from a cooperative agreement between the Freedmen's Bureau and the American Missionary Association (AMA), based in New York. A reporter informed readers on June 23, 1866 that "the prejudice of the Southern people against the education of the 'negroes' is almost universal." Regardless, freed people needed schools, teachers, and institutes to train teachers. The Freedmen's Bureau and its partners committed their resources in support of this cause.
Commentary accompanying an illustration of the "Primary School for Freedmen" indicated that the school building was dilapidated and owned by someone who wanted rid of the school, but the students were eager to learn and as capable as other students of their age in New York public schools.
"Primary School for Freedmen, in Charge of Mrs. Green, at Vicksburg, Mississippi, Harper's Weekly, June 23, 1866, pg. 392 (bottom), story on pg. 398. THF 290712
School curriculum often emphasized agricultural and technical training. The "Freedmen's Farm School," located near Washington, D.C., also known as the National Farm-School, taught orphans and children of U.S. Colored Troops reading, writing and arithmetic, standard primary school subjects. Students also cultivated a one-hundred-acre farm. The combination compared to a new effort launched with the Morrill Land-Grant Act of 1862 to create a system of colleges, federally funded but operated at the state level to train students in agricultural and mechanical subjects. The combination could help students realize the American dream – owning and operating their own farm. While the system of land-grant colleges grew steadily during Reconstruction, the freedmen's schools faced opposition locally and at the state level. Increasingly educators turned to philanthropists to fund education for freed people.
Cover, "Schools for Freedmen," Harper's Weekly 1867 bound volume (Vol. 11) -- March 30, 1867 issue ("Freedmen's Farm School, upper right image, page 193) THF 290709
The individuals appointed to direct the Freedmen's Bureau often had military experience. Brigadier General Oliver Otis Howard served in the Union Army and gained a reputation as a committed abolitionist if not a strong officer. President Andrew Johnson appointed him the first Commission of the Bureau, and he remained in that position until the Bureau closed in 1872. Two years later Howard lamented lost opportunities: "I believe there are many battles yet to be fought in the interest of human rights"…."There are wrongs that must be righted. Noble deeds that must be done."
O.O. Howard calling card and letter, in 2007.0.1.1 - Autograph album - "Ada Dewey Autograph Album, 1874-1875". THF 228573
Many shared Howard's frustrations with the lack of public support for freed people's goals. They also resented the obstructions that thwarted those goals. Newspaper reporting, such as the regular features in Harper's Weekly, emphasized the good work of the Freedmen's Bureau, but reporting also threatened projects aimed at sustaining the momentum.
Henry Wilson, a Republican Senator from Massachusetts, sought equality for African Americans. He took a correspondent to the Republican, a newspaper in Springfield, Massachusetts, to task for publishing misinformation about the extent of congressional fundraising for political purposes, and for downplaying the need for sharing facts with voters, especially the 700,000 Southerners newly enfranchised after ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment. Wilson explained that hundreds of thousands of documents, possible through the congressional fundraising, could educate voters about issues and prepare them for the upcoming election. Without donations from U.S. congressmen, Wilson believed such efforts would fail.
Letter from Henry Wilson to Sanborn [probably Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, then a correspondent with the Springfield [Massachusetts] Republican newspaper], October 6, 1870
The short life but complicated legacy of the Freedmen's Bureau leaves much to ponder. The Bureau, as a part of the War Department, and then an independent national agency, mediated local conflict and supported local education. This occurred at an exceptional time as the Union began rebuilding the nation in 1865. Then, the Republican party interpreted the U.S. Constitution as a mandate for the national government to protect civil rights broadly defined. The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, incorporated newly freed people as full citizens. Most believed that the Bureau had no more work to do, and Congress did not reauthorize it after July 1872. Those who favored the Bureau lamented its abrupt end and believed that much remained to be done to open the American experiment in equal rights to all.
Debra Reid is Curator of Agriculture and the Environment at The Henry Ford.
African American Records: Freedmen's Bureau, National Archives and Records Administration
Carpenter, John A. Sword and Olive Branch: Oliver Otis Howard (1999)
Cimbala, Paul A. The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South after the Civil War (2005)
Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988).
Litwack, Leon F. Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (1979).
McFeely, William S. Yankee Stepfather: General O.O. Howard and the Freedmen (1994).
Osthaus, Carl R. Freedmen, Philanthropy, and Fraud: A History of the Freedman's Savings Bank (1976)
Oubre, Claude F. Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Land Ownership (2012).
Washington, Reginald. "The Freedman's Savings and Trust Company and African American Genealogical Research," Federal Records and African American History (Summer 1997, Vol. 29, No. 2)
Civil War, African American history, by Debra A. Reid
Stories of the USCT
May 24, 2017 Innovation Impact
"We are Bound for Glory with a Fair Wind, Nothing but Working and Fighting Ahead." – Samuel Chapman Armstrong, Lt. Col., 9th USCT, between Hilton Head, South Carolina and Petersburg, VA, 1864
The American Civil War was the seminal event affecting daily life and ideals about freedom and citizenship during the 1860s and beyond. People coped with the reality of war-time devastation in a variety of ways. As the Civil War generation passed during the late 1920s and 1930s, when the collections of The Henry Ford were forming, the sacred family mementos that associated with personal memories of pride, honor and glory became part of this great museum of the American experience. Even though The Henry Ford is not a military history museum, the collections are rich with Civil War photographs and letters, battlefield relics, and even a medal of honor. The war is deeply imbedded in the collective memory of 19th and early 20th century Americans, and it was so often included in the "archives" of their lives that, by default, their mementos became part of our collections.
Henry Ford's own interest in documenting the lives of his parents and his own childhood and young adulthood, caused him to collect his own family's rich Civil War stories. Two of Henry's mother's brothers, John and Barney Litogot, served in the storied 24th Michigan. John was killed near Fredericksburg, Virginia, and Barney survived to fight in many battles, including Gettysburg. He also served in the honor guard at Abraham Lincoln's funeral.
John and Barney Litogot at the time of their enlistment, August, 1862. THF 226852
The variety of Civil War objects in the collection is amazing, and represents both Union and Confederate perspectives.
Keeping troops in the field proved challenging for the Confederacy and the Union. A broadside confirms pay scales for Union troops and employees of the United States Army.
Recruiting Broadside, United States Army, c1863. THF 8551
Lackluster enlistment, however, prompted both armies to institute conscription. The Confederacy did this in April 1862 and the Union followed in March 1863.
The U.S. Army issued broadsides to recruit soldiers, including men of African descent, after passage of the Emancipation Proclamation. One broadside in the collection depicts a white male standard bearer front and center and elevated above others in the scene. He is armed with a sword and the banner, "Freedom to the Slave." To the left sits a public school and a black man reading a newspaper rather than manning the plow. This implied that education and literacy could free people from manual labor. To the right, a black soldier aids black women and children recently freed from the shackles of slavery while black troops fight in the background.
"Freedom to the Slave. . . Fight for the Stars and Stripes," 1863-1865. THF 118383
Black men had opportunities to serve in the Union forces before the Emancipation Proclamation. In fact, in May 1862, General David Hunter, in command of occupying forces in Hilton Head, South Carolina, organized the First South Carolina Volunteer Infantry. He acted without permission of the War Department and reputedly impressed men enslaved on plantations in the occupied territory into service. This sparked controversy about whether contraband of war, the enslaved in occupied territory, could, or should, serve in the military. The regiment disbanded in August 1862
Wood Engraving, First and Last Dress Review of 1st Regiment South Carolina (Negro) Volunteers, 1862. THF 11672.
The Militia Act on July 1, 1862 made it legal for the U.S. President, as commander in chief, to accept "persons of African descent" into the Union military or navy. The Militia Act authorized their pay and rations equivalent to that of soldiers already serving, but instead of $13 per month, they received $10 per month, with the remaining $3 paid in clothing). It also allowed persons of African descent to work for the Union, performing camp service and building fortifications.
Union officers reorganized the First South Carolina Volunteer Infantry in November 1862, in conjunction with the Port Royal Experiment to redistribute lands on the Sea Islands of South Carolina to the formerly enslaved. Company A, under command of Charles T. Trowbridge, became the first official regiment of U.S. Colored Troops (USCT) on January 1, 1863, the same day that officials read the Emancipation Proclamation for the first time, in Beaufort, South Carolina, on Port Royal Island, just south of Fort Sumter. The First South Carolina was renamed the 33rd U.S. Colored Infantry in 1864 and remained in service until January 31, 1866.
"Dress Parade of the First South Carolina Regiment (Colored) near Beaufort, South Carolina," 1861-1865. THF 8221
Stories of tragedy and triumph abound in the history of the USCT, including experiences lived by residents on our own Susquehanna Plantation.
Susquehanna as it appears in Greenfield Village today. THF 2024
Morris Robertson, an enslaved carpenter, left Susquehanna and enlisted with the Federal Army on October 25, 1863. He became a member of the 9th USCT, Company C. This regiment was organized at Camp Stanton, Benedict, Maryland, from November 11 to December 31, 1863. They saw service in South Carolina and Virginia, including Petersburg and Richmond. Following the end of hostilities, the regiment was moved to Brownsville, Texas, where it remained until September 1866. The 9th was ordered to Louisiana in October and mustered out at New Orleans, November 26, 1866. Sadly, it was in Brownsville, Texas, very near the end of his term of service that Morris Robertson died of cholera on August 25, 1866. We would like to think that Morris' brief time of freedom, though under frequent periods of extreme danger, gave him some joy. It is troubling to know that though free, he would never see his family again.
Service Record for Morris Robertson from the Company Descriptive Book. (Library of Congress)
Other objects in the collections document USCT in several other states, and confirms their service across the Confederate States from Virginia to south Texas. Examples include the 54th Massachusetts, perhaps the most well-known USCT regiment. It received national media attention in July 1863 for its "gallant charge" on rebel-held Fort Wagner, on Morris Island in the Charleston, South Carolina harbor.
Lithograph: GALLANT CHARGE OF THE FIFTY FOURTH (COLORED) MASSACHUSETTS REGIMENT / On the Rebel Works at Fort Wagner; Morris Island near Charleston, July 18th 1863, and the death of Colonel Robt. G. Shaw. THF 73704
USCT saw action in the Gulf of Mexico. Evidence includes a portrait of J.D. Brooker. Inscriptions on the back of the photo matte indicated that Brooker served with the Corps d'Afrique, 79th Regiment of Infantry. U.S. Army recruiters worked at the parish-level in occupied Louisiana, to attract volunteers. Troops saw heavy action during the Port Hudson campaign, May through July 1863. Major General Nathaniel P. Banks praised the Corps--"It gives me great pleasure to report that they answered every expectation. In many respects their conduct was heroic. No troops could be more determined or more daring."
Portrait of J.D. Brooker, soldier with the Corps d'Afrique 79th U.S. Colored Troops from Louisiana. THF 93151
Fragments of "our flag" were glued to the back of J.D. Brooker's portrait.
THF 93152
Collections include portraits of white commanding officers of black troops.
Union Army Colonel Bernard Gains Farrar, who assisted in the siege of Vicksburg, recruited African-American troops from the area after Vicksburg fell. He commanded the 6th U. S. Colored Heavy Artillery.
Portrait of a Union Army Colonel Bernard Gains Farrar, 1862-1864. THF 6229
Lieutenant Andrew Coats, served with the 7th Colored Infantry Regiment and as Acting Assistant Adjutant General for the District of Florida. In 1864, the 7th Colored Infantry Regiment was part of the 10th Army Corps, located in the area of Hilton Head and Beaufort, South Carolina.
Portrait of Lieutenant Andrew Coats, 7th Colored Infantry Regiment, 1864. THF 57539
Americans of African descent remained the fulcrum around which debates about status and citizenship revolved. An 1864 print by Currier and Ives, conveyed this debate graphically as a contrast between the George B. McClellan, the Democratic presidential candidate, who wanted to restore the Union, but not abolish slavery, and the incumbent, Abraham Lincoln, author of the Emancipation Proclamation. If McClellan won the election, the CSA president, Jefferson Davis, would slit their throats. If President Lincoln retained his seat, black soldiers could stand at Lincoln's right hand, defending the Union of States against CSA president Davis, in rags and on his posterior and held at bay by Lincoln. Black soldiers, however, remained culturally distinctive in the Currier and Ives depiction, as the dialect in the captioning re-enforced.
"Your Plan and Mine," Political Cartoon, Presidential Campaign, 1864. THF 251879
Our collections also document post-war service of USCT. The Muster Roll for Company E, 46th Regiment of United States Colored Infantry confirmed the presence of men serving in the Regiment between April 30 and June 30, 1865. It also included names of at least fifteen men who had been taken as prisoners of war and men who had been discharged and deceased. The roll may have been used to keep track of soldiers after the war, perhaps for pension applications. Some annotations are dated 1885 and 1890. The Company E, 46th Regiment USCT saw action in Arkansas and the Mississippi Delta.
Another muster roll, confirmed the presence of thirteen soldiers in Company G, 25th Regiment of United States Colored Infantry, on April 12, 1865. Col. F.L. Hitchcock, commanding officer of the troops in Fort Barrancas, Florida, signed the roll. It includes details about each soldier:
Name; Rank; Date mustered in; Place mustered in; Mustered in by [name]; How long in service; Hair color; Eye color; Complexion color; Height (feet and inches); Where born; Age; Occupation; Pay information.
The 25th Regiment USCT was on garrison duty at Fort Barrancas, Florida, when these soldiers were recruited, and remained on garrison duty until December, 1865, never seeing action. During the spring and summer of 1865 about 150 men died of scurvy, the result of lack of proper food. Col. Hitchcock wrote:
"I desire to bear testimony to the esprit du corps, and general efficiency of the organization as a regiment, to the competency and general good character of its officers, to the soldierly bearing, fidelity to duty, and patriotism of its men. Having seen active service in the Army of the Potomac, prior to my connection with the Twenty-fifth, I can speak with some degree of assurance. After a proper time had been devoted to its drill, I never for a moment doubted what would be its conduct under fire. It would have done its full duty beyond question. An opportunity to prove this the Government never afforded, and the men always felt this a grievance."
Muster Roll of 13 Soldiers in Company G, 25th Regiment of United States Colored Infantry, April 12, 1865. THF 284824
As we pause to celebrate Memorial Day, a holiday with its origins linked to the Civil War, we need to pause to also honor all those who have given their lives in service, and all those who have, and continue to, serve to protect our freedoms. Americans did not agree on the meaning of freedom during the 1860s, and the evidence indicates that Americans of African descent were not given their freedom by white Americans. They fought during the Civil War to attain it.
Jim Johnson is Curator of Historic Structures and Landscapes at The Henry Ford. Debra A. Reid is Curator of Agriculture and the Environment at The Henry Ford.
Civil War, by Jim Johnson, by Debra A. Reid, African American history
Robert Hendershot: The Drummer Boy of the Rappahannock
May 19, 2017 Archive Insight
Jacket, Worn by Robert H. Hendershot, circa 1890. THF 155871
In the 1880s and 1890s, Civil War veteran Robert Hendershot wore this elaborate jacket when he played his drum at Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.) events and at other community gatherings. The accompanying "souvenir" card is actually an advertisement, letting interested parties know Hendershot was available for hire.
Trade Card from Major Robert H. Hendershot, "The Original Drummer Boy of the Rappahannock," circa 1895. THF 115938
Since the 1860s, Hendershot had billed himself as "The Drummer Boy of the Rappahannock." But was he? In December 1862, during the fighting at Fredericksburg, Virginia, reports had come of a brave young drummer boy who had crossed the Rappahannock River with the 7th Michigan Infantry under a hail of Confederate bullets. The 12-year-old Hendershot was indeed with a Michigan regiment at Fredericksburg at this time. But so were several other young drummer boys.
The controversy over who really was "The Drummer Boy of the Rappahannock" raged for decades among Civil War veterans—reports from members of Michigan units engaged at Fredericksburg offered conflicting stories. But Hendershot used his savvy promotion skills to keep his name before the public, receiving recognition from some G.A.R. members and even from prominent men like newspaper editor Horace Greeley.
Hendershot may or may not have been "The Drummer Boy of the Rappahannock." But throughout his life, he certainly used his celebrity to his advantage.
Jeanine Head Miller is Curator of Domestic Life at The Henry Ford.
Michigan, Grand Army of the Republic, music, veterans, Civil War, by Jeanine Head Miller
Gettysburg Memorial to the Michigan Cavalry Brigade
The Gettysburg battlefield monument depicted in this painting honors the Michigan Cavalry Brigade. The figure of the soldier looks out over the field where this famed unit fought fiercely on July 3, 1863 to help assure Union victory on the final day of the Battle of Gettysburg. Their commander was 23-year-old Brigadier General George Armstrong Custer, promoted only three days before. Gettysburg was the Michigan Brigade's first major engagement.
This "Wolverine Brigade" fought in every major campaign of the Army of the Potomac, from Gettysburg to the Confederate surrender at Appomattox Court House in April 1865. A number of the surviving veterans were present at the monument's dedication in Gettysburg on June 13, 1889.
Jessie Zinn created this painting of the monument soon after. Did a proud Michigan Brigade veteran ask the 26-year-old Gettysburg artist to paint it? Did Michigan veterans commission the artwork to hang in their local Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.) Hall?To learn more about Jessie's story, take a look at this special visit To Henry Ford.
Michigan, women's history, veterans, paintings, Civil War, by Jeanine Head Miller, art
A Fraternity of Civil War Veterans
August 15, 2016 Archive Insight
The Grand Army of the Republic (often known by its abbreviation, G.A.R.) was an organization of U.S. Civil War veterans who had served for the Union. In existence from 1866 through 1956, it peaked in 1890 at over 400,000 members and 7,000 posts. The G.A.R. scheduled meetings and other gatherings for members, provided charitable donations to the needy, supported the construction and maintenance of Civil War memorials and sites, and became a powerful political lobbying group. In 1868, the group's commander-in-chief initiated an observance known as Decoration Day, which we still commemorate today as Memorial Day.
We've just digitized over 30 G.A.R. badges, medals, and insignia from our collections, including this badge from a 1908 encampment at Toledo, Ohio. Browse all of the digitized G.A.R.-related artifacts by visiting our Digital Collections.
Ellice Engdahl is Digital Collections & Content Manager at The Henry Ford.
Grand Army of the Republic, by Ellice Engdahl, veterans, digital collections, Civil War


text:
extern "C" {
#include <sandbox.h>

int sandbox_init_with_parameters(const char* profile,
                                 uint64_t flags,
                                 const char* const parameters[],
                                 char** errorbuf);

// Not deprecated. The canonical usage to test if sandboxed is
// sandbox_check(getpid(), NULL, SANDBOX_FILTER_NONE), which returns
// 1 if sandboxed. Note `type` is actually a sandbox_filter_type enum value, but
// it is unused currently.
int sandbox_check(pid_t pid, const char* operation, int type, ...);
}

namespace sandbox {

// Initialize the static member variables.
#pragma clang diagnostic push
#pragma clang diagnostic ignored "-Wdeprecated-declarations"
const char* Seatbelt::kProfileNoInternet = kSBXProfileNoInternet;
const char* Seatbelt::kProfileNoNetwork = kSBXProfileNoNetwork;
const char* Seatbelt::kProfileNoWrite = kSBXProfileNoWrite;
const char* Seatbelt::kProfileNoWriteExceptTemporary =
    kSBXProfileNoWriteExceptTemporary;
const char* Seatbelt::kProfilePureComputation = kSBXProfilePureComputation;
#pragma clang diagnostic pop

// static
int Seatbelt::Init(const char* profile, uint64_t flags, char** errorbuf) {
// OS X deprecated these functions, but did not provide a suitable replacement,
// so ignore the deprecation warning.
#pragma clang diagnostic push
#pragma clang diagnostic ignored "-Wdeprecated-declarations"
  return ::sandbox_init(profile, flags, errorbuf);
#pragma clang diagnostic pop
}

// static
int Seatbelt::InitWithParams(const char* profile,
                             uint64_t flags,
                             const char* const parameters[],
                             char** errorbuf) {
  return ::sandbox_init_with_parameters(profile, flags, parameters, errorbuf);
}

// static
void Seatbelt::FreeError(char* errorbuf) {
// OS X deprecated these functions, but did not provide a suitable replacement,
// so ignore the deprecation warning.
#pragma clang diagnostic push
#pragma clang diagnostic ignored "-Wdeprecated-declarations"
  return ::sandbox_free_error(errorbuf);
#pragma clang diagnostic pop
}

// static
bool Seatbelt::IsSandboxed() {
  return ::sandbox_check(getpid(), NULL, 0);
}

}  // namespace sandbox

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


NDA 016807 describes THYROLAR-5, which is a drug marketed by Allergan Sales Llc and is included in one NDA. It is available from one supplier. Additional details are available on the THYROLAR-5 profile page.
The generic ingredient in THYROLAR-5 is liotrix (t4;t3). One supplier is listed for this compound. Additional details are available on the liotrix (t4;t3) profile page.