"Italian Cultural Notes" on this page were adapted from Conversational Italian for Travelers textbook for www.LearnTravelItalian.com.
Follow Caterina in the Conversational Italian for Travelers series of books!
One of the first things Caterina must do after her plane lands in Italy at Milan's Malpensa Airport is find her way to the city of Milan. You can learn about how to do this at learntravelitalian.com/interactive.html from one of the many free, interactive dialogues on this site. But what if we want to begin our Italian adventure in Venice and land instead at the Marco Polo Airport on mainland Italy just outside that magical city of islands?
Read on to the next section, Italian Cultural Notes, and find out all about transportation to and along the waterways of Venice!
The Marco Polo Airport serves the city of Venice and is located on the mainland, near the town of Mestre, just across the lagoon. The major island of Venice (Venezia) is connected by a bridge to the mainland and is served by a local train station and a large bus station. A city bus or taxi can be taken over this bridge directly into Venice from the airport. You can also take a taxi ride to the train station in the nearby town of Mestre on the mainland. The trains in Mestre connect with towns on the mainland and to the Santa Lucia station in Venice.
Unique to Venice are the water ferry and water taxi. Take the yellow Alilaguna water ferry to Saint Mark's Square in the main island of Venice or to the beaches of the island of Lido from the Marco Polo Airport by following the covered walkway from the arrivals desk to the nearby dock. The walk takes about 10 minutes, so it may be necessary to hire a taxi if you have a lot of baggage or have difficulty walking. Tickets can be purchased at the arrivals desk in the airport or at the dock once you arrive and are about 15€ one way. The trip takes 1–1½ hours, depending on the number of stops made along the route. Also along the same dock are smaller, private water taxi boats that can take travelers directly to their destination.
Once in Venice proper, purchase an imob.venezia card for the length of your stay (4 days, 7 days, or longer) for the public ACTV water bus system to get to all of the major sites on the islands. This card can also be used on the local bus system on the Lido Island. Private water taxis are also available at most docks on all the islands of Venice. And of course, for a leisurely ride through the smaller canals, try the classic sleek black gondola piloted by one oar by one of the trained gondolieri in their black-and-white striped uniforms!
One of the first things Caterina must do after her plane lands in Italy and she passes through customs is find her way on the Italian railway system. To listen to dialogues from Chapters 4 and 5 about Caterina's encounters as she buys a ticket and boards a train in Italy, go to the interactive dialogues on our website at learntravelitalian.com/interactive.html.
The Italian Cultural Notes section that follows, also from the textbook, gives a bit of insight into how the Italian railway system works.
After Caterina arrives in Italy at Malpensa Airport, about 50 km northwest of Milan, she must then make her way into the city. First, she takes a taxi to the nearby town of Gallarate to get onto the local train system, called Trenitalia (www.raileurope.com/Trenitalia-Italy). This local railway cannot be accessed directly from the Malpensa Airport, but until recently, it was the only way to catch a train after flying into Malpensa. The train line from Gallarate goes to the largest terminal in Milan, the Stazione Centrale. Gallarate can also be reached by bus from Malpensa Airport for a small fee, about 1–2 euros, and buses leave regularly from the airport all day. Of course, there are also bus routes to many other nearby cities from the Malpensa bus terminals, including to Milan, for those who prefer to take a bus for the entire trip.
When at the Gallarate train station, Caterina asks for a train that will take her directly to Stazione Centrale, avoiding the possibility of having to change trains along the way. A typical train ticket from Gallarate to Milan should actually cost less than we have noted in the dialogue, and it takes between 40 and 60 minutes to reach Milan.
A newer, separate train system called the Malpensa Express, which opened in 1999, leaves directly from Malpensa's Terminal 1, underground floor, every 30 minutes. As the name suggests, this train goes directly into Milan, but it ends at a smaller station, the Stazione Cordona. The Malpensa Express trains are new trains with only first-class seats and luggage areas between compartments. Nonstop trains are available in the mornings and late at night, but during the day, there are a few additional stops along the way to Milan for the 40-minute trip. To learn more about the Malpensa Express trains or to view a train schedule and current ticket prices, go to www.malpensaexpress.it.
In our dialogue, the ticket agent Rosa very kindly reminds Caterina to validate her train ticket before boarding the local train. In Italy, when using the local train system, it is possible to buy an "open" ticket, which can be used at any time within a 2-month period. Stamping each ticket with the date and time before entry on the train prevents this type of ticket from being used more than once. The name of the machine that is used to stamp the date and time onto the ticket is translated by the makers of the machine as a "ticket canceling machine" or macchina obliteratrice. The older machines are yellow, but the new machines now in common use have a green and white face with the Trenitalia logo and name along the top. These small machines are usually found attached to the wall at the entrances of the individual train tracks, which are usually on the lower level of the train station. When referring to what the machine actually does, you can use the verb timbrare, which means to stamp, or convalidare, which means to validate. The verb obliterare, which means to cancel, also means to stamp or to punch when referring to tickets. In effect, all three verbs apply, because the ticket is literally stamped, which validates it for travel, and is canceled for further use at the same time.
After boarding the train, the ticket inspector (il controllore) will come through each car and ask to see each passenger's ticket. If the date and time have not been stamped on the ticket, that passenger will be asked to pay a cash fine before leaving the train. Signs are sometimes posted on the interior doors of the trains warning of the fine to be paid if the ticket has not been convalidato (validated)—in Italian, with no English translation! Tickets for the Malpensa Express also need to be validated. So remember to look for those little yellow or green and white machines each time you board a train in Italy and stamp your ticket the way Caterina did. It takes only a second but can save a good deal of money!
A word about the other major airports in Italy: Alitalia flights into Milan used to land primarily at Linate Airport, but nowadays, most passenger airlines land in Malpensa, which is the second largest international airport in Italy.
Rome's Leonardo da Vinci Airport remains the largest international airport in Italy. It is located 26 km west of Rome, and the nearest city is Fiumicino (which is the old name the airport used to go by and is still used for the airport code: FCO). It is very simple to take the train from this airport to downtown Rome. Just follow the signs to the ticket counter, or buy a ticket at the on-site Alitalia office or from an automatic ticket machine. After a 30-minute ride, the train ends at Roma Termini, which is Rome's central station.
The Marco Polo Airport serves the city of Venice and is on the mainland, near the town of Mestre, just across the lagoon. The major island of Venice (Venezia) is connected by a bridge to the mainland and is served by a local train station and a large bus station. A city bus or taxi can be taken over this bridge directly into Venice from the airport. A taxi ride to the nearby town of Mestre to the train station is possible and will connect you to points north of Venice on the mainland and to the train station in Venice, the Santa Lucia.
Follow Caterina and learn how to make YOUR Italian reservations in the Conversational Italian for Travelers series of books!
Making Italian Reservations for YOUR Summer Vacation—or Any Time!
Because Caterina visits Italy during the summer months for our story, she is able to join her Italian family on their traditional trip for the Ferragosto holiday that takes place on the week of August 15. As part of their preparations, Caterina's sister-in-law Francesca asks Caterina to make hotel reservations for their family at their favorite family-run lakeside resort in the town of Stresa.
Listen in on Caterina's conversation with the hotel manager at our website www.LearnTravelItalian.com and learn important Italian phrases that may be useful to plan YOUR vacation in Italy this summer!
The Italian Cultural Notes section to follow, adapted from the Conversational Italian for Travelers textbook, focuses on how to use the Italian vocabulary needed to make and change reservations.
Let's start this Italian Cultural Notes segment with some basic phrases that will be helpful to know when calling or speaking to hotel personnel in order to make a reservation. To follow, we will learn about some general ways these phrases can be used.
Ho una prenotazione. (I) have a reservation.
…fare una prenotazione. …make a reservation.
…annullare una prenotazione. …cancel a reservation.
…cambiare una prenotazione. …change a reservation.
…controllare una prenotazione. …check a reservation.
…confirmare una prenotazione. …confirm a reservation.
…ordinare la prima colazione. …order breakfast.
Si, la camera è riservata. Yes, the room is reserved.
Lei ha una stanza riservata per sabato. You (pol.) have a room reserved for Saturday.
Both Italian verbs prenotare and riservare translate into English as "to book/to make a reservation." Their corresponding nouns are la prenotazione and la riservazione. Although both nouns translate as the English word reservation, the use of each Italian word varies with the situation.
When boarding a train or entering a theater with a ticket that has a reserved seat, Caterina would have "un biglietto con la prenotazione," or "a ticket with the reservation." If Caterina wants to tell someone she is checking her seat to make sure she is in the right place, she would use the verb controllare, as in, "Controllo il biglietto con la prenotazione," for "I am checking the ticket with the reservation." Remember il controllore from Chapter 5 of our textbook Conversational Italian for Travelers, whose job it is to check tickets on passenger trains?
However, the actual room in the hotel or seat on the train or theater is referred to as reserved with the past tense, as in "Il posto è riservato." The seat has been booked, and no one else can use it. The word riservato can also be used as an adjective. If someone else had made a prenotazione before Caterina, her request might be denied because of una camera riservata, una stanza riservata, or un posto riservato!
And what should we do if we want to confirm a reservation? Just say, "Vorrei confermare una prenotazione." Finally, instead of vorrei, one could also use the verb desidero for I would like. Also, as always, be polite and add per favore to the end of the sentence!
Follow Caterina and read about Italian girlfriends meeting at an Italian bar for cappuccino in the Conversational Italian for Travelers series of books!
After Caterina settles into the routine of daily life with her family in Italy, her sister-in-law, Francesca, invites Caterina to have coffee and lunch with an Italian girlfriend. The women meet at an Italian café, also known as a bar, and order espresso coffee and sandwiches. They also meet someone special, so feel free to listen in on their Italian conversation at our website www.LearnTravelItalian.com and learn some Italian phrases of endearment for that special someone in your life!
The Italian Cultural Notes section to follow, adapted from the Conversational Italian for Travelers textbook, talks a bit about the history of espresso and cappuccino and how each drink and its variations are made. Read on and then order your own favorite Italian coffee drink—here or in Italy!
Italian-style coffee, or caffè, has become so popular in America today that confronting the list of coffees available in an Italian bar may not be as intimidating as it once was. The list of specialty coffees offered by a coffee bar is usually displayed on a large sign behind the counter, opposite where one stands to place an order.
Most Italians pay at the counter and drink their coffee standing up at the counter as well, often fairly quickly, before proceeding on to their next appointment. Space is at a premium all over Italy, and most coffee bars have only a few small tables. So, for the luxury of a seat, the price for the same coffee is slightly higher. But although the fee is higher, I've always felt that for visitors, it is nice to sit down at a table with a friend, have a waiter take your order, and have coffee and any pastries or sandwiches brought to you. Then relax and enjoy while watching the world go by!
If you want an Italian coffee, keep in mind the general "rule" that most Italians follow: cappuccino in the mornings, usually before 10–11 a.m., and espresso later in the day. This "rule" may have come from the many well-meaning Italian mothers and their idea that milk is bad for digestion, although I don't think anyone really knows how it started.
Of course, if you like your coffee the American way, order a caffè americano any time! Read on for a few fun facts about Italian coffee drinks and what to expect to receive when you order an espresso- or cappuccino-type drink in Italy.
In Italian bars, all coffee drinks are made by the specially trained barista (this title is used for men and women). Espresso means fast or quick and refers to the method of brewing the coffee.
The classic espresso takes 7 grams of fresh, finely ground dark-roasted coffee beans, filtered under high pressure by an industrial espresso maker, with just the right amount of hot water to fill an espresso cup halfway to the top. There will be a layer of crema (foam) on the top as the result of the high pressure those large, gleaming stainless steel coffee shop machines can generate to make the coffee. For more information about how the modern-day commercial espresso machine came about and the components of these industrial espresso makers, click on this link from the Smithsonian magazine and this espresso equipment link.
Add sugar or, for a caffè corretto, a shot of brandy or one of the other liquors always found on the shelves of coffee bars. For a caffè lungo, extra water is added to fill the espresso cup to the top. For a ristretto, less water is used for the same amount of coffee grounds, to one quarter of the cup.
The popular stovetop espresso maker that is part of every Italian household—and I mean every household—here and in Italy is shaped like an octagon. Don't expect to get a real crema in this case, because this coffee pot does not operate under the high pressure of the industrial espresso makers, but this classic espresso pot is an easy, inexpensive, and convenient way to brew your everyday espresso.
All stovetop espresso makers require very finely ground espresso beans packed firmly in place into a metal coffee filter that fits into the center of the pot. Freshly ground beans are, of course, best.
Put water in the bottom half of the stovetop espresso pot, insert the filter with its coffee grounds, twist on the top, and heat over medium-high heat. The water in the bottom compartment will boil, and the steam will move upward through the coffee grounds in the filter to re-condense as coffee in the top compartment.
From the Italian Bar—Cappuccino, Anyone?
The Italian cappuccino drink that we know today is a fairly recent development of the 20th century, although historians have found coffee drinks with a similar name that date back to 18th century Austria.
Cappuccino coffee is said to be named after the Italian Franciscan order of Capuchin monks, presumably because the combination of the dark brown color of the coffee and the milk froth (schiuma) that tops the drink is reminiscent of the white-faced monks in their habit with the distinctive dark brown hood.
This short explanation begs the question, "How did the Italian Capuchin monks get their name?" In Italian, the word "cappuccio" means "hood." Adding the diminutive "ino" ending for the coffee drink changes the meaning of the word into "little hood." This may sound like a lot of trouble to go to just to name a coffee drink, although one should remember the Italian tradition of nicknaming people and food based on catchy associations that then become a part of Italian tradition.
The now classic Italian cappuccino calls for three equal parts espresso coffee, milk, and milk froth, and is served in a large coffee cup. The milk froth is traditionally made by steaming low-fat milk with the wand attachment on the espresso machine.
Gently stir in some sugar if you like, then sprinkle the froth with a bit of cocoa powder, cinnamon, or nutmeg.
For a smaller coffee drink with milk later in the day, foam can be added to an espresso for a speckled drink called caffè macchiato that is served in an espresso cup.
Above all, enjoy your cappuccino drink as a delicious start to your morning!
Follow Caterina and shop Italian in the Conversational Italian for Travelers series of books!
After Caterina settles into the routine of daily life with her family in Italy, her sister-in-law, Francesca, decides that they should go shopping. Although Francesca has grocery shopping in mind, Caterina would rather shop Italian at the many beautiful, fashionable shops that line the streets of Milan!
To listen to this dialogue from Chapter 10 about Caterina and Francesca's afternoon spent shopping in Milan, go to the interactive dialogues on our website at Learn Travel Italian Audio Dialogues.
The Italian Cultural Note to follow, also from the textbook, gives some important information about Italian sizes, for YOUR next shopping spree in Italy. Buon divertimento!
Visit Italy and Shop Italian!
When visiting Italy, one encounters wonderful shops that sell everything imaginable. In most cities, beautiful, stylish clothing made by well-known designers hangs in the shop windows of the grand boulevards and larger piazzas. Think Via Monte Napoleone in Milan or the Piazza di Spagna in Rome. Now that the fall season is upon us, the cooler weather will bring with it the exciting new Italian fashions of the season.
But maybe even more important for the shopper is what happens at the end of the fashion season in Italy. Usually in late June and July, corresponding to the height of the tourist season, it seems like almost all Italian fashion is on sale! Many clothing stores offer steep discounts, usually up to 50% throughout most of the store. Look for the signs in the shop windows that say "saldi" for sale or "sconto" for discount. Late summer is a shopper's paradise in Italy for those who love fashion!
But one must be prepared to shop Italian. Sizes in Italy are different from those in the United States and from those in other European countries. How does one know what size clothing to bring to the dressing room? Also, when talking about Italian style, it should be mentioned that there are still dedicated craftsmen who make high-quality leather goods. There is such a dazzling variety of shoes in the shop windows that it is always tempting to buy a pair to bring home. But what size to tell the shopkeeper to get?
The tables that follow list European and Italian sizes and how they (roughly) correspond to the sizes in the United States.
Please note that this is only a general guide, and it is best to always try on any item of clothing before making a purchase!
*Hint: Subtract 30 from European shoe sizes to get the equivalent of the American size for women's shoe sizes 5 to 9.
For men's clothing, Italian sizes and European sizes have an identical numbering system, although the fit of the clothing that corresponds to this numbering system is only loosely standardized. As usual, trying on clothing before purchasing is the best policy!
**Hint: Just subtract 10 from the European shirt and pant sizes to get the American sizes.
Italian Cultural Notes: Shop Italian Fashion for Your Next Vacation!
Visiting Italy? Follow Caterina for tips on how to read the Italian menus at your favorite restaurant—from the Conversational Italian series of books!
Visiting Italy? Learn how to read the menu at your favorite Italian restaurant!
After Caterina arrives in Italy, she stays with her Italian cousin Pietro and his family in Milan for a while and adapts to Italian life and the Italian language. Then, in the last unit of the book, they all go on a summer vacation together. Caterina and her family stay at a typical northern Italian lake resort in the town of Stresa on Lago Maggiore.
Italian menus can look confusing to those who are new to Italian culture, but a few tips will help you understand how they are usually designed. Because most restaurants in Italy offer several courses, the Italian menu will usually list each course in the order in which it is to be served.
Read on to the next section, Italian Cultural Notes, for a description of each Italian course, and find out what to expect when you order your own delicious meal in Italy!
To listen to the dialogue from Chapter 16, when Caterina and her Italian family arrive at an Italian restaurant and begin their wonderful meal together, go to the interactive audio dialogues on our website at learntravelitalian.com/interactive.html.
Italian menus may list different types of pizzas. Listed here are specialty pizzas made with a wood-burning oven in Piazza Navona, Rome, Italy.
Italian menus reflect the typical Italian meal offered at most all Italian restaurants open for dinner, from the family-run trattoria, to the more formal ristorante (with a professional chef). The Italian meal consists of several courses.
And, of course, there is almost always the option of dessert under the "il dolce" section listed on most Italian menus, or at least coffee at the end of the meal.
Below is a list of the courses that comprise a full Italian meal, in the order that they usually appear on most Italian menus.
When looking through Italian menus, expect to see a selection of appetizers (gli antipasti) listed first. Each region has its own specialties, which include a wide variety of vegetables (raw, preserved in olive oil or vinegar, or cooked), as well as cold meats or salami and cheeses. Salad can also be served as part of this course, but it is often eaten after the second course, when the main course has been completed. Salads are usually not formally composed but consist of fresh lettuce and whatever other fresh garden vegetables the chef has on hand that day (insalata mista). Hot antipasto may be served, with a variety of fried foods (fritto misto), very popular throughout the coastal regions of Italy.
Soup (zuppa), often referred to as the most common type, minestrone (made with bean- and tomato-based broth and various vegetables and pasta), on Italian menus is well loved throughout Italy, and during leaner times, soups were a mainstay of the lunch and dinner meals. Soup may come after or replace the antipasto course.
Appetizers and soups are always served with fresh bread (pane) typical of the region. The type of bread is not usually listed as a choice on Italian menus, because bread-making varies by region. That said, bread in Italy is always wonderful—either with a hard, crunchy crust and a soft center, like a French baguette, or soft throughout but golden brown on top, like a thick, light pizza (focaccia). Thin, crunchy breadsticks (grissini) are common throughout northern Italy.
Bread in Italy can be eaten as is, or dipped in fresh, extra-virgin olive oil from a bottle that is provided along with the bread when one is seated. Butter—always unsalted—will only occasionally be found on the table as an accompaniment to the bread, and only in northern Italy. So if butter is not brought to the table with the bread, it probably is not available. When it comes to bread, just follow the local traditions for the best way to enjoy the type of bread each region has to offer!
Next on Italian menus, we come to a list of starchy foods, such as pasta, gnocchi, or rice for the first course, or il primo. The word pasta means "paste" or "dough," and refers to the method of mixing flour with water or eggs and then kneading the paste that is formed from this simple mixture until the gluten in the flour transforms it into a dough. The dough is rested, then rolled out and stretched, and finally cut into strands or put through a hand-cranked pasta machine at home. Commercial pasta machines, with their metal dyes that shape pasta into its many well-loved forms, and the ability of pasta to be dried and then cooked easily in a pot of salted boiling water, have allowed Italian pasta to become one of the world's most popular dishes.
Many restaurants in Italy will have a selection of fresh pastas made daily, and it is the custom to make all sauces from scratch using farm-fresh ingredients. Pasta in Italy is always cooked freshly and served "al dente," which literally means "to the tooth" (a bit firm when chewed). Pasta is served promptly, so it is never soft or mushy.
Italian short-grain rice (riso) when cooked in the Italian way is called risotto and is often served in northern Italy instead of pasta for the first course. The most popular types of rice grown in Italy are arborio and carnaroli. Italian rice is very starchy and is cooked slowly, with constant stirring, to bring out the starch and create a creamy sauce. No milk or cream is added! A variety of vegetables, seafood, or saffron can be added, along with a final enrichment of butter and cheese. How "soupy" the final dish turns out to be varies by region, but the rice itself is always a little firm, despite the constant stirring it takes to create the sauce.
Il secondo, or the second course, always consists of meat or seafood, and with this course, a vegetable side dish, or contorno, can be ordered. The meat or seafood may be served alone or with one starch only, such as a potato or rice, so be sure to order your vegetables if you are a vegetable lover! Italians are very fond of vegetables and consider them as important as the meat or seafood in this course—important enough to be given their own listing on Italian menus!
For those who like to finish their meal with something sweet, there is usually a wide array of offerings for the dessert course, or il dolce. Whether for an informal meal, a large, important gathering, or a special holiday, several dessert choices are usually listed on the menu. Il dolce may consist of fruit, nuts, cheeses, an assortment of pastries or ice cream, and of course, sweet wine (vin santo), liquors, and coffee.
Try a full Italian meal "al fresco" one balmy evening in Italy, just the way the Italians do. Watch the people stroll by as they take their evening walk, relax, and enjoy. You won't be disappointed!
—Adapted from Conversational Italian for Travelers, Chapter 16, "Cultural Note – A Typical Italian Menu" © 2012 by Stella Lucente, LLC.
Visiting Italy? Follow Caterina for tips on how to order at your favorite Italian restaurant—from the Conversational Italian series of books!
Visiting Italy? Learn how to order at your favorite Italian restaurant!
After Caterina arrives in Italy, she stays with her Italian cousin Pietro and his family in Milan for a while and adapts to Italian life and the Italian language. Then, in the last unit of the book, they all go on a summer vacation together. Caterina and the family stay at a typical northern Italian lake resort in the town of Stresa on Lago Maggiore.
For those travelers who are adventurous enough to try out their Italian on their own visit to Italy, read on to the next section, Italian Cultural Notes, for some phrases that will come in handy when ordering at an Italian restaurant. Get started by speaking with the waiter. A delicious meal is soon to follow!
Italian restaurant at the Villa d'Este hotel on Lago Como ready for lunch.
Below are some expressions that are commonly used when dining in a restaurant.
The io (I) and noi (we) forms of the verbs potere (to be able to/can) and volere (to want) are important to know in this situation, because requests are usually made for oneself or for the entire table.
"May I…?" and "Possiamo?" for "May we…?" to our list of polite phrases to use when making a request.
To the popular "io vorrei…" for "I would like," we add the conditional plural form, "Noi vorremmo…" for "We would like…" See Chapter 18 of our Conversational Italian for Travelers textbook for the full conjugation of these verbs in the conditional tense.
…sederci vicino alla finestra? …sit by the window?
…sederci a un'altro tavolo? …sit at another table?
…avere il menù? …see (have) the menu?
Qual'è lo speciale oggi/stasera? What is the special today/this evening?
Che cosa ha scelto/avete scelto? What have you/you all chosen?
…come antipasto, l'insalata mista. …for the antipasto, mixed salad.
…come primo, le tagliatelle alla bolognese. …for the first course, tagliatelle with Bolognese meat sauce.
…come secondo, l'osso bucco. …for the second course, braised veal shank.
…come dolce, solamente frutta. …for dessert, only fruit.
…fatto con noci/arachidi. …made with nuts/peanuts.
Questo è troppo caldo. This is too hot.
Questo è troppo freddo. This is too cold.
…dell'acqua senza gas/naturale? …some water without gas (natural water)?
…dell'acqua con gas/frizzante? …some sparkling water?
…del pane/più pane? …some bread/more bread?
…del sale e pepe? …some salt and pepper?
…un cucchiaio, un coltello, una forchetta? …a spoon, a knife, a fork?
Cin cin!/Salute!/Alla tua salute! Cheers! (To your) good health!
Adapted from Conversational Italian for Travelers, Chapter 16, "Important Phrases – Speaking with the Waiter," © 2012 by Stella Lucente, LLC.
Read on to the next section, Italian Cultural Notes for some important tips.
Cultural Notes: Drive Italy! When in Rome, Drive as the Romans Do!
The Italian Cultural Notes section below, also from the textbook, describes the exciting new high-speed Italian trains of the Freccia and Italo railway systems that have streamlined travel between the major cities in Italy.
After Caterina's plane lands in Italy in the first chapter of the book, she takes a taxi to the main train station in Milan, where her cousin Pietro meets her. She is lucky to have a relative who can drive her in Italy to her final destination in Milan. For those who do not have a personal chauffeur to take them on a tour of Italy, or who just want to rent a Ferrari as part of their dream vacation, I have included in the book some tips on renting cars in the "Cultural Note: Drive Italy!" section in Chapter 6, which have been adapted for this blog.
Read on to the section that follows, Italian Cultural Notes.
The Italian railway system is the most efficient way to travel throughout Italy, especially for the tourist with a limited period of time to spend. But for those for whom driving the autostrada in a Ferrari has always been a dream (see www.red-travel.com), or for those who have enough time to spend to really get to know the countryside (www.italylogue.com/agriturismo), here are a few tips about what is needed to rent a car and drive in Italy.
A quick search of the Internet for "rent a car in Italy" yields many companies that promise quick and easy deals. Auto Europe is not a car rental company, but a car broker that allows the traveler to book online, and it offers several additional services (www.autoeurope.com). Auto Europe is recommended by Slow Travel Italy, which can also be found on the Internet at http://www.slowtrav.com/italy/planning/. Here are some of the benefits that Auto Europe can provide for the renter: competitive pricing, a list of what is included for the price, pickup and dropoff at different locations within Italy at no extra charge, and a 24/7 customer service line that will help the traveler handle any issues encountered on the road or with the local rental company. Note that commonly included fees when renting a car in Italy include taxes, a surcharge for picking up the car at the airport, and possibly a daily road tax. Insurance is necessary to drive in Italy and can significantly increase the price of the rental when obtained through the rental company, so it is worthwhile to check if you can get cheaper insurance through a credit card company.
Picking up a rental car at the airport can be difficult at peak travel times because of long lines, and during off-hours, when parts of the airport may be closed. In addition, many Italian hotels, especially if located centrally within a city, do not have parking available for their guests. There are tolls on most Italian freeways, and gas is expensive in Italy. It may be easier to take the train to your initial destination and pick up the car the next day or when you are leaving for the next city on your trip—again, public transportation in most cities is excellent. The city streets in Italy are narrow, so remember that a smaller car is probably better than a larger car, as long as luggage and family will fit!
Here is a checklist of things to find out before leaving the rental office: (1) whether the car takes unleaded gas (benzina) or diesel (gasolio), (2) how to put the car in reverse, (3) how to lock and unlock doors and windows, (4) whether a reflective vest and other equipment required by law in case of an accident have been provided (in the trunk), (5) whether a GPS or map of the town where you will be driving is available, and (6) whether you can get a parking disc for the car.
"Cultural Note" © 2012 by Stella Lucente, LLC.


Another round of applause for Apple as they launched their fifth generation ipod which not only plays quality music and displays photos, they now can play videos too. The newest kid on the block, the iPod Video, is wanted by those with a high budget or who wish to watch video on their iPod. It has a slightly larger screen than the iPod Nano and play a crisp 30 fps video display. iPod video, in either black or white, has a 30GB and 60GB storage memory.
It features a 2.5-inch color screen and is thinner than the older ipod. The new video feature has long been waited for and has already been the subject of many Apple rumor in many websites for some time now. How does ipod video works? You first have to go to the iTunes store through the new iTunes 6 software and access the videos area.
iTunes 6 gives you: ?	Video podcasting ?	2,000 music videos for $1.99 each ?	Six Pixar short films for $1.99 each ?	ABC TV shows for $1.
99 each ?	DRM: No burning allowed. Play videos on up to five computers and unlimited iPods as you want. Videos are protected.
?	Gifting: iTunes 6 allows you to buy a friend a song. ?	Customer reviews ?	"Just for you" personalized recommendations on the main page based on iTunes purchases. From there, you can choose from more than 2,000 music videos as well as ad-free episodes of selected ABC or Disney television programs.
After you make your purchases, the videos are downloaded to the iTunes software on your computer and then synced onto the iPod itself. You then access the videos by selecting the video option from the main screen on the iPod's display. That done, you can now navigate and play your video using the click wheel.
That is how simple and uncomplicated the video ipod works. If you are one of those who is already familiar with these things, then it will not pose a problem anymore. Besides videos purchased from the iTunes store, ipod video can also play home videos exported from Apple's QuickTime 7 Pro. Other features of the new ipod video are those which have been introduced in previous model of this device. This includes USB 2.0 support, calendar and contacts synchronization with Microsoft Outlook, song shuffle, photo slideshows set to music, a world clock and playlists.
Some of the fresh new improvements of ipod video include: ?	16x9 screen ?	320x340 pixels ?	260,000 colors ?	Realtime decoding of MPEG4 and H.264 at 30fps ?	Video out ?	30GB retails for $299 and 60GB for $399 ?	The 60GB model is thinner than the current 20GB ?	The 30GB holds 75 hours of video Portable media players with the capacity to play video are not new, but it looks like Apple is hoping to take is dominance of the digital audio landscape to video. This is a huge step forward in accessibility and portability of digital entertainment.
It will be very interesting to watch where things will go from here. If the ipod video device will not surpassed for some time, then for sure it will become the most in demand ipod ever made. As of now, expect a lot more accessories and features for ipod video to appear in the future.
S. Stammberger is editor of Poddies Net. This site is fully dedicated to the Apple iPod. Find out about mini speakers, skins, cases, newest innovations, and more.


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The James Hardie Contractor Alliance Program is designed to match homeowners with professional contractors from around the country, who are trained and available to help you meet your needs for siding repair and replacement. In an effort to provide the highest level of service, customer satisfaction surveys are initiated on every James Hardie project installed by a Preferred Contractor.


Fireworks begin at dusk. Gates will open at 7 p.m. The fireworks show and parking at Flower Mound High School are free. Music will be provided by the Flower Mound Symphony Orchestra. No glass, alcohol, or tobacco products may be brought to the high school. Concessions and children's activities will be available. The rainout date for this event is Sunday, July 5. For more information, call 972.874.6276.


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Q3392A-Absorber Absorber - Ink service station (ISS) bottom absorber foam - absorbs ink during the cleaning process. Service station absorber (sponge) - soaks up used ink during cartridge cleaning. Works as sled filters.
Q3392A-AC_Adapter AC Adapter - Power supply module or adapter - one end for connecting to the printer and other end to the power cord, or your ac adapter may have the pwr cord attached.
Q3392A-Actuator Actuator - Actuating unit. this part usually causes the carriage assembly to stalls on the left side of the printer, verify that the clutch actuator arm (slider arm).
Q3392A-ADF_Arm ADF Arm - Senses paper in the ADF area tray / feeder tray. this is a front flapper arm - part of the paper separation mechanism for the paper pickup assembly - mounts just in front of the front separation belts in the ADF assembly.
Q3392A-ADF_Feed_Assy ADF Feed Assembly - ADF assembly - does not include ADF input tray. ADF assembly includes the complete ADF assembly (motor, gears, rollers, sensor, does not include the ADF pad or plastic flatbed cover. (for entire unit please see ADF unit assembly).
Q3392A-ADF_Input_Tray Adf Input Tray - ADF tray ( for automatic document feeder) this is where papers are placed for feeding into unit.
Q3392A-ADF_Motor ADF Motor - ADF motor - the scanner ADF motor is located on left rear corner of ADF drive, location varies from each unit. however, this is the main motor on the ADF unit.
Q3392A-ADF_Output_Tray ADF Out Put Tray - ADF out put tray is where paper come out of ADF (automatic document feeder). For this unit, we will ship the entire ADF Assembly.
Q3392A-ADF_Pad ADF Pad - ADF paper seperation pad assembly - mounts in the center of the ADF separation pad frame assembly. this pad prevents from multiple feeding or preventing paper jams while faxing scanning or copying.
Q3392A-ADF_Roller_Kit ADF Roller Kit - ADF upper pick roller replacement kit. these are the rollers that feed paper into the feeder to be scan copy or faxed.
Q3392A-ADF_Scanner ADF Scanner - ADF scanner (optical) assembly - includes the chassis assembly, scanner lens assembly (includes the charge coupled device (ccd)), the scanning lamp, ADF analog processor board, and ADF inverter board - this is the assembly that scans, copies documents.
Q3392A-ADF_Unit_Assy ADF Unit Assembly - Complete replacement assembly unit for Officejet Copier top assembly only. This includes the ADF (automatic document feeder) for this unit.
Q3392A-Belt_Paper Belt Paper - Paper drive belt (usually a small belt) - this belt attaches to a gear which is driven by the paper drive motor assembly.
Q3392A-Belt_Scanner Belt Scanner - Scanner assembly belt. belt moves the scanner while copying or scanning documents.
Q3392A-Cable_Interface Cable Interface - Parallel cable - connects from your printer to computer via your parallel port.
Q3392A-Cable_Panel Cable Panel - Cable Panel assembly - includes ribbon cable this is the cable that connects to the control panel or display.
Q3392A-Cable_USB Cable USB - This interface cable is the standard 2.0 usb cable that connects to your printer and computer for printing.
Q3392A-Cap_Lifter Cap Lifter - These lifter caps hold the pressure plate lifter and the kicker spring in place.
Q3392A-Carriage_Assy Carriage Assembly - Ink cartridge carriage assembly - includes carriage, felt, felt retainers, ink cartridge latches, trailing cable, pc board, belt attachment hardware, and slider.
Q3392A-Carriage_Belt Carriage Belt - Carriage drive belt, this belt is attached to the carriage and carriage motor, it moves the carriage side to side while priting.
Q3392A-Carriage_Cable Carriage Cable - Flex circuit cable which connects the head driver board to the carriage assembly. in some units it is also known as the trailing cable, this cable moves along with the carriage unit (side to side).
Q3392A-Carriage_Latch_CVR Carriage Latch Cover - The carriage latch is used to keep the cartridge(s) in place. this latch(s) hold the cartridge(s) in place while carriage is printing or idle.
Q3392A-Carriage_Motor Carriage Motor - Carriage motor moves the carriage unit side to side. the carriage belt goes arround this motor, which controls carriage movement.
Q3392A-Carriage_Only Carriage Only - Carriage only - includes carriage, felt, felt retainers, ink cartridge latches - does not include trailing cable, pc board, belt attachment hardware, or slider (for complete carriage unit, please see carriage assembly).
Q3392A-Carriage_PC_BRD Carriage PC Board - This pc board attaches on the carriage, it is usually a small pc board that has carrage cable attached to it.
Q3392A-Clutch_Feed Clutch Feed - Clutch unit resposible for unit picking up paper from the pick up unit.
Q3392A-Control_Panel Control Panel - Control panel assembly - control buttons and display on top front of the unit.
Q3392A-Cover_Back Cover Back - Back cover of printer, it is usually removed to clear paper jams.
Q3392A-Cover_Cartridge Cover Cartridge - This is the cover/ door that is opened to remove the cartridge(s) - usually, when this door opens the carriage moves.
Q3392A-Cover_Main Cover Main - This is the main cover of the printer. it is the biggest piece of plastic the printer is made off.
Q3392A-Display Display - Status led display (LCD display assembly).
Q3392A-Door_Carriage Door Carriage - Main front access door - covers the top of the printer and provide access to the carriage when open.
Q3392A-Door_Cartridge Door Cartridge - Small front access door (drop down door) - for accessing print cartridge window - for print cartridge access door.
Q3392A-Door_Rear Door Rear - Rear cleanout door assembly - rear paper jam clean out door assembly.
Q3392A-Drive_Assy Drive Assembly - Paper drive roller kit - includes roller assembly, bushings, gear on roller, transmission gear kit, encoder disc, end thrust (axial) spring.
Q3392A-Feed_Rollers_ADF Feed Rollers ADF - ADF feed roller kit - includes all rollers that feed paper through the feeder.
Q3392A-Formatter Formatter - Formatter board assembly, this board communicates with your computer device and has MAC port connector.
Q3392A-Gear_Main Gear Main - Paper pickup drive assembly - gear assembly located on right side of paper pickup assembly. gear moves the main paper pick up roller.
Q3392A-Glass_ADF_Window Glass ADF Window - Small glass piece used when scanning - copying - faxing with ADF feeder for this unit will ship Q5888-00002.
Q3392A-Glass_Assy Glass Assembly - Main top copier glass assembly.
Q3392A-Hinge_Cvr Hinge - Single cover end M-Hinge Hinge is for top cover supporting opening and closing of the cover. Most covers use 2 hinges this price includes 1pc Hinge.
Q3392A-Holder Holder - Ink cartridge holder - located on carriage unit, holder secures ink cartridge in place.
Q3392A-Idler Idler - Scanner belt idler assembly - maintains scannter belt tension.
Q3392A-Lid_Cover_Assy Lid Cover Assy - Top glass copier cover. Lid that pressed document onto the glass for copying or scanning document.
Q3392A-Motor_Scanner Motor Scanner - Scanner unit motor - drives the scanner unit to scan documents to be copied, fax, or scanned.
Q3392A-Overlay Overlay - Overlay unit which covers the control button or display (english overlay only), control panel or display sold seperately.
Q3392A-Pad_ADF Pad ADF - Pad separator - (located on ADF unit) assembled from plastic and rubber components; to help in separating sheet of media during faxing, scanning, or copying.
Q3392A-PC_BRD_DC PC Board DC - Internal power supply board - power cable plugs on this assembly, remove covers to install pc board.
Q3392A-PC_BRD_Interface PC Board Interface - Internal print server lan interface board - plugs into peripheral eio. usefull for networking and multiple users.
Q3392A-Power_Cord Power Cord - Power module power cord- wall outlet cable to power module only. does not include power module.
0950-4081 Power Module - Power module (worldwide/universal) - 100-240VAC input voltage, 47-63Hz, 30 watts - 32VDC output voltage, 1.0A - Requires a separate, detachable AC power cord with C13 connector.
Q3392A-Power_Supply Power Supply - Power supply board (internal pwr supply unit in the office machine).
Q3392A-Print_Mchnsm Print Mechanism - Print mechanism assembly - complete mechanism with carriage movement, paper picking and service station - does not include covers, printer base, print heads, ink cartridges, or any consumables.
Q3392A-Pulley Pulley - Paper pick up tray motor pulley.
Q3392A-Repair_InkJet Repair Service - Ship your product to us for a small diagnostic fee; and a professional service job. We will contact you with repair total and your diagnostic fee will be waived if unit is repaired. Service warranty is 30days labor and 90days for parts. Extended warranty option is available.
Q3392A-Roller_ADF Roller ADF - Feeder ADF roller for picking up paper from ADF unit.
Q3392A-Roller_Exit Roller Exit - Paper exit rollers - out put assembly.
Q3392A-Scanner Scanner - Copier scanner (optical) assembly - includes scanner assembly only scanner lens assembly (includes the charge coupled device (ccd)) the scanning lamp ADF analog processor board and ADF inverter board - major portion of the ADF main assembly.
Q3392A-Scanner_Assy Scanner Assembly - Copier scanner & glass assembly - includes the chassis assembly scanner lens assembly (includes the charge coupled device (ccd)) the scanning lamp ADF analog processor board and ADF inverter board - major portion of the ADF main assembly.
Q3392A-Scanner_Belt Scanner Belt - Scanner belt attaches from the scanner to the scanner motor.
Q3392A-Scanner_Cable Scanner Cable - Flex circuit cable which connects to the scanner assembly. also known as flat cable, this cable moves along with the scanner unit (side to side) as it scans documents.
Q3392A-Scanner_Unit Scanner Unit - Scanner unit includes the entire scanner base but not the ADF portion.
Q3392A-Sensor_Spot Sensor Spot - Spot sensor assembly is attached to the carriage assembly.
Q3392A-Separator Separator - Pad separator - assembled from plastic and rubber components; to help in separating sheet of media during printing from bottom trays.
Q3392A-Guide Service Guide - Printer Reference Guide (not a service manual) - Contains information such as product information, operation overview, paper behavior, maintenance, ink safety, and removal / replacement of parts. This is not a service manual for technical repair.
Q3392A-Slider Slider - Carriage base slider - plastic piece on the front end of the carriage that allows the carriage to slide side to side.
Q3392A-Speaker Speaker - Speaker assembly - includes speaker cable.
Q3392A-Trailing_Cbl Trailing Cable - Trailing cable for scanner - cable connects from scanner to pc board.
Q3392A-Tray_Assy Tray Assembly - Paper input tray assembly for loading paper (bottom).
Q3392A-Tray_Assy_CVR Tray Assembly Cover - Tray cover - the top cover for the paper pick up tray unit.
Q3392A-Tray_Base Tray Base - Tray base- bottom base of the paper input tray.
Q3392A-Window Window - Top/front access door assembly - print cartridge access door window.


text:
OALibJ Vol.7 No.2 , February 2020
Domestic Wastewater Treatment: Difficulties and Reasons, and Prospective Solutions—China as an Example
Djamel Ghernaout1,2, Noureddine Elboughdiri1,3
1 Chemical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Ha'il, Ha'il, Saudi Arabia.
3 Département de Génie Chimique de Procédés, Laboratoire Modélisation, Analyse, et Commande des systèmes, Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Gabès (ENIG), Gabès, Tunisia.
Abstract: During the last three decades, China has attained noteworthy advances in municipal sanitation. The country has constructed a highly large infrastructure for treating wastewater, with 94.5% treatment coverage in urban areas and legally mandated nation-wide full nutrient removal applied. Nevertheless, domestic wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are yet defied with problems rooted in the singular sewage properties. Recently, Cao et al. [1] compared energy recovery, price of nutrient reduction and sludge formation among Chinese urban WWTPs and those in nations with longer wastewater treatment traditions, and underlined the cause-effect relationships among Chinese sewage properties—high inorganic suspended solids (ISS) loads, and low COD and C/N ratio, and municipal WWTP process performance in China. Combined design and running guidelines for domestic WWTPs are crucial in relation to the singular sewage properties in China. Cost-efficient actions and solutions are suggested by Cao et al. [1], and the likely advantages of enhancing the sustainability of urban WWTPs in China are evaluated.
Keywords: Wastewater Treatment, Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs), Inorganic Suspended Solids (ISS), Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS), Anaerobic Digestion (AD)
During the last three decades, China has attained an extraordinary advance in municipal sanitation [1] . Annual domestic sewage treatment potential amounted to 49.2 × 109 m3, with 94.5% treatment coverage in urban areas in 2017 [1] . Nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) elimination is needed legally and has been applied at the national level. Nevertheless, small energy recuperation is carried out, nutrient elimination is costly, and sludge formation is elevated at municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The unique properties of Chinese sewage/wastewater are the major reason for the low performance of municipal WWTPs [1] . Sewer leakage is the first determining factor conducting to China's unique sewage properties [2] . In view of the hard missions implicated, and the great investment and long periods required for sewer rehabilitation, cost-efficient and rapid works are necessitated to enhance the sustainability of Chinese domestic sewage treatment.
Cao et al. [1] focused on three aims: 1) to match energy recovery, nutrient reduction, and sludge formation at municipal WWTPs in China with those in other nations with longer wastewater treatment traditions; 2) to discover the cause-effect link among Chinese sewage properties and the technology efficiency of municipal WWTPs; and 3) to suggest cost-efficient procedures and solutions to elevate the sustainability of municipal WWTPs.
In China, energy recuperation is founded on comparisons of WWTPs employing anaerobic digestion (AD), and combined heat and power (CHP) in China, and Europe, USA and Singapore. Because primary settling tanks and AD are utilized rarely in China, sludge formation is mostly founded on observed biomass yield coefficients and influent inorganic suspended solids (ISS) gathering in the technique is evaluated following mass balance [3] .
3.1. Municipal Wastewater Treatment―Sustainability
Table 1 illustrates that less than 5% of Chinese domestic WWTPs employ AD [3] , which is very small contrasted to Europe, USA and Singapore. This shows restricted energy recovery from internal sources via AD and/or CHP in China, even if the technique has been accessible in the nations with longer wastewater treatment traditions [4] . Failure to utilize AD conducts not only to sludge stabilization problems [3] , but also augmented sludge generation (lack of volatile suspended solids (VSS) demolition in AD or lime, etc., addition for stabilization) and hygiene issues, along with sludge disposal and reuse problems [3] .
With a view to satisfy strict nutrient discharge standards (such as China first grade class A discharge standards for municipal WWTPs, TN (total nitrogen) < 15 mg-N/L, first and TP (total phosphorus) < 0.5 mg-P/L, and TN < 10 mg-N/L,
Table 1. Proportion municipal WWTPs with AD in China and other countries (%) [1] .
TP < 0.3 mg/L applied in sensitive regions in numerous provinces), carbon injection (and chemicals for phosphorus removal) is applied in several WWTPs in China [3] despite the restricted usage of primary settling (PS) tanks. Basically, this is attributed to the small C/N ratio of the incoming sewage as for more usual sewage, traditional biological nitrogen reduction methods may attain effluent TN < 10 mg-N/L without carbon dosing [3] . Due to chemical usage, chemicals include the second highest operating cost (after power) in several plants [3] . Chemical prices are predicted to augment more, if stricter nutrient discharge standards (such as TN < 5 mg-N/L and TP < 0.1 mg-P/L) are applied. This will apply more economic burdens on plant operations and local authorities, apart from which, augmented chemical injection is unsustainable when the primary energy employed and corresponding greenhouse gas emissions are taken into account [5] .
Wastewater treatment sludge consists of excess biomass, refractory particulate chemical oxygen demand (COD) and mineral particles (ISS) [6] [7] [8] [9] . Sludge formation is dictated by the wastewater properties, technique and site nature. Table 2 shows the annual average sludge formation (dry solids (DS) based) related to COD elimination in wastewater treatment in China in 2015, 2016 and 2017 [1] . The three-year average is 0.69 kg/kg-COD reduced. Taking into account the restricted usage of PS 10% - 20% [1] and AD (<5%), the sludge formation per kg/COD reduced may be considered as the observed sludge yield (coefficient) from the activated sludge process [3] . The sludge formation yield founded on the sewage composition in China in 2017 [2] , assuming an influent VSS/TSS ratio of 80% [10] and dominating biological nutrient reduction method, is evaluated following Paul et al. [11] . For biological nitrogen and phosphorus (BNPR) and chemical phosphorus removal (molar Fe/P removal ratio of 1.5, 80% of P removed) (hybrid) process with influent RBCOD (readily biodegradable COD)/COD ratio of 8%, BOD/P 18%, VSS/TSS 80% and sludge retention time (SRT) 18 days, the sludge yield (DS) must be 0.48 kg/kg COD eliminated. This comprises 30% more sludge than traditional biological nitrogen removal (BNR) (3.7 kg/kg COD eliminated) because of metal injection for chemical P elimination. The real 0.69 kg/kg COD reduced is 44% more important than the 0.48 kg/kg COD reduced with the normal (80%) influent VSS/TSS ratio [1] .
In China, investigations of sludge formation in WWTPs have depicted that WWTPs usually yield approximately 0.48 kg-DS/kg COD reduced when the influent features are more or less normal; however, those with sludge yields of 0.69 or higher are treating sewage with abnormal features. It is probable that the high yield noted is because of extra mineral accumulation originating from the influent
Table 2. Chinese annual COD reduction and sludge generation and sludge observed yield coefficients for 2015, 2016 and 2017 [1] .
aCOD removed, kg × 10−1/m3, average of municipal WWTPs; bCOD removed, kg × 109, all municipal WWTPs; cCOD removed, kg × 109, all municipal WWTPs; dSludge produced (DS), kg × 109, all municipal WWTPs; fSludge produced (DS), kg × 109, all municipal WWTPs.
wastewater [1] .
Average sludge yield in France, where 39% of WWTPs have AD, is 0.44 kg-/kg COD removed (calculated from 0.97 kg-/kg-BOD5elim assuming 1 mg BOD5 = 2.2 mg COD) [1] . An even lower sludge production coefficient 0.24 kg-DS/kg COD removed, only one third that in China was reported in Singapore, where all municipal WWTPs apply AD for energy recovery plus solids reduction of around 35% [12] . These sludge production coefficients are quoted for illustration, given the sewage characteristics and process differences in France and Singapore. They demonstrate, however, that current Chinese sludge production coefficients are truly relatively high [1] .
3.2. Reasons for Low-Efficiency Efficiency: Distinctive Sewage Properties
Wastewater features are crucial in designing and modelling activated sludge processes [10] [13] [14] [15] [16] . Cao et al. [2] quantified the sewer system leakage portions in four cases, and proved that sewer leakage conducts to three sewage properties: high ISS, and low COD and C/N ratio, in China [1] .
It has been illustrated that the influent VSS/TSS ratio of the WWTPs in many regions with reasonably well handled sewer systems in China is among 50 and 60%. This is under the 60% - 80% median interval [13] , even if more information is needed for a national picture. The low influent ratios mentioned―COD/SS < 1 and BOD5/SS = 0.3 - 0.5 in China [1] are also indicators of high ISS loads (sand, etc.) in the sewage. The influent ISS/TSS fraction has a direct effect on the mixed liquor volatile solids fraction (MLVSS/MLTSS) as depicted by Equation (1) [3] assuming no PS:
M L V S S / M L T S S = I S S I O × ( Θ c / τ ) (1)
where, ISSI0: influent ISS; Θ c : sludge retention time (SRT); τ: hydraulic retention time.
Employing Equation (1) for an activated sludge process without PS, with 12-day SRT and 0.5-day HRT, and influent VSS of 180 mg/L, ISS 79 mg/L [VSS ratio of 70% (180/(79 + 180))], a 10% VSS ratio reduction (ISS increased to 120 mg/L) yields a mixed liquor increase to approximately 1,000 mg-ISS/L, showing the sensitivity of ISS to the VSS portion. Modelling illustrated that a 10% decrease in the influent ISS/TSS (increasing VSS/TSS) ratio can cause a 15% - 25% increase in the MLVSS fraction [1] . That fraction (and AD wet feed) in most WWTPs in China is between 30 and 60%. The lower MLVSS fractions are often from WWTPs with high influent ISS from poorly managed sewer systems, while relatively higher fractions are often from WWTPs with lower influent ISS, generally from properly managed systems or in northern China, where ex-filtration occurs [17] . The average volatile solids fraction reported in China is below 50% well below the normal 70% - 75% range [10] . This shows important inorganic solids input and accumulation, even taking into account the accumulation of minerals utilized to eliminate phosphorus chemically (volatile solids fraction 60%) [1] .
A small MLVSS portion is harmful to both activated sludge and AD process efficiency. Considering a volatile solids portion of 70% as the comparison basis, the lower portion of 50% will need a volume augmentation of about 30% for the activated sludge tanks and AD. On the other hand, the activated sludge process SRT will be diminished. This may influence process efficiency negatively if the impact of elevated influent ISS was not taken into account in the first design, greatly leading to increased effluent ammonia in winter [1] .
A small volatile solids portion in the AD feed diminishes the biogas production per unit effective volume (or per unit sludge). This would conduct to the requirement of addition volume, or the SRT and total biogas formation could be decreased. The integration of decreased biogas yield with solids depositing in AD, and pipe clogging provoked by sand and abrasive wear [18] [19] has conducted to the very small present implementation of AD in China. Of several parameters, the elevated ISS content of numerous wastewaters remains the principal technological hurdle to AD implementation in China [18] [19] . This further elevates the investment need for solids processing at municipal WWTPs [1] . Elevated ISS influent levels also lead to the necessity of supplementary capability for final settling and solids treatment, and energy wastage in solids treatment.
The accumulation of influent ISS in the primary and secondary sludges is responsible for elevated sludge formation [3] . Modeling illustrated that when the influent ISS/TSS ratio decreases from 70 to 60%, or from 60 to 50%, sludge production (DS) decreases by about 30%, with or without PS [1] . In summary, high influent sewage ISS imposes multiple negative effects on municipal WWTP efficiency and operation [1] .
More details about this scientific discussion may be found in [1] .
3.3. Likely Solutions
3.3.1. Development of Integrated Guidelines for the Design and Operation of Municipal WWTPs
In reaction to China's unique sewage properties, guidelines for the design and running of municipal WWTPs are required. They have to combine problems of local sewage features, discharge requirements, location, treatment capacity, and energy, chemicals and sludge disposal costs, etc. As a system input, sewage features possess crucial contributions in the selection and design of the biological technique. Traditional processes may not be utilizable to remedy dilute sewage (like about 100 mg-COD/L) in areas of southern China; as an alternative, methods such as membrane-founded technique [20] - [25] or SANI (sulfate reduction, autotrophic denitrification, and nitrification [26] have to be think about. Denitrification amelioration with biodegradable particulate COD (via omitting PS) may be practical in warm climates, but not in cold zones [1] .
Implementing AD for energy recovery in Chinese municipal WWTPs has to be first considered. In the USA at the turn of the century, it was economically possible to utilize AD in WWTP with capacities exceeding 100,000 m3/d [4] . More newly, AD has begun to be economic in even smaller plants with capacities of 20,000 - 40,000 m3/d. In Europe, they can yield economic benefits at around 10,000 m3/d (50,000 PE) [4] . The economic feasibility of AD at a Chinese municipal WWTP has to be evaluated in the context of local circumstances [1] .
3.3.2. Suggested Actions
Taken into account the long period needed for sewer rehabilitation and the present status of urban WWTPs, cost-efficient actions and solutions to ameliorate WWTP efficiency necessitate to be figured out and applied while integration guidelines are formulated. Possible amelioration in grit removal and sludge fermentation and the usage of AD and CHP are defined below. Considering the influence of plant size on economic advantages and cost-effectiveness, grit removal enhancement appears valuable for all WWTPs; however, sludge fermentation and the implementation of AD and CHP for energy recuperation would be appropriate for relatively large WWTPs with relatively high influent COD levels (such as 250 mg/L) [1] .
a) Enhancement of grit removal efficiency
From the above, it is obvious that the low volatile solids portion of the mixed liquor and the elevated sludge formation are both attributable to [1] :
i. unsuitable capacity, and poor design and maintenance of grit removal units, which are usually the most neglected parts of WWTPs, and added as afterthoughts;
ii. in numerous regions in China, the sewage carries elevated ISS levels with parts including fine material with diameters below 200 μm [1] , which are hard for traditional grit units to eliminate since they are targeted mostly at material exceeding 200 μm diameter and 2.7 g/cm3 [27] .
The corresponding measures have to be investigating current grit removal efficiency, comprising ISS mass loading and elimination performance and maintaining grit reduction units orderly. It is likely to attain an MLVSS portion of 55% - 60% with a traditional grit removal unit under normal running conditions. Upgrading present traditional grit removal units with augmented hydraulic retention time [1] has as well to be adopted for ameliorated performance. Site-specific investigation with respect to equipment capable of reducing particulate matter smaller than 200 μm has as well to be performed. The elevated levels of fine ISS in Chinese sewage, which possess harmful impacts on the efficiency of numerous Chinese WWTPs, propose that particular investigation on grit reduction would be of use.
Critical stages proposed relating to grit reduction at Chinese WWTPs are [1] :
i. performing a national investigation of the volatile solids portions of sewage and mixed liquor in domestic WWTPs; grit reduction unit efficiency can be evaluated on the basis of these two portions;
ii. decreasing ISS accumulation in the process via enhancing the performance of grit reduction units; and
iii. setting the action objective of MLVSS portion at 55% for small WWTPs and 60% for large ones (i.e., capacity > 50,000 m3/d), with a view to attempting to attain a roughly 10% increase in the MLVSS by upgrading grit removal efficiency.
b) Sludge fermentation
Increasing the usage of internal carbon has to be the primary aim in dealing with carbon lacks in BNR processes [1] . Complete utilization of readily biodegradable soluble COD for nutrient removal has to be studied as established in Zurich WWTP [28] . Employing biodegradable particulate COD via PS fermentation [29] stays one practice that may be developed. Figure 1 illustrates an average of 40 mg-VFA/L augmentation arising from full-scale PS fermentation. Return activated sludge (and on-line mixed liquor) fermentation has been utilized broadly in the USA and Europe to improve BNR [29] .
c) Low carbon requirement nutrient removal processes
Techniques such as BCFS (biological?chemical phosphorus and nitrogen removal) [30] , SANI [26] and MABR (membrane aerated biofilm reactors) [1] have to be examined in point of view of nutrient elimination in low carbon
Figure 1. VFA in and out in a full-scale primary sludge fermentation showing average increase 40 mg-VFA/L [VFAout-VFAin], temperature 16 - 18˚C, net release of NH4-N and P of 2 and 1 mg/L, respectively [1] .
circumstances. BCFS and MABR have been implemented at full-scale; however, SANI simply at pilot-scale to date. As their usage in China remains still restricted, pilot or demonstration-scale trials will be necessitated [1] .
3.3.3. Future Considerations
a) Energy recovery
For those WWTPs with convenient treatment capability and comparatively elevated influent COD levels (such as 250 mg/L), the volatile solids portion is the key to implementing AD. Taking into account a beginning volatile solids portion of 55%, an elevation of 10% in the mixed liquor may conduct to an around 20% augmentation in biogas generation [31] . In the same period, abrasive wear and pipe clogging are decreased importantly, widely diminishing the technological hurdles to AD utilization. The electricity recuperated from AD through CHP could save up to around 30% of that required to run the WWTPs [4] . The Bailonggang WWTP in Shanghai, capacity 2,000,000 m3/d, [1] with influent COD level, and Zurich WWTP with primary effluent COD level of about 250 mg/L [1] and both employing AD for energy recovery, prove that the procedure is practical. Assuming that approximatively half of the sewage in China is treated in plants with capacities surpassing 100,000 m3/d [1] , energy recovery from AD would be important even if only half of them applied it. For smaller plants, dewatered sludge could be sent either to larger plants or regional sludge treatment centers for energy recovery [1] .
b) Reducing carbon expenditure
The objective is to reach net 25 mg-COD/L via sludge fermentation. This is equivalent to a diminution in nitrate level of around 5 mg-N/L in the final effluent, which will assist in obtaining final effluent TN levels, 10 mg/L, with small or no carbon introduction [1] .
c) Reducing sludge production
A 10% raise in VSS/TSS portion thanks to grit removal amelioration can be anticipated to provide an around 30% reduction in sludge generation [31] . With VSS reduction of among 40 and 50% throughout AD [3] , sludge formation can be diminished by up to 50%. This implicates that the quantity of sludge generated at the national scale could be decreased by 25% if half of the WWTPs attain ISS reduction and implement AD. In conjunction with the augmented energy recovery and decreased chemical prices for nutrient removal, the sustainability of China's WWTPs could be enhanced greatly [1] .
d) Enhancing results-oriented applied research
Powerful R & D research is necessary for reducing hurdles and attaining domestic wastewater treatment aims [1] [32] [33] . Comprehensive feasibility investigations and planning are required at the beginning [34] [35] . Sewage properties, particularly poorly biodegradable particulates, and nitrate uptake rates, etc., will assist to decide if PS is necessitated or not. Biochemical volatile fatty acid potential (BVFAP) trials [36] have to be performed to assess the feasibility of fermentation of both primary and activated sludges.
Investigating process efficiency, control, materials and maintenance requirements, etc., may only be performed below site-specific, dynamic circumstances [37] . China has attained spectacular advance in water science study in the recent decade; at present, it is time to advance in engineering investigation towards sustainable urban wastewater treatment [1] .
From this work, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1) China has attained exceptional advances in municipal sanitation. Nevertheless, urban sewage treatment yet challenges low performances in energy recovery, augmenting prices for nutrient reduction and elevated sludge formation, all related to the singular sewage characteristics of high ISS, and low COD and C/N ratio [1] .
2) Cao et al. [1] illustrated the cause-effect relationships among the sewage features and the low-efficiency performance of domestic WWTPs. It seems that combined guidelines for the design and running of WWTPs, adopted to local sewage properties, are required. Cost-effective actions and solutions have to be defined for rapid action to ameliorate the sustainability of WWTPs in parallel to sewer rehabilitation. Efficient grit reduction, sludge fermentation, and low carbon BNR techniques are suggested, and the possible advantages evaluated. The necessity to carry out a results-oriented investigation on domestic wastewater treatment is underlined.
Cite this paper: Ghernaout, D. , Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Domestic Wastewater Treatment: Difficulties and Reasons, and Prospective Solutions—China as an Example. Open Access Library Journal, 7, 1-15. doi: 10.4236/oalib.1106141.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl