text:
Q: Hide data point values in chart js I have customized the points on the line graph using chart js, but for some reason, the points show the actual values in the background. How can I hide them
Here is the picture for your reference

Here is my data config

const data = {
  labels: labels,
  datasets: [
    {
      label: "b",
      data: [65, 59, 80, 81, 56, 55, 40],
      borderColor: "#16ac85",
      borderWidth: 2,
      lineTension: 0,
      /* point options */
      pointBorderColor: "#16ac85",
      pointBackgroundColor: "white",
      pointBorderWidth: 2,
      pointRadius: 5,
      pointHitRadius: 10,
      pointHoverRadius: 10,
      pointHoverBackgroundColor: "white",
      pointHoverBorderColor: "#68c9b0",
      pointHoverBorderWidth: 5,
      fill: true,
    },
    {
      label: "n",
      data: [28, 48, 40, 19, 86, 27, 12, 90],
      borderColor: "#d2efe7",
      backgroundColor: "rgb(247, 252, 2, 0.5)",
      borderWidth: 2,
      lineTension: 0,

      /* point options */
      pointBorderColor: "#16ac85",
      pointBackgroundColor: "white",
      pointBorderWidth: 2,
      pointRadius: 5,
      pointHitRadius: 10,
      pointHoverRadius: 10,
      pointHoverBackgroundColor: "white",
      pointHoverBorderColor: "#68c9b0",
      pointHoverBorderWidth: 5,
    },
  ],
}


Ed Hall and Jonny Benarr saddle up and hit the property trail in Peterborough.
Martin Roberts and Lucy Alexander visit homes in Cheshire, Peterborough and Devon.
Tim Wonnacott and experts David Barby and Thomas Plant visit Peterborough.
Thomas Plant and David Barby lend a hand to two teams in Peterborough.
Mark Franks and Paul Hayes go head to head in a battle of the dealers in Peterborough.


text:
Q: Nasm building a string Hi i trying to make a loop in Nasm. I have the loop working but want to change the string when it loops and cant seem to get this to work.
I have this working:
main:
        mov ebx,0               ; set ebx to 0
       myloop:                  ;
       inc ebx                  ;
       mov [msg], 2Ah           ;  Immediate move * to msg
       mov eax, 2Ah             ;
       push ecx                ; save ecx as printf uses it
       push OFFSET msg         ; parameter used by printf
       call printf             ; print string msg
       add esp, 4              ; remove  pointer to msg
       pop ecx                 ; restore ecx
        cmp ebx,[len]           ;
         jl myloop                  ;
       ret

.DATA

msg    db  "Hello, World+!", 0Ah, 0  ; 0A cariage return
                                     ; 0  end of string
star BYTE 2Ah ; 2A (hex) = Ascii *
len   equ $ - (msg +1)               ; length of string msg
 end

and it outputs *ello, World! the right number of times but i want it to output this
*ello, World!
**llo, World!
***lo, World!
****o, World!

and so on.
Can anyone help me please.
I must also note that it is linked to a C library to use printf for out put.

A: I won't comment it
SECTION .data
msg     db  "Hello, World+!", 0Ah, 0
len     equ $ - msg - 2

SECTION .text
main:
    xor     ebx, ebx
    mov     esi, msg

    push    esi
    call    printf
    add     esp, 4
.DoStar:
    mov     byte [esi + ebx], 2Ah
    push    esi
    call    printf
    add     esp, 4

    inc     ebx
    cmp     ebx, len
    jne     .DoStar
    ret

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


To date this is my go-to recipe for chocolate cake. It is very easy to whip up! I go easy on the frosting whenever I make it (but honestly I would love to make more and pipe nice pretty flowers). You can easily halve the recipe which I have done on numerous occasions. I usually make this cake the day before because I find chocolate cakes and brownies usually taste much better the next day. This time I made the frosting a little thicker so I could spread evenly around. Sometimes I thin it out a bit and spread it over the top and just let it drip down the sides. I usually use half of the frosting recipe I have written below.
Preheat oven to 350 F. Grease 2 8" round cake pans and line with parchment paper.
In the bowl of an electric mixer fitted with a paddle attachment, add the flour, sugar cocoa powder, baking soda, baking powder and salt. Stir until combined. With the mixer on low gradually add the oil, egg, buttermilk and vanilla. Increase speed to medium-high and beat for 2 minutes or until combined.
Pour the batter in the prepared pans and bake 30-40 minutes or until a tester comes out clean. Transfer pans to a rack to cool.
Once cake is cooled, place on round on a cake plate and ice. Top with second layer and frost top and sides.
Beat all the ingredients in the bowl of an electric mixer until creamy. Add the amount of milk according to how thick or thin you would like the icing to be.
You are right, chocolate cakes seem even more delicious the next day. I often end up eating a piece for breakfast if I have leftovers in the fridge :) The great thing about oil based cakes is that they can be eaten straight out of the fridge, unlike butter cakes which tend to harden upon refrigeration.
Very delicious & chocolaty cake,yummy!!
Delicious and such neat presentation!
What a pretty cake! Chocolate cake with chocolate icing is always a favorite in my house!
Looks delicious. Where did you purchase vanilla bean paste?
Thank you Fatima! I bought my vanilla bean paste from Williams Sonoma.
Would you recommend anything for a substitute for the paste?
The original recipe calls for vanilla extract. If you don't have a problem with the alcohol you can use that. If you are trying to avoid the alcohol you can use vanilla bean seeds. Some stores sell vanilla powder as well. Hope that helps.
I love how easy this sounds!!
This cake looks perfect! I love how easy it is! YUM!!
this looks wonderful I like that the cake uses oil instead of butter. Deliciously done.
Awesome ... nicely presented too..
Love the simple and elegant decoration of this cake!
WOW!!! What a gorgeous cake! This looks divine. Beautiful work, Asiya!


text:
Ontario reports 412 COVID-19 patients in ICU as health-care strain continues
Ontario reported 412 COVID-19 patients in intensive care units on Sunday, a jump from 385 a day earlier, as health-care workers in the province continue to feel the strain of an Omicron-fuelled wave.
Dr. Mike Haddad, Chief of Staff at Bluewater Health in Sarnia, Ont., said his hospital is currently seeing higher levels of COVID-19 admissions than at the peak of the first wave in April 2020.
The hospital's previous record was 33 COVID-19 patients at one time, a figure surpassed Sunday when its 34th was admitted. Eleven of those patients are battling severe disease in ICU — "many of them on life support," Haddad said — noting 10 of them are unvaccinated.
"What worries us is all the talk about (Omicron) as a milder variant, that's great. But even though it's milder, there's so many more infections that the balance is basically washed out," he said. "We're back to Square 1 in terms of having a dedicated COVID unit again, ICU's full of COVID, surgeries cancelled, surgical staff redeployed to help deal with this.
"So to us, milder or not, it's the same detrimental effect on the health system."
Ontario reported 2,419 patients hospitalized due to the virus on Sunday, down from Saturday's count of nearly 2,600. Not all hospitals report their numbers on the weekends.
The province also reported 20 new deaths linked to the virus as the seven-day average of COVID-19-related patients in ICU rose to 322.
Haddad said his Lambton Public Health Unit, along with neighbouring Chatham-Kent, began seeing an increase in COVID-19 hospitalizations around December, earlier than the rest of the province.
He attributes the surge to many factors, including an older population and lower vaccine uptake than other areas in Ontario.
Vaccines have been working exceptionally well to reduce hospitalizations and deaths, Haddad added, noting that with thousands of COVID-19 cases in his community, his hospital would have been "completely overwhelmed" without them.
"That's the one thing people don't think about," he said. "They look at how many in the hospital are vaccinated or unvaccinated, but imagine if nobody was vaccinated in the community — our numbers at the hospital would be astronomical."
Haddad said that while his staff has remained in high spirits, they're exhausted by Omicron's incessant spread. Roughly five per cent of them are currently isolating after an infection or high-risk exposure.
Staffing shortages, which many hospitals are reporting, can have trickle-down effects that alter the flow of other health-care services, including paramedics, he said.
A full emergency department means paramedics can't offload patients quickly, and can't be deployed to the next call.
"It's all connected," Haddad said, adding that while he hasn't seen that happening yet in Sarnia, it is already unfolding in other regions of the province.
A union representing paramedics in Toronto tweeted a "Code Red" alert on Saturday night, saying there were no response units available in the city around 7 p.m.
TPS Unit Local 416 vice chair Peter Shirer didn't know how long the status lasted, but called it a symptom of a decade-old problem that's now being exacerbated by Omicron.
Provincial data showed 11,959 new COVID-19 cases Sunday, but Public Health Ontario says the actual case count is likely higher due to current testing policies that limit access for many residents.
Shirer estimated 10 per cent of Toronto paramedics may currently be isolating. That, coupled with an increase in virus-related call volume, has taken its toll.
"There's a lot more pressure with us servicing calls right now in the fifth wave of a two-year-long pandemic," he said, adding that while he didn't have statistics on how often code reds are called, "it certainly seems anecdotally that we have a higher incidence of greater strain on the medics I represent."
Brad Ross, chief communications officer for the City of Toronto, said in an emailed statement that it's not uncommon for all ambulances to be on call one moment and freed up the next.
Ross said Toronto Fire Services has been responding temporarily to a number of low-priority calls. But if a patient needs a paramedic, Toronto Fire will call for them.
"There remains significant pressure in hospitals resulting in paramedics being delayed with off-loading patients," Ross said. "This issue is unfortunately common right now around the world."
Toronto's paramedics aren't the only ones dealing with recent Omicron-related strain.
Durham Region tweeted on Wednesday that there were "no ambulances on the road" at one point on Tuesday, with crews from York and Kawartha Lakes brought in to respond to two calls.
Elsewhere, Federal Emergency Preparedness Minister Bill Blair said Saturday that members of the Canadian Armed Forces had arrived in Bearskin Lake, a First Nation in northern Ontario gripped by an outbreak of COVID-19 that has infected more than half the population.
Blair said in a tweet that the soldiers are conducting an initial assessment.
The chief of Bearskin Lake, Lefty Kamenawatamin, said Friday that the remote community was "almost at a breaking point" and asked ministers to send urgent aid.
This report by The Canadian Press was first published Jan. 9, 2022.
Melissa Couto Zuber, The Canadian Press
CHARLOTTETOWN — It was during the holiday break that something awful started happening to the crows that frequent Victoria Park in downtown Charlottetown. Since then, local residents have found more than 200 dead or desperately ill birds. Scientists at the nearby Atlantic Veterinary College haven't been able to figure out what is going on. "It was pretty gruesome," Maryrose Carson, who lives two blocks from the waterfront park, said Tuesday as she recalled finding dozens of dead birds on Jan. 1.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


abstract	 Inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged in the last decades as key materials for a number of technologies. In particular, noble metal (Ag, Au) and iron oxide NPs have revealed important applications due to their plasmonic and magnetic properties, respectively. Among these applications, this review provides, on one hand, an overview on the use of colloidal metal NPs in surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) chemical analysis and, on the other hand, the application of iron oxides as a new class of nanosorbents for water pollutants. These distinct types of NPs are the main building blocks to produce magneto-plasmonic nanostructures, that comprise both functionalities, and whose morphologies and surface functionalities are controlled using chemical methodologies. Thus, this review presents an overall picture of these hybrid nanostructures that, albeit less explored than the corresponding single phased materials, show an enormous potential for fundamental and applied studies. In particular, there will be a focus on important aspects for the application of magneto-plasmonic nanostructures in water analysis.


Drinks are served from 4:00 pm to 2:00 am every night, with snacks and dinner being offered from 5:00 pm to 10:00 pm.
This is the rooftop bar at Aventura – the first that Universal has ever done at any of its theme-park locations around the world.
This family-friendly rooftop bar offers some of the best views to be found anywhere at (Universal) Orlando, with a menu of small plates and custom potions to back it up. These urban flavors and spectacular vistas are not to be missed, even if it's for a brief visit after a long day at the parks (all of which you can see!).
The "17" in the bar's name comes from the fact that it sits on the 17th floor of the hotel, otherwise known as the roof.
Small plates at Bar 17 Bistro run from $7 to $18, while drinks go from $6 to $110 (for a bottle of wine).


Halifax was 1 of 8 cities that took part in the Aboriginal Day live telecasting!
Halifax joined in on festivities for National Aboriginal Day on Wednesday.
The municipality was one of eight cities taking part in the Aboriginal Day Live telecast by the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network.
Throughout the day, cultural demonstrations and activities honouring the Mi'kmaq will be held at the Sands at Salter along the Halifax Waterfront and the Halifax Common.
The Sands at Salter event was part of the national broadcast. It included a sacred fire ceremony, storytelling, a birchbark canoe demonstration, a Mi'kmaw Honour Song, round dance, culinary demonstrations and a closing concert at 8 p.m.
The Mi'kmaw Native Friendship Centre hosted events on the Halifax Common, including a powwow with a round dance, musical performances, drumming and more.
The federal government Tuesday announced a $50,000 contribution to support the live APTN telecasts from Halifax.
The government says investing in Aboriginal Day Live also contributes to helping grow tourism awareness of Nova Scotia. The live national telecast and ongoing repeats throughout the year are expected to generate over one million viewers.


text:
package org.apache.cloudstack.api.command.user.securitygroup;

import org.apache.log4j.Logger;

import org.apache.cloudstack.acl.RoleType;
import org.apache.cloudstack.acl.SecurityChecker.AccessType;
import org.apache.cloudstack.api.ACL;
import org.apache.cloudstack.api.APICommand;
import org.apache.cloudstack.api.ApiConstants;
import org.apache.cloudstack.api.ApiErrorCode;
import org.apache.cloudstack.api.BaseCustomIdCmd;
import org.apache.cloudstack.api.Parameter;
import org.apache.cloudstack.api.ServerApiException;
import org.apache.cloudstack.api.response.SecurityGroupResponse;

import com.cloud.network.security.SecurityGroup;
import com.cloud.user.Account;

@APICommand(name = UpdateSecurityGroupCmd.APINAME, description = "Updates a security group", responseObject = SecurityGroupResponse.class, entityType = {SecurityGroup.class},
        requestHasSensitiveInfo = false, responseHasSensitiveInfo = false,
        since = "4.14.0.0",
        authorized = {RoleType.Admin})
public class UpdateSecurityGroupCmd extends BaseCustomIdCmd {
    public static final String APINAME = "updateSecurityGroup";
    public static final Logger s_logger = Logger.getLogger(UpdateSecurityGroupCmd.class.getName());
    private static final String s_name = "updatesecuritygroupresponse";

    /////////////////////////////////////////////////////
    //////////////// API parameters /////////////////////
    /////////////////////////////////////////////////////

    @ACL(accessType = AccessType.OperateEntry)
    @Parameter(name = ApiConstants.ID, type = CommandType.UUID, required=true, description="The ID of the security group.", entityType=SecurityGroupResponse.class)
    private Long id;

    @Parameter(name = ApiConstants.NAME, type = CommandType.STRING, description = "The new name of the security group.")
    private String name;

    /////////////////////////////////////////////////////
    /////////////////// Accessors ///////////////////////
    /////////////////////////////////////////////////////

    public Long getId() {
        return id;
    }

    public String getName() {
        return name;
    }

    /////////////////////////////////////////////////////
    /////////////// API Implementation///////////////////
    /////////////////////////////////////////////////////

    @Override
    public String getCommandName() {
        return s_name;
    }

    @Override
    public long getEntityOwnerId() {
        SecurityGroup securityGroup = _entityMgr.findById(SecurityGroup.class, getId());
        if (securityGroup != null) {
            return securityGroup.getAccountId();
        }

        return Account.ACCOUNT_ID_SYSTEM; // no account info given, parent this command to SYSTEM so ERROR events are tracked
    }

    @Override
    public void execute() {
        SecurityGroup result = _securityGroupService.updateSecurityGroup(this);
        if (result != null) {
            SecurityGroupResponse response = _responseGenerator.createSecurityGroupResponse(result);
            response.setResponseName(getCommandName());
            setResponseObject(response);
        } else {
            throw new ServerApiException(ApiErrorCode.INTERNAL_ERROR, "Failed to update security group");
        }
    }

    @Override
    public void checkUuid() {
        if (getCustomId() != null) {
            _uuidMgr.checkUuid(getCustomId(), SecurityGroup.class);
        }
    }

}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Pet Care is a pet awareness initiative by Harwinder Grewal. Who is an owner of Grewal Pet Shop and Farm, Main Road, Adampur. In this video, he tells about How to grow Dog Head & body in the Hindi Language.
1. The old saying goes that you can't judge a book by its cover, suggesting that first impressions based upon the look of something don't give you much information. However a recent study suggests that for dogs, their appearance (in terms of their size and their head shape), may well give you a lot of information about the personality and behavioral characteristics of the dog.
2. Although the initial domestication of dogs may have occurred 14,000 years or more in the past, humans have continued to transform dogs to fulfill many different functions associated with guarding, herding, hunting, or simply companionship. Our selective breeding of dogs has modified their size and their shape dramatically so that the more than 400 recorded breeds of dogs are easily recognizable based on their physical characteristics. It also appears that there is some correlation between a dog's head shape and the functions that they perform for humans; for example the sighthounds (who pursue game over open ground) tend to have long narrow heads, while many of the guarding breeds tend to have more square shaped heads.
3. he physical variables that the researchers were interested in were primarily the height and weight of the dog, and the shape of the dog's head. While the first two variables are obvious the shape of the dog's head requires a bit of explanation. There is a lot of variability in head shape among the various dog breeds. Put simply, head shape ranges from the long-headed dogs, technically called "dolichocephalic" (such as the Afghan Hound or the Greyhound) to the broader wide-skulled dogs technically called "brachycephalic" (such as the Pug or French Bulldog). In between are the "mesocephalic" (sometimes called "mesaticephalic") which would include the Golden Retriever or the Beagle. You can see some examples below.
4. The dog's weight also predicted certain personality characteristics. Heavier dogs tended to be bolder, more inquisitive, and attentive. Lighter dogs tended to be more cautious and fearful.
5. Head shape also predicted some differences in temperament. The brachycephalic dogs seem to be more engaged with their owners with a higher interest in human-directed play. On the other hand these short-faced dogs were more defensive when faced with a difficult to interpret situation (such as seeing a person dressed like a ghost). The dolichocephalic dogs seem to be less likely to engage in object play, especially with unfamiliar humans. However these long-faced dogs were not as easily startled and recovered more quickly when an unexpected event occurred.
6. Although obesity is far too common in dogs today; there are also dogs with the opposite problem. In fact, some dogs are downright skinny and I know; I have one of those dogs. But I know why my dog is thin; he's active, runs and plays hard, and is always ready to go. Here are some things I've learned as I live with this dog and try to keep weight on him.
7. Your dog's veterinarian is your partner in your dog's health care so talk to your vet before you make any changes regarding your dog's weight. Ask your vet to perform a complete physical as there are a number of diseases or health issues that can affect weight loss (or gain) as well as appetite. You'll want to eliminate these prior to beginning a weight gain program. In addition, ask your veterinarian for a goal weight for your dog.


text:
Articles from the December 7, 2022 edition
As Singing Christmas Tree choir members wait to perform their next song Friday night, Dec. 2, Santa and Mrs. Claus salute the audience. At left is Emcee Paul Rowton Jr. The concerts, which drew some...
By Benny Westcott News December 7, 2022
City Hall annex moved to FAC homeless site
Sweet Home's old City Hall annex made a trip across town Tuesday morning, Nov. 29, to the site of the Lebanon-based Family Assistance and Resource Center's Managed Outreach and Community Resource...
By Scott Swanson News December 7, 2022
Ogden named Sweet Home's new police chief
Jason Ogden came to Sweet Home 25 years ago because he and his wife thought the small community would be a good fit. From all appearances, they were right: On Wednesday, Nov. 30, only a month after th...
County seeks grant for Lewis Creek Park improvements
Linn County Parks will apply for a matching grant from the Oregon Parks and Recreation Department to replace a restroom and sidewalks and improve Americans with Disabilities Act access to the beach...
Obituaries December 7, 2022
Josephine Germain
Josephine "Jo" Elizabeth Germain, 78, of Sweet Home, died Nov. 28, 2022. She was born Jan. 5, 1944, in Culver City, Calif., to William Roy and Verva Margaret (Morgan) Ackley. She moved to Sweet Home i... Full story
Larry Terry
Larry Earl Terry, 75, of Sweet Home, died peacefully Dec. 2, 2022, at Samaritan Evergreen Hospice House in Albany. He was born May 23, 1947, the son of Edwin and Lela (Kelly) Terry in Dallas. He... Full story
Death Notices (Dec. 7, 2022)
Taffy Deane, 69, of Sweet Home, died Nov. 23, 2022, at Good Samaritan Regional Medical Center. AAsum-Dufour Funeral Home is handling the arrangements. Juanita Linne Dorsey, 51, of Springfield, died Nov. 26, 2022. Sweet Home Funeral Chapel is... Full story
Opal Lea Smith
Opal Lea Smith, 88-year-old resident of Siloam Springs, Ark., died Nov. 27, 2022, in Fayetteville, Ark. She was born Nov. 4, 1934, to John H. Reynolds and Zona M. Reynolds in Siloam Springs. Opal... Full story
Ronald Allen Wolfe
Ronald Allen Wolfe, 72, of Sweet Home passed away peacefully Nov. 24, as family gave thanks for the love he brought into their lives. He was born July 14, 1950, in Woodburn to Richard and Anna Wolfe,... Full story
Fires burn two garages in Sweet Home area
An explosion and shop fire rocked a detached garage shortly after noon Friday, Dec. 2. Sweet Home Fire and Ambulance District personnel responded to find the roof gone on the 20- by 24-foot garage at...
Landmark legislator VanLeeuwen dies at 97
Liz VanLeeuwen, a longtime mid-valley farmer who represented Sweet Home and Lebanon in the Oregon state Legislature from 1981 to 1999, died Nov. 27 on her farm on Irish Bend Loop, near Halsey. She...
Public Safety (Dec. 7, 2022)
Nov. 28 1:09 a.m. - Caller reported a customer claiming that someone had stolen and cashed in lottery tickets, 1200 block of Long St. Loss of value: $120. 5:10 a.m. - Caller reported a truck repeatedly parking in front of her house, 600 block of Oak...
Opinion December 7, 2022
Editorial: Christmas starting strong in Sweet Home (Dec. 7, 2022)
If last weekend was any indication, we feel pretty safe in saying that Sweet Home is really moving on from those two years of COVID experience. The Singing Christmas Tree pulled off three successful performances, for the first time in as many years....
Letter: Still seeking room for Jesus (Dec. 7, 2022)
Editor: There have been times when traveling that all places seem to be full. Perhaps even Motel 6 did not leave the light on. But we are not alone; Jesus personally faced this and it began long ago. Temporarily, there was no room for Him in Heaven:...
From Our Files (Dec. 7, 2022)
Editor's note: We've discovered that the Dec. 4, 1997 edition is missing from our bound archives, so we're unable to review the news from that particular date. Dec. 7, 1972 The Corps of Engineers will be tearing down the 30-year-old Wiley...
Volunteers sought for foster care committee
Volunteers are needed for the Citizen Review Board of the Oregon Judicial Department. These boards review the cases of children in the state's foster care programs to ensure their permanency and safety, foster accountability, work on system...
Corps unveils plan for local dams
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Portland District (Corps) is asking for public feedback through Jan. 19 on its proposed 30-year plan for the operation and maintenance of its system of 13 dams and reservoirs across the Willamette River Basin. The...
Around Town December 7, 2022
Around Town (Dec. 7, 2022)
Meals on Wheels weekly menu Meals on Wheels offers take-out lunch at the Sweet Home Community Center to seniors over 60 at noon on Mondays, Tuesdays and Fridays. The Senior Center serves a separate lunch on Wednesdays. Suggested donation is $3.50....
Christmas tree auction draws record crowd, proceeds
The Sweet Home Alumni Foundation's "Trees for Scholarships" auction set records – again – this year, with a record crowd and record proceeds Saturday night, Dec. 3. "Every year we seem to be break...
Saturday, Dec. 10 -- Sweet Home Christian Church Christmas Bazaar, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. – Check out the goods at 1825 Long St. -- Parade of Lights, 6 p.m. – This year's parade will be bigger and...
Parade of Lights to return bigger than ever
Sweet Home residents will once again get to watch a Parade of Lights, at 6 p.m. Saturday, Dec. 10, but they've got twice the space to do it. That's because the length of the parade has been doubled...
By Benny Westcott Sports December 7, 2022
Boys finish with split in Week 1 to open basketball season
Sweet Home boys basketball split a pair of games in its opening week of play, beating Elmira 33-31 on the road on Nov. 30 but falling to Cottage Grove 55-39 at home on Dec. 2. The game against Elmira...
Sports December 7, 2022
Top-Five Swimmers
Sweet Home Swim Club members, from left, Khloe Sautel, Malia Hewitt and Chloe Tyler finished with top-five times in their age groups over the swim season from Sept. 1, 2021 to Aug. 31, 2022. They...
Swimmers show depth in opening victories
Sweet Home's swimmers opened their season at home Friday afternoon, Dec. 2, hosting longtime league rivals Stayton and Blanchet Catholic, and Kennedy, which is a more recent member but is gaining...
Wrestlers start strong, despite lineup absences
Sweet Home's wrestlers opened their season with a pair of tournaments very familiar to the team's veterans. "It went well," Coach Steve Thorpe said of Sweet Home's first week. "We went to Lebanon and...
Public Safety (Jan. 25...
Carroll Eugene Bain


The long-term compressive creep testing of the UHPC was conducted according to ASTM C512.(51) Four cylinders, 102 mm (4 inches) in diameter by 204 mm (8 inches) long, were cast for each curing regime for these tests. Two additional half-height cylinders were cast for each curing regime to act as loading blocks. All cylinders had their ends ground to within 0.5 degree of parallel. The testing was completed using hydraulically actuated load frames in a room that was controlled for temperature and humidity. No attempt was made to retard moisture gain or loss from the cylinders either prior to or during the test.
Table 25. Early age shrinkage rate.
The four cylinders for each curing regime were instrumented with Whittemore points before being stacked into a load frame. The Whittemore points were attached to each cylinder at three locations around the circumference with a 152-mm (6-inch) nominal gage length. Measurement of the points was completed before loading, immediately after loading, and periodically for 1 year. Figure 99 shows creep cylinders in the load frame as well as the method used to measure the Whittemore points.
The creep testing was initiated for each curing regime after the curing treatment was applied. For the steam and tempered steam cylinders, the creep loading was initiated 4 days after casting. Loading was initiated 21 days after casting for the delayed steam cylinders and 28 days after casting for the untreated cylinders. The load level applied to each set of cylinders was 77 MPa (11.2 ksi), which is 40 percent of 193 MPa (28 ksi), the anticipated compressive strength of a steam-treated cylinder.
Figure 99. Photos. (a) Creep cylinders in load frame and (b) measurement of creep.
Table 26 provides the creep testing results for the four curing regimes. The 28-day average compressive strength is also shown. Note that in all cases the load applied was in excess of the ASTM recommended load. The initial elastic strain was mechanically measured on the cylinders. The final creep strain is the estimated long-term value that the strain in the cylinders asymptotically approached. Intermediate creep strain values were calculated by subtracting the long-term shrinkage and the initial elastic strain from the overall measured strain. A best-fit approximation, discussed below, allowed for the determination of the final asymptotic value.
Note that the subtraction of the long-term shrinkage from the recorded creep strain assumes that creep and shrinkage are uncoupled behaviors. However, research has indicated that these behaviors are dependent on one another in UHPC.(12) In this research, the shrinkage strain was subtracted from the creep strain for two reasons. First, some of the measured creep strain was necessarily due to shrinkage. Second, the overall shrinkage strains were small or nonexistent, thus the total error introduced was minimal. If the shrinkage strain were not subtracted from the creep strain for the untreated and tempered steam-treated specimens, the creep coefficients would have been less than 10 percent higher.
Table 26. Long-term creep results.
The creep coefficient, Ccu, is defined as the final asymptotic amount of additional creep strain that occurs over time divided by the initial elastic strain that occurs when load is first applied. The specific creep, δcu, is defined as the creep coefficient divided by the elastic modulus of the concrete. For reference, creep coefficients for concrete are normally in the range of 1.5 to 3.0, and specific creep values normally range from 35 to 145 microstrain per MPa.
Recall the discussion in section 2.4.3 regarding the creep and shrinkage of UHPC. The results presented here correlate well with that discussion in that steam and delayed steam-treated UHPC exhibit extremely low creep coefficients, while the tempered steam-treated and untreated UHPC exhibits higher creep coefficients. Specifically, note that the delayed and tempered steam specimens had similar compressive strengths and load levels, but that the tempered steam exhibited more than twice as much creep strain. The more severe steam treatments should cause more rapid and more complete self-desiccation of the UHPC, thus leading to less creep of the concrete.
A test program was initiated to investigate the dimensional stability of UHPC that was subjected to compression loading early in its strength gain. This test program was designed to answer questions related to the delay required prior to stressing a prestressed UHPC girder. Although the rapid-strength gain of UHPC is beneficial with regard to the stressing of a girder, it is important to know what portion of that strength gain is actually useable.
Short-term creep tests were conducted on UHPC cylinders that were of moderate compressive strength. Two strength levels were investigated: 59 and 86 MPa (8.5 and 12.5 ksi). Within one batch of UHPC, 102-mm (4-inch) diameter cylinders were cast for creep tests and 76-mm (3-inch) diameter cylinders were cast to determine the concurrent compressive strength of the UHPC. The specimen preparation procedures for the creep cylinders mimicked the procedures that were followed for the ASTM C39 compression tests that were previously discussed, including sulfur capping of the cylinder ends due to the relatively low compressive strengths.
Figure 100. Graph. Long-term creep results.
Figure 101. Equation. Creep as a function of time after loading.
The creep testing was completed in a 445-kN (100-kip) capacity MTS testing machine. Each cylinder rested one end on a flat steel bearing and was loaded through the other end by a spherical bearing. Each cylinder was loaded at a computer-controlled constant load rate of 1.0 MPa/s (150 psi/s) until the desired compressive load level was reached. This load level was then maintained for 30 minutes, after which the load was removed at 1.0 MPa/s (150 psi/s). The deformation of the cylinder was monitored throughout the test via three LVDTs that were mounted on two parallel rings attached to the cylinders. This deformation measurement system was the same as the one used in the elastic modulus testing (previously discussed in section 3.3.2). A photograph of the test setup is provided in figure 102.
The early age creep results are presented in table 27. The table provides the cylinder identifier, the compressive test at the time of creep testing based on concurrently tested 76-mm (3-inch) diameter cylinders, and the stress level maintained during the creep test. The stress levels tested ranged from 60 percent of the compressive strength to just over 90 percent.
Figure 102. Photo. Short-term creep test setup.
Table 27. Early age creep results.
Table 27 lists the 30-minute creep coefficient, Cc-30, for each of the cylinders that was able to carry the load through the end of the test. This creep coefficient is similar to the standard creep coefficient, except that here it equals the amount of additional creep strain that occurred during the 30 minutes divided by the initial elastic strain when the constant load level was reached. The two cylinders loaded to stress levels above 90 percent of the compressive strength both failed, and thus no value of Cc-30 is listed.
Figures 103 and 104 show plots of the results of these tests. The observed strain values have been normalized on the strain when the constant stress level is first reached. In this way, the effect of stress level on early age creep is clearly visible. At both strength levels, stressing to above 85 percent causes twice the creep strain to occur, and stressing above 90 percent caused failure. Even stressing to only 60 percent caused a significant amount of creep strain to accumulate in a short time.
Figure 103. Graph. Early age creep behavior of 55 to 65 MPa (8.0 to 9.5 ksi) UHPC.
Figure 104. Graph. Early age creep behavior of 86 MPa (12.5 ksi) UHPC.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of UHPC was measured through the use of the provisional AASHTO test specification, TP60-00.(53) The test method determines the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) by measuring the length change of a concrete cylinder in a variable temperature water bath. Three 102-mm (4-inch) diameter UHPC cylinders from each of the four curing regimes were tested.
Normally, the degree of water saturation of a concrete will influence its CTE. To counteract this fact, the test method requires that the concrete needs to be in a saturated condition before testing. In the current testing of UHPC, the saturation of the cylinders before testing was considered to be detrimental to the final results for two reasons. First, one of the primary variables in the overall test program is the curing condition of the UHPC at the time of testing. Saturating the UHPC would change the condition of the UHPC by introducing more water into the matrix, which could then react with unhydrated cement. Second, because saturation of the UHPC is problematic due to its low permeability, determining when a specific degree of saturation was reached would be difficult. Thus, the exterior surfaces of the cylinders, aside from the bearing points of the supports and LVDT, were sealed with epoxy before testing.
The testing of the 12 cylinders was completed after they had undergone their complete curing treatment. All the cylinders were at least 2 months old. The untreated cylinders were the oldest at 4.5 months at the time of testing.
Table 28. Coefficient of thermal expansion results.
The amount of heat that UHPC generates during initial curing is of interest for two reasons: (1) it can be used as an indicator of other behaviors and (2) it could cause detrimental behaviors if not accounted for in the design. Time-temperature data were gathered for 15.24-cm (6-inch) diameter cylinders during the first few days after casting. This testing was completed on two UHPC mixes. The first mix was the standard UHPC mix that has been discussed throughout this report. The second mix included a slight modification of the mix design in that no accelerator was added. Specifically, 30.0 kg/m3 (1.87 lb/ft3) of Rheocrete CNI was eliminated from the mix, and an extra 32.0 kg/m3 (2.00 lb/ft3) of water was added.
The time-temperature results were collected for cylinders in three environments. Figure 105 shows the heat that was generated by cylinders in a normal laboratory environment. These results indicate that the accelerator can have a significant effect on set time, but that the overall level of heat generation is not significantly different. Figure 106 shows the heat that was generated by cylinders that were kept in a normal laboratory environment until setting began, after which the steam treatment was applied. Again, the accelerator's primary impact seems to be in the rate of setting and not in the peak heat generated. Note that the steam treatment of the accelerated mix was started earlier in the setting behavior, thus impacting the comparative level of the peak temperatures recorded.
Figure 105. Graph. Heat generated in 152-mm (6-inch) diameter cylinders during initial curing.
The difficulty with the previously discussed methods of measuring the heat generated by the UHPC is that local conditions within a laboratory environment can vary. Air currents that aid in the dissipation of heat can have a significant impact on final results. To address this issue, timetemperature data were also collected using a well-insulated calorimeter. For these tests, each 152-mm (6-inch) diameter cylinder was placed in a Quadrel iQdrumTM heat signature calorimeter and monitored for 6 days. The results are shown in Figure 107. Through the use of the calorimeter, the effect of the accelerator becomes very clear. The accelerator causes a slow temperature rise to occur before setting and caused setting to begin over 1 day earlier. Heat was generated more quickly during setting, but the peak temperature reached by the cylinder was only 3 °C (5.4 °F) higher than in the unaccelerated mix. Note that these relative changes between mix designs are instructive; however, the actual time-temperature and setting behaviors of any UHPC mix will depend on many other factors as well (i.e., age of premix, precise environmental conditions, quantity of accelerator).
Figure 106. Graph. Heat generated in 152-mm (6-inch) diameter cylinders from casting through steaming.
Figure 107. Graph. Heat signature for 152-mm (6-inch) diameter cylinders in a well-insulated calorimeter.
An air void analysis was completed on the UHPC. The modified point-count method of ASTM C457 was used to determine the air void structure.(55) The variables investigated in this testing included the effect of the analysis location within individual cast cylinders, the effect of the time a cylinder was held on a vibrating table after casting, the effect of mix stiffness, and the effect of using an accelerator in the mix design.
The casting procedure was as follows. The UHPC was mixed as usual, following the normal mix design and procedure, except that an unaccelerated mix (as described in section 3.2) was included. The UHPC was then cast into 152-mm (4-inch) diameter plastic cylinder molds. The filling of the molds differed from the usual procedure in that some of the molds were filled without using the vibrating table while others were filled on the vibrating table and were then held in place on the table for a specific length of time. After casting, the cylinders were screeded, covered in plastic, and left in a laboratory environment to set.
The preparation and testing of the cylinders for the air void structure analysis was as follows. After setting, the cylinders were cut in half lengthwise. One of the two halves was then polished using up to 800-grit sandpaper. Each cylinder's half was then divided into a top and bottom section on its flat face. Modified point-count measurements were then completed on each of these sections. Because this UHPC did not contain any coarse aggregate, the fibers were counted as coarse aggregate within the data collection procedure. In total, each air void data collection set covered an area of 6,770 mm2 (10.5 inches2) and traversed a length of 1,270 mm (50 inches) while counting 1,429 points.
The results from these tests are presented in table 29. The results are grouped into sets for each of the three mixes tested. For reference, the stiff mix has a flow table reading of 165 mm (6.5 inches) after 20 impacts, and the normal flow mixes both have readings of 190 mm (7.5 inches) after 20 impacts. Each pair of rows shown with a common vibrating table time is the top and bottom results from the same cylinder half.
Although some slight differences were observed in various groupings of specimens, the limited sample set makes drawing specific conclusions difficult. In general, the air content across the range of mixes and specimen locations was approximately 6.5 percent. The bottom of the cylinders tended to have slightly more air, likely due to air in the top of the cylinders being removed by vibration. The cylinders that were held on the vibrating table for 300 seconds after filling also tended to have a decrease in air content. The stiffer mix tended to have slightly less air than the more flowable mix, and the results of the accelerated and unaccelerated mixes had no clear differences.
Dispersion of fibers throughout UHPC is a necessary part of achieving many of its material properties. In this section, a simple set of tests is described in which the dispersion of fiber throughout UHPC cylinders was measured. This batch of UHPC, L03, exhibited a relatively fluid rheology with a flow table result after 20 impacts of 235 mm (9.25 inches).
Table 29. Air void analysis results.
The 76-mm (3-inch) diameter cylinders for these tests were cast without the use of a vibrating table, and some of the cylinders were then impacted on an ASTM C230 flow table.(56) After the cylinders had gained sufficient strength, they were cut in half along their length. Four 645-mm2 (1-inch2) areas were then marked on the flat face of the cylinders. The delineated areas were located in a line along the length of the cylinder at a 12.7-mm (0.5-inch) spacing. The fibers contained within each area were then counted.
Five cylinders were tested according to this procedure. Each of these cylinders underwent a different number of impacts on the flow table, ranging from 0 to 100. The fiber counting results are presented in figure 108. The results seem to indicate that more fibers tend to be located toward the bottom of each cylinder. Whether this result is caused by the impacts administered on the flow table or is an artifact of the method used to pour the UHPC into the cylinder molds is not clear.
Figure 108. Graph. Fiber dispersion analysis results for cylinders impacted on an ASTM C230 flow table.
Of greater importance is the wide range of fiber concentrations evident throughout the five cylinders. Figure 109 shows the four areas measured on the cylinder that underwent 25 impacts. One green dot has been placed on the head of each individual fiber. Clearly, casting technique is very important if equal dispersion of fibers throughout the mix is desired.
A series of durability tests were conducted to determine the resistance of UHPC to various environmental aggressors. These tests included measurement of the chloride ion penetrability, scaling and freeze-thaw resistance, abrasion resistance, and alkali-silica reaction susceptibility. The results are detailed throughout this section.
Figure 109. Photos. Fiber dispersion analysis photographs for a 645-mm2 (1-inch2) area in the (a) bottom, (b) lower middle, (c) upper middle, and (d) top of a cast cylinder.
The ability of concrete to resist ingress of chloride ions can result in a significantly more durable concrete. The ASTM C1202 test for the Electrical Indication of Concrete's Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration.(57) frequently referred to as the rapid chloride ion penetrability test, was conducted on specimens from the four UHPC curing regimes. This test approximates the resistance that a concrete may exhibit to chloride ion penetration by measuring the amount of electrical current that passes through a 51-mm (2-inch) thick slice of concrete over 6 hours. A 60-volt direct current (DC) potential is applied across the slice of a 102-mm (4-inch) diameter cylinder, while a sodium chloride solution is applied to one side of the slice, and a sodium hydroxide solution is applied to the other side.
Figure 110 shows a cylinder slice before being tested and while a test is in progress. The cylinders were cast and cured following normal procedures. For these tests, each cylinder was cast in a 102-mm (4-inch) diameter mold that was filled to 76 mm (3 inches). After both demolding and the application of any curing treatment, the cylinders were cut to length, and both ends of the cylinder were then ground to create a uniform finish. The outside circumference of each cylinder was sealed with epoxy. The standard amount of steel fiber reinforcement was included in all cylinders. The short, discontinuous nature of the steel fibers in the UHPC matrix allowed for this test to be completed without shortening the circuit or generating significant heat in the ponded fluids.
Results from these tests are presented in table 30. Three tests were performed for each curing regime at 28 days after casting. An additional three tests were performed on the untreated and tempered steam-treated regimes at 56 days, because these regimes had exhibited slightly higher results during the first tests.
Aside from the untreated tests from 28 days, all of the results are in the negligible range as defined by ASTM C1202. Also, the untreated and tempered steam-treated regimes exhibited significant reductions in charge passed between 28 and 56 days. Figure 111 shows averaged results for current versus time from three sets of cylinders. For reference, if 0.003 amps of current were passed through the concrete for the duration of the test, then the total charge passed would be 65 coulombs.
Figure 110. Photos. (a) Cylinder and (b) setup for rapid chloride ion penetrability test.
Table 30. Rapid chloride ion penetrability results.
In conjunction with the chloride ion tests described in section 3.13.1, standard chloride ion penetration testing was conducted according to the AASHTO T259 specification.(58) This test, often referred to as the chloride ponding test, entails ponding a 3-percent sodium chloride solution on the surface of the concrete for 90 days. After 90 days, the level of migration of chloride ions into the concrete is determined.
This test was conducted on three specimens from each of the curing regimes. The specimens were cast in 102-mm (4-inch) diameter steel cylinder molds that were filled at least 76 mm (3 inches) full during casting. After both demolding and the application of any curing treatment, the circumferential surface of each cylinder was coated in epoxy. A section of rubber hose was then slid over the cast face end of the cylinder and affixed with a hose clamp. Finally, 28 days after casting, the sodium chloride solution ponded on the cylinder face. Note that the solution was ponded on the steel mold cast face of the cylinder to replicate the UHPC surface that would have been achieved in a precast concrete production facility.
Figure 111. Graph. Average current passed versus time results for three sets of cylinders.
The AASHTO T260 standard test method was used to sample and test the concrete following the ponding.(59) Samples were taken from each cylinder at depths of 13, 25, 38, 51, 64, and 76 mm (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 inches) from the ponded surface. The samples were obtained by using a drill press with a 6.3-mm (¼-inch) masonry bit to drill into the side of the cylinder at the correct depth. Approximately 15 grams of the pulverized concrete were captured at each specified depth. The steel fiber shavings were then magnetically removed from each sample of the concrete powder. Thus, at least 10 grams of powder were available for the chloride ion testing.
The chloride ion testing was conducted according to Procedure A, Section 5.2: Procedure for Total Chloride Ion Content. The chlorides were unlikely to penetrate any significant distance into the concrete because of the penetrability of this concrete. This allowed a large collection of background chloride content samples to be obtained at 64 and 76 mm (2.5 and 3.0 inches). The average background chloride ion content in kg/m3 of concrete was determined to be 0.051 with a standard deviation of 0.004.
Figure 112 presents the corrected results for these tests. The removal of the background chloride content from each sample caused some of the samples to seem to exhibit negative chloride ion contents. The AASHTO specification indicates that these results should be rounded up to zero. Overall, the chloride ion content in the UHPC for all of the curing regimes is extremely low. There is some trend toward higher chloride ion contents near the ponded surface; however, the amount of chlorides that migrated into the concrete over 90 days is still extremely small.
Figure 112. Graph. Chloride ion content results after 90 days of ponding.
An additional benefit of this set of tests is that the behavior of the surface of this steel fiberreinforced UHPC can be qualitatively observed. Figure 113 shows a tempered steam-treated cylinder just before the 90 days of ponding began and 1 day after it concluded. This specimen is representative of all 12 tests that were completed because minor corrosion of steel fibers on and very close to the surface occurred. This corrosion would probably more aptly be described as surface staining caused by exposed fibers. There was no indication that the corrosion of the fibers was progressing into the interior of the UHPC.
Figure 113. Photos. (a) Cylinder before and (b) after 90 days of chloride ponding.
The UHPC scaling resistance to deicing chemicals was evaluated through the use of the ASTM C672 standard test method.(60) In this test method, a solution of calcium chloride is ponded on the surface of the concrete. The concrete specimen is then placed in a -18 °C (-0.4 °F) freezing environment for 18 hours followed by a 23 °C (73.4 °F) thawing environment for 6 hours. This cycle is repeated daily, while ensuring periodically that the surface of the specimen remains covered in the ponding solution.
The ASTM C672 testing included two slabs from each curing regime. Each slab was cast in a 356-mm by 356-mm (14-inch by 14-inch) square steel mold that was 76 mm (3 inches) deep. The cast surface on the bottom of the slab became the surface to be ponded after demolding. The curing treatments were applied to the slabs, and then the dams were epoxied to the ponding surface. The dams were composed of steam-treated UHPC. A rapid-setting, two-part epoxy was used as the bonding agent slab and the dam. Figure 114 shows one of the slabs before testing was initiated. The total exposed ponding area on the surface of each slab was approximately 0.065 m2 (100 inches2).
The testing of these slabs commenced in two phases. In the first phase, a walk-in freezer was used to generate the freezing condition, while the standard laboratory environment generated the thawing environment. The capabilities of this freezer were such that a consistent temperature could not be maintained. Over the course of 4 months, 70 cycles were completed. Up through cycle 50, the temperature in the freezer was usually below -9 °C (15.8 °F). For the next 20 cycles, the temperature was usually in between -8 and -3 °C (17.6 and 26.6 °F). Due to the inability of this freezer to maintain a sufficiently cold temperature, this phase of the testing was halted. At the cessation of these tests, no scaling was observed on the surface of any of the slabs.
Figure 114. Photo. Scaling slab before initiating ASTM C672 testing.
The second phase of the ASTM C672 testing used an environmental chamber to carefully control the freezing and thawing portions of each cycle to within ±1.67 °C (±3 °F) of the prescribed values. A total of 145 additional cycles were completed on all eight slabs. Every few cycles, the slabs were checked for leaking of the dams and for the proper solution level on the ponded surface. The slabs were also drained, flushed, inspected, and refilled after cycles 20 and 50. No scaling was observed. After cycle 145, the slabs were drained through a #30 sieve to capture any small scaling particles that might have been present. Each slab produced less than 0.5 grams (0.02 ounces) of material, which included small bits of concrete, pieces of epoxy, and other small detritus that had made its way onto the slabs over the course of 95 cycles.
A final inspection of the ponded surface indicated that no scaling had occurred, thus an ASTM C672 surface condition rating of 0 was warranted. No differences were observed between the slabs from any of the four curing regimes. The surfaces did tend to show a slightly rougher texture after testing, with many more of the small air bubbles visible just under the ponded surface. Figure 115 shows the same slab that was pictured in figure 114 after having undergone the 70-plus-145 cycles of scaling as described above.
Figure 115. Photo. Scaling slab after ASTM C672 testing.
Figure 116 shows a byproduct of the ASTM C672 scaling tests. Some of the dams on top of the slabs did not seal properly with the slab surface. At the joint, the calcium chloride solution slowly leaked out and ran down the side of the slab. This leak allowed for an extremely aggressive environment on the vertical surfaces of these slabs. Even after the 70-plus-145 cycles of freezing and thawing in this environment, these vertical surfaces only showed minor surface deterioration of the type shown in the figure. The corrosion of the fibers did not seem to penetrate into the slabs, and no scaling, spalling, or chipping of the concrete surface was apparent.
Figure 116. Photo. Surface deterioration of a vertical surface after 70-plus-145 cycles of wetting/drying with a chloride solution in a freezing/thawing environment.
The abrasion resistance of UHPC was measured through the standard test method described in ASTM C944.(15) This test determines abrasion resistance by measuring the amount of concrete abraded off a surface by a rotating cutter in a given time period. The cutter consists of a series of dressing wheels mounted on a rod that is attached to a drill press. Figure 117 shows a picture of the cutter head bearing on a specimen. The drill press is used to apply a constant force through the cutter into the specimen and to rotate the cutter at 200 revolutions per minute.
The test procedure specifies that the force exerted by the cutter on the specimen surface should be 98 N (22 lb) unless the test is conducted on concrete that is particularly abrasion-resistant. Preliminary testing on UHPC indicated that doubling the load to 196 N (44 lb) as recommended by the standard would provide better results, thus this load level was used for the testing.
Cylinders with a 152-mm (6-inch) diameter were cast for these tests. The specimens were cast following normal procedures except that steel molds were used, and the molds were only filled approximately 76 mm (3 inches) full. Three cylinders were cast for each curing regime.
The abrasion resistance of a concrete surface will vary depending on the finish of its surface. For this reason, the ASTM C944 test was completed on the finishes of three different concrete surfaces for each of the four curing regimes. The surface finishes included a steel cast surface, a sandblasted surface, and a ground surface. In the test program, the 12 cylinders were all tested in the steel cast surface state. The cylinders were then sandblasted, after which they were tested again. Finally, the cylinders were ground and tested a third time.
Figure 117. Photo. ASTM C944 abrasion test setup.
The ASTM test procedure indicates that the testing should include abrading the surface with the rotating cutter for 2 minutes. At the conclusion of the 2 minutes, the amount of concrete that has been abraded away is reported. In this test program, a modification was made to the test procedure in which the surface abrasion was repeated so that a total of between three and five abrasion sequences, with a duration of 2 minutes each, were applied to each specimen. The number of abrasion sequences varied depending on the abrasion depth capacity of the cutter and the resistance of the specimen.
Figure 118 shows two of the steel cast surface specimens after abrasion testing. The untreated cylinder on the left underwent four abrasion sequences that lasted 2 minutes each. The steamtreated cylinder on the right underwent five abrasion sequences that also lasted 2 minutes each. The photo clearly shows that the steel cast surface of steam-treated UHPC is much more abrasion-resistant than the untreated UHPC. The rotating cutter had difficulty breaking into the surface on the steam-treated cylinder and tended to skid, with only slight abrasion occurring near the center of rotation.
The results for the ASTM C944 abrasion testing are presented in figures 119 through 121. Throughout these figures, the results for each curing regime and surface condition set are the averages of the results for the three cylinders tested. Figure 119 presents the ASTM C944 abrasion weight loss as defined in the test specification. As detailed above, this result only includes the first 2 minutes of abrading for each specimen. The other two figures present the results from the entire sequence of tests completed on each specimen. Figure 120 presents the average amount of concrete per abrading over the sequence of abradings. Figure 121 presents the least-squares linear approximation of the weight loss per abrading.
Figure 118. Photo. Steel cast surface untreated and steam-treated abrasion specimens after 8 and 10 minutes of abrading, respectively.
Figure 119. Chart. ASTM C944 weight loss (grams) per abrading.
Figure 120. Chart. Average weight loss (grams) per abrading.
Figure 121. Chart. Linear best-fit weight loss (grams) per abrading.
These results show that a steam-based curing treatment of any kind has a significant impact on the abrasion resistance of UHPC. In general, the untreated cylinders lost approximately an order of magnitude more concrete per abrading than did any of the other cylinders. Quantitatively, the steam-based treated cylinders usually lost between 0.1 and 0.3 grams (0.0035 and 0.01 ounces) per abrading, while the untreated cylinders usually lost between 1 and 3 grams (0.035 and 0.1 ounce) per abrading. Also, as would be expected given its smoother texture, the steel cast surface performed the best compared with the sandblasted and ground surfaces.
These results can be compared to the results from Horszczaruk(14) presented in section 2.4.4. The testing of 83- to 100-MPa (12- to 14.5-ksi) steel fiber-reinforced concretes produced results ranging from 0.14 grams to 0.25 grams (0.005 to 0.009 ounces) of mass loss per abrading for the more abrasion-resistant concretes. (These results are presented in a form comparable to the UHPC results presented in figure 121.) However, these results are based on ASTM C944 with the standard 98-N (22-lb) load, as opposed to the double load used in the present research program. The UHPC mass loss would have been significantly lower with the decreased abrasive normal force on the cutter head. Also, note that Horszczaruk's research indicated that higherstrength concretes exhibited constant abrasion resistance, from test initiation until conclusion. This seems not to be the case with UHPC, which displayed increased abrasion resistance prior to the breaching of the smooth cast surface.
The resistance of UHPC to freezing and thawing degradation was quantified through the use of the ASTM C666 (Procedure A) standard test method.(61) In this test, concrete prisms are subjected to freezing and thawing while submerged in a water bath. The aggressive environment created in this accelerated durability test helps to determine if the concrete has a microstructure that can resist the thermal expansion and contraction effects of water. The concrete could achieve this resistance by either resisting the initial water penetration or by allowing the thermal expansion of any penetrated water to occur within a voided microstructure.
The specified lower and upper temperature value targets for the freezing and thawing environments are -18 °C and 4.4 °C (0 and 40 °F), respectively. The automated equipment used in this test program allowed for five cycles of freezing and thawing to be completed per day. In this test method, each prism is housed in a water-filled container that is only slightly larger than the prism itself. The containers are placed in an environmental chamber that freezes the prisms and their surrounding water layer using cold air, and then thaws the prisms using water.
The 76- by 102- by 406-mm (3- by 4- by 16-inch) UHPC prisms produced for this test were cast following normal procedures. Three prisms were cast for each curing regime. After casting, any curing treatments were applied. The freeze/thaw testing began between 5 and 6 weeks after casting, following 2 days in which the prisms were submerged in 4.4 °C (39.92 °F) water to prepare them for the initial test measurement. In total, 690 cycles of freezing and thawing were conducted over the course of 9 months. During stoppages in testing, the prisms were stored in a frozen state in a walk-in freezer. In a few instances, however, machine malfunctions did allow the prisms to soak in room temperature water for up to a few days until the malfunction was corrected.
Periodically, the freeze/thaw cycling was halted, and the prisms were measured. The data collection included mass determination and capture of the fundamental transverse frequency of each prism. Figure 122 is a photograph showing the setup used to determine the fundamental or resonant frequency. In this test, a transducer records the vibrations induced in a prism supported on two wires by an instrumented hammer. The capture and determination of this frequency response was completed according to ASTM C215.
Figure 122. Photo. Resonant frequency testing of a freeze/thaw prism.
Figure 123 presents pictures of an untreated prism both before and near the end of testing. The second photograph shows that the prism experienced some deterioration of fibers that were exposed on the surface. Also, the surface of the prism tended to become slightly pitted as the cycling progressed. Overall, this pitting was very minor and was much more prevalent on the Untreated prisms than on any of the steam-treated regimes.
Figure 123. Photos. Freeze-thaw prism (a) before testing and (b) after 564 cycles.
The resonant frequency results from this test program are presented in figure 124. These results are the average values from the three prisms that were tested for each curing regime. Note the clear difference between the initial resonant frequency results from each curing regime. All prisms in each regime resonated within 16 Hz of one another, indicating a tight band of results.
Figure 124. Graph. Resonant frequency of freeze/thaw prisms.
The relative dynamic modulus (RDM) is a value defined in the ASTM C666 test method as the percent difference in the squares of the frequency at any cycle compared with the initial frequency before freeze/thaw cycling. This calculation normalizes the results for ease of comparison to other tests. Figure 125 shows these results. In general, this test method assumes that freeze-thaw cycling will cause the RDM to decrease as the concrete deteriorates. This RDM decrease would occur due to the resonant frequency decreasing as the prism develops internal microcracking. The figure shows that the RDM changed very little in the tempered steam and delayed steam regimes, decreased slightly in the steam-treated regime, and increased significantly in the untreated regime. Overall, these results confirm that UHPC is very resistant to deterioration caused by freezing and thawing. However, it is premature to conclude that the untreated UHPC exhibits the best freeze-thaw resistance, because these RDM values are being influenced by other factors beyond those intended in the test.
One indicator that an additional unintended behavior was occurring during the freeze-thaw cycling was the mass change exhibited by the prisms. Figure 126 presents the mass change results. All the regimes exhibited mass increase throughout the testing, with the untreated prisms averaging a 0.2 percent increase by 125 cycles. In a normal freeze-thaw test, a prism will lose mass as it deteriorates. As mentioned previously, these prisms showed very little deterioration throughout the test. However, it seems that instead of deteriorating during the cycling, these prisms were taking on water and possibly even hydrating.
Figure 125. Graph. Relative dynamic modulus of elasticity of freeze/thaw prisms.
Figure 126. Graph. Mass change of prisms during freeze-thaw testing.
Further experiments were conducted to investigate the increase in RDM in the untreated prisms. To determine if the prisms were taking on water and possibly hydrating, an additional batch of eight prisms were cast. This batch included two prisms that were treated according to each curing regime. After 28 days, initial freeze-thaw measurements were completed on the prisms, and then one prism from each curing regime was placed in a water bath. The other prism from each curing regime was maintained in a laboratory environment. The prisms were kept under these conditions for 250 days, during which mass and dynamic modulus of elasticity testing was periodically completed.
The resonant frequency results from these eight prisms are presented in figure 127. The RDM results are presented in figure 128. The legend for each series indicates the curing regime and whether the prism was placed in air or water after day 28. These figures show that for the three steam-based treatment regimes, a steady increase in frequency occurred throughout the testing in the prisms maintained in the laboratory environment. The submerged prisms from these same regimes show a more rapid increase initially followed by the same type of steady increase. The untreated prisms show different behavior, with the submerged prisms exhibiting a rapid increase in frequency response during the first 10 days and both untreated prisms showing large overall increases in frequency response. The mass change of these prisms is also instructive, with the results provided in figure 129. The masses on all of the prisms increased throughout the testing, with the untreated prisms tending to show a larger increase than their counterparts in the three steam-based treatment regimes.
One final experiment was conducted to determine if the prisms were hydrating as they were gaining water. A set of 76-mm (3-inch) diameter cylinders were cast along with the eight prisms previously discussed. These cylinders were divided into four groups, paralleling the conditions that the prisms in the untreated and steam treatment regimes underwent through day 56 after casting. An additional two sets of control cylinders were cast for testing in compression at 28 days.
Table 31 presents the results of these tests. These compression results show that placing UHPC in a water bath can increase the compressive strength. As would be expected, the strength increase is greater in the untreated UHPC than in the steam-treated UHPC. This greater increase is likely partially due to the greater permeability of the untreated UHPC.
Figure 127. Graph. Resonant frequency of prisms maintained at room temperature in a laboratory environment or in a water bath.
Figure 128. Graph. Relative dynamic modulus of elasticity of prisms maintained at room temperature in a laboratory environment or in a water bath.
Figure 129. Graph. Mass change of prisms maintained at room temperature in a laboratory environment or in a water bath.
Table 31. Effect of a water bath on the compressive strength of steam-treated and untreated UHPC.
These additional tests, which were completed following the initial freeze-thaw testing, have shown that the procedure followed for the freeze-thaw testing could lead to unintended water permeation and to additional hydration of the UHPC. This effect has been shown to be limited in the steam-based treatment curing regimes; however, it can be significant in the untreated regime. The added hydration creates the possibility of a 15 percent increase in the RDM if a prism spends 250 days in a water bath and a 10-percent increase in compressive strength if a cylinder is placed in a water bath from day 28 to 56.
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) testing was performed in accordance with ASTM C1260.(62) This accelerated test method allows for the possible detection of the deleterious effects of ASR far more rapidly that could be achieved using the standard test method, ASTM C1293.(63) The ASTM C1260 test involves submerging mortar bars in an 80 °C (176 °F) sodium hydroxide solution for 2 weeks, while periodically measuring the length of the bar. These tests were extended to 4 weeks.
Standard mortar bar molds were used to cast the specimens for this series of tests. Because this UHPC contains no coarse aggregate, no special preparation of the batch ingredients was necessary before casting the bars. Six mortar bars were cast for each curing condition. The mortar bars had a 25.4- by 25.4-mm (1- by 1-inch) cross section and were 280 mm (11 inches) long. The bars had gage studs cast into each end so that ASTM C490 length change measurements could be recorded throughout the testing.(49) Figure 130 shows one of the mortar bars in the length comparator for measurement.
The standard test method includes specific instructions regarding timing throughout the test. These instructions include demolding the mortar bars at 24 hours, placing the bars in an 80 °C (176 °F) water bath for the following 24 hours, then placing the bars in the 80 °C (176 °F) sodium hydroxide solution bath until test completion. Due to the curing regimes being investigated in this research program, the timetable recommended in the standard test method could not be followed. Table 32 provides the timetable for each of the five sets of specimens that were tested.
Submerging the UHPC in the 80 °C (176 °F) bath is somewhat similar to the steam-based curing regimes wherein the UHPC is placed in a high-heat, high-humidity environment. For this reason, it is anticipated that the test method described in ASTM C1260 may inadvertently provide additional curing to the UHPC, especially UHPC that did not undergo a steam-based curing treatment. Thus, two sets of specimens were tested in the untreated curing regime. In what is deemed the untreated (standard) set in table 32, the ASR testing was not initiated until 28 days after casting. In the untreated (modified) group, the ASR testing was initiated immediately after demolding.
Figure 130. Photo. Length comparator for ASR measurements.
Table 32. Timetable for ASTM C1260 specimens.
Table 33 presents the results from this series of tests. The standard test method indicates that expansion values less than 0.10 percent after 14 days of testing are indicative of innocuous behavior, whereas expansion values over 0.20 percent are potentially deleterious. The UHPC expansion results are an order of magnitude below this lower threshold after 14 days and even after 28 days of testing. Figure 131 presents the entire set of test results, including approximately 10 length readings for each curing regime throughout the 28 days of testing.
These results indicate that there should be no concern of ASR problems with the concrete after a steam-based curing regime is applied. Given the procedures used in this test method to check for ASR susceptibility, Untreated UHPC may not be as resistant to ASR as determined in these tests. However, for ASR to occur in any concrete, free water must be present. Given the low permeability of UHPC, it seems unlikely that ASR would be an issue under any curing regime.
Table 33. ASTM C1260 alkali-silica reactivity expansion results.
Figure 131. Graph. ASTM C1260 alkali-silica reactivity expansion results.
To begin to access the durability of cracked UHPC, a series of tests were conducted to determine if the ponding of a sodium chloride solution on cracked UHPC would negatively impact the postcracking tensile strength. Although these tests are not standardized, they are a combination of the ASTM C496 split-cylinder tensile tests discussed in section 3.4.2 and the AASHTO T259 ponding tests discussed in section 3.13.2.(25,58) The split-cylinder tensile test portion of this program was conducted identically to the tests discussed earlier in the chapter, including the measurement of lateral deformation using a pair of LVDTs. The only difference was in the staging of the test wherein specimens were not necessarily loaded directly to failure (as discussed below). The ponding portion of these tests was identical to the AASHTO T259 tests described previously.
This series of tests included 30 cylinders with a 102-mm (4-inch) diameter; half of the cylinders came from batch L1R and half came from L2R. Only the steam-treated and untreated cases were investigated. The casting and curing of the specimens followed standard procedures, and the testing discussed herein was initiated on day 28 after casting.
The 15 cylinders from each batch were divided into 5 groups of 3. The first group of cylinders, the control group, was loaded to failure. The second group was loaded until cracking had occurred, then unloaded, then reloaded to failure. The third group was loaded identically to the second group, except that after unloading the cylinders were stored in a laboratory environment for 90 days. The fourth group was identical to the third group except that, during the 90-day storage, water was ponded on a cracked end of the cylinder. Finally, the fifth group was identical to the fourth group, except that a 3-percent sodium chloride solution was ponded on a cracked surface.
The cracking of each cylinder was determined by monitoring the lateral deformation behavior. The two means of determining if a crack had occurred included a clear jump in the lateral deformation or a definite reduction in stiffness of the load versus lateral deformation response. Most cylinders exhibited a clear jump in their response, but a few untreated cylinders only exhibited the stiffness change. Cylinders from the second through the fifth groups were unloaded immediately after cracking was observed.
The cracks on these specimens were then identified and measured using an optical microscope. First, alcohol was used as a volatile penetrant to highlight each crack. A crack that was made visible using this technique can be seen in figure 132. The cracks were then located using the microscope set at 350x magnification. In general, each end of each cylinder only had one crack. Once located, each crack was traced to find its largest width. The cracks were then photographed for later analysis of the crack widths. A photograph of a crack from one of the steam-treated cylinders is shown in figure 133. At this optical magnification and given the resolution of the digital photograph acquired, the crack shown in this figure is only 2 pixels wide, corresponding to a width of 0.0036 mm (0.00014 inch).
Figure 132. Photo. Crack in a split cylinder tensile specimen.
Figure 133. Photo. Crack in a split-cylinder tensile specimen under 350x magnification.
The crack widths on the ponded faces of the 12 ponded cylinders ranged from 0.0018 mm (0.00007 inch) to 0.012 mm (0.00047 inch). Ten of the 12 cylinders had crack widths between 0.0036 and 0.0069 mm (0.00014 and 0.00027 inch). Table 34 provides the crack width and splitcylinder peak strength results for the cylinders that were ponded.
Table 34. Crack width and split-cylinder peak strength results for ponded cylinders.
The results of these tests indicate that the ponding of neither the water nor the sodium chloride solution had little effect on the peak tensile load carried by the cylinders. Figure 134 provides the postcracking strength results for all five groups of cylinders for both curing regimes. The peak load carried shows no clear change, and it is clear that the ponding of the water or the sodium chloride did not have a serious detrimental effect on the fibers crossing the crack in each cylinder. However, it must also be noted that the sodium chloride solution did cause corrosion of fibers exposed on the ground end of the cylinder, similar to what was observed in the AASHTO T259 and ASTM C672 tests. Further research into the permeability of cracked UHPC is necessary to determine what crack size results in a change in the permeability characteristics of the material.
Figure 134. Chart. Split-cylinder peak strength results.


Commercial exploitation of coal in India began in 1774 with John Sumner and Suetonius Grant Heatly of the East India Company in the Raniganj Coalfield along the Western bank of Damodar river. The growth of Indian coal mining remained slow for nearly a century due to low demand. The introduction of steam locomotives in 1853 boosted demand, and coal production rose to an annual average of 1 million metric tons (1.1 million short tons). India produced 6.12 million metric tons (6.75 million short tons) of coal per year by 1900 and 18 million metric tons (20 million short tons) per year by 1920. Coal production received another boost during the First World War due to increased demand, but slumped again in the early 1930s. Production reached a level of 29 million metric tons (32 million short tons) by 1942 and 30 million metric tons (33 million short tons) by 1946.
In the regions of British India known as Bengal, Bihar and Odisha, the many Indians pioneered Indian involvement in coal mining from 1894. They broke the previous monopolies held by British and other Europeans, establishing many collieries at locations such as Khas Jharia, Jamadoba, Balihari, Tisra, Katrasgarh, Kailudih, Kusunda, Govindpur, Sijua, Sijhua, Loyabad, Dhansar, Bhuli, Bermo, Mugma, Chasnala-Bokaro, Bugatdih, Putki, Chirkunda, Bhowrah, Sinidih, Kendwadih, and Dumka.
The East Indian Railway in 1894-95 extended its line from Barakar to Dhanbad via Katras and Jharia. Messrs. Khora Ramji in 1894 was working on railway lines contract of Jharia branch line and with his brother Jetha Lira was also building Jharia Railway Station, when he discovered coal in Jharia belt. The location of his three collieries named Jeenagora, Khas Jherria, Gareria is mentioned also in 1917 Gazetteers of Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Odisha.
Other Indian communities followed the example of the him in the Dhanbad-Jharia-Bokaro fields after the 1930s. These included the Punjabis, Kutchis, Marwaris, Gujaratis, Bengalis and Hindustanis.
Following independence, the Government of India introduced several 5-year development plans. Annual production rose to 33 million metric tons (36 million short tons) at the beginning of the First Five Year Plan. The National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC), a Government of India Undertaking, was established in 1956 with the collieries owned by the railways. The NCDC aimed to increase coal production efficiently by systematic and scientific development of the coal industry. The Singareni Collieries Company Ltd. (SCCL) which was already in operation since 1945 and which became a Government company under the control of Government of Andhra Pradesh in 1956. The coal industry in India was thus controlled by state-owned companies in the 1950s. Today, SCCL is a joint undertaking of Government of Telangana and Government of India sharing its equity in 51:49 ratio.
Right from its genesis, the commercial coal mining in modern times in India has been dictated by the needs of the domestic consumption. India has abundant domestic reserves of coal. Most of these are in the states of Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Telangana and Madhya Pradesh. On account of the growing needs of the steel industry, a thrust had to be given on systematic exploitation of coking coal reserves in Jharia coalfield. Adequate capital investment to meet the burgeoning energy needs of the country was not forthcoming from the private coal mine owners.
Unscientific mining practices adopted by some of them and poor working conditions of labor in some of the private coal mines became matters of concern for the Government. On account of these reasons, the Central Government took a decision to nationalize the private coal mines. The nationalization was done in two phases, the first with the coking coal mines in 1971-72 and then with the non-coking coal mines in 1973. In October, 1971, the Coking Coal Mines (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1971 provided for taking over in public interest of the management of coking coal mines and coke oven plants pending nationalization. This was followed by the Coking Coal Mines (Nationalization) Act, 1972 under which the coking coal mines and the coke oven plants other than those with the Tata Iron & Steel Company Limited and Indian Iron & Steel Company Limited, were nationalized on May 1, 1972 and brought under the Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL), a new Central Government Undertaking. Another enactment, namely the Coal Mines (Taking Over of Management) Act, 1973, extended the right of the Government of India to take over the management of the coking and non-coking coal mines in seven States including the coking coal mines taken over in 1971. This was followed by the nationalization of all these mines on May 1, 1973 with the enactment of the Coal Mines (Nationalization) Act, 1973 which determined the eligibility of coal mining in India.
All non-coking coal mines were nationalized in 1973 and placed under Coal Mines Authority of India. In 1975, Eastern Coalfields Limited, a subsidiary of Coal India Limited, was formed. It took over all the earlier private collieries in Raniganj Coalfield. Raniganj Coalfield covers an area of 443.50 square kilometres (171.24 sq mi) and has total coal reserves of 8,552.85 million metric tons (9,427.90 million short tons). Eastern Coalfields puts the reserves at 29.72 billion metric tons (32.76 billion short tons). That makes it the second largest coalfield in the country (in terms of reserves).
The North East Indian states enjoys special privileges under constitution of India. The Sixth Schedule of constitution and article 371 of constitution allows state governments to formulate its own policy in order to recognize customary tribal laws. For example, Nagaland has its own coal policy which allows its natives to mine coal from their respective lands. Similarly, coal mining in Meghalaya was rampant till imposition of ban on coal mining by National Green Tribunal. The Nagaland Coal and Meghalaya Coal has large buyers in North India, Central India and Eastern India.
Parliament enacted the Coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act, 2015 in March 2015 containing provisions enabling the government to allocate coal mines through auctions. The law also permitted private players to mine coal for use in their own cement, steel, power or aluminium plants. On 20 February 2018, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) permitted private firms to enter the commercial coal mining industry in India. Under the new policy, mines will be auctioned to the firm offering the highest per tonne price. The move broke the monopoly over commercial mining that state-owned Coal India has enjoyed since nationalisation in 1973. Establishment of coal regulator is needed to implement the policy in transparent and non-discriminatory manner.
The Coking Coal Mines (Nationalization) Act, 1972 and the Coal Mines (Nationalization) Act, 1973 were repealed by the Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2017 on 8 January 2018.
India has the fifth largest coal reserves in the world. As on 31 March 2017, India had 315.14 billion metric tons (347.38 billion short tons) of the resource. The known reserves of coal rose 2.05% over the previous year, with the discovery of an estimated 6.34 billion metric tons (6.99 billion short tons). The estimated total reserves of lignite coal as on 31 March 2017 was 44.70 billion metric tons (49.27 billion short tons). The energy derived from coal in India is about twice that of the energy derived from oil, whereas worldwide, energy derived from coal is about 30% less than energy derived from oil.
Coal deposits are primarily found in eastern and south-central India. Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra accounted for 98.20% of the total known coal reserves in India. As on 31 March 2017, Jharkhand and Odisha had the largest coal deposits of 26.16% and 24.52% respectively.
The following table shows the estimated coal reserves in India by state as on 31 March 2016.
The following table shows the estimated lignite reserves in India by state as on 31 March 2016.
Industries in India consumed 841.56 MT of raw coal in 2016-17. The largest consumers of coal in India are electricity generation (527.26 MT), steel and washery industries (54.15 MT), cement industries (6.43 MT) and sponge iron industries (5.68 MT). Consumption of lignite stood at 43.16 MT in 2016-17. Electricity generation alone accounts for 89.96% of the total lignite consumption.
Due to high demand and poor average quality, India is forced to import high quality coal to meet the requirements of steel plants. India's coal imports have risen from 49.79 million metric tons (0.05488 billion short tons) in 2007-08 to 190.95 million metric tons (0.21049 billion short tons) in 2016-17. India's coal exports rose from 1.63 million metric tons (1.80 million short tons) in 2007-08 to 2.44 million metric tons (2.69 million short tons) in 2012-13, but subsequently declined to 1.77 million metric tons (1.95 million short tons) in 2016-17.
As on 31 October, the installed capacity of coal power in India was 186,492.88 MW, accounting for 60.7% of the total installed capacity. India's electricity sector consumed about 72% of the coal produced in the country in 2013.
A large part of Indian coal reserve is similar to Gondwana coal. It is of low calorific value and high ash content. The carbon content is low in India's coal, and toxic trace element concentrations are negligible. The natural fuel value of Indian coal is poor. On average, the Indian power plants using India's coal supply consume about 0.7 kg of coal to generate a kWh, whereas United States thermal power plants consume about 0.45 kg of coal per kWh. This is because of the difference in the quality of the coal, as measured by the Gross Calorific Value (GCV). On average, Indian coal has a GCV of about 4500 Kcal/kg, whereas the quality elsewhere in the world is much better; for example, in Australia, the GCV is 6500 Kcal/kg approximately. India imported nearly 95 Mtoe of steam coal and coking coal which is 29% of total consumption to meet the demand in electricity, cement and steel production.
^ "Coal Mining in India: The Past". Ministry of Coal, Indian government. Archived from the original on 31 August 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
^ a b c Diary of Golden Days at Jharia – A Memoir and History of Gurjar Kashtriya Samaj of Kutch in Coalfields of Jharia – written by Natwarlal Devram Jethwa of Calcutta (1998).
^ Census of India, 1981: Bihar. Series 4. Controller of Publications - Bihar. 1981. p. 22. It was the existence of coal that first attracted the railway authority to extend the railways and with them came the Gujrati people as an expert railway contractor with an experience of railway construction work at Thana. They then met Raja of Jharia and purchased some having underneath wast wealth in shape of coal.
^ "Gazetteers of Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa 1917 Khora Ramji Colliries". Archive.org. Retrieved 2013-09-30.
^ Khora Ramji Mines capsized in 1938. Books.google.co.in. Retrieved 2013-09-30.
^ Jharia Coalfields: Khora Ramji, Narayan Chowra, etc. Books.google.co.in. Retrieved 2013-09-30.
^ Indigenous Enterprise in the Indian Coal Mining Industry c. 1835–1939, C.P. Simmons. Published in 1976.
^ Report on the production and consumption of coal in India of 1921 India. Dept. of Statistics (Superintendent Government Printing, 1921 – Technology and Engineering).
^ "Coal India Limited - About Us".
^ "CoalDunia - Nagaland Coal".
^ "CoalDunia - Meghalaya Coal".
^ India, Press Trust of (20 February 2018). "Govt allows pvt firms to mine coal for commercial use". Business Standard India. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
^ "A big leap - Opening up coal mining for private sector is historic, now a regulator is needed". Retrieved 20 February 2018.
^ a b c d e f g "Energy Statistics 2018" (PDF). mospi.nic.in. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
^ "Inventory of Coal Resources of India - Ministry of Coal".
^ "From Adani to Ambani, How Alleged Over Invoicing of Imported Coal has Increased Power Tariffs". Retrieved 6 April 2016.
^ "All India Installed Capacity of Utility Power Stations" (PDF). Retrieved 19 October 2016.
^ "Key World Energy Statistics" (PDF). International Energy Agency. International Energy Agency. 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
^ "Economics of Coal and Gas Based Energy". Third Wave Solutions. 2012.
^ "Statistical Review of world energy 2014 workbook". Archived from the original on 22 June 2014. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
Trippi, M.H. and S.J. Tewalt. (2011). Geographic Information System (GIS) Representation of Coal-Bearing Areas in India and Bangladesh. Reston, Va.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.


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