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Life Tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians
Life expectancy estimates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people for Australia and Index of Socio-Economic Disadvantage
Life Tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians Archive release Reference Period 2010 - 2012
Life Tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians Archive release Reference Period 2005-2007
Life expectancy at birth for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males – 71.6 years.
Life expectancy at birth for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander females – 75.6 years.
Increased by 2.5 years and 1.9 years respectively since the period from 2010 to 2012.
This publication contains life expectancy estimates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people for Australia, selected states/territory, remoteness area and SEIFA (Index of Relative Socio-Economic Disadvantage) for the reference period from 2015 to 2017. These are life expectancy estimates for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population as measured in the 2016 Census and adjusted for net undercount using Post Enumeration Survey (PES) results, which may not represent all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia. As such, a number of data quality issues need to be considered when reporting and interpreting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy estimates presented in this release.
The standard approach to compiling life tables and resulting life expectancy estimates requires complete and accurate data on the average number of deaths that occur in a period, and reliable estimates of the population (at the mid-point of the period) exposed to the risk of dying. These data are required by age and sex, so as to calculate age-sex specific death rates. In the case of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mortality estimation, this situation is less than perfect. Registration of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths have some limitations compared to those for the entire population. In addition, a number of quality issues associated with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population estimates exist. In combination, these present particular methodological challenges to compiling high quality life tables and making comparisons over time. For more information see Quality issues with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths and population data.
Reporting on life expectancy estimates in the context of other measures of progress
Changes in people's propensity to identify as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander between Census years have resulted in compositional changes in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population over time. This is particularly prevalent in Major Cities. Between the 2011 and 2016 Censuses, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population increased by 18.4% (100,803 people). Analysis shows that 78.6% of this increase can be explained by demographic factors, such as births, deaths and overseas migration. The remaining 21.4% (or 21,531) of the increase in Census counts that could not be explained by demographic factors can be attributed to changing propensities to identify and methodological improvements in coverage and response rates in the Census (see Census of Population and Housing: Understanding the Increase in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Counts, 2016).
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living in Major Cities (where most of the 2011 to 2016 population increase occurred) were the main contributors to intercensal increases in Year 12 attainment, non-school qualifications, labour force participation and higher personal weekly income. These changes pose significant challenges in the interpretation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy estimates over time.
While the estimates in this release show a small improvement in life expectancy estimates and a reduction in the gap between the periods from 2010 to 2012 and 2015 to 2017, this improvement should be interpreted with considerable caution as the population composition has changed during this period as outlined above. This release provides information on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy in different geographic areas, to assist policy markers target initiatives for improved life expectancy gains.
The ABS recommends that estimates be considered in context with other health performance measures to adequately assess progress in 'Closing the Gap' measures.
Summary of headline estimates
At the national level, for the period from 2015 to 2017, life expectancy at birth for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males was estimated to be 71.6 years, 8.6 years less than life expectancy at birth for non-Indigenous males (80.2 years). Life expectancy at birth for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander females was estimated to be 75.6 years, 7.8 years less than life expectancy at birth for non-Indigenous females (83.4 years). These estimates relate to the 2016 Census-based population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.
Since the period from 2010 to 2012 when the last estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy were produced based on the 2011 Census, life expectancy for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males and females increased by 2.5 years and 1.9 years respectively. The difference between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous life expectancy narrowed by 2.0 years for males and 1.7 years for females over the same period.
This slight improvement in life expectancy is consistent with the changing composition of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population between the two censuses, and in particular with stronger population growth in the Major cities, partly reflecting an increased propensity to identify as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in these areas.
Use of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life tables
Estimates of life expectancy at birth for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians are commonly used as a measure for assessing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population health and disadvantage to progress national 'Closing the Gap' targets.
The life tables in this release will enable the construction of Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) estimates and projections of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population of Australia for 2006 to 2031. These data are produced using the cohort-component method, in which assumptions made about levels of mortality, fertility and migration are iteratively applied to a base population to obtain projections of past and/or future populations.
Choice of method
Since the issue of this publication for the period from 2005 to 2007, an improvement has been made to the method of calculating Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life tables at the Australia level. The method now takes age-specific identification rates into account when calculating the underidentification adjustment. For more information see Data linkage to derive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates.
However, this method could not be used for state and territory life tables due to insufficient sample from the Post Enumeration Survey to accurately calculate age-specific identification rates. The estimates for New South Wales, Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory were therefore calculated without an age-specific adjustment, and followed the same methodology that was used for the 2005 to 2007 and 2010 to 2012 life tables. Due to the different methodologies, life expectancy estimates for these states and one territory are not directly comparable with the headline estimates for Australia, which used an age-specific adjustment. Comparable Australia level life tables have been calculated without an age-specific adjustment to enable national, state and territory and remoteness area comparisons.
These methods are very similar and both have two key features. First, the use of data linking enables direct calculation of identification rates. Second, by aligning the deaths data to the population estimates derived from the 2016 Census and Post Enumeration Survey the methodology ensures consistency between the numerator (that is, estimates of deaths) and the denominator (estimates of population at risk).
For completeness, a number of alternative approaches to adjust for underidentification of Indigenous status in deaths data and the resulting life expectancy estimates are presented in Appendix – Alternative approaches to adjust deaths. Assessment of the various alternatives showed that on balance, the same method as used for the periods from 2010 to 2012 and 2015 to 2017 life expectancy estimates was the best choice.
Life tables for Australia (headline and comparison estimates), New South Wales, Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory are presented in Life tables. Due to the relatively small number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, it is not currently possible to construct reliable individual life tables for these states and territory.
Life expectancy estimates in this publication refer to the average number of additional years a person of a given age and sex might expect to live if the age/sex-specific death rates for the period from 2015 to 2017 were to continue throughout his/her lifetime.
Life expectancy may be compiled for any particular age or age group, thus, life expectancy at birth refers to the average number of years a group of new-born babies could expect to live, if they experienced the death rates for the period from 2015 to 2017 throughout their lifetimes. This does not equate to the number of years of life any one person or group of persons will actually live.
Life expectancy at birth of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians
Table 1 presents life expectancy at selected ages for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous Australians. At all ages, for both males and females, life expectancy for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians is lower than for non-Indigenous Australians.
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Table 1 - Life expectancy at selected ages, Australia(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander
Non-Indigenous
and non-Indigenous
life expectancy(c)
years years years years
0 71.6 80.2 80.0 8.6
25 47.9 55.8 55.7 7.9
85 4.4 4.7 4.7 0.3
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES
0 -4.0 -3.2 -3.3 . .
25 -3.8 -3.0 -3.1 . .
. . not applicable
a. These life expectancy estimates are calculated taking age-specific identification rates into account.
b. Based on the average number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths registered in 2015, 2016 and 2017 adjusted for under/over identification of Indigenous Status in registrations, and final Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population estimates for 30 June 2016 based on the 2016 Census.
c. Differences are based on unrounded estimates.
Ratio of mortality rates
Life expectancy estimates reflect the rates of mortality at different ages within a population. Graph 1 illustrates the differences in mortality rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous Australians for the period from 2015 to 2017.
For males, the largest differences were in the 40–44 year and 45–49 year age groups, where mortality rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males were around four times higher than rates for non-Indigenous males. For females, the largest differences were in the 30–34 year and 35–39 year age groups, where mortality rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander females were over four times higher than rates for non-Indigenous females.
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Graph 1 - Ratio of mortality rates(a), Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous Australians(b), 2015 to 2017(c)
["Age group (years)","Males","Females"]
[["0","1-4","5-9","10-14","15-19","20-24","25-29","30-34","35-39","40-44","45-49","50-54","55-59","60-64","65-69","70-74","75-79","80-84","85+"],[[2.3999999999999999],[1.8999999999999999],[3],[1.7],[2],[2.5],[3.2999999999999998],[3.6000000000000001],[3.3999999999999999],[3.7999999999999998],[3.7000000000000002],[3.1000000000000001],[2.3999999999999999],[2.3999999999999999],[2],[1.8999999999999999],[1.6000000000000001],[1.3],[1]],[[2.7000000000000002],[1.8],[2.3999999999999999],[2.2000000000000002],[2.7000000000000002],[3.2999999999999998],[3.6000000000000001],[4.4000000000000004],[4.0999999999999996],[3.7999999999999998],[3.6000000000000001],[3.2999999999999998],[2.8999999999999999],[2.8999999999999999],[2.7999999999999998],[2.2999999999999998],[2.1000000000000001],[1.6000000000000001],[1]]]
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Ratio of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mortality rate (qx) to non-Indigenous mortality rate.
Headline estimates for Australia are calculated taking age-specific identification rates into account.
Based on the average number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths registered in 2015, 2016 and 2017 adjusted for under/over identification of Indigenous Status in registrations, and final Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population estimates for 30 June 2016 based on the 2016 Census.
State and territory life expectancy at birth
State and territory estimates are calculated on a different methodological basis to the headline Australia estimates (at which level it is possible to account for differing rates of mortality for different age groups). For this reason, a comparable Australia level series has been calculated without an age-specific adjustment and is included in the table below. Life expectancy at birth for people differs across the four states and territory for which estimates could be produced. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males, life expectancy at birth was highest in Queensland (72.0 years) and lowest in the Northern Territory (66.6 years). A similar pattern exists for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander females, with the highest life expectancy at birth in Queensland (76.4 years) and the lowest in the Northern Territory (69.9 years).
Differences in life expectancy at birth estimates between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous Australians were largest for males in Western Australia (13.4 years lower) and for females in the Northern Territory (12.8 years lower).
Table 2 - Life expectancy at birth, Indigenous status, 2015 to 2017(a)
Total(b)
life expectancy at birth(c)
NSW 70.9 80.2 80.0 9.4
Qld 72.0 79.8 79.6 7.8
WA 66.9 80.3 79.9 13.4
NT 66.6 78.1 75.3 11.5
Aust.(d)(e) 70.0 80.2 80.0 10.3
Aust.(d)(e) 74.4 83.5 83.2 9.0
NSW -5.0 -3.3 -3.3 . .
Qld -4.4 -3.4 -3.4 . .
WA -4.9 -3.5 -3.6 . .
NT -3.2 -4.6 -3.4 . .
Aust.(d)(e) -4.5 -3.2 -3.3 . .
a. Based on the average number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths registered in 2015, 2016 and 2017 adjusted for under/over identification of Indigenous Status in registrations, and final Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population estimates for 30 June 2016 based on the 2016 Census.
b. Estimates of life expectancy at birth for the total population presented in this release differ from estimates in Life Tables, States, Territories and Australia, 2015-2017. See paragraph 24 of the Methodology for more information.
d. These life expectancy estimates are calculated without taking age-specific identification rates into account.
e. Includes all states and territories
Graph 2 - Life expectancy at birth, males, 2015 to 2017(a)
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Aust(b)(c)
["","Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander","Non-Indigenous"]
[["Aust(b)(c)","NT","WA","Qld","NSW"],[[70],[66.599999999999994],[66.900000000000006],[72],[70.900000000000006]],[[80.200000000000003],[78.099999999999994],[80.299999999999997],[79.799999999999997],[80.200000000000003]]]
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These estimates are not the headline estimates for Australia, because they are calculated without an age-adjustment, but are provided to enable effective comparisons with the state and territory, and remoteness area estimates.
Includes all states and territories.
Graph 3 - Life expectancy at birth, females, 2015 to 2017(a)
[["Aust(b)(c)","NT","WA","Qld","NSW"],[[74.400000000000006],[69.900000000000006],[71.799999999999997],[76.400000000000006],[75.900000000000006]],[[83.5],[82.700000000000003],[83.799999999999997],[83.200000000000003],[83.5]]]
Confidence intervals for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy
Life expectancy estimates are presented together with their 95% confidence intervals below, to highlight that estimates have a margin of error attached to them. The 95% confidence interval indicates a range of values in which users can be 95% certain that the true life expectancy estimates lie within the interval. If the confidence intervals of two estimates do not overlap, then the estimates are statistically significant at 95% confidence level.
See Appendix – Confidence intervals, Table 1 for a comparison of life expectancy estimates and associated confidence intervals for the periods 2010 to 2012 and 2015 to 2017.
Graph 4 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy, 95% confidence intervals(a)—males
2010-12(e)
Confidence interval (low)
Confidence interval (high)
2015-2017(f)
Qld(b)
65.0 63.4 66.6 66.9 65 68.8
Aust.(b)(c)(d)
["","2010-12(e)","Confidence interval","2015-2017(f)","Confidence interval"]
[["NSW","Qld(b)","WA","NT","Aust.(b)(c)(d)"],[[70.5],[68.700000000000003],[65],[63.399999999999999],[67.400000000000006]],[[69,72],[67.299999999999997,70.099999999999994],[63.399999999999999,66.599999999999994],[61.299999999999997,65.5],[66.099999999999994,68.700000000000003]],[[70.900000000000006],[72],[66.900000000000006],[66.599999999999994],[70]],[[68.799999999999997,73],[70.299999999999997,73.700000000000003],[65,68.799999999999997],[65.400000000000006,67.799999999999997],[68.799999999999997,71.200000000000003]]]
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Estimates are statistically significant at 95% confidence level if their confidence intervals do not overlap.
Significantly different from the 2010 to 2012 estimate at 95% confidence level.
These life expectancy estimates are calculated without taking age-specific identification rates into account.
Graph 5 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy, 95% confidence intervals(a)—females
[["NSW","Qld","WA","NT","Aust.(b)(c)(d)"],[[74.599999999999994],[74.400000000000006],[70.200000000000003],[68.700000000000003],[72.299999999999997]],[[73.299999999999997,75.900000000000006],[73.200000000000003,75.599999999999994],[68.799999999999997,71.599999999999994],[66.799999999999997,70.599999999999994],[71.200000000000003,73.400000000000006]],[[75.900000000000006],[76.400000000000006],[71.799999999999997],[69.900000000000006],[74.400000000000006]],[[74.299999999999997,77.599999999999994],[75,77.900000000000006],[70.099999999999994,73.5],[68.799999999999997,70.900000000000006],[73.5,75.400000000000006]]]
Improvement in life expectancy during the periods 2010 to 2012 and 2015 to 2017
During the periods 2010 to 2012 and 2015 to 2017, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy at birth estimates for Australia (headline) increased by 2.5 years for males and 1.9 years for females.
The largest improvement was in Queensland (3.3 years for males and 2.0 years for females), followed by the Northern Territory (3.2 years for males and 1.2 years for females) and Western Australia (1.9 years for males and 1.7 years for females). The lowest improvement was in New South Wales (0.4 years for males and 1.3 years for females). While Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy increased in all states/territory for which estimates were produced, increases were only statistically significant for males in Queensland, and both males and females at the Australia comparison level.
Life expectancy by remoteness areas and SEIFA
Due to insufficient data for some RAs to be published individually, particularly at lower ages, the ABS has produced life expectancy at birth for only three categories of remoteness. These are Major Cities, Inner Regional and Outer Regional combined and Remote and Very Remote combined. Remoteness categories were grouped together according to the similarity of their mortality characteristics. Similarly, for life expectancy estimates by SEIFA (Index of Relative Socio-Economic Disadvantage), the two least disadvantaged quintiles have been grouped together due to insufficient data.
Life expectancy was significantly lower for both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males and females in Remote and Very Remote areas combined (65.9 and 69.6) than for those who lived in Major Cities (72.1 and 76.5 respectively). The difference between life expectancy estimates for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and the non-Indigenous populations was also more marked in these remote and very remote areas (13.8 years for males and 14.0 years for females) than in Major Cities (8.6 years and 7.2 years respectively).
This is consistent with the estimates presented in Table 4 which show that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living in the most disadvantaged areas, a higher proportion of whom were living in remote Australia, have the lowest life expectancy (68.2 years for males and 72.8 years for females. This represented 41% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males and females, a third of whom lived in Remote and Very Remote areas. This compared with a life expectancy at birth estimate of 77.9 years for non-Indigenous males and 82.0 years for non-Indigenous females living in areas in the most disadvantage quintile, which represented around 17% of non-Indigenous males and females, of whom 2% were living in Remote and Very Remote areas.
Table 3 - Life expectancy at birth, Remoteness Areas, 2015 to 2017(a)(b)
Major Cities 72.1 80.7 80.6 8.6
Inner and Outer Regional 70.0 79.1 78.7 9.1
Remote and Very Remote 65.9 79.7 76.3 13.8
Major Cities -4.4 -3.0 -3.1 . .
Inner and Outer Regional -4.8 -3.7 -3.8 . .
Remote and Very Remote -3.8 -3.9 -3.3 . .
b. These life expectancy estimates are calculated without taking age-specific identification rates into account.
Graph 6 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy by remoteness, 95% confidence intervals(a), 2015 to 2017(b)(c)
Major Cities(d)
Inner and Outer Regional(d)
Remote and Very Remote(d)
72.1 70.4 73.7 70.0 68.5 71.5 65.9 64.7 67.1
["","Major Cities(d)","Confidence interval","Inner and Outer Regional(d)","Confidence interval","Remote and Very Remote(d)","Confidence interval"]
[["Males","Females"],[[72.099999999999994],[76.5]],[[70.400000000000006,73.700000000000003],[75.200000000000003,77.799999999999997]],[[70],[74.799999999999997]],[[68.5,71.5],[73.599999999999994,76.099999999999994]],[[65.900000000000006],[69.599999999999994]],[[64.700000000000003,67.099999999999994],[68.5,70.799999999999997]]]
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Difference between male and female estimates in the period from 2015 to 2017 are statistically significant at 95% confidence level.
Table 4 - Life expectancy at birth, Indigenous status and sex by Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians
Non-Indigenous Australians
expectancy
% of
in this
quintile
and Very
Most disadvantaged 20% 68.2 40.6 32.2 77.9 17.6 2.2
Second most disadvantaged 20% 70.3 24.4 7.0 79.1 19.1 2.5
Middle 20% 69.9 18.0 15.2 80.4 21.3 2.4
Least disadvantaged 40% 72.4 17.0 5.5 81.7 42.0 0.6
a. These life expectancy estimates are calculated without taking age-specific identification rates into account.
Graph 7 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy by Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage, 95% confidence intervals(a), 2015 to 2017(b)(c)
Most disadvantaged 20%(d)
Second most disadvantaged 20%(d)
Middle 20%(d)
Least disadvantaged 40%(d)
68.2 67.6 68.8 70.3 69.5 71.1 69.9 68.9 70.9 72.4 71.3 73.5
["","Most disadvantaged 20%(d)","Confidence interval","Second most disadvantaged 20%(d)","Confidence interval","Middle 20%(d)","Confidence interval","Least disadvantaged 40%(d)","Confidence interval"]
[["Males","Females"],[[68.200000000000003],[72.799999999999997]],[[67.599999999999994,68.799999999999997],[72.299999999999997,73.299999999999997]],[[70.299999999999997],[75.5]],[[69.5,71.099999999999994],[74.900000000000006,76.099999999999994]],[[69.900000000000006],[74.299999999999997]],[[68.900000000000006,70.900000000000006],[73.5,75.099999999999994]],[[72.400000000000006],[76.599999999999994]],[[71.299999999999997,73.5],[75.599999999999994,77.599999999999994]]]
Comparison with AIHW estimates
In 2017, the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) released a report on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy estimates for the period 2011 to 2015. Like the ABS, the AIHW also compiled life expectancy estimates through a data linking process. However, the AIHW linked registered deaths with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander death records from three alternative data sources. These data sources were Residential Age Care Dataset, National Hospital Morbidity Database and National Perinatal Data Collection.
The AIHW study produced Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy at birth of 70.1 years for males and 74.5 years for females for the period 2011 to 2015 (AIHW, 2017). These estimates are 1.5 years and 1.1 years lower than the ABS estimates of 71.6 and 75.6 years for males and females respectively for the period 2015 to 2017. The reasons for this difference could be due to a range of differences in methodologies and reference periods between the ABS and AIHW studies. It is important to note that quality issues are associated with estimates produced by both agencies.
Quality issues with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths and population data
The standard approach to compiling life tables and resulting life expectancy estimates requires complete and accurate data on the average number of deaths that occur in a period, and reliable estimates of the population (at the mid-point of the period) exposed to the risk of dying. These data are required by age and sex, so as to calculate age-sex specific death rates.
In the case of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mortality estimation, this situation is less than perfect. Information on death registrations of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians has limitations and a number of quality issues associated with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population estimates exist. In combination, these present particular methodological challenges to compiling high quality life tables and making comparisons over time.
Deaths of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians
The first component necessary for the compilation of life tables as measured in the Census and adjusted for net undercount using in the Post Enumeration Survey for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians is information on all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths by age and sex. These are required as numerators in the calculation of age-specific death rates from which life tables are produced.
Death registrations are collected in the form of administrative data from the Registrars of Births, Deaths and Marriages in each state/territory. For all states and territories, death registration forms (DRFs) use a standard question to elicit information about a person's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander origin. While Australia maintains a high quality registration system of deaths, the level of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identification (that is those deaths which are registered as being a person who was Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) varies across state/territory collections, geography and over time.
While it is considered likely that the majority of deaths of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians are registered, some of these deaths are not identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander when they are registered. This may arise from the failure to report a person's Indigenous status on the DRF or from an incorrect identification of their Indigenous status (that is, recording non-Indigenous instead of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) on the death certificate. Response to this question can be influenced by a number of factors, including the perception of why such information is required, who completes the question regarding the deceased, and personal and cultural aspects associated with identifying as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander. This issue remains a major challenge in developing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life tables, as well as in estimating the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population between Census years.
Medical Certificate of Cause of Death (MCCD)
In addition to the DRF, some states and territories have introduced the Medical Certificate of Cause of Death (MCCD) to improve Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identification in death records. In 2007, the MCCD was introduced in South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. The Queensland Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages introduced the MCCD in 2015. This resulted in a noticeable decrease in the number of deaths for which the Indigenous status was 'not stated' and an increase in the number of deaths identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in Queensland in comparison to previous years (see Table 5). The impact of the introduction of the MCCD in Queensland in 2015 on the 2015 to 2017 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identification rate and life expectancy estimates is discussed in Data linkage to derive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates.
Numbers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths
Table 5 shows Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths registered from 2011 to 2017. Since 2011, the numbers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths registered in Western Australia and the Northern Territory have been fairly consistent. Since 2015, the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in Queensland outnumbered those in New South Wales. Queensland now has the largest number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths of all states and territories.
At the national level, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander death registrations increased from 2,558 in 2011 to 3,250 in 2017 (27%).
Table 5 - Registered Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths(a), state/territory of usual residence, 2011 to 2017
Year(b)
Tas.
Aust.(c)
2011 726 128 629 141 454 30 437 12 2,558
2012 635 100 678 151 466 45 539 6 2,620
2015(d) 822 141 842 167 511 50 537 17 3,088
a. Due to differing levels of identification for the states and territories and over time, care should be taken in interpreting change in numbers of deaths.
b. Registration year.
c. Includes Other Territories.
d. Queensland introduced the Medical Certificate of Causes of Death (MCCD) in 2015. This resulted in an increase in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander registered deaths.
Deaths for which Indigenous status is unknown
In addition to those deaths identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, a number of deaths occur each year for which Indigenous status is not stated on the death registration form. In 2017, there were 971 deaths registered in Australia for whom Indigenous status was not stated, representing 0.6% of all deaths registered. While this proportion has decreased over time (from a high of 4.4% in 2001) it is very likely that some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths are included in this category, further contributing to the uncertainty as to the true number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths.
Year of registration and year of occurrence of death
Deaths and related mortality statistics can be reported according to the period in which the death was registered or the period in which the death occurred. Ideally, mortality statistics should be based on year of occurrence, but ABS data, including life tables, are based on year of registration. This is due to known lags in the time between the occurrence and registration of deaths. While the majority of deaths in Australia are registered in the year they occur, some deaths registered in any given year have occurred in previous years. These delays in registration can arise due to a variety of reasons, and are more common for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths than non-Indigenous deaths.
For example, of all non-Indigenous deaths which occurred in Australia in 2016, 95% were registered in 2016 (Table 6). The corresponding figure was 89% for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths.
Table 6 - Proportion of deaths registered in the year of occurrence, 2011 to 2016(a)
Year of occurrence
2011 86.7 95.1
a. Based on deaths registered up to December 2017.
While the proportion of deaths registered in the same year of occurrence is lower for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths than non-Indigenous deaths, there is little difference between the number of deaths registered in a given year and the number of deaths that occurred in the same year (see Table 7). This is because, for each year, the number of deaths not registered in the year they occur are compensated for by deaths that occurred in previous years but were registered late (see also The Health and Welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, Oct 2010, cat. no. 4704.0). This indicates that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths will produce similar death rates and life expectancy estimates for both year of occurrence and registration.
Table 7 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths by registration and occurrence, July 2011 to June 2016
Occurred
NSW 2,036 2,046 1,787 1,785
Vic. 355 363 284 285
Qld 2,073 2,064 1,662 1,672
SA 449 443 372 377
WA 1,387 1,371 1,041 1,045
Tas. 100 101 97 97
NT 1,323 1,296 1,235 1,239
ACT 45 44 25 26
Aust.(a) 7,770 7,730 6,505 6,528
a. Includes Other Territories.
Population estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians
The second component necessary for the compilation of life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians is information on the relevant population exposed to the risk of dying; that is, the population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, by age and sex. These are required as denominators in the calculation of age-specific death rates from which life tables are produced. The population used in this release are the final Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population estimates for 30 June 2016 based on the 2016 Census (mid-point of the reference period from 2015 to 2017).
Changes in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population, 2011 to 2016
The Census of Population and Housing is the principal source of information about Australia's population. It has been held on a five-yearly basis since 1961, with the most recent conducted in August 2016.
The Census provides the foundation from which Australia's official population figures - estimated resident population (ERP)- is calculated. The Census count of the population is adjusted for:
estimates of the number of people missed in the Census;
estimates of those counted more than once in the Census;
temporary visitors from overseas;
Australian residents temporarily overseas (RTO) on Census night; and
backdating from Census night to the ERP reference date of 30 June of the Census year using data on births, deaths, and interstate and overseas migration.
This process results in an estimate of Australia's total population (by age and sex) as at 30 June of the Census year. For intercensal years (that is, years other than the Census year), this Census-based ERP is incremented by adding births and net overseas migration and subtracting deaths. However, estimating the size and composition of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population is more complicated. In intercensal years this standard approach cannot be used due to the lack of sufficiently reliable data on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander births, deaths and migration.
For the five-yearly Census, there are a number of issues that make compilation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP problematic. These include:
undercount of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population;
non-response to the Indigenous status question on the Census form; and
unexplained increase in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Census counts that can not be explained by demographic factors (such as births, deaths and overseas migration) relative to the previous Census.
Undercount of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population
While every effort is made to ensure full coverage of people and dwellings in the Census, some people are missed (undercount) and others are counted more than once (overcount). In Australia, more people are missed from the Census than are counted more than once. The net effect of overcount and undercount is called net undercount. The ABS conducts a Post Enumeration Survey (PES) a few weeks after each Census to measure the extent of net undercount in the Census. Estimates of net undercount provide direct information on the quality of population counts in the Census, and enable the necessary adjustment or correction to be made to the raw Census counts.
In addition, for some people, the Indigenous status reported in the PES is different to the Indigenous status recorded in the Census. Accordingly, estimates from the PES include an adjustment for misclassification error.
The net undercount rate in the 2016 Census was estimated at 17.5% for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population, and 6.6% for the non-Indigenous population. Corresponding estimates for the 2011 Census were 17.2% for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population and 6.2% for the non-Indigenous population.
However, it is important to note that the net undercount rates are not strictly comparable over time due to changes in both Census and PES methodologies. The 2011 PES improved the collection of Indigenous status and also utilised the new methodology of Automated Data Linking, which resulted in better linking and matching of PES and Census records, and a better measure of net undercount. For more details on the PES and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander undercount, see:
Census of Population and Housing: Details of Overcount and Undercount, Australia, 2016
Australian Demographic Statistics, March Quarter 2017 (released 27 September 2017)
Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, June 2016
Census of Population and Housing: Understanding the Increase in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Counts, 2016.
Non-response to Indigenous status question on the Census form
Despite the best efforts of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) to collect complete information from all people in Australia on Census night, there will always be a group of people for whom Indigenous status is not known. While some people with an unknown Indigenous status will be Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people, and some will be non-Indigenous people, the exact proportions cannot be determined from the Census data. This complicates analysis of Census counts, given Indigenous status is not imputed within Census information, but is instead imputed later within the PES for use in producing population estimates (imputation is a statistical process for predicting values where no response was provided to a question and a response could not be derived).
The number of Census records with an unknown Indigenous status in the 2016 Census was 1,411,031 (6% of the total Census count) compared with 1,058,586 (5% of the total Census count) in 2011. The difference of 352,584 records represents a 33% increase in records with an unknown Indigenous status between the 2011 and 2016 Censuses.
The Northern Territory had the highest proportion of records with an unknown Indigenous status in 2016 (10%), followed by Western Australia and Queensland (both 7%). New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania each had 6% of records with an unknown Indigenous status.
There are two broad situations which result in a person's Indigenous status being unknown in the Census:
the returned Census form does not have a response to the Indigenous status question (known as item non-response). These persons are classified as 'responding' or 'not imputed'.
no Census form is received from a dwelling. These persons are classified as 'non responding' or 'not imputed'. For these persons, Indigenous status is coded to 'not stated' and data for key demographic variables such as age, sex, marital status and place of usual residence are imputed.
While some of these records will be for people of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander origin and the others for non-Indigenous origin, no imputation was made for Indigenous status in the Census file. However, for compiling Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP they are allocated as either Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander or non-Indigenous according to the distribution of stated responses within each geographic area, age group, sex and Census form type. For more details on not stated Indigenous status and how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP are derived, see Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, June 2016.
Increase in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Census counts not explained by demographic factors
Changes in the Census counts of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people over time that can not be explained by demographic factors, such as births, deaths and overseas migration are referred to as 'unexplainable change'. Factors that contribute to unexplainable change include: changing propensity to identify as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander on the Census form, as well as methodological improvements in the Census and Post Enumeration Survey over time, such as changes in coverage and response rates.
Over the past 46 years, there has been a clear upward trend in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Census counts, beginning with the 1971 Census and continuing to the 2016 Census. During this time, large increases in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Census counts have occurred on several occasions. Natural increase (the excess of births over deaths) can account for a proportion, but not all, of these increases, while overseas migration has had an insignificant effect on the size of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population.
Between 1991 and 1996, the Census count of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people increased by 88,000 (33%). The components of this increase were estimated to be 14% due to natural increase (the impact of overseas migration negligible) and the remaining 19% due to unexplainable change.
In recent times, there has been particularly large increases between the 2006 to 2011 and 2011 to 2016 Censuses. Between 2006 to 2011, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population increased by 21% (or 93,000 people). Over two-thirds (65,500) of the 93,300 increase in the Census count of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people between 2006 and 2011 were accounted for by demographic factors (births, deaths and overseas migration). The remaining one-third (27,800) of the increase was attributed by unexplainable change. Similarly, most (79,272 or 79%) of the 100,803 increase in the Census counts of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people between 2011 and 2016 were explained by demographic factors. The remaining 21% (21,531) of the increase in Census counts was unexplainable change.
For more information on the change in Census counts of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from 2011 to 2016 see Census of Population and Housing: Understanding the Increase in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Counts, 2016.
Age/sex structure
For the purposes of compiling life tables it is necessary to have accurate measures of the population according to their age and sex. It is therefore important to make some assessment of the quality of the age/sex structure of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP for Australia and the states and territories. The age distributions of the 30 June 2011 and 2016 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP remained more or less the same (Graphs 8 and 9).
Graph 8 - Age structure, Australia - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males
Age groups (years)
2016 Males (%)
["Age groups (years)","2016 Males","2011 Males"]
[["0-4","5-9","10-14","15-19","20-24","25-29","30-34","35-39","40-44","45-49","50-54","55-59","60-64","65-69","70-74","75-79","80-84","85+"],[[12.1],[12],[11.1],[10.4],[9.5999999999999996],[8],[6.4000000000000004],[5.2999999999999998],[5.5],[5.0999999999999996],[4.4000000000000004],[3.6000000000000001],[2.7000000000000002],[1.8],[1],[0.5],[0.29999999999999999],[0.20000000000000001]],[[12.699999999999999],[12.199999999999999],[11.9],[11.300000000000001],[9.3000000000000007],[7.5999999999999996],[6],[6],[5.7999999999999998],[4.9000000000000004],[4.2000000000000002],[3.1000000000000001],[2.2000000000000002],[1.3999999999999999],[0.80000000000000004],[0.5],[0.20000000000000001],[0.10000000000000001]]]
[{"axis_id":"0","tick_interval":"2","axis_min":"0","axis_max":"14","axis_title":"%","precision":"","table_units":"(%)","tooltip_units":"(%)","axis_units":"","data_unit_prefix":"","data_unit_suffix":"","reverse_axis":false}]
Graph 9 - Age structure, Australia - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander females
2016 Females (%)
["Age groups (years)","2016 Females","2011 Females"]
[["0-4","5-9","10-14","15-19","20-24","25-29","30-34","35-39","40-44","45-49","50-54","55-59","60-64","65-69","70-74","75-79","80-84","85+"],[[11.4],[11.5],[10.6],[9.9000000000000004],[9],[7.7000000000000002],[6.5],[5.5],[5.7999999999999998],[5.7000000000000002],[4.9000000000000004],[4],[2.8999999999999999],[2],[1.2],[0.69999999999999996],[0.40000000000000002],[0.29999999999999999]],[[12.1],[11.6],[11.4],[10.5],[9],[7.5],[6.2000000000000002],[6.2999999999999998],[6.2999999999999998],[5.2999999999999998],[4.4000000000000004],[3.2999999999999998],[2.3999999999999999],[1.5],[1],[0.59999999999999998],[0.40000000000000002],[0.29999999999999999]]]
As noted above, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population is a self-identified one and therefore it is possible for the population age distribution to change over time for reasons other than the usual demographic ones (i.e. population ageing etc.). To determine if the age distribution of the 2011 and 2016 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population has in fact changed, The Index of Dissimilarity, which measures the overall difference between the two age distributions (Shyrock et al., 1976:131), has been calculated.
The lower The Index of Dissimilarity values are, the more similar are the two age distributions. For two successive Census years, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations showed quite low values in comparison to its theoretical range of 0 to 100. The Index value for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population was 3.4 for males and 3.5 for females. In comparison, The Index values for the total Australian population were 2.4 and 2.5 for males and females respectively. Higher Index values for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population suggest that there has been slightly more change in the age distribution of this population between Censuses. For the states and territories, most Index of Dissimilarity values fall around or below 5.0 for both sexes except for the Australian Capital Territory for males and females, and Tasmania, for females, where the results could be less reliable due to the small size of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population used in the calculations.
Table 8 - Index of Dissimilarity between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander age structures, 30 June 2011 and 30 June 2016
NSW 3.5 4.1
Vic. 4.3 4.2
Qld 3.3 3.3
SA 3.3 3.4
WA 3.6 4.0
Tas. 4.9 6.7
NT 4.5 5.2
ACT 6.3 6.5
Aust.(a) 3.4 3.5
As discussed above, the required inputs for compiling Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life tables (that is, the average number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths over the period from 2015 to 2017 and final 2016 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mid-point population estimates for the 2015 to 2017 reference period) are subject to a range of data quality issues.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP compiled from the five-yearly Census provide a sound foundation. However, changing propensities to identify as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and improvements in methodologies in the Census and Post Enumeration Survey make interpretation of changes over time in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population difficult.
In relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander death statistics, the non-reporting and/or incorrect reporting of a person's Indigenous status on the death registration form means that death rates calculated using the number of registered Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths are underestimates of the true death rates prevalent among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians. Application of these death rates in a standard life table would result in an overestimate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy, see Table 7 in Appendix – Alternative approaches to adjust deaths.
For the purposes of compiling Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life tables, some method of adjustment is therefore required to adjust the registered number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths for potential underidentification in registration data. The method used by ABS to do so for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life tables is described in detail in Data linkage to derive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates.
Data linkage to derive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians deaths identification rates
To calculate estimates of life expectancy using direct methods, it is important to ensure that the classification of records as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander occurs in a consistent manner in both the numerator (deaths) and the denominator (population).
CDE Indigenous Mortality Study
The Indigenous Mortality Study was first conducted as part of the ABS Census Data Enhancement (CDE) project for the 2006 Census. It has been repeated for subsequent Censuses. Most recently, the CDE project consists of a number of studies which have brought together data from the 2016 Census of Population and Housing and other specified datasets.
For more information on the 2016 CDE project, see the paper: Linking Death registrations to the 2016 Census.
The aims of the CDE Indigenous Mortality Study were to:
assist in understanding the differences in recording of Indigenous status between death registrations and Census data; and
assess the under-identification of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in death registrations records.
The CDE Indigenous Mortality Study involved linking Census records with death registration records to examine differences in the reporting of Indigenous status across the two datasets. Specifically the study linked 2016 Census records with all registered deaths that occurred from 9 August 2016 to 28 September 2017, with a slightly longer range than 12 months to allow time for all relevant deaths to be registered and processed.
In the absence of any unique identifier in the Census and deaths datasets, linking was performed using probabilistic methods. Three groups of variables, name (first name and surname), personal characteristics (date of birth, age, sex, place of birth, year of arrival and marital status), and geographic information (street number, street name, suburb, mesh block and postcode) were used to link death records to Census records. Variables common to both datasets were standardised to ensure consistent coding and formatting. The two datasets were linked in a way that was independent of reported Indigenous status so that any future analysis would not be affected by bias introduced in the linking process. For this reason, Indigenous status was not used as a linking variable.
The 2016 Death registrations to Census linkage project builds on the success of other data integration programs, incorporating enhancements from these programs.
The main enhancements implemented for the 2016 project included:
use of non-sequential probabilistic linking of 2016 Census data to death records (as opposed to sequential probabilistic linking used in 2011),
use of alternative address information from Census and Death registrations to improve linkage of records between datasets,
improving name repair processes, where the rarity of a name was used in evaluating the quality of links established, and
an enhanced clerical review strategy resulting in higher quality links.
Internationally, similar record linkage studies have been conducted in New Zealand where the 1981, 1986, 1991, 1996 and 2001 Censuses were each anonymously and probabilistically linked to three years of subsequent deaths data, allowing a comparison of ethnicity recording (Ajwani et al., 2003; Blakely et al., 2002a; Blakely et al., 2002b). Large nationally representative studies based on linked Census and deaths data have also been conducted in the United Kingdom, France, Sweden and Netherlands. The results from these studies have been used in various ways including the provision of evidence for policy decisions and the setting of policy targets for special intervention programs.
Summary results of the CDE study
The number of Census and death registration records eligible for linking and the percentage of death records linked are presented in Table 9. The linking process used 177,380 death records and 22,485,854 Census records. These Census counts are different from the estimated resident population, as discussed in Population estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians.
Of the 177,380 death records, 159,657 (90.0%) records were linked to one of 22,485,854 eligible Census records. Of the 3,246 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander death records, 2,315 (71.3%) were linked.
Table 9 - Census and death records, Australia
Census records eligible for linking(a) 22,485,854
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Census records 649,171
Records on death file(b) 177,380
Death records linked 159,657
Death records not linked 17,723
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander records on death file(c) 3,246
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander records linked(c) 2,315
All death records linked 90.0
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander death records linked 71.3
a. Excludes residents temporarily overseas on Census night, imputed records and Census net undercount adjustment.
b. Deaths which occurred between 09 Aug 2016 and 28 Sep 2017.
c. According to Indigenous status reported on death registration form.
The number and percentage of death records linked to Census records by selected characteristics of deceased persons are presented in Table 10. A slightly higher linkage was achieved for females (91.4%) compared with males (88.6%). The linkage rate varied considerably by age, being lowest for 0-14 year old deceased persons (63.4%). This may be due to the comparatively high Census undercount rate in this age group. The linkage rate was highest for 75 years and older deceased persons (92.9%).
Table 10 - Death records linked to Census records by selected characteristics, Australia
Total death records
Linked records
Reported characteristics in death registration
no. no. %
Males 91,143 80,796 88.6
Females 86,237 78,861 91.4
Age (years)
0–14 686 435 63.4
15–24 1,219 868 71.2
25–44 5,704 3,974 69.7
45–64 22,543 18,582 82.4
75 and over 119,247 110,730 92.9
Indigenous Status
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 3,246 2,315 71.3
Non-Indigenous 173,186 156,546 90.4
Not stated 948 796 84.0
State of usual residence
NSW 59,887 54,077 90.3
Vic. 43,130 38,915 90.2
Qld 34,017 30,463 89.6
SA 15,349 14,045 91.5
WA 16,269 14,439 88.8
Tas. 5,315 4,832 90.9
NT 1,077 785 72.9
ACT 2,294 2,066 90.1
Never married 18,547 14,774 79.7
Married 70,298 64,811 92.2
Widow 64,004 59,249 92.6
Divorced 18,268 15,807 86.5
Separated 152 123 80.9
Not applicable (<15 years) 6,111 4,893 80.1
Elapsed time between Census and death
Within 6 months of Census 80,234 71,238 88.8
Beyond 6 months of Census 97,146 88,419 91.0
The linkage success varied by state of usual residence as reported on the death registration form. Rates were highest for South Australia (91.5%) and lowest for the Northern Territory (72.9%). All other states and territories had linkage rates between 88.8% and 90.9%. The low linkage rate for the Northern Territory reflects comparatively low linkage rates for both the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous populations. The linkage rate was similar for married and widowed persons (92.2 and 92.6% respectively). The linkage rate was lower for deaths which occurred within six months of the Census (88.8%) than those which occurred beyond six months after the Census (91.0%).
The linkage success also varied by Indigenous status recorded on the death registration form. People of non-Indigenous origin on the death registration form had a considerably higher linkage success (90.4%) compared with people of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander origin (71.3%). A more strict approach to implementing the 2016 linkage clerical review resulted in a lower, but more accurate linkage rate than in the period from 2010 to 2012. For further information about the linkage methodology, see Information Paper: Linking Death registrations to the 2016 Census.
Use of the CDE study to derive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates
The CDE study allows a direct comparison of Indigenous status recorded on the death registration and the Census data for what is highly likely to be the same individual, and enables estimation of the undercoverage of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in the death registration system.
Table 11 presents the outcomes of the CDE study for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in Australia. It provides a cross-classification of the linked death registrations and Census records by the Indigenous status and age groups recorded in the respective records. Similar tables for other states and territory (without an age breakdown) where there are sufficient deaths available are in Data downloads, Table 4: Summary of linked deaths by Indigenous status, deaths registrations and Census identification, selected States and Territory and Australia, from 2016 to 2017.
Table 11 - Summary of linked deaths by Indigenous status, Australia, 2016 to 2017
DEATH REGISTRATION CLASSIFICATION
Not stated
Census classification
no. no. no. no.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 27 8 1 36
Non-Indigenous 2 388 3 393
Not stated 0 6 0 6
Total 29 402 4 435
15–59 years
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 774 228 6 1,008
Non-Indigenous 82 14,511 139 14,732
Not stated 19 288 2 309
Total 875 15,027 147 16,049
60 years and over
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 1,084 476 7 1,567
Non-Indigenous 285 135,047 611 135,943
Not stated 42 5,592 27 5,661
Total 1,411 141,115 645 143,171
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 1,885 712 14 2,611
The table highlights a number of features:
of the 2,611 linked records identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander on the Census file, only 1,885 (72%) were identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in death registrations;
the 1,885 records identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in both datasets represented 81% (that is 1,885 / 2,315 * 100) of linked deaths identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in death registrations;
there is misidentification of Indigenous status between the Census and death registrations (for example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in death registrations but non-Indigenous in Census, and vice versa);
the overall Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rate indicated by these statistics is 89% (that is, 2,315 / 2,611* 100).
The above suggests that while there appears to be misidentification of Indigenous status between the Census and death registrations, the overall identification rate in the death registrations collection is quite high at the national level (89%).
At the same time, it needs to be recognised that at the national level, about 29% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths as recorded on the death registration form could not be linked to a Census record. This would occur due to missing or inconsistent information in the fields being used for linking and also undercount of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population in the Census counts. Despite these issues, it is considered that the linked data provide reasonable estimates of the identification rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths.
For the purpose of compiling Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life tables, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP used was derived from Census counts adjusted by results of the Post Enumeration Survey (PES). The PES provides an independent check on Census coverage and also identifies key demographic characteristics of the population that have been missed or overcounted in the Census. In compiling Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP, Indigenous status reported by the PES was considered more reliable than that recorded in the Census.
Therefore, to be consistent with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP calculations, the number of deaths reported as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in Census in the CDE linked data were adjusted to a PES basis. It should be noted that these adjustments were only in respect of misclassifications of Indigenous status in the linked file. No attempt was, or could be, made for undercount identified in the PES; this is reflected in the non-matched death registrations.
Thus, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rate using the linked data was derived by:
calculating the propensities, from PES, of being Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in PES given Census Indigenous status (to align the Census Indigenous status with the PES Indigenous status);
applying the propensities to counts from the CDE linked data to obtain the expected number of deaths in Census on a PES basis; and
taking the ratio of the number of deaths reported as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in death registrations to that reported in Census on a PES basis to calculate the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rate.
The following step by step example illustrates the calculation of the identification rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths for Australia using the improved method that include age-specific identification rates when calculating the underidentification adjustment.
Step 1: Calculation of propensities from PES data given in Table 12
The propensities are calculated for persons who matched to Census and responded as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in the PES to the Census Indigenous status question. They were estimated by the three response classes for the Census Indigenous status question: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, non-Indigenous and not stated.
Table 12 - Indigenous status as reported in 2016 Census and 2016 Post Enumeration Survey(a), Australia
PES RESPONSE
no. no. no.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 1,713 105 1,818
Non-Indigenous 90 17,203 17,293
Not stated 10 166 176
Total 1,813 17,474 19,287
Non-Indigenous 140 53,729 53,869
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 386 36 422
Not stated 3 230 233
Total 429 19,432 19,861
a. This tables uses unweighted data for illustrative purposes. Weighted PES data was used when determining the propensities for calculating life tables.
The following example will refer to data for the 0–14 years age group in Table 12:
P(ATSI/ATSI) = propensity of being Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in PES given Census Indigenous status is 'Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander' is 1,713 / 1,818 = 0.9422
P(ATSI/NI) = propensity of being Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in PES given Census Indigenous status is 'non-Indigenous' is 90 / 17,293 = 0.0052
P(ATSI/NS) = propensity of being Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in PES given Census Indigenous status is 'not stated' is 10 / 176 = 0.0568
The above propensities are based on the unweighted PES data. In calculating Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP, weighted PES information was used. Therefore, to be consistent with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ERP calculations, the propensities were calculated using the weighted PES data. This gave, for 0–14 years age group, P(ATSI/ATSI) = 0.8999 P(ATSI/NI) = 0.0044 and P(ATSI/NS) = 0.0446
The Australia level propensities P(ATSI/NI) and P(ATSI/NS) calculated above are based on relatively small numbers of PES responses (90 and 10 respectively for the 0–14 years age group). These propensities calculated at the state/territory level, while not disaggregated by age, are still unreliable as they are based on considerably smaller numbers of PES responses. To overcome this problem, national level P(ATSI/NI) and P(ATSI/NS) are used for the states and territories (though without any disaggregation by age, as outlined under Calculation of adjustment factor for the states and territory).
Step 2: Estimation of expected number of deaths in Census in linked data given in Table 11 using PES Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander propensities
The expected number of deaths in the Census in CDE linked data file, for persons aged 0–14 years, using PES Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander propensities is:
= 36 * P(ATSI/ATSI) + 393 * P(ATSI/NI) + 6 * P(ATSI/NS)
= 36 * 0.8999 + 393 * 0.0044 + 6 * 0.0446
where the numbers 36, 393 and 6 are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, non-Indigenous and not stated deaths in Census for the 0–14 years age group (Table 11).
Step 3: Calculation of identification rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths, Australia
The estimate of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rate is then calculated by taking the ratio of the number of deaths reported as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in death registrations to the number of deaths expected to be recorded as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in Census using the PES Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander propensities:
= 29 / 34
= 0.84
where 29 is the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in death registrations for the 0–14 years age group (Table 11).
Step 4: Calculation of adjustment factor, Australia
The adjustment factor is taken to be the reciprocal of the identification rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths:
= 1 / 0.84
In the linked data, 29 records for the 0–14 years age group were reported as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander on the death registration form (Table 11). Of deaths linked to the Census, 34 were recorded as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, after adjustment for classifying Indigenous status in the way that PES does. This means that fewer deaths were identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in death registrations than were expected in Census on a PES basis. Therefore, for the 0–14 age group, the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths according to death registrations needed multiplying by an adjustment factor of 1 / 0.84 = 1.19 to be comparable to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths expected to be recorded as such in the Census on a PES basis.
Steps 1–4 were repeated to calculate identification rates for the 15–59 and 60+ age groups. Identification rates were 0.93 and 0.92 for the 15–59 and 60+ age groups respectively.
Table 13 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identification rates(a), headline Australia(b), 2015 to 2017
Total(c)
Identification Rate 0.84 0.93 0.92 0.92
Adjustment Factor(d) 1.19 1.07 1.09 1.08
a. Identification rate and adjustment factor are calculated using unrounded data.
b. These life expectancy estimates are calculated taking age-specific identification rates into account.
c. Total included here as a summary comparison measure, since the rates were applied at the age group level.
d. Calculated as the reciprocal of the identification rate.
Calculation of adjustment factor for the states and territory
The procedure described above was used to derive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates at the Australia level only. Identification rates for states, territory, remoteness areas and Index of Relative Socio-Economic Disadvantage were calculated using a similar method but without using age-specific identification rates. This method is detailed fully in Experimental Life Tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 2005-2007.
Due to small numbers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, it was not feasible to derive separate reliable Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates for these jurisdictions. Therefore, a single Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rate was derived by grouping these together.
There is considerable variation in the identification rates at the state/territory level (Table 14). The estimate is less than 1.0 for New South Wales, Western Australia and Victoria/South Australia/Tasmania/Australian Capital Territory/OT combined, which indicates a level of under-identification of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in death registrations relative to the Census on a PES basis. In contrast, Queensland and the Northern Territory indicates a slight over-representation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in death registrations relative to the Census for linked records; that is, persons who are identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in the death registrations collection exceeded those who identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in the Census on a PES basis. There is no clear reason as to why this might be the case, although there is evidence that some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths have a state of usual residence on the death registration that is different to the Census.
Table 14 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identification rates, state/territory and Australia, 2015 to 2017
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths according to death registrations
Expected number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths(a)
Identification rate
Adjustment factor(b)
NSW 689 1,004 0.69 1.46
Qld 654 637 1.03 0.97
WA 353 376 0.94 1.06
NT 277 266 1.04 0.96
Vic./SA/Tas./ACT/OT combined 342 619 0.55 1.81
Aust.(c)(d) 2,315 2,902 0.80 1.25
a. In Census if weighted PES Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander propensities are used.
b. Calculated as the reciprocal of the identification rate.
c. These life expectancy estimates are calculated without taking age-specific identification rates into account.
d. Includes all states and territories.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates for the period 2015 to 2017 are similar to those for 2010 to 2012, with the exception of Queensland for which the identification rate substantially increased to 1.03 in the 2015 to 2017 reference period, from 0.80 in 2010 to 2012. This increase in the identification rate was due to an increase in the number of deaths of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people following the introduction of Medical Certificate of Cause of Death (MCCD) in Queensland in 2015. For more information see Quality issues with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths and population data.
Using MCCD information only, Queensland identified an extra 163 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths: 30, 40 and 93 deaths in 2015, 2016 and 2017 respectively. Of these, only 84 deaths were in-scope for linkage and 70 deaths were successfully linked to a corresponding Census record. The exclusion of 70 linked deaths reduced the identification rate to 0.96 from 1.03.
To produce life tables for the period 2015 to 2017, three-year average deaths, rather than three-year total deaths were used. Therefore, inclusion of 54 (=163 divided by 3) of the 163 deaths identified using MCCD only reduced life expectancy, but this was compensated by adjusting down the registered deaths by the identification rate of 1.03. On balance, including the MCCD only deaths produced exactly the same life expectancy for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males and only 0.1 year higher life expectancy for females compared with those produced by excluding them.
Table 15 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identification rates, Remoteness Areas, 2015 to 2017
Expected number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
deaths(a)(e)
Remoteness Area
Major Cities 732 973 0.75 1.33
Inner and Outer Regional 1,002 1,308 0.77 1.30
Remote and Very Remote 581 609 0.95 1.05
e. Includes records for which remoteness classification is missing.
There is quite considerable variation in the identification rates by remoteness (Table 15). The estimates of 0.75 for Major Cities and 0.77 for Inner and Outer Regional areas combined indicates a high level of under-identification of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in death registrations. In contrast, the identification rate of 0.95 for Remote and Very Remote areas combined indicates a much lower level of under-identification.
Table 16 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identification rates, Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage, 2015 to 2017
Most disadvantaged 20% 1,074 1,219 0.88 1.14
Second most disadvantaged 20% 579 719 0.80 1.24
Middle 20% 378 500 0.76 1.32
Least disadvantaged 40% 264 439 0.60 1.66
The following table is used to illustrate the impact on life expectancy at birth when the identification rate is 5% higher or lower than those included in Table 14. The variation is largest for the Northern Territory and Western Australia for both males and females. Life expectancy varies from 65.9 to 67.3 for males and 69.2 to 70.5 for females in the Northern Territory, and from 66.2 to 67.6 for males and 71.2 to 72.4 for females in Western Australia.
Table 17 - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy, assumed identification rates, 2015 to 2017
If death identification
rate was 5% less
Estimated death
rate was 5% more
NSW 70.2 70.9 71.5
Qld 71.4 72.0 72.6
WA 66.2 66.9 67.6
NT 65.9 66.6 67.3
Aust.(a)(b) 69.3 70.0 70.6
b. Includes all states and territories.
The use of the CDE Indigenous Mortality Study to assess the identification rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in death registration data has a number of benefits but at the same time it has limitations. First, the obvious and most substantial benefit is that it enables direct calculation of identification rates. That is, they are derived by directly comparing Indigenous status as reported according to death registrations and Census data for linked records, as opposed to indirect and modelled estimates.
Second, no assumptions were necessary to derive the identification rates from the CDE study, whereas a number of subjective judgements and assumptions were necessary to produce identification rates prior to the period from 2005 to 2007.
The limitations of the CDE Indigenous Mortality Study relate to three main factors. First, the derived Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates relate to a restricted time frame from 9 August 2016 to 28 September 2017. It is not possible to accurately judge the appropriateness or otherwise of the derived Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates for past or future periods.
Second, of the 3,246 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander death records eligible for linkage, 931 (28.7%) were not linked to a corresponding Census record. Of all the unlinked records, 23.3% were in New South Wales, 27.1% in Queensland, 19.2% in Western Australia and 17.2% in the Northern Territory. While not unexpected given the relatively high Census undercount for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, there may be features or characteristics of the unlinked records that are quite different to the linked records and therefore may introduce some bias to the results. Sensitivity analysis (see Appendix – Confidence intervals) indicates this is likely to be small.
It should be noted that all unlinked Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths are included in life tables calculations, but they are excluded from the calculation of identification rates and the resulting adjustment factor that are applied to the life tables. To produce life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, information on the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population are required. Data quality issues are discussed in Quality issues with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths and population data.
The life tables in this release are based on the average number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths registered in the period from 2015 to 2017 and final Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population estimates for 30 June 2016 based on the 2016 Census results. To account for underidentification of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in death registrations, the numbers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths were adjusted according to the adjustment factors derived from the Census Data Enhancement Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Mortality Study. This is described in Data linkage to derive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths identification rates. The adjusted numbers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths in 2015, 2016 and 2017 were divided by three to obtain the average annual number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander deaths over the period from 2015 to 2017, and in conjunction with 30 June 2016 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population estimates (mid-point of the period from 2015 to 2017) were used to calculate age-specific death rates for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population.
Third, as stated above, the propensities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identification as reported in the 2016 Census and 2016 PES are calculated for persons who matched to Census and PES. While PES is a sample representing the whole population, the current methodology implicitly assumes that the propensities based on the Census-PES match will apply for the death registrations linked to the Census. Appendix – Confidence intervals provides some indication of the sensitivity of the estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy at birth to assumptions made when calculating it.
A further assumption relates to the application of identification rates, which assumed uniformity by age and sex - except for the headline Australia estimate (which used three broad age groups).
In spite of these limitations, the CDE Indigenous Mortality Study clearly shows the need to adjust for underidentification in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander death registrations.
Life tables
Table 18 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, headline Australia estimates(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
lx(c)
qx(d)
Lx(e)
ex(f)
no. rate no. years no. rate no. years
0 100,000 0.00731 99,357 71.6 100,000 0.00695 99,388 75.6
1–4 99,269 0.00127 396,751 71.1 99,305 0.00096 396,979 75.2
10–14 99,029 0.00089 494,922 62.3 99,133 0.00084 495,458 66.3
75–79 52,374 0.25206 228,865 9.6 63,156 0.21427 281,947 10.3
80–84 39,172 0.34057 162,510 7.1 49,623 0.30290 210,539 7.4
85 years and over 25,832 1.00000 113,972 4.4 34,592 1.00000 157,014 4.5
c. lx – number of persons surviving to exact age x.
d. qx – proportion of persons dying between exact age x and exact age x+n, where n is the width of the age interval.
e. Lx – number of person years lived within the age interval x to x+n.
f. ex-expectation of life at exact age x. Age x refers to the first age listed in the five year age group.
Table 19 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Australia for comparison(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
85 years and over 20,930 1.00000 90,435 4.3 29,849 1.00000 133,570 4.5
Table 20 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, New South Wales(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
Table 21 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Queensland(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
Table 22 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Western Australia(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
Table 23 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Northern Territory(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
80–84 24,806 0.42477 97,687 6.3 33,798 0.35715 138,812 6.9
85 years and over 14,269 1.00000 59,279 4.2 21,727 1.00000 94,230 4.3
Table 24 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Major Cities(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
Table 25 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Inner and Outer Regional combined(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
Table 26 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Remote and Very Remote combined(a), 2015 to 2017(b)
Table 27 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, by Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage(a), most disadvantaged 20%, 2015 to 2017(b)
Table 28 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, by Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage(a), second most disadvantaged 20%, 2015 to 2017(b)
Table 29 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, by Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage(a), middle 20%, 2015 to 2017(b)
Table 30 - Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, by Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage(a), least disadvantaged 40%, 2015 to 2017(b)
On 29 November, 2018 the ABS released the latest official estimates of life expectancy for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. These are the sixth set of life expectancy estimates released by the ABS since the first set was released in 1997.
The latest estimates show that in the period from 2015 to 2017, life expectancy at birth for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men was 71.6 years and 75.6 years for women. This suggests that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men, on average, live 8.6 years less than non-Indigenous men, while Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women, on average, live 7.8 years less than non-Indigenous women. This gap has reduced over the last five years by 2.0 years for men and 1.7 years for women. This means, 71.6 is the average number of years that a group of newborn male babies would be expected to live if current death rates remain unchanged. For newborn Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander female babies, the average number is 75.6 years.
What is life expectancy?
Life expectancy summarises the mortality experience of a population by measuring how long, on average, a group of people born in the same year would be expected to live, if current death rates at each age remained the same. Life expectancy can be calculated for any age using life tables (a table which shows the probability of dying at each age), though life expectancy at birth is what most people focus on. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years that a group of newborn babies would be expected to live if current death rates remain unchanged. Since death rates in the population will change during a person's lifetime and a person may die at an earlier or older age, life expectancy is only a summary indicator for a population, rather than an exact measure of how long individuals will actually live.
By the time a child reaches their first birthday, their chances of living longer increase (since they have survived their first year). By the time they reach late adulthood, their chances of surviving to a very old age are quite good. For example, although the average life expectancy for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander male is 71.6 years, a five year old is expected to live another 67.2 years, making their life expectancy 72.2 years. If an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander man reaches age 65, they will have an expected average of 15.8 additional years left to live, making their life expectancy 80.8 years, 9.2 years longer than the average life expectancy at birth.
Does that mean that most people will only live to 71.6 years and 75.6 years?
The latest estimates show that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men born in 2015 to 2017 would live to an average of 71.6 years, while women would live to an average of 75.6 years if current mortality rates continued. However, this does not mean that all or most Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people born during 2015 to 2017 will die at or around these ages. These are average values, so some people die before reaching the average life expectancy at birth (including in their first year), while others will live well beyond that age.
What is life expectancy used for?
Life expectancy is widely used as a key measure of the health of a population. Since life expectancy is expressed in years of life, it is often seen as an indicator that is more easily interpreted than other measures of mortality (e.g. standardised death rates, preventable death rates, etc.). Life expectancy is also not affected by different population age structures, so can be compared across subpopulations, jurisdictions and over time. However, since it's a summary measure, changes in life expectancy are often much smaller than the changes in other measures. For instance, life expectancy at birth for the population of Australia changed by around 0.3 years of life per year, from 1890 to 2015, despite major changes in infant and child mortality and other mortality trends.
Quantity of life versus quality of life
While life expectancy at birth measures how long, on average, a group of people born in the same year can expect to live, it does not take account of how healthy they are expected to be throughout their life. Health adjusted life expectancy estimates are not regularly published, with the most recent data published by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare in: Australian Burden of Disease Study: impact and causes of illness and death in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, 2011.
How does the ABS calculate life expectancy?
Life expectancy is calculated using life tables, which bring together deaths data and population estimates. By temporarily linking death registration records and Census records, the ABS is able to confirm that there are a number of deaths of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people which are not identified as such on their death registration. From this the ABS is able to estimate how many deaths there would have been in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population, had all of the people who died been identified as they were in the Census. This method, known as the 'direct method', was first used by the ABS for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy for the period from 2005 to 2007. The estimates produced by this method are considered to be more accurate than those from the previous method (the 'indirect method', which required the ABS to make a range of assumptions in the calculation).
For the period from 2015 to 2017 estimates the ABS again used the 'direct method'.
Table 1: Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, selected states and territory and Australia – 2015 to 2017
Download xls [96.5 KB]
Table 2: Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Remoteness Areas, Australia – 2015 to 2017
Download xls [67 KB]
Table 3: Life tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage, Australia – 2015 to 2017
Download xls [110.5 KB]
Table 4: Summary of linked deaths by Indigenous status, deaths registrations and Census identification, selected states and territory and Australia – 2016 to 2017
Table 5: Summary of linked deaths by Indigenous status, deaths registrations and Census identification, Remoteness Areas, Australia – 2016 to 2017
Table 6: Summary of linked deaths by Indigenous status, deaths registrations and Census identification, Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage, Australia – 2016 to 2017
Table 7: Difference in Indigenous classification between Census and PES identification, unweighted and weighted data, selected states and territory and Australia – 2016
Table 8: Difference in Indigenous classification between Census and PES identification, unweighted and weighted data, Remoteness Areas, Australia – 2016
Table 9: Difference in Indigenous classification between Census and PES identification, unweighted and weighted data, Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage, Australia – 2016
Post release changes
17/09/2021 - Table titles within this issue have been positioned to sit above their relevant tables. Tables and graphs have been consequentially numbered. Links have been provided throughout the publication for ease of use.
25/03/2019 - This issue contains a revised description of the differences in ABS and AIHW methodologies used to produce Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy.
22/01/2019 - This issue contains additional confidence intervals and death identification rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy by Index of Relative Socio-Economic Disadvantage.
We thank Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples for their cooperation and assistance in the collection of data, without whom this analysis would not have been possible.
The ABS would like to recognise the valuable contribution made by key experts to the methods used by the ABS. In particular, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Demographic Statistics Expert Advisory Group has provided invaluable advice to the ABS in the lead-up to producing the 2015 to 2017 estimates.
Previous catalogue number
This release previously used catalogue number 3302.0.55.003.
Life Tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians methodology, 2015 - 2017
Release date and time
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life expectancy lowest in remote and very remote areas
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As a result of the collaboration between the USASF Board of Directors, the NACCC membership and the USASF Cheerleading Rules Committee, we are pleased to present the USASF Cheerleading Age Grid for the 2015-16 season. The changes that have been made are summarized below, as well as being indicated by blue highlighting on the document.
As you know, these changes came a result of proposals submitted by the USASF membership, discussion at USASF regional meetings during the summers of 2013 and 2014 and the slate that was completed by NACCC members in August, 2014.
We sincerely appreciate all of the input and trust that the document will be a help in your current preparation for try-outs and the season ahead.
For the first time, all key USASF Standing Committee and all Event Producer Tier meetings will be held in the same city during the same time period! This "Convention Week" brings together cheer and dance discussions and planning for all parallel programs. Previously, cheer and dance committee meetings and Tier meetings were held separately. This combined week will allow for joint and separate sessions and a more unified structure for cheer and dance.
You're welcome to come and stay for the week or you may choose to come only for the day(s) on which the committee(s) you are a member of are meeting. As a reminder, event producers are required to send at least one representative to their appropriate Tier or Sanctioning Committee meeting.
The NACCC will be conducting its Annual Congress Meeting (previously held in Doral, FL in May) immediately following Convention Week on August 15-16. You're also welcome to stay for this meeting.
This year's Congress Meeting will be a return to a focus on cheer rules discussion, education and voting. Sessions will center around consideration and debate of new rules proposals, clarification and coach/choreographer eduction of existing rules and voting on proposals moving through the current rules slate. Be a part of the process and be involved at the NACCC Annual Congress Meeting!


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Q: Where does a cocoa app main() function go? I'm trying to build a super-simple Cocoa app, basically one that has one function (for example, main()) with a while loop. It does some stuff, does a curl request, then waits a few seconds before starting over.
I've got my project all setup in XCode with all the necessary variables and functions, but I don't know where to put my main() function that does all the work.
Where do I define the main function?

A: Cocoa is very much oriented towards event-driven programming. That end, the main() function generally just starts up the main runloop and then the application delegate can kick off anything it wants to do. That said, it's certainly possible to write a non-event-based cocoa program that uses main() To do more complicated stuff. In that case, it works basically the same as in C.
Cocoa With Love just had a post about Minimalist Cocoa programming that may be of interest. It uses main() to do some work. It's not really something I would recommend emulating in your own app, but it's certainly possible.

A: If you design your app according to the usual Cocoa architecture, you don't really put any of your own code in main.  The whole app should be event driven (where events are things like UI interactions from the user, network events, etc).
That said, there is a main function.  If you've created a default Cocoa project in XCode, the main function will be in a file called "main.m".  It will get run just like a main function in C.  You'll see that there's a call in there to NSApplicationMain().  That's what starts a Cocoa application running (creates the application, loads the main nib file, starts running the main run loop, etc) . NSApplicationMain() doesn't return until the application quits, so if you really want to put stuff in main(), you need to put it above the call to NSApplicationMain().
Again, that's not the normal "Cocoa way" to do things, but without more info about what you want to do, it's hard to give you more advice.

A: As others have answered, it's possible to implement what you want to do in a way you suggested, i.e., by running a while loop inside main.
However, that is not the best way to write a Cocoa app which reloads a URL once in a few seconds. In a different environment, there's a different standard way to do things. So, you sometimes need to un-learn what you got used to. You might have thought: I want to do X.  In language/environment A, I would have coded like P to do X. Now I'd like to use language/environment B. How should I implement P?  That's not the way to get used to a new environment. Just ask, How should I do X in the environment B?
The most Cocoa-esque way would be this:

*

*Open XCode, create a new project, choose a Cocoa GUI app from the template.

*In the application delegate, implement applicationDidFinishLaunching:. We are going to set up an NSTimer.
- (void)applicationDidFinishLaunching:(NSNotification *)aNotification {
      NSTimer*timer=[NSTimer scheduledTimerWithTimeInterval:5
                                                     target:self
                                                   selector:@selector(timerFired:)
                                                   userInfo:nil
                                                    repeats:YES];
}

This creates a timer which fires once in five seconds, and at each time it fires it calls the method timerFired: of the app delegate itself, specified by self.  For more on NSTimer, read this apple document.

*Implement timerFired:.
- (void)timerFired:(NSTimer*)theTimer{
      // do whatever you want. you can use plain C to invoke curl,
      // or if you want you can use Cocoa methods to access a URL.
}

*There's no fourth step!
The main function is provided by the template. It calls NSApplicationMain, which set up the Cocoa system. Eventually, it calls applicationDidFinishLaunching: of your delegate for you.  You respond to that message. Then you set up a timer. The timer calls the method you specified for you. Then you respond to that message, again. That's basically how Cocoa works. The Cocoa system asks you to do something, so you do something. Your control over the flow of the program becomes rather passive, compared to what you would have programmed in Applescript.

A: To add to Andrew Madsen's answer, the best thing to do is start with an Xcode project template. It'll get a skeletal main(), a XIB, a plist, and other standard Cocoa stuff set up for you.

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