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The Science of Evolution
Part 4a: How Evolution Produces Whole New Species
by Ardea Skybreak
Revolutionary Worker #1163, August 18, 2002, posted at http://rwor.org
The diversity of life-forms on this planet is practically mind-boggling: species of plants and animals previously unknown to science are still being discovered (especially in the canopy of rain forest trees and in the deepest layers of the oceans), and rough estimates place the total number of species on earth as somewhere in the order of 10 million! And that's just the living species: the vast majority of the species which lived in earlier geological eras are now extinct. In fact, it appears that more than 90% of all the species that ever lived on this planet are no longer with us.
But why have there been so many different kinds of species in the past history of this planet? And why are there so many different species of plants, animals, bacteria and fungi inhabiting the earth today? In other words, why is life so diversified ? The basic answer to these questions is that the increasing diversification of life is a simple by-product of the evolution of life. The fact that life on this planet is so diverse has nothing to do with any kind of god or other supernatural force; it is not necessary to imagine some kind of out-of-control or perpetually dissatisfied Creator who just can't seem to stop "designing" more and more new creatures even though this planet already holds something like 10,000 different species of birds and at least 27,000 different species of fish, for instance! We don't need to invoke such silliness, because the science of evolution provides a much more sensible explanation for why there is so much diversity. There is plenty of both direct and indirect evidence that all this diversity is due to some fairly straightforward natural phenomena, taking place over very long periods of time.
As we will be discussing in this installment, the diversity of species on this planet has everything to do with the fact that: 1) all populations of living things are constantly evolving (accumulating inheritable changes and modifications over the generations); 2) all populations are constantly evolving in interaction with the local environments they occupy, which are themselves always changing and presenting species with new evolutionary pressures and "challenges"; and 3) every now and then the quantity or quality of evolutionary modifications which have accumulated over generations in one single population of a more wide-ranging species are significant enough (in terms of resulting in sufficiently important changes in the anatomy, development, or behaviors which characterize the individuals of that population) that this population "splinters off" ("splits," "diverges," "buds off") from the rest of its "parent" species and actually becomes a brand new separate species. And since evolutionary change never stops happening, this new species is likely at some point to splinter off yet again into one or more even more different "daughter" species of its own.
This same basic process has been repeating itself over and over again for hundreds of millions of years, with new features appearing at each juncture where a new species evolves. And the longer this process goes on, the more the descendant species will become different from their more remote ancestors, even while they retain some of the features of those ancestors.
As we discussed in previous installments of this series, there is absolutely no doubt that all the different species of life on earth originated as evolutionary modifications of pre-existing ancestor species.This means that all living species are related to each other, through a succession of shared ancestors, going all the way back to those very first primitive life-forms which emerged out of earth's chemical "soup" some three and a half billion years ago. And this means that our own human species is related, by different degrees of kinship, to all other species on the planet , including the pigeon on the sidewalk, the maple tree in the park, or the neighborhood dog--we are all the product of a long process of accumulating evolutionary modifications from common ancestor species, though obviously evolution caused life to diversify in many different directions and along many different pathways at different junctures in the three and a half billion years of our collective history!
As we will discuss more in another installment of this series, tracing our own human ancestry would be like going back in a time-machine. It would be like following a line back through many major evolutionary splits and junctures, through a succession of many different kinds of ancestors, who were also the shared ancestors of whole other evolutionary lines. First, we would go back in time through a series of different hominid (human-like) ancestors, who diverged more and more from our more ape-like ancestors of 4 to 10 million years ago, thanks to the evolution of upright-walking, increasingly large brains and the capacity for advanced language and social coordination. Our close cousins the modern chimpanzees and gorillas evolved out of the same ancient ancestor species, but followed significantly different evolutionary paths.
Going back further still, through many more evolutionary splits and junctures and a great many different species, we would trace our ancestry back to the very first mammals (warm-blooded animals that evolved the capacity to give birth to live young nurtured with milk from mammary glands). Keep going back further still through our "family album" and you eventually get back to the very first reptiles (whose tougher skin and amniotic eggs kept them from drying out away from water and allowed them to colonize land without having to periodically return to water like their amphibian ancestors). Follow things back to the first amphibians (ancestors of modern frogs, toads and salamanders) who evolved out of more fish-like ancestors, and had the capacity, for the first time in the history of life on earth, to crawl out of the water on stumpy legs and breathe air into lungs. Keep going back in time, through the ancestors of the first bony fishes, to the very first marine vertebrates (the first animals to evolve a backbone), and back further still to the first marine invertebrates (which lacked a backbone but had evolved the first complex multicellular bodies), and eventually you'll arrive all the way back to our very oldest ancestors, the bacteria-like creatures which were the first to evolve the capacity to surround little packets of DNA molecules with some kind of cell wall or membrane and which had themselves evolved out of some self-assembling protein strands present in earth's early "chemical soup."
Keep in mind that the human species is not some kind of ultimate end-point or uppermost culmination of the whole three and a half billion years of life's evolution. We do have many very special qualities which distinguish us from all other species, including our unprecedented capacity to consciously transform our external world and to transmit accumulated knowledge through non-genetic cultural evolution. But there are other evolutionary lines which have been successful at maintaining themselves over hundreds of millions of years, such as the bacteria, which are quantitatively the best represented organisms on the planet! As for the many evolutionary lines which went off in completely different directions, it is clear that there are many which ultimately resulted in evolutionary dead-ends, but there are also many others which continued to repeatedly branch off into a succession of successful life-forms, many of which persist on our planet today.
[See "Were We Bound To Evolve? --
The Role of Random and Non-Random Factors in Evolution"]
So the human species is just one of the millions of current-day species that happens to sit at the current tip of one of the "twigs" of the branching bush of life. The many other evolutionary branches and twigs resulted in the many other modern-day species. For instance, in addition to the 27,000 different species of fish and the 10,000 different species of birds, there are 4,000 different species of amphibians, more than 7,000 different species of reptiles, and close to 5,000 different species of mammals. And there are also millions of additional living species, including among the flowering and non-flowering plants, the bacteria and other microorganisms, the shellfish, the insects, etc. In fact the largest single group of animals on earth today are the beetles (the sub-group of the insects which includes such familiar species as cockroaches and ladybugs): there are about half a million different species of beetles on the planet today!1
How Do We Know Something Really Happened
If We Weren't There To See It?
As we will review further in a later installment of this series, there are actually many different "categories of evidence" which combine to confirm the basic picture of how life has evolved on this planet. This includes evidence from the fossil record (which shows a series of successive changes in plant or animal lines spread out over millions of years) and evidence from molecular biology (which backs up the fossil record and which reveals the degree to which different evolutionary lines are more closely or distantly related according to the degrees of similarity or difference of their DNA). Such mutually reinforcing categories of evidence are reinforced further still by evidence stemming from developmental biology and embryology, and even from the patterns of distribution of species around the globe. All these different kinds of evidence, taken together, leave absolutely zero doubt that all living species on this planet are related to each other and are the products of descent with modification from a series of common ancestors .
The Creationists often like to complain that "nobody was around" to "see" evolution taking place over hundreds of millions of years, so it's just an unproven story. But the fact that we weren't around to witness past events doesn't mean they didn't take place, and it doesn't mean we don't have ways of figuring out what happened. Think about it: evolutionists figure out how life-forms repeatedly changed and diversified over time; astronomers and cosmologists figure out how galaxies and solar systems came into being billions of years ago and how they too change over time; historians and anthropologists figure out how humans organized their societies thousands or tens of thousands of years ago; molecular scientists and particle physicists figure out the characteristics of chemical bonds and the interactions of sub- atomic particles they cannot directly "see"; linguists figure out how current human languages evolved through a series of step-wise cultural modifications of much older languages which were spoken by people who have long ceased to exist. We weren't there to directly "see" any of these changes happening, but we do have techniques which we can use to figure out a lot of what happened in the past.
In all these so-called "historical sciences," there are scientific methods which make it possible for us to uncover the left-over marks of the past--those things which "carry over" through time and which are still present in modern-day systems and entities. Things such as the anatomical similarities of body structures which link a modern species to an ancient fossil ancestor, or things such as the similarities in grammar and vocabulary of the French, Spanish and Italian languages which mark them as closely related to each other and all derived from their ancient Latin ancestor language. All the historical sciences contribute to building up human knowledge through investigations of such historical ties and through the process of historical inference, deducing from the actual concrete evidence comprehensive theories which have the power to consistently explain a number of different related processes and phenomena. Historical scientists come to achieve great confidence in their theories (and widespread consensus, as is the case with the theory of evolution) whenever they detect clear patterns of consilience of evidence (which simply means that lots of different streams of evidence, coming from many different directions, all point to the same conclusions and reinforce our understanding of something, such as when the molecular evidence and the evidence from the fossil record both agree on when two evolutionary lines diverged in the past).
Furthermore, in the historical sciences (including the science of evolution) scientific methods are used to make predictions which can then be tested:predictions both about what we should be able to find, and also predictions about what we should not be able to find, if a particular theory about the past is true. And scientists do actually go out and test these predictions in the real world. As just one example, we can predict that if the theory of evolution is true, we should be able to find step-wise progressions of certain anatomical modifications in series of fossils arranged by age (and we do find this); and we can also predict that if the theory of evolution is true we should not be able to find something like a human fossil embedded in a rock layer containing dinosaurs, since everything we understand about how evolution works tells us that humans evolved long after the dinosaurs had become extinct (and in fact fossils of dinosaurs and of human ancestors are never found in the same rock layers). So, unlike "religious beliefs," scientific predictions (including predictions made about the processes involved in evolution) are actually testable and verifiable.This, probably more than anything else, is why there is such a strong consensus among scientists the world over concerning the basic facts and principles of evolution.
Like any good scientific theory, the theory of evolution is "falsifiable"--which simply means that it is possible to conceive of any number of different ways it could be proven to be false (and therefore rejected and discarded) if certain kinds of evidence (evidence fundamentally incompatible with the theory) were ever found. Any scientist will tell you that it is easy to make a list of things which, if they were ever found --whether in the fossil record, in the DNA of organisms, in the anatomy and patterns of development of living plants and animals, or even in the patterns of distribution of species on earth--would leave scientists no choice but to reject the theory of evolution as false. But in the 140 years since Darwin first proposed the basic theory of evolution, there have been innumerable scientific studies and experiments which have supported the theory of evolution, but there has never been a single shred of concrete evidence, in any field, which could cause scientists to doubt or call into question the basic facts and fundamental principles of evolution. Not one. No wonder so many scientists consider that the evolution is one of the "very best supported theories in all of science!"
Speciation and the Diversification of Life Are Rooted in the Same Basic Phenomena, Including Natural Selection
The science of evolution has allowed us to understand that the process of speciation (or how brand new species evolve out of pre-existing ancestor species) is very interconnected with the question of why there ended up being so many different kinds of species on this planet. In fact (as we will see), understanding speciation is key to understanding diversification:understanding how and why new "daughter" species can emerge out of a "parent" species (speciation) also allows us to better understand what "drove" life-forms to further subdivide (frequently and repeatedly!) into so many different plant and animal species. The science of evolution can answer, for instance, such intriguing questions as why, since bacteria have proven so successful at maintaining themselves on this planet, life didn't simply "stick" with bacteria.
Living Things Can't Help But Evolve
First of all, it is important to remember that very crucial "fact of life" we discussed in previous installments of this series--that a fundamental characteristic of all living populations of organisms is that they continually evolve (change). They do so automatically, as part and parcel of the basic process of living--unconsciously, and without any supernatural force or direction needing to be involved in any way. In previous installments we gave a number of examples of how we can actually directly observe evolutionary change taking place over a number of generations in living populations of plants and animals, both in the lab and in the wild. We saw that all that is needed for evolutionary change to take place is for the following ingredients to be present: a reproducing population (reproductive community) made up of a collection of varied individuals;and a mechanism ( such as inheritance of DNA-based genetic variation ) for at least some of that individual variation to be transmitted (passed on) to succeeding generations (descendants). Anytime you have those ingredients, evolution will automatically take place--because at each successive generation, those individuals in a given local environment which have inherited from their parents certain features which happen to give them a reproductive "edge" (relative to individuals who don't have those features) will on average be able to contribute more descendants to the next generation, who will in turn contribute more descendants to the next generation, and so on and so forth. In this way, those particular features will tend to spread throughout a whole population. This is what it means to say that a population has undergone evolutionary change.
This is evolution "by natural selection" and, as we discussed previously, it happens all around us, all the time. Keep in mind that evolutionary change does not happen in individuals, and it never happens "instantly": it only happens in populations (made up of lots of varied individuals), and it only happens over many successive generations. The fact that natural populations evolve by natural selection is an extremely well-documented fact in science (see examples in previous installments of this series, and see the accompanying box on the evolution of pesticide resistance in insects for yet another example of how we can tell that living populations are always evolving).
[See "Evolution of Pesticide Resistance in a Population of Insects"]
By now, scientists have collected so much concrete evidence of evolution that most people who are at all familiar with basic scientific understanding and principles accept as proven fact the kind of evolution by natural selection that can be commonly seen to be taking place among populations of any living plant or animal species. In fact, the evidence is so strong that even the Catholic Pope recently recognized evolution to be true. And even some of the so-called "scientific Creationists" aligned with Christian fundamentalism (who are definitely religious but not at all scientific!) have at times been willing to recognize that relatively minor evolutionary changes can take place within species. But they still argue that everyone should just accept on what amounts to blind faith that--at least "in the beginning"--god created all the initial different "kinds" of plants and animals separately,because that is what it says in the Bible. They argue that god probably just decided to "allow" evolution to take place "within" these separately created "kinds" after the initial act of Creation. Of course, the Bible makes no mention whatsoever of evolution of any kind, since evolution was not something people knew anything about at the time the Bible was written by human authors. But what is happening is that at least some modern-day followers of the Bible are somewhat desperately trying to find some way of reconciling their religious beliefs with the rather obvious and undeniable advances in scientific knowledge which have occurred since the time when the Bible was written.
Meanwhile, the craziest of the Creationists and "literalist" interpreters of the Bible (as "the Word of God") refuse to budge even one inch on the question, carrying signs that claim evolutionists will all burn in hell, trying to get laws passed to force adherence to the Bible and the teaching of religious Creationism in the public schools, and trying, not so unsuccessfully, to weasel their way into positions of power and influence, from local school boards to presidential dining rooms.
One thing all the different types of Creationists refuse to recognize is the simple fact that there is plenty of concrete scientific evidence that proves not only that evolution is constantly going on within living populations of plants and animals, but also that brand new species of plants and animals really do come into being, not out of thin air or through divine intervention, but as derived evolutionary modifications of previously existing ancestor species . All the evidence points to the fact that there are not now, nor have there ever been, any "separately created kinds."2
Unfortunately, there continue to be a lot of misconceptions about what it means that a new species emerges out of a preceding ancestor species.
For the purposes of this installment, it may be helpful to remember that the term microevolution generally refers to evolutionary changes taking place within populations and species , and the term macroevolution refers to the major evolutionary trends which have marked higher order splits and junctures at or above the species level and taking place over the whole long history of evolution on earth. The phenomenon of speciation (the emergence of a new species out of an ancestor species) is the focus of this installment, because it is in a sense the key "bridge" linking the kind of evolutionary changes which we can observe happening all the time within populations and the kind of qualitative splits and ruptures which mark the start of a whole new evolutionary line , such as a new Family or Order , and which begin with particular speciation events, or with rapid "bursts" of such events.3
Speciation events (the birth of new species) sometimes takes place against a backdrop of species extinctions (the death of old species), since these are also part of the ongoing process of evolutionary change, including on the larger (macroevolutionary) scales. In short, understanding both how new species come to be and how and why species may go extinct is crucial to understanding the history of the evolution of life on earth as it has actually unfolded over billions of years, and as it continues to unfold even today.
It is also important to realize that there is not some big artificial wall separating micro- evolutionary change from macro-evolutionary change. Macro-evolutionary change has some additional features and characteristics which pertain to larger-scale "trends" (our knowledge of which keeps expanding) but it encompasses (and is rooted in)all the well-known mechanisms of micro- evolutionary change, including natural selection.
All this should become clearer as we go along. But first, let's get rid of some basic confusion: the emergence of a new species does not mean that a cat can turn into a dog, or that a fish can turn into a parrot; it does not mean that you can hold a lizard in your hands and see it turn into a bird; and, even though humans and the modern great apes (chimpanzees and gorillas) really are close cousins by evolutionary standards (and we even share more than 99% of our DNA!), that doesn't mean that one day long ago some kind of chimpanzee gave birth to a human baby. This is not how evolution works!
This is why I put so much stress on making sure we all keep in mind that, while individuals reproduce, it is whole populations that evolve, and also that they can only do so, step-wise, over many , many generations. Major evolutionary change is never "instantaneous."
How Do Entirely New Species Come Into Being?
To understand how a new species can emerge out of an ancestor species, you first have to really understand what a species is. In modern biology, a species of animal or plant is usually defined as a collection of populations which can successfully interbreed (mate with each other) and produce viable fertile offspring (young which will be able to survive and in turn reproduce). To qualify as a species, a group of organisms has to be "reproductively isolated" from all other species. As we will see, there are many different "isolating mechanisms" which can lead different populations of even closely related organisms to become "reproductively incompatible" with each other, even if they live in the same geographic area and even if they sometimes still "look" (to our eyes at least) almost the same. Two closely related species of frogs, for instance, might look almost alike and live in the same area but still be reproductively incompatible simply because they have evolved different mating calls and so don't even recognize each other as potential mates. "Reproductive compatibility" (or the capacity for successful interbreeding) is what ends up grouping populations of organisms together into one single species, and it is also what ultimately separates one species from another.
In the real world, populations of living organisms belonging to the same species often vary slightly, relative to each other, across a range of geographic distribution. For instance, some species of birds are made up of different populations with slightly different color patterns in the Eastern and Western United States; and populations in the Mid-West, where the Eastern and Western varieties overlap and hybridize ("cross-breed" with each other), are often intermediate in appearance. Despite these superficial differences, the different populations of such a bird species are still part of one single species, because they have not lost the ability to interbreed and produce viable and fertile offspring. In such cases, the different populations are simply considered different "geographic races" or "subspecies" (as opposed to different species).
This, of course, is also why biologists understand that all human beings all around the world are all part of a single species. We may have minor superficial differences in things like skin color or hair types, but we have no consistent and fundamental differences, we all share a common gene pool, and we are all perfectly capable of successfully interbreeding with each other. Racist theories of racial superiority or inferiority, which confuse some people into thinking that different human "races" are somehow different "kinds," have absolutely no basis in scientific fact! We are truly one single intermingling species, spread throughout the globe.
Organisms can only be said to belong to different species if they are sufficiently reproductively isolated from each other and would therefore no longer be capable of successfully interbreeding even if they shared the same locality.4
Understanding some of the many ways in which one population of organisms can become reproductively isolated from its parent population is key to understanding how a brand new species can come into being. This is because speciation often occurs when a population which has become reproductively isolated from its parent population ends up accumulating enough genetic differences (through the sorting out processes of natural selection and related phenomena) that it loses its ability to interbreed with the original parent population.
Once reproductive isolation has been maintained for a long enough period of time (numbers of generations) and full speciation has occurred, the populations of the two now different species will both continue to evolve in the usual ways, including by natural selection and in interaction with their particular environments. But now they will do so separately (on the basis of separate and somewhat different gene pools), and for this reason they will accumulate ever greater differences over time, pulling them further and further apart. At every generation, both in the original parent species and in the new daughter species, the usual random processes of mutation and genetic recombinations will re-shuffle the (now somewhat different) genetic deck of cards, and this will bring forward some individuals with new features which may or may not prove reproductively advantageous in a particular environment, but which in any case won't be exactly the same in the two species since they are no longer mixing their gene pools at each generation. This, combined with the fact that even slight differences in the environments they occupy can also exert somewhat different selective pressures on populations of the old and the new species (for example, "favoring" the development of short and stout bird beaks where tough hard seeds are available, or of thinner, tube-like beaks in environments where nectar-filled flowers offer a good alternative food source) will tend to make the populations of the old and new species grow further and further apart (becoming more and more different in such things as anatomy, development, or behaviors) the more time goes on.
In addition, a parent species may end up "budding off" some "daughter species" more than once in the course of its history (though perhaps at different times and in relation to different sub-environments), and many of these daughter species are also likely to, in turn, "bud off" additional (and even more different!) daughter species of their own. All of this contributes to pulling entire ancestor and descendant lineages (lines) further and further apart over time. That's why life is so diversified!
A species which has relatively recently "budded off" from its parent species is likely to be recognizable as a "closely related" species for some time. But if the speciation process keeps getting repeated over and over again, and over many millions of years , the shared ancestry of different organisms may well become less immediately obvious. For instance, you would not automatically think that modern-day whales are descended from a four-legged mammal ancestor that walked on land, but in fact we now know whales are descended from just such a creature! We can see this because people have uncovered a whole series of fossils of intermediate species (as well as some additional molecular DNA evidence) which reveal the seemingly odd family connection between an original land-based ancestor and the modern whales.
There is actually a region of the dry Sahara desert of northern Africa (which used to be covered by an ocean millions of years ago) which today is known as the "Valley of the Whales" because its sands contain an incredible number of well-preserved fossilized skeletons of a whale species which swam in the area 40 million years ago. This whale species has some features which are similar to those of modern whales, but it also has vestigial (remnant) toes, legs, and pelvis ! These features link it (through a number of other intermediate steps) to a land-based mammal which lived in the area some 10 million years earlier. And it would take another 15 million years or so (and many more instances of daughter species budding off from parent species) for those remaining leg and toe bones to end up fully converted into the kind of modern flippers we see on whales today. When you look at a number of fossils in the series, you can see the step-wise nature of the modifications which were favored by natural selection at different junctures. But it's not as if the whales' oldest land ancestor "suddenly" lost four legs and re- appeared the very next day with flippers instead! There were quite a few intermediate steps, and these anatomical transformations (which were probably also accompanied by significant changes in behaviors and habitat utilization) happened over a great many whale generations!
At every evolutionary juncture in the history of life, the story would likely have been the same: a population occupying a local environment would have, for one reason or another, become reproductively isolated from a larger parent population of the species. The reproductively isolated sub-population would in time have produced and consolidated different anatomical, developmental or behavioral features (relative to the "parent" population) as natural selection and related phenomena operated on a somewhat altered base of genetic variation in the two populations to produce different inheritable traits, and as the two populations encountered somewhat different sets of selection pressures in relation to the particularities of the environment with which they interacted.
As the ongoing genetic reshuffling and recombination continued to occur in the new species, new features would periodically appear which had never before existed in the ancestral population. Geneticists often like to remind people that "mutants are not monsters": mutations are simply fairly commonplace "copying errors" which occur in the course of DNA replication when organisms reproduce. They can have large or small effects on the anatomical, developmental, or behavioral traits of individual organisms who inherit these mutations, or they can even produce no noticeable effects at all (so-called "neutral" mutations which nevertheless contribute to overall genetic variability in a population and which may contribute at some later point to the development of some evolutionary modifications). Both mutations and the more routine genetic recombinations which occur at every generation in sexually reproducing organisms can produce traits which, in a given local environment, put the individual at a reproductive disadvantage relative to others in the population. In such a case, natural selection will tend to fairly quickly eliminate this variation from the population. But if a new trait emerges that provides individuals having this feature with a distinct reproductive advantage in a given environment (which is more likely to occur when the environment is itself changing or the daughter species has moved into a new environment), then natural selection can quickly spread this new feature over the generations to greater and greater numbers of descendants.
It is also important to understand that when reproductively isolated populations "bud off" into new species and accumulate really new and significant evolutionary "innovations" (evolutionary features which did not exist in their ancestors) they can sometimes expand very rapidly and spread into whole new habitats , where they can often make use of a whole range of environmental resources that had never before been available to the ancestor species. In such circumstances, new species may diversify even further , and often relatively rapidly, subdividing into a number of additional daughter species which may have evolved a number of particular "specializations" enabling them to become even more finely-tuned (adapted) to specific components of their new environments and exploit somewhat different types of food, nesting sites, or other such resources.
This kind of rapid expansion and "adaptive radiation " has been observed to occur when so-called "founder populations" of just a handful of individual organisms manage to colonize islands or other relatively "open" habitats where there are as yet no closely related species, and which may be entirely lacking the particular competitor and/or predator species that the ancestor species had to contend with.
This is what happened in the case of a family of birds known as the Hawaiian honeycreepers, for instance. A single ancestor species of these birds migrated to these islands in the past but then rather quickly diversified (through repeated speciations) into a great number of closely related species which differ greatly in the shape and size of their beaks. These differences represent different evolutionary modifications (and in this case clear adaptations) in relation to an assortment of available food sources. Studies have shown that even small anatomical modifications in beak size and shape can greatly affect what kind of food birds are able to exploit. Among the many closely related species of Hawaiian honeycreepers, there are species with short thin beaks which eat mainly insects, species with thick stout beaks which eat mainly fruits and hard seeds, and species with long thin beaks which suck nectar out of flowers. And there are also a number of species with features that are intermediate between these types. All these different species are closely related, and are descended from that one single honeycreeper ancestor species which made it to the Islands.
In the larger-scale history of life on earth this kind of rapid "adaptive radiation" is also the kind of thing that happened when, for instance, a major evolutionary innovation such as the emergence of feathers and lightweight hollow bones suitable for flight "opened up" a whole new environment (the previously unpopulated skies) to what quickly became a veritable explosion of bird species. Major innovations in one line of descent of organisms can also have profound ripple effects on other lines. For instance, biologists generally agree that a tremendous increase in the variety of insect, bird and mammal species in the Cretaceous period, some 140 million years ago, was in many ways tied into the rapidly increasing diversification of flowering plants, a relatively recent evolutionary innovation.
Imagine also the tremendous evolutionary "openings" which were likely encountered by the first species of bony fishes to give rise to the first primitive amphibians some 400 million years ago! These were the very first four-legged creatures to crawl out of the waters and expand onto land. They emerged as only relative slight modifications of some bony fishes which had evolved a couple of anatomical and developmental oddities such as a lung-like air bladder and stumpy leg-like fins. Both of these features would ultimately allow some of their descendants to at least occasionally spend time out of the water. We know from the fossil record that these evolutionary modifications did in fact occur among a group of bony fishes known as the lobe-finned fish (whose living descendants include the very primitive coelacanths and various species of lung-fishes).
We can only speculate about exactly what reproductive advantages the evolution of air bladders and bony finger or leg-like fins conferred on individuals having these features: perhaps the air bladders allowed some fish to survive periods when pools of water occasionally dried out (as is the case in living lung- fishes), and perhaps modification in the bones of their fins at first just enabled some species of fish to better escape predators or chase after other fish, and then later these emerging structures were co-opted for a new use, to get around on dry land. In any case, fossil skeletons of the very first land-dwelling four-legged animals (the most primitive salamander-like amphibians, which looked a lot like fish with legs!) show extremely close similarities to the skeletons of those water-dwelling lobe-finned fish. And what is truly amazing is that the basic pattern of bones which make up the limb structure of all the later four- legged land-dwellers can already be seen in the underlying structure of the bony fins of those ancient fish ancestors!
No other animals had ever before crawled out onto land, so opportunities for fairly rapid diversification and specializations in relation to different sub-features of local land environments must have abounded. In fact, the fossil record reveals that amphibians would diversify greatly for about 100 million years and also bud off the first reptiles, who would in turn diversify greatly and bud off the first mammals and birds. But each one of these truly major departures in the history of life would have had its origins in simple speciations--the appearance of an increasingly divergent "daughter" species which became reproductively isolated from its parent species, and then began to separately accumulate evolutionary modifications.
[To be continued in the next issue]
1	The sheer quantity and diversity of beetle species led the 19th-century scientist and proponent of Darwinian evolution T.H. Huxley to humorously (and sarcastically) quip that, if god had created all of nature, he must have had "an inordinate fondness for beetles"!
[Return to article]
2	One of the things which reveals that Creationists are fundamentally non- scientific is the way they tend to view different plant and animal species as completely segregated and unchanging "kinds" in the first place. In reality, every biologist understands that the boundaries separating living organisms are relative (and not absolute), that their features tend to blend and blur into each other (instead of being rigidly compartmentalized), and that no life-form is ever absolutely "unchanging." By contrast, the Greek philosopher Plato, who lived about 2,400 years ago, believed that all things have a fundamental and immutable (unchanging) "essence"; this view became widespread in his day and remained popular until human beings began to develop the kind of modern scientific methods and outlooks which have allowed us to discover that, in reality, all forms of matter --from atoms, to life-forms, to galaxies-- are always undergoing change . In fact, modern science in all the different fields--and so much of how we use modern science to transform our material world--is based on that very understanding! At the dawn of the 21st century, isn't it about time to let go--once and for all--of outdated, static and "essentialist" views of things?
3	For those of you who are not very familiar with the biological system of the "group within group" taxonomic classification of plants and animals according to their degrees of similarities and relatedness, the following example may be helpful: an individual wolf belongs to a reproductive population of wolves in a given region; all the different populations of wolves scattered throughout the range of the wolves make up an entire wolf species. All the different but closely related wolf species (such as the Red Wolf, the Mexican Wolf, etc.) get grouped into the wolf genus ; all the wolves are then also placed, on the basis of shared features, in the Family of the Canidae (which includes dogs and foxes, but not, for instance, cats, which belong to a different Family); the wolf Family is then grouped along with some other Families (still on the basis of a set of shared similarities) into the Order of Carnivores (meateaters) and the Class of the Mammals (animals which have hair, give birth to live young, produce maternal milk, etc.). So, for instance, wolves would be grouped with other Carnivorous Mammals, such as dogs, foxes, bears, seals and weasels (and there is both fossil and molecular evidence that these animals really do share a common ancestry). Beyond that, our wolf also belongs to the Phylum Chordata (all animals having a backbone) and finally, and most obviously, to the Kingdom of Animals (distinguishing them from organisms belonging to the Kingdoms of the plants, the fungi, the algae-like protists or the bacteria-like prokaryotes, which all represented very different evolutionary pathways in the history of life). In real life, the boundaries between species or higher lineages are not always perfectly clear, and species sometimes have to be reclassified into new groups as we learn more about them. But, by and large, the system of biological classification assigns organisms to each category based on sets of real similarities and differences which actually reflect patterns of inheritance from common ancestors, and which distinguish them from evolutionary lines that went off in significantly different directions.
4You may be familiar with the classic example of the horse and the donkey:because they are closely related, you can actually get a horse and a donkey to mate, and they can even produce an offspring capable of surviving which has some characteristics of both parents and which we call the mule . But a mule is what is called a "sterile hybrid": it can live and grow, but it is unable to reproduce. To be considered to belong to the same species, organisms have to pass the so-called "species test": they have to be able to mate, and to produce viable offspring (offspring capable of surviving); and these offspring in turn also have to be able to reproduce. Some species are separated by pre-mating mechanisms (they are unable to mate in the first place for any number of reasons) and sometimes they are separated by post-mating mechanisms (they can mate but their hybrids are deformed and die, or survive but can't reproduce). Applying the "species test," we can see that horses and donkeys belong to different (even though closely related) species.
This article is posted in English and Spanish on Revolutionary Worker Online
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Write: Box 3486, Merchandise Mart, Chicago, IL 60654
(The RW Online does not currently communicate via email.)


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Kaciîn (în ) este o comună în raionul Kamin-Kașîrskîi, regiunea Volînia, Ucraina, formată din satele Kaciîn (reședința), Oleksandria și Stavîșce.

Demografie

Conform recensământului din 2001, majoritatea populației satului Kaciîn era vorbitoare de ucraineană (%), existând în minoritate și vorbitori de alte limbi.

Note

Kaciîn, Kamin-Kașîrskîi, Volîn
Kaciîn, Kamin-Kașîrskîi, Volîn
Kaciîn, Kamin-Kașîrskîi, Volîn

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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Out + About/The Great Outdoors
Raft-tastic! A Family Paddle on the Lower Yakima River
After a busy week at work, it feels good just to close your eyes and bask in the sun. The air smells like sunscreen and rubber rafts, and after this next bend, you know there's a perfect spot to haul out the cooler for a picnic.
You can relax, knowing that the kids will yell if they spot any local wildlife, such as bighorn sheep, mule deer, rabbits and soaring hawks.
The Yakima River Canyon cuts through the basalt hills between Yakima and Ellensburg, a ribbon of green through the desert landscape of eastern Washington. The canyon was once the main route between the two cities, but today it is a playground for hikers, fishers, bird lovers and rafters. Families armed with only a flotation device, a paddle, a picnic lunch and a sense of adventure are sure to find a day's worth of entertainment and the memories to last a lifetime.
The Yakima is a Class 1 river, which means that the river doesn't contain any rapids, and gear and expertise requirements are minimal. Still, it's smart to be prepared.
Gear and outfitters
Your flotation device can be anything from a pontoon kayak to an inner tube, and a quick stop at a sporting goods store should outfit your expedition inexpensively. Near Ellensburg, Rill Adventures rents rafts, kayaks and all other gear you'll need. Rill's "Floater's Deal" includes raft, gear, a picnic lunch and shuttle service ($135 for four people, $157 for six and $178 for eight). Red's Fly Shop, about halfway down the canyon, rents boats as well.
Speaking of gear, don't forget your life jacket! Properly fitted life jackets are required on the river, says Diane Priebe, outdoor recreation planner for the Bureau of Land Management's Wenatchee office, because although the river is only Class 1, the water can be swift and cold.
Also pack sunscreen, rope to tie rafts together, snacks and plenty of water. You'll dry quickly in the hot sun, but extra clothes and towels are helpful. A waterproof bag will be essential to keep your gear dry. Be sure to tie your gear down just in case you overturn your raft by accident.
Where to launch
Coming from Seattle, take exit 109 (Canyon Road exit) to S.R. 821 at Ellensburg. Most people put in at Umtanum (milepost 16) for an eight-mile float to Roza, though many extend the trip to 18 miles by putting in at Ringer Road, or 13 miles by putting in at Bighorn, a private access point at milepost 21. (See Red's Fly Shop for a map of river access points.)
After the initial chaos of launching, it's time to relax, reapply the sunscreen and take in the scenery. Here, the basalt cliffs stretch up to 2,000 feet above the river, and are home to hawks, eagles and falcons. But this trip isn't just about nature watching: What's a trip to the river without a chance to get wet? About a 15-minute float south of Umtanum, you'll see a giant Pacman painted on the cliffs. The currents can be swift here, so jump with caution, though many people do it every year.
Alternately, all along the river are reedy shallows perfect for pulling off and swimming.
The most important part: the picnic
If after all that jumping and swimming, your clan is beginning to get hungry, you'll soon float past the shady grove and picnic grounds of Red's Fly Shop. At about this point, the canyon widens into a stretch of verdant farmland. The sagebrush-covered hills bloom with wildflowers, and close to the water, ponderosa pines and quaking aspen provide shade. Keep your eyes open for great blue herons, ospreys, deer, big horn sheep and, of course, rare rattlesnakes.
If Red's is too soon for a picnic stop, just pull off anywhere that seems flat, or tie up in the shade of a tree and eat in your boats. For a more secluded picnic spot, try the island located at about milepost 11 (you can see the highway's milepost signs from the river). Keep to the right, where the water is shallower, and there's a rocky beach perfect for picnicking and wading.
About a mile past the island you'll come to Big Pines, the biggest campground in the canyon, with 41 RV or tent sites. The river runs wide and mellow from here on out, but make sure to watch for the Roza sign around milepost 8, then stay near the east bank (the left-hand side). The channel runs fast farther out, and it's not uncommon to see people having to jump and tow their boats if they miss the landing. But they always come out smiling.
How do you reunite with your car? Many people go with two cars and leave one at Roza, but you can also arrange with Red's Fly Shop or Rill Adventures for shuttle service (about $30; call or stop by to arrange).
Make it an overnighter
The Bureau of Land Management runs four campgrounds/recreation areas in the Yakima Canyon. "All the camp areas are crazy on hot summer weekends," says Priebe. She recommends the smaller campgrounds at Lmuma Creek (seven sites) and Umtanum (six sites), though the larger Big Pines (41 sites) has more modern facilities. Roza (five campsites) can become quite busy as a day-use site. All BLM campsites are $15 per night from May 15 through Sept. 15. The rest of the year is free. All sites are first come, first serve, so on busy summer weekends it's best to show up early to claim a site. A $5 per vehicle day use fee applies on all BLM sites if you're not camping.
Jessie Kwak is a farm girl in the big city who is addicted to traveling, hiking, and camping. These days, she calls Seattle her home.
Although the Yakima River seems mellow, caution is required. Most accidents are easily avoided through preparation and attention. Ninon Wheatley, owner of Rill Adventures, offers the following advice.
Learn how to properly fit a life vest to a child — a vest that's too loose will do little to keep a child afloat. Have your child take a deep breath, then cinch the waist straps tightly and pull up on the shoulder straps to make sure the vest won't pop over your child's head.
Rafts or kayaks are preferable to inner tubes, which can be unstable and difficult to maneuver — they're not recommended for use with smaller children. Always have at least one adult in each raft or kayak.
Be careful near the banks, where boats and swimmers can be trapped by logs and rocks.
Be aware of the river's speed. The Yakima generally runs about 3–4 mph, which looks deceivingly slow. The river is the main source of irrigation for local farms, and its speed increases as the weather gets hotter and more water is required. Therefore the hottest months (the peak season for floaters) is when the river is at its fastest.
This article was originally written in 2010 and updated in 2013.
Go Play at Juanita Beach Park's Brand-New Playground

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Dube, Nokutela
1872-1917 Protestant
The following text belongs to our collection of eyewitness and fragmentary accounts,that includes eulogies, obituaries, and primary materials. It may lack sources and proper academic verification for accuracy.
Nokutela Dube was the first wife of John Langalibalele Dube. She played a leading role at the industrial school at Inanda, Ohlange Institute where she was the head of the domestic and the music departments. Under her leadership, the school gained a reputation for the musicians it produced. Nokutela was a talented singer and the first published African woman composer. She died in 1917 in tragic circumstances of a kidney infection. She was known as a founder of the Ohlange school and the newspaper Ilanga lase Natal along with her husband, as well as the composer of the Zulu songs that were sung at Ohlange. Her legacy was all but forgotten until 2010.
Sources: Notes from research by Heather Hughes.


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You are here: Home / Music / Today, James Franco and Tim O'Keefe, the duo called Daddy, shared a music video for the new remix from their track "I'm A Sword Swallower" (Prince Rama Remix)
Today, James Franco and Tim O'Keefe, the duo called Daddy, shared a music video for the new remix from their track "I'm A Sword Swallower" (Prince Rama Remix)
Today, James Franco and Tim O'Keefe, the duo called Daddy, shared a music video for the new remix from their track "I'm A Sword Swallower" (Prince Rama Remix). James Franco directed and shot the artfully erotic video at the Chateau Marmont.
Daddy – "I'm A Sword Swallower" (Prince Rama Remix) NSFW
https://youtu.be/kpYVykAD1T0
James says about the video: "Everything gets wild at the Chateau Marmont. Bungalow 2, where they rehearsed Rebel Without a Cause in the 50s and Nicholas Ray had his affair with young Natalie Wood. Some hippies threw a party, and things got wild."
Tim says about the track: "Prince Rama's remix creates the perfect soundtrack for our short film that explores gender, power play, and Hollywood lore in a cinematic psychedelic dream. Prince Rama and Daddy are a match made in heaven."
Daddy's debut album Let Me Get What I Want is available in a limited edition dark pink vinyl https://www.newburycomics.com/products/daddy-let_me_get_what_i_want_exclusive_2_lp?variant=15949922438 and the regular album is available here: https://daddy.lnk.to/1
The motivation behind Daddy, the newly formed band comprised of artists James Franco and Timothy O'Keefe, is to push beyond the sonic space of music into the surrounding ecology. Daddy investigates the territories of film/video, installation, and performance while simultaneously exploring the connections that form between them.
While sampling has been an established and prevalent method of modern music making, Daddy's approach moves beyond the 'art of sampling' into the act of appropriation. Not just appropriating a genre of music, but the moments it inhabits, and the characters that embody it.
Like many bands before them, Franco and O'Keefe met as students in art school. While in school, they collaborated on many projects including Franco's 2011 Endless Idaho installation at the Gagosian Gallery in L.A. before forming Daddy in late 2011.
Drawing from the individual practices of both Franco and O'Keefe, Daddy brings together the interests and talents of these two artists. Franco continues his exploration of identity. Through appropriating and recontextualizing material from his work as an actor, director, and individual, he questions the existing boundaries between. O'Keefe, the musician behind <tfo>, brings to Daddy his imaginative sense of sound and play, creating evocative arrangements that merge together the assumed separations between time, space, and cultures.
https://twitter.com/WeAreDaddy
https://www.facebook.com/WeAreDaddy
http://www.instagram.com/WeAreDaddy
In : Music
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Is your domain name working for you?
Google's purchase of YouTube again shows that the company is prepared to embrace internet users rather than to see them as a threat. Traditional copyright-owning companies would do well to follow suit.


Sipho Kings the Mail & Guardian's environment reporter with AWARD Executive Director Dr. Sharon Pollard.
In an interview with Association for Water and Rural Development (AWARD) recently Kings said that he has always known that this catchment is under threat and has been for a long time especially with issues of water quality because of numerous mines around the catchment.
"Coming to AWARD to talk with scientists who do the actual testing and collect the data from the rivers confirmed the known fact that mines are polluting the water at a high level" he said.
He indicated that as journalists they always get anecdotal comments from people saying they are getting sick because of the polluted water but getting this information about how polluted the rivers are from scientist is very helpful and more credible.
Mail & Guardian came to AWARD to try and get what solutions or assistance AWARD is providing in the catchment to make it a better place especially with regard to water quality problems.
Sipho interviewed AWARD Executive Director Dr. Sharon Pollard, Bio monitoring Technician Thabo Mohlala and Researcher Hugo Retief as AWARD water team, in an effort to get their involvement in solving the problem with water quality in the catchment.
Talking about the water pollution in rivers he said that it is unfair that people have a care free mentality polluting the rivers that do not affect South Africa only but cross to other countries as well such as Mozambique.


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HC Berounské Lvice (celým názvem: Hockey Club Berounské Lvice) je český klub ženského ledního hokeje, který sídlí v Berouně ve Středočeském kraji. Založen byl v roce 1985 pod názvem TJ Lokomotiva Beroun. Klub patřil mezi průkopníky ženského hokeje v tehdejším Československu. V roce založení se klub zúčastnil prvního mistrovství ženského hokeje pořádaného na území Československa. Celkově se Berounu povedlo získat šest mistrovských titulů v soutěži žen. Od sezóny 2017/18 působí v 1. lize ženského hokeje, druhé české nejvyšší soutěži ledního hokeje žen. Klubové barvy jsou červená, bílá a modrá.

Své domácí zápasy odehrává na zimním stadionu Beroun s kapacitou 2 272 diváků.

Historické názvy

Zdroj:

 1985 – TJ Lokomotiva Beroun (Tělovýchovná jednota Lokomotiva Beroun)
 1992 – HC Amazonky Lokomotiva Beroun (Hockey Club Amazonky Lokomotiva Beroun)
 1993 – HC H+S Beroun (Hockey Club H+S Beroun)
 1996 – HC Berounské Lvice (Hockey Club Berounské Lvice)

Získané trofeje

 Extraliga ženského hokeje ( 6× )
 1987, 1988, 1989/90, 1990/91, 1991/92, 1992/93

Umístění v jednotlivých sezonách

Stručný přehled

Zdroj:

 1985–1986: Turnaj v Klatovech (1. ligová úroveň v Československu)
 1987–1988: Pohár Ústředního výboru Socialistického svazu mládeže (1. ligová úroveň v Československu)
 1989: Pohár ČSSS (1. ligová úroveň v Československu)
 1989–1993: 1. liga (1. ligová úroveň v Československu)
 1993–2000: 1. liga (1. ligová úroveň v České republice)
 2000–2011: 1. liga (1. ligová úroveň v České republice)
 2011–2012: 1. liga – sk. A (1. ligová úroveň v České republice)
 2012–2017: 1. liga - divize A1 (1. ligová úroveň v České republice)
 2017– : 1. liga – sk. A (2. ligová úroveň v České republice)

Jednotlivé ročníky

Zdroj:

Legenda: ZČ - základní část, červené podbarvení - sestup, zelené podbarvení - postup, fialové podbarvení - reorganizace, změna skupiny či soutěže

Odkazy

Reference

Externí odkazy
 Oficiální stránky
 Server o ženském hokeji
 Profil klubu na stránkách eurohockey.com

Berounské Lvice
Berounské Lvice
Berounské Lvice
Sportovní kluby v Berouně
Lední hokej v Berouně


text:
Q: Use Automator to send files via Messages App I've seen some older posts about this issue but no real fixes.
I"m using macOS 13.1 and I would like to use Automator to send my clients iMessage or SMS texts that include images. I am able to send actual "text" just fine.
When I try to send a file, I see the file in the Messages app but I get a failed to send error. I see the same behavior using SMS or iMessage.
My simple Code
    set image to POSIX file "/Path/To/File.ext"

    tell application "Messages"
        activate
        set iMessageService to 1st account whose service type = iMessage
        set client to participant "5551234567" of iMessageService
        send image to client
    end tell

Again, I can send texts to the same number but not a file. I am able to send the file to the number directly from the Messages app.
Google, Apple Developer, multiple phone numbers.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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Mykola Gordiy «Work is my life!» 13.05.2011
Today Uman Greenhouse is one of the leading companies, both in technical and technological point of view, advanced in the vegetable protected ground of Ukraine.
Mykola Gordiy began his career in 1973 after Uman Agricultural Institute, as a senior agronomist of the greenhouse-vegetable farm named after Kalinin in the village of Palanka, Uman district, Cherkasy region. In 1976, Mykola, who at that time had already become the chief agronomist of Uman inter-farm greenhouse vegetable plant, dreamed of a large modern vegetable production with the new technologies. The time had come - and the dream has begun to be true: in 1979, Mykola Gordiy led the newly established Uman Greenhouse. The profession has become his true mission, and the complex – the meaning of his life. "I can not imagine my life without work - he says. - Work - this is my life! »
As for the 1st of January 2011 the complex possessed 32.6 hectares of greenhouses and 10 m2 well equipped warehouses with modern logistics center. According to Mykola V., the key to successful operation of modern enterprises – the new energy saving technologies and constant updating of equipment involved in the work.
By the way, in 2009 Uman greenhouse complexes gained the international standard GlobalGAR which guarantees high quality products and allows entering the international market trade. One of the components of the success of the company is a constant search and cultivation of varieties of vegetables, which are notable for great tasting, high utility value and satisfy the refined taste of consumers. In 2006, consumers had submitted a new brand - "From the Garden" in 2010 - "Gordiy».
History remembers many plant transformations and changes, problems time and victories. When in 2002 the general meeting of the staff made the decision of the reorganization, or to be exact - of the creation of the market-type enterprise, it was actually the second birth of the plant.
The Dutch technologies in conjunction with the Ukrainian diligence plus talented leadership and "nepotism" in the best sense of the word, these are the combine elements of success of the company and its director. With a large team of associates at the plant, the whole family of Mykola Vasyliovych works for the better future. Mykola Gordiy argues that the main value of the plant - people. The Director's cabinet is always open for every employee and pensioner of the enterprise. The strategic course of "Uman greenhouse complex" remains the same: an increase in production of high-quality vegetable production through the use of advanced energy saving technologies. The enterprise Management Board understands that only the quality, competitive products and stability help to stay on the market. The plant regularly takes part in various exhibitions and competitions.
Source: Всеукраїнський журнал Наш вибір
Diplomas and awards
Diploma of a participant of exhibition-fair "AGRO - 2008"
The first industrial greenhouse using Philips LED has been created in Uman 01-02-2013 The first industrial greenhouse using Philips LED has been created in...
Photoes
The main wealth – people
Departments contact
© Uman Greenhouse Complex. 2012


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Q: Show something has a linear asymptote Consider the function $z(x)=\sqrt{1+x^2}+1$
Show that $y=x+1$ and $y=1-x$ are linear asymptotes of the function at $\infty$ and respectively $- \infty$
So I started of with the first part: show that $y=x+1$ is a linear asymptote of the function at $\infty$:
Note that $\forall x > 0$:
$|z(x)-(1+x)|=|1+\sqrt{1+x^2}-1-x|=|\sqrt{1+x^2}-x|=\sqrt{1+x^2}-x$
But if I go on extracting a value for x with the use of $\epsilon$, I find something I don't consider true, since i find $x>\frac{1-\epsilon^2}{2\epsilon}$
Am I doing wrong, or can somebody tell me what I missed out?
Note that I only have to show, not proof.
Many thanks!

A: What you want to show is that $$\lim_{x\to\infty}\left(\sqrt{1+x^2}-x\right)=0\;.$$ Rewrite the function:
$$\sqrt{1+x^2}-x=\left(\sqrt{1+x^2}-x\right)\frac{\sqrt{1+x^2}+x}{\sqrt{1+x^2}+x}=\frac1{\sqrt{1+x^2}+x}\;.$$


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text:
Loveinvoke Blog
Scott Baumer
Scott is a competitive cyclist who races at the professional level in multiple disciplines, including road, criterium, mountain, track and cyclo-cross. He plans to race about 40 races in 2013. Outside of cycling, Scott works as a certified public accountant for local firm BGBC Partners. Scott lives in South Broad Ripple.
Erin Gladstone
Erin is a yogi who also does pilates reformers religiously and appreciates the challenges of bar effect classes. She enjoys running, cycling, and participating in any type of athletic activity that allows her to be outdoors. When she is not at the studio, you can usually find Erin on the IUPUI campus where she works as a section administrator for IU School of Medicine while wrapping up her Master of Public Affairs with a concentration in Nonprofit Management. She recently purchased her first home in Fountain Square.
Laura Haehl
Laura has been teaching yoga since 2007 and has been teaching at Invoke since 2008. She was trained in Ashtanga and vinyasa yoga at It's Yoga in Cincinnati. She enjoys teaching yin yoga and a variety of levels of vinyasa. Outside of yoga, she teaches Spanish at Franklin College part-time. She loves the language and enjoys traveling to use it! Laura resides in Fall Creek Place.
Kye Hawkins
Kye is passionate about yoga and is a certified instructor (RYT-200). She also enjoys anything that gets her outside, including running, golf, and riding her vintage cruiser bicycle around Indianapolis. Kye is passionate about education (and her undergraduate alma mater!) and serves as Director of Special Projects for Admission at DePauw University. She lives in Nora with her husband Ryan and rambunctious black lab, Rudy.
Francesca Jarosz
Francesca is an avid practitioner of yoga and certified yoga instructor who teaches at Invoke Studio. She's also a distance runner and has completed several half and full marathons in places ranging from Long Island, N.Y. to Las Vegas. Outside of running, practicing yoga and blogging, Francesca is busy leading communications and policy efforts for The Mind Trust, an Indianapolis-focused education reform nonprofit. She lives in Downtown Indianapolis.
Erin's love of dance was what first drew her to the lines of energy and fluid movement of yoga. In college she retreated to her mat as a way to manage stress and get the creative juices flowing, and she became more immersed in yoga during the time she spent living in California. Erin completed her training under the guidance of Carmen Fitzgibbon of YogaWorks and is 200 hr RTY certified. Erin truly believes that yoga has the power to change lives. Her vinyasa teaching is a lighthearted blend of strength, breath, music, affirmation and flow. She hopes that students leave practice more aware of their own awesomeness, with the freedom to think, act, move and love with more authenticity.
Glenna Nall
Glenna Nall is a yoga (RYT-200) and comprehensively certified Pilates instructor who coordinates Invoke's Pilates program. She also coaches swimming and is an avid runner and swimmer. She lives in Downtown Indianapolis with her husband, Alex.
Maria Romaine
Maria a health and fitness entrepreneur in Indianapolis who teaches group exercise classes such as cycling, turbo kick, insanity, and hip-hop. She also coaches clients through one-on-one accountability programs and helps men and women reach their fitness goals through monthly online challenge groups. Maria also pursues her passion for advertising and marketing as an e-commerce consultant at the ever-growing online company, Angie's List.
Robert Scheer
Robert is a staff photographer and part-time wine writer at The Indianapolis Star. He's been some form of vegetarian or vegan for 25 years, and a fitness cyclist for 30. A late convert to running, he's got two marathons and three half marathons under his belt, with plans to do a fourth this fall. One of his life goals is to hike the Pacific Crest Trail, which links Mexico to Canada through the Pacific states of the U.S.
Nicole Schoville
Nicole is a native Texan who moved to Indianapolis in the spring of 2006. Within her first month of being in Indy she was embraced by the Invoke family and has been a devoted student and teacher ever since. Nicole works full time as the HR Administrator at The Children's Museum of Indianapolis and strives to maintain a work-life balance through running and regular yoga and Pilates classes.
Animal Skills Yoga for Kids
Down Dog Log 5
Archives Select Month October 2016 (1) June 2016 (4) May 2016 (1) March 2016 (1) February 2016 (1) April 2015 (1) February 2015 (1) October 2014 (1) September 2014 (1) August 2014 (2) July 2014 (1) May 2014 (1) March 2014 (1) February 2014 (1) December 2013 (2) October 2013 (1) September 2013 (1) August 2013 (1) July 2013 (2) June 2013 (1) May 2013 (1) April 2013 (1) March 2013 (1) February 2013 (2) January 2013 (3) December 2012 (1) October 2012 (2) August 2012 (1) June 2012 (1) May 2012 (1) April 2012 (2) March 2012 (3)
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Demonstrating a willingness to become environmentally sustainable.
Bangalore Golf Course started with browns, which were later converted to greens, trees and deep ditches, the major hazard on the course is the Bangalore crow that often picks up the ball, mistaking it for an egg. It is therefore, not surprising that the logo of the Bangalore Golf Club depicts a Crow with a ball in its beak. Though the fairways at the Bangalore Golf Club are fairly dry and sandy, the greens are lush and well manicured. Drives have to be well planned to avoid the rocky parts of the fairway, where the ball tends to veer off and change direction. The greens are invariably trapped by large bunkers. A large number of flowering trees, which include the colorful gulmohar, palm and eucalyptus, are planted along the tight fairways. The course is remarkable in that 18 holes have been deftly packed into just 60 acres of land.
increasing number of golf courses including the one at Bangalore Golf Club, are demonstrating a willingness to become more environmentally sustainable by implementing programs and initiatives aimed at greening the design, construction and operations of their courses. Initiatives at our course include new maintenance techniques that support the environment. In this new and increasingly sustainable era, BGC provides habitat for several birds and plant species, uses treatment and filtration systems for converting millions of litres of waste water into usable water for the course, and continues to help raise awareness about the importance of preserving and protecting our natural resources.
The lush vegetation of the Bangalore Golf Club attracts its fair share of exotic birds, along with the large numbers of crows (Corvus splendens) that are somehow attracted to the golf balls on the fairway!
The golf course at the Bangalore Golf Club has over 2000 trees from 75 species along the fairways, around the Tertiary Treatment Plant, beside the open pond, near the guesthouse and at the entrance.


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El Gran Puente de Pekín ( en chino, 北京特大桥) es un puente de ferrocarril de 48.153 metros de longitud al principio de la línea de alta velocidad que une Pekín a Shanghái y es uno de los puentes más largos del mundo. La construcción comenzó en 2008 y concluyó en 2010. El puente se abrió en junio de 2011. Se encuentra entre la cuarta carretera de circunvalación de Pekín y Langfang. Justo después de este viaducto, la línea pasa por encima de un viaducto aún más largo (114 km), el Gran Puente de Tianjin, que une Langfang y Qingxian

Véase también
 Anexo:Puentes más largos del mundo

Referencias

Pekín
Pekín
Pekín
Arquitectura de China de 2010
Edificios y estructuras de Pekín
Puentes inaugurados en 2010


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Gift of Foot, Cone and Belding.
rust-brown and black ink on cream paper.
Gift of United Colors of Benetton.
offset lithography on gray paper.
Gift of AIDS Action Committee.
Gift of Melissa Burch and Susan Stoltz.
Gift of Gail Levin and John Van Sickle.
Gift of Apple Computer Japan, Inc..


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The Highland Homes website just got a makeover. The front end of this Florida home builder's website is now even more user-friendly, allowing future homeowners to get the most up-to-date information quickly. Additionally, there is a lot that we did behind the scenes to provide users with an improved experience. Now, it's easier for visitors to access all of the information they need from a desktop, tablet or mobile device to find the new home of their dreams.
The most important update to the Highland Homes website is a new content management system database. This management system is designed specifically to easily manage websites and scale accordingly with growth for companies that increase their sales or expand their product and markets. Relevant ADMIN, or rADMIN for short, has built-in modules that allow companies with options to add and edit things that their visitors want to see including, and specifically for our home builder clients, information on communities, spec homes, plans and regions. Our other clients utilize this hierarchy and structure for their products and service categories and sub-categories.
In addition, rADMIN has better optimization and takes better advantage of browser cashing. So, what does this mean for visitors to the Highland Homes website? The server has a quicker response time so the site loads faster and is better optimized for mobile devices. The management system scales images to different sizes depending on the device the website is viewed on—so, whether using a desktop, tablet or mobile phone, images of the builder's communities and homes load in 1 to 2 seconds.
The same goes for text on the website. The new management system compresses copy so it requires less bandwidth and download time, decreasing the amount of time visitors have to wait until they can read information on the Highland Homes website.
When visitors fill out a form to request more information on a website, it is important for businesses to respond as quickly as possible. However, sometimes websites receive spam requests, making it harder for businesses to get to their customers' questions. To eliminate this problem, we installed a built-in smart spam system on the Highland Homes website that can sort through all of the submitted forms and weed out any spam leads, giving the builder a quicker response time on all legitimate requests for information.
The Highland Homes' website was already a responsive site. However, we did make it easier for prospective buyers to get more information on the areas in which Highland Homes' communities are built. Now, when users click on the Local Information tab on any community page, they'll be brought to a map that has information on the nearby schools, medical facilities, recreational and entertainment opportunities, dining options, grocery stores, shops and more. Plus, all maps are based in Google and updated monthly, so visitors always have access to the most up-to-date information.
The new Highland Homes website features an improved layout with buttons and menus that are easier to view and use on mobile devices and tablets, making it easier to access information on the builder's communities and floor plans. In addition, we added improved photo displays and captions, added more community information including model home plans and HOA dues, and added new search filters to the builder's Ready to Own and Community pages.
To check out the new website and explore the updates, visit www.HighlandHomes.org. For more information on how working with Marketing RELEVANCE can enhance your website design, call 770-383-3360 or visit www.marketingRELEVANCE.com.


Bleaching Section of Sunflower Oil Refining Process. The bleaching of Sunflower oil is an essential part of the refining process of crude oils and fats after degumming / Neutralization. Originally the bleaching was only used to remove the color.
There are mainly three parts in the rice bran oil making process, pretreatment, leaching (extracting) and refining. in this oil making process,the Essential oil equipments have to used,such as extraction machine, DTDC, refining pot, degumming pot and so on. B.
Oil dewaxing, also called winterization, is typically used at corn and sunflower-processing vegetable oil refineries.It improves the oil's clarity and brightness by removing solids —saturated glycerides or waxes— that are visible at ambient or low temperatures.
The role of winterization in sunflower oil refining plant Date:2016-07-28 15:47:02 / Cooking oil machine FAQ /Give me the price / Leave a message. Sunflower oil winterization is also called sunflower oil dewaxing. The name winterization appears during winter.
Winterization de-waxing system is capable of winterize various kinds of oil with the same set of sunflower oil refining machine. For instance: sunflower oil, cotton seed oil. Cooking oil refining machine we have installed. The crude sunflower oil refining machine is suitable for both large or medium scale oil plants.
Winterization of edible oil production is the thermo-mechanical process in which solids are crystallized under controlled temperature conditions.
Edible oil refinery plant and edible oil refining process . Edible oil refining is a process to remove impurities that are contained in crude oil obtained either from expellers or solvent extraction plant, and improve the functionality of the oils.
In the case of sunflower oil or other vegetable oils, this process can also be called "oil dewaxing". Principle of Winterization. Winterization is a thermomechanical separation process where componenet triglycerides of fat and oil are crystallized from a melt.
The oil is dissolved in hexane in miscella refining, which is why the separators which separate the soapstock from the neutralization process are blanketed with inert gas. The refined miscella then reenters the extraction plant stripping system for removal of remaining hexane.
Dewaxing Section (Winterization Process): The deodorization oil gets into the crystallizing tank, the cooler will adjust the temperature to 50℃, then in crystallizing tank the cooling water will cool the oil to 20℃, after 72 hours crystallization, filter the oil to remove the wax.
The deodorization process of the last stage of chemical refining is carried out to remove undesirable taste and odour of the oil from the oil under high temperature and low pressure and by the effect of water vapour.
After oil press machine or oil extraction machine, all the crude oil will be send to cooking oil refinery workshop. Cooking oil refinery plant can be widely used for soybean oil refining, peanut oil refining, rapeseed oil refining ,cottonseed oil refining, corn germ oil refining, sunflower oil refining and palm oil refining etc.
Waxes are natural components of sunflower oils, consisting mainly of esters of FA with fatty alcohols, that are partially removed in the winterization process during oil refining.


Abstract: The production of new chemicals for industrial or therapeutic applications exceeds our ability to generate experimental data on their biological fate once they are released into the environment. Typically, mixtures of organic pollutants are freed into a variety of sites inhabited by diverse microorganisms, which structure complex multispecies metabolic networks. A machine learning approach has been instrumental to expose a correlation between the frequency of 149 atomic triads (chemotopes) common in organo-chemical compounds and the global capacity of microorganisms to metabolise them. Depending on the type of environmental fate defined, the system can correctly predict the biodegradative outcome for 73–87% of compounds. This system is available to the community as a web server (http://www.pdg.cnb.uam.es/BDPSERVER). The application of this predictive tool to chemical species released into the environment provides an early instrument for tentatively classifying the compounds as biodegradable or recalcitrant. Automated surveys of lists of industrial chemicals currently employed in large quantities revealed that herbicides are the group of functional molecules more difficult to recycle into the biosphere through the inclusive microbial metabolism.
Description: 11 pages, 6 figures, 3 tables.


Has the USA taken the lead?
As we envisaged last year team USA has opened the scoring against Canada, with the first LNG exports starting at the end of February 2016. However the first exports are taking place in a time of low, and arguably sub-economic, price environments of around $5/MMBTU. Yes, the USA has been successful in getting their projects away, but there is a question as to whether this is really creating value for stakeholders. Supporters of Canadian LNG may view the American advantage in the first period of play as an "own goal".
The less spoken about East Coast projects have quietly moved forward, with Goldboro and Bear Head making progress with land purchase, environmental and regulatory approvals.
Meanwhile the West Coast has faced further postponements (Pacific North West and LNG Canada being two of the most spoken about) or cancellations (Altagas' Douglas Channel project). From a total of around 20 proposed projects, there now appear to be as few as 3 serious challengers for the title of first Western Canadian exporter.
However, on both East and West coasts, not one project in Canada has yet reached Final Investment Decision (FID), and it is questionable, given current weakness in LNG prices, whether any affirmative FID decisions will be made in 2016. Arguably those who are brave enough to take a longer term view and make the commitment in 2016 could steal a march on competitors by targeting first cargoes just as the oversupply may start to disappear and prices start to firm up again. Given project development timelines, and our own internal global supply and demand analysis, FID decisions in Canada would need to be made within the next 12 months to capture a supply-demand flip as early as 2020.
It could be said that the Government of British Columbia has made progress in climbing a steep LNG learning curve. Initial uncertainties around the controversial LNG taxes were resolved but the province is still challenged with issues involving First Nations, pipeline routes, permitting and environmental assessments.
Within the last month, Japanese and Malaysian stakeholders, both key potential anchor buyers, have voiced their concern that regulatory and governmental delays could cost Canada dearly and lead to a closing of the narrowing window of opportunity.
The horn has heralded the end of the first period in the North American game, with Canada falling behind to the USA. If Canada is to celebrate when the horn sounds at the end of the second and third period then there needs to be much clearer leadership and collaboration. The Province of BC cannot do it alone and needs support from the new Federal government as well as greater collective support from municipalities and First Nations.
There is not much more SPACE for delay for all involved. OPPORTUNITY IS NOW HERE… could quickly become OPPORTUNITY IS NOWHERE.
Since we commented 15 months ago, LNG prices (both oil indexed and spot) have continued to fall further. Our analysis suggests that the sub $5/MMBTU deliveries into Asia may be here to stay for the next couple of years. With concerns over stagnating growth rates in mature Asian LNG importing countries (albeit being offset by rapid growth amongst a host of South East Asian economies with a ready demand for plentiful and cheap gas) and with European prices now showing signs of parity and in some cases premium to Asian prices, we expect LNG flows into Europe to more than double from current levels of just above 30 MMTPA within the next 2 years.
The UK's National Balancing Point (NBP) is rapidly converging on a Henry Hub (HH) plus around $1.75 to $2 price, with signs of an Atlantic basis differential here to stay. This supports our recent views that we are moving towards a global gas market, where regional differences largely reflect transportation differentials. Give it a few more years and perhaps in less time than many are expecting, we may have something approaching a properly interconnected market, with regional hubs.
No doubt Canadian LNG, no different to any other greenfield LNG development, will struggle to reach FID at $5/MMBTU price levels. However, this is the short term. Our longer term analysis suggests only a marginal oversupply in 2021 and 2022. We expect the market to largely be in balance before then, possibly by 2020, at which point we see an emerging supply-demand deficit and prices firming up.
Our analysis also foresees a moderate under supply emerging at the time when Canadian LNG could start to arrive in the market. There is an argument that with lower development costs (perhaps as much as 40%), good project discipline, and a positive economic LNG pricing outlook post 2020, taking FID in Canada within the next year even at current lower prices may be wiser than many might anticipate.
15 months on… do we reach the same conclusions?
We finished last time pondering over whether Canadian LNG was on ice, about to enter, or was already in deep freeze. Looking back at our conclusions many of the thoughts we raised have actually materialised.
As for Canadian LNG, now more than ever before, there is a risk that with an abundance of gas resources found around the world, Canadian gas might remain in deep freeze, especially if the USA continues to build on its lead. If Africa realises its potential and Iran follows through on plans to bring LNG to market in a 3-5 year time frame, this will only add to Canada's current woes.
Here at GCA, our advisors have worked on the end to end gas value chain in North America from the subsurface to the burner tip. To find out more about our proprietary LNG supply-demand and pricing views, and how we can assist you to unlock value in your projects, including potential merger and acquisitions support in the upstream, midstream or downstream gas value chain, please contact Nick Fulford or Ryan Pereira.


We are praying for little Zoe that God will sustain her. Yeah for Juliana…keep going good girl!
My continued thoughts and prayers are with you and your beautiful little girls.
You are all in our constant thoughts and prayers!
I am glad to hear that Juliana is doing well. I am continuing to pray for both girls, especially Zoe that she will be able to gain some strength.
Please let me know if I can do anything!
You and those amazing babies are in my thoughts and prayers. May Juliana and Zoe get stronger with each passing moment and may God give you all the strength needed to get through this very difficult time. I'm so sorry for the loss of Eden.
Your precious girls are in our prayers. We uplift you, two, for strength as you go through this trial.
I love you guys and am continuing to pray for comfort, courage, strength and hope for each of you.
I am truly sorry to hear of the loss of your precious little girl Eden. I can't imagine your heartache right now. I pray that the Lord will wrap you in His arms with heavenly comfort and love. I am continuing to pray for your other two girls, especially Zoe. I praise Him, that He has blessed you yet with two beautiful children. I also pray that He will continue to give strengh to you and to them. Hang in there Zoe!
You've been in my constant thoughts and prayers these past few days. I'm so sorry to hear about Eden. May God bless Juliana and Zoe with healing… And may He comfort and give strength to you both.
My heart breaks for you with the news of Eden. I can't imagine the sorrow that you are feeling right now. I also can't help but think of how Auntie Karen will take such joy in helping you raise her in a perfect world one day soon. You are in my constant thoughts and prayers, as are your precious girls Juliana and Zoe. I pray for their healing, growth and development. I wish I were closer to give you both huge hugs full of love.
Love, love, love you guys! Praying for you constantly.
I can't wait to meet Eden when Jesus comes. You are so loved and lifted up. Get well–all of you. Love you Jen, Jason, Zoe, and Juliana and all the other Minners and Paynes.
It is difficult to find words. Please know we are praying for Juliana and Zoe and you.
We want you to know that you and your family have been in our constant thoughts and prayers. We are very sad to hear about Eden, and we continue to pray for Zoe and Juliana. We also want you to know how much we love you and miss you!
Just know that we are praying. Love to all of you.
We are constantly praying for you and the babies. I am so sorry to hear of Eden's passing. Heaven will be such a wonderful place.
You all are in our prayers Jason and Jen! Your mom has been writing me emails with updates. I am praying for comfort for you all as you go through this and for protection for those 2 precious little girls.
You are all in my thoughts and prayers. May God's embrace give you courage and comfort.
My heart goes out to you and the little ones. May God give you all strength to come out on top. He is the performer of miracles. We are praying!
And if, in His mercy, God lets another of your precious little ones sleep, try to accept it as the best for you.
Hey guys, I'm praying for your little family and I've asked everybody I know to include you in their prayers as well.
Jen and Jason, I'm so sorry for your loss. You guys have been and will continue to be in my thoughts and prayers.
We love you and are praying that God will give you strength and comfort and hope.
I am so sad for all you're going through right now. I know you are holding on to the promise of life eternal. I am praying for you, Jason and your precious babies.
We are thinking about you all & praying constantly for you all. We can't wait for the day that you will all be reunited with Eden again and the pain will all be gone. Love to you and the girls…and again, PRAYERS, PRAYERS, PRAYERS!
I am praying for your family. I pray that God continues to give you the strength to continue to go from day to day. I pray for your beautiful Zoe and Juliana. I pray that Juliana gains more strength with each passing day. For Zoe I pray that she recovers and becomes stable, strong and healthy. Your girls are fighters! Stay strong. We are all here for you!
p.s. I LOVE their names!!!
I'm working in children's at the library tonight and thinking about YOUR children. I hope one or two or three of MY children are visiting you just now. Sorry I can't be there too. Asking for faith and courage in your hearts. . .
I'm so sorry to hear about your loss. May God comfort you as only He can. Keep holding on to Him and the hope we have in the resurrection. Stay strong.
You and your little ones have been in our thoughts and prayers day and night. Not an hour goes by that we are not thinking of you and praying that God will hold you in His arms and fill you with His comfort and strength. How I wish that I were already a nurse so that I could help care for little Zoe and Juliana.
We continue to lift up your family in prayer. May God give you the strength to face each new challenge and peace, as you lay your anxiety and pain on Him.
Our hearts go out to you both. We will keep you and your precious girls in our prayers. Thank God He's coming soon to take us to a place where there will be no more tears.
We are so sorry for the loss of your sweet little Eden and for the heavy burden that you are bearing.
I am close friends with Nikki Getman, and have a sister who delivered a son at 25 weeks; we spent many a night at Philadelphia Children's Hospital. I am thinking of you, praying for you, and hoping you find comfort in the love of your friends (and your friend's friends!) and always remember that God is there for you and your precious daughters.
We are anxious for the day when Jesus will wipe away all of our tears and you will be reunited with little Eden. We're also praying for you, Zoe, Juliana and their medical team.
Nathan and I are praying for you and your precious babies from over here in Australia. May God give you much strength and peace.
We're praying for you and your babies daily. May God wrap His arms around you and hold you up during this difficult time.
You are very much in our thoughts, hearts, and prayers. May His gracious Spirit uphold you.
Heaven will be soon! Eden will be placed in your waiting arms. . . You and your family are all in our thoughts and prayers. My students are very much involved in news of your little ones and we are praying for them and for you, as you go through this difficult time. May God sustain you; we know that He loves these tiny ones so much!