ABSTRACT: Existing approaches to scales in popular music do not do justice to the variety of scale collections that are used or to their expressive effects. In this article I propose a novel approach to this problem, focusing particularly on shifts of scale within songs. The idea is simple: The scale-degree content of a song (or a section of a song) tends to occupy a certain region on the "line of fifths," the circle of fifths stretched out infinitely in both directions. Moving outside this region—especially if the move is emphasized (by rhythmic, textural, or other means) and involves multiple pitch classes—creates a sense of scalar shift. Scalar shifts can be used in a variety of ways: to delineate and reinforce sectional boundaries; to convey a change in mood or situation, simply through the shift itself, or more specifically through sharpward or flatward motion on the line of fifths; to create a momentary effect of surprise or disorientation; or to construct more complex trajectories of tension and resolution.
[1.2] The surprise and reorientation caused by the VII—in addition to the shift from 3ˆ to 3ˆ in the melody—seems to suggest some kind of shift in the underlying scale or pitch collection of the song at that point; we will call this a "scalar shift." It is not obvious, however, how to characterize this shift. From a common-practice perspective, we might be tempted to describe it as a shift from major to minor mode (or at least, as a leaning toward minor). But most theorists agree that the major/minor distinction is not really applicable to modern popular music; and in any case, the VII chord is fairly rare in common-practice minor mode.(2) One could also invoke the system of diatonic modes, but this explanation, too, is not fully satisfactory; VII combined with 3ˆ would be compatible with either Dorian or Aeolian modes, and it seems arbitrary to have to choose between them. I will argue that a more flexible approach to scalar shift is required to account for such situations. The idea is simple: The scale-degree content of a song (or a section of a song) tends to occupy a certain region on the "line of fifths," the circle of fifths stretched out infinitely in both directions. Moving outside this region—especially if the move is emphasized (by rhythmic, textural, or other means) and involves multiple pitch classes—creates a sense of scalar shift. Such shifts may be momentary, as in the case of "Then Came You"; in other cases, they may be longer in duration, and may play a role in defining the large-scale formal structure of the song. I will argue, also, that scalar shifts often have interesting expressive implications—sometimes simply indicating a change in mood or situation, and sometimes carrying more specific emotional connotations, analogous to the expressive meanings of major and minor in common-practice music.
[1.3] I stated in the opening paragraph that my aim was to explain "phenomena of composition and perception." "Then Came You" illustrates both kinds of phenomena. On the one hand, what has to be explained is a fact of perception: the fact that the move to VII creates a feeling of surprise. (Of course, it is only with regard to my own perception that I can confidently treat this as a "fact"; I must hope that it holds true, at least to some extent, for other listeners.) But there are facts of composition to be explained as well, such as the fact that the VII chord in this example is given unusual emphasis on the musical surface (by the means described above). There may also be more general facts to be discovered about the style as a whole—for example, the fact that certain chords and scale degrees tend to occur together while others do not. The relationship between perception and composition, is of course, highly complex. Even facts about compositions—at least many things that I will treat here as facts, such as the chord progression of a song—depend ultimately on our perceptions and may be somewhat subjective. And in turn, our perceptions—such as the experience of surprise—are shaped by the compositional norms of the music we have heard. Still, the distinction between phenomena of perception and composition is a real and useful one. In what follows, I will sometimes be concerned with perceptual facts and sometimes with compositional ones, as I think the context will make clear.
[1.4] For present purposes, a scale may be defined as an underlying set of scale degrees—pitch classes in relation to the tonic—that defines, or at least regulates, the harmonic and melodic content of a song or a section of a song.(3) This topic has been addressed in popular music scholarship in a variety of ways. One widely used approach centers on diatonic modes. Moore (1992, 1995, and 2001) argues that many rock songs and progressions can be understood in modal terms (usually Ionian, Mixolydian, Dorian, or Aeolian); even progressions that appear chromatic on the surface, he suggests, can often be reduced to modal prototypes. Biamonte (2010) analyzes and categorizes common chord progressions in rock from a modal perspective; Walser (1993) and Everett (2004 and 2008) also acknowledge the importance of modes in rock. Modality has also played a large role in my own work in popular music; in my book The Cognition of Basic Musical Structures (2001), I argued strongly for modality as an organizing concept in rock and listed ten well-known songs in Ionian, Mixolydian, Dorian, and Aeolian modes. I now believe, however, that the role of modal organization in rock has been somewhat overstated by these authors, myself included. In truth, I found it quite difficult to find ten well-known songs that were consistently in Dorian mode (and some of my examples are actually debatable). There are, undoubtedly, songs and sections of songs that adhere consistently to a single mode; in such cases there is nothing wrong with using modal terminology, and I will sometimes do so here. But a great many songs do not reflect modal organization, and in such cases, alternative approaches are required.
[1.5] Several other approaches to pitch organization in rock have been proposed. Stephenson (2002) suggests that rock songs generally employ one of three harmonic systems or "palettes." The natural-minor system includes the major and minor triads native to the natural-minor scale (i.e., Aeolian mode); the major system includes triads built on degrees of the Mixolydian mode; and the chromatic-minor system includes major triads built on natural-minor scale degrees. Everett (2004) posits six distinct tonal systems for rock, reflecting a stylistic range from common-practice tonality to modal, blues-based, and chromatic practices. The systems are characterized, primarily, in terms of their relationship to common-practice norms, which varies from one of strong adherence to almost complete disregard.
[1.6] While the current study builds on this prior research, I attempt to go beyond previous efforts in two ways. First, I propose a novel representational system that allows precise characterization of a broad variety of scale collections. Second, I focus especially on shifts of scale collection within songs; this topic has received brief discussion (Everett 2008, 156–60; Stephenson 2002, 96–99), but deserves more attention than it has been given. While scalar shift is not an especially common device, it occurs in some of the most well-known and well-loved songs of the rock era; and it contributes in important ways to the effect and appeal of these songs, as I will try to show.
[1.8] The examples in this paper span a wide stylistic range—from Motown to heavy metal to 1970s "middle-of-the-road" pop to 1980s dance music to 1990s "grunge." Many authors have used the term "rock" as a broad stylistic category that covers much late-20th-century Anglo-American popular music, including the styles listed above, and I will do so here. "Rock" is sometimes also used more narrowly, to denote a more specific musical style. ("Then Came You," for example, is "rock" under the broader construal but not the narrower one.) While I have elsewhere assumed the narrow understanding of "rock" (Temperley 2007 and 2011), here I employ the broader one, simply because it offers a succinct, convenient term for the range of music under consideration.
[2.1] As an initial question about scales in rock, we might ask: is there some global collection of scale degrees that limits the pitch content of the style? That is, does the style of rock as a whole tend to favor certain scale degrees and avoid others? This would not imply, of course, that scale degrees outside the global collection are never used, but rather that they are heard as being foreign and destabilizing to the tonal center. An analogy could be drawn with common-practice music; while a common-practice piece may be in either major or minor, certain scale degrees—notably 2ˆ and 4ˆ—are not diatonic within either mode and are therefore unavoidably chromatic.
[2.3] Some recent research allows us to bring statistical evidence to bear on the issue of rock's global scale collection. Trevor de Clercq and I (de Clercq and Temperley 2011) analyzed the harmony of 200 songs from Rolling Stone magazine's list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time" (2004.).(5) We used conventional Roman-numeral notation, and made no attempt to represent notes outside the current harmony ("non-chord-tones"). Still, harmony in itself gives some indication of scale-degree content. For example, a I chord implies 1ˆ–3ˆ–5ˆ; i implies 1ˆ– 3ˆ–5ˆ; V7 implies 5ˆ–7ˆ-2ˆ–4ˆ; and so on. Using such data, and taking each harmonic symbol to imply a single instance of each scale degree it contains, a scale-degree distribution for rock can be created, shown in Example 3 (here enharmonic equivalence is assumed). It can be seen that this data confirms the "supermode" idea quite strongly: the 2ˆ and 4ˆ degrees are significantly less common than any other degrees. Clearly, this data should be taken with caution; it provides only an approximate picture of the distribution of scale degrees in rock. It may be that some scale degrees occur primarily as non-chord-tones and thus will be underrepresented in this count. (In some cases, too, not all the scale degrees implied by a chord are explicitly stated; not every I chord contains a 5ˆ, for example.) But this data does give some support to the idea of a global scale collection in rock containing all enharmonic scale degrees except 2ˆ and 4ˆ.
[2.5] Another illustration of the "chromatic" nature of 4ˆ and 2ˆ is seen in Example 5: the chorus of "I Want a New Drug" by Huey Lewis and the News. The primary tonal center of the song is A; the progression III– VI– III tonicizes C (the VI chord might well be heard as IV of III), followed by a D major chord, IV of A, that forcefully returns us to the main tonality. This situation—with a secondary tonicization followed by a "reorienting" IV chord that reestablishes the larger tonic—is not uncommon in rock (Temperley 2011, paragraph 7.6). The question is, why does the IV have such a reorienting effect? Again, the supermode theory offers an explanation: IV contains 6ˆ (F in this case), which is 4ˆ in relation to III (C) and is therefore incompatible with that tonal center, leaving the previous tonality (A) as the only plausible alternative.
[2.6] Certainly there are cases in rock where chromatic degrees ( 2ˆ and 4ˆ) actually occur—that is, where there is no plausible tonal interpretation that would avoid them. When used inconspicuously and in a clearly ornamental fashion, chromatic degrees need not undercut the tonic. For example, one often sees 4ˆ (or 5ˆ) used as a linear elaboration of 4ˆ or 5ˆ, as in the riffs to Cream's "Sunshine of Your Love," Deep Purple's "Smoke on the Water," and Aerosmith's "Walk This Way" (Example 6a). More salient and structural uses of chromatic degrees tend to have a dramatic, even mysterious impact; consider, for example, the ominous II chords in the Moody Blues' "Nights in White Satin" (Example 6b).(7) A highly creative use of chromatic degrees is seen in Led Zeppelin's "Dancing Days." The instrumental riff that precedes each verse (with a clear tonic of G) presents a prominent melodic 4ˆ, heard three times in each iteration of the motive (Example 6c).(8) The verse then modulates to C but employs a II chord, introducing 2ˆ in the bass and guitar (Example 6d). These chromatic degrees have an exotic effect, decidedly alien from the usual vocabulary of rock. Interestingly, these chromatic pitches— 4ˆ of G in the riff and 2ˆ of C in the verse—are enharmonically the same pitch class (C /D ). Yet, to my ears at least, they sound like quite different pitches.(9) Examples such as this seem to confirm the reality of enharmonic distinctions in rock; this argues in favor of a linear representation of fifth relations (i.e., the line of fifths), which represents enharmonic distinctions, as opposed to a circular one, which does not.
[3.1] While the supermode operates as a global constraint on scale-degree content in rock, most songs do not use this entire collection but are confined to a smaller collection within it. Our focus in the remainder of this essay will be on these smaller collections, and in particular, on the ways that songs shift from one collection to another. I distinguish between momentary shifts, where a songs shifts rather briefly out of its primary collection and then shifts back, and sectional shifts, where the new collection is maintained over an entire section of the song.
[3.2] As a first example of sectional scalar shift, consider the Beatles' "A Hard Day's Night" (Example 7). Example 8 shows a way of representing scalar shifts that will be employed repeatedly in the analyses that follow. Each scale collection is shown as a horizontal array of rectangles on the line of fifths; successive collections within a song are represented in chronological order from top to bottom. (Lyrics and other information are shown at right.) The main repeating section of "A Hard Day's Night" uses the chords I, IV, and VII, thus employing the complete Mixolydian mode; the V chord occurs once at the end. (As I have done elsewhere [Temperley 2011], I will use the term "verse-chorus unit" or "VCU" to refer to the main repeating section of a song; I do so even when the "chorus" of the section might more aptly be described as a "refrain," as is the case here.) The melody of the VCU also stays mainly within the Mixolydian mode, though there is a brief use of 7ˆ (over the V chord) and a very noticeable move to 3ˆ at the end. (The vocals also touch on some chromatic degrees in the third phrase— 5ˆ/ 6ˆ and 1ˆ/ 2ˆ—but these are so fleeting as to warrant no inclusion in the scale-degree representation.) Thus the scale-degree content of the section spans a range on the line of fifths from 3ˆ to 7ˆ. The bridge, by contrast, excludes 7ˆ and 3ˆ and stays squarely within the major mode; here, 7ˆ occurs prominently in both the melody and harmony.
[3.3] Some explanation is needed of the representation shown in Example 8. Clearly, this representation is a blunt instrument, indicating the scale-degree content of a song or section only in a highly abstract form. It says nothing about how scale degrees are used: whether they are present in the accompaniment or melody (or both), whether they are chordal or non-chordal, whether they are part of the tonic triad, whether they are used repeatedly or only once, and so on. I do not deny the importance of these factors—from a purely musical viewpoint, obviously, and from an expressive viewpoint as well; I will return to this issue at the end of the essay. For the present, however, the mode of representation shown in Example 8 conveys the essential information, namely, which scale degrees are present and which ones are not. It also has a flexibility that is lacking in traditional systems of modes and scales. In "A Hard Day's Night," for example, the pitch content of the verse-refrain cannot be neatly characterized with diatonic modes, as it employs both 3ˆ and 3ˆ, and both 7ˆ and 7ˆ; the line-of-fifths representation (however flawed) is superior in this respect.
[3.5] Returning to "A Hard Day's Night," the shift in scale-degree content between the verse-refrain and bridge serves a clear structural function: it reinforces the contrast between the two sections, thus helping to clarify the formal structure of the song. But I would argue that it serves an important expressive function as well. While the verse-refrain mainly focuses on the drudgery of the "hard day"—"working like a dog"—the bridge turns to the payoff of the night, when "everything seems to be right." The "sharpward" move (i.e., in the sharp direction) on the line of fifths here poignantly conveys this shift in mood.(12) To say simply that the pitch collection of the bridge "moves in the sharp direction" in relation to the verse-refrain might seem questionable. (The sharp-side endpoint of the collection actually stays the same; only the flat-side endpoint changes.) What is important, I would argue, is the mean position or "center of gravity" of the collection on the line of fifths (as suggested in Temperley 2001, 340–43); and this does shift, as shown in Example 8.
[3.6] A number of other songs feature scalar shifts quite similar to that seen in "A Hard Day's Night." Two other early Beatles songs, "Can't Buy Me Love" and "I Feel Fine," present VCUs featuring both ^b3 and ^3 and favoring 7ˆ over 7ˆ; in the bridge, major mode then predominates. (In "Can't Buy Me Love," 3ˆ briefly enters the bridge on the phrase "everybody tells me so.") In both of these songs, as in "A Hard Day's Night," iii chords in the bridge give particular emphasis to both the 3ˆ and 7ˆ scale degrees.(13) Similar shifts are seen also in other songs: In the Who's "I Can't Explain," Electric Light Orchestra's "Don't Bring Me Down," Heart's "Crazy on You," and Supertramp's "Take the Long Way Home," a VCU emphasizing 7ˆ and 3ˆ alternates with a major-mode bridge. The Beatles' "Here Comes the Sun" reflects the opposite pattern: the VCU is in major mode while the bridge employs the "flat-side" harmonies III and VII. While convincing connections with the lyrics cannot always be drawn in these songs, in every case the shift functions structurally to articulate sectional boundaries and provide large-scale contrast within the song.
[3.7] Scalar shifts may also occur between verse and chorus. A highly effective example is Kenny Rogers' "Love Will Turn You Around," which moves from a Mixolydian verse (with a touch of 3ˆ at the end) to a chorus in Ionian (Example 10). This scalar shift nicely complements the melodic contrast between the two sections: the rather cramped melody of the verse (confined mainly to a range of a major third) opens up to a soaring, expansive chorus. Duran Duran's "Rio" provides another artful example of scalar shift between verse and chorus (see Example 11). The verse melody is minor pentatonic, while the accompaniment uses both VI (with 6ˆ) and IV (with 6ˆ); the chorus outlines the progression I–V– VII–IV in both melody and accompaniment, combining 7ˆ and 7ˆ. This is another case where the scales at issue cannot be adequately described in conventional diatonic or pentatonic terms. The arpeggiating synthesizer licks that flicker in the background throughout the song—most conspicuously in the thinly-textured passages between sections—employ just 1ˆ, 2ˆ, and 5ˆ, compatible with both the verse and chorus collections.
[3.9] A curious case of verse-chorus scalar shift is seen in Katy Perry's "Firework." The verse progression, I– VII–vi–IV, establishes Mixolydian mode, as the lyrics project commiseration and sympathy ("Do you ever feel like a plastic bag"); the chorus, by contrast, has an inspirational, pep-talk character ("Baby you're a firework, come on show 'em what you're worth"), as the harmony switches to a I–ii–vi–IV progression. To my ears, the chorus progression creates a decidedly brighter, more positive feel than that of the verse, though the two differ by only one chord ( VII versus ii). One might characterize this as a shift from Mixolydian to major. But in fact there is no use of ^7 in the chorus, either in the melody or in the accompaniment; rather, the chorus is confined to the collection 1ˆ–2ˆ–3ˆ–4ˆ–5ˆ–6ˆ, what I will call the "Major-no-7ˆ" collection.(14) (The melody remains within this collection throughout both the verse and chorus.) One could perhaps argue that 7ˆ is implied, but this is questionable and, under the current framework, unnecessary; even a shift from Mixolydian to Major-no-7ˆ represents a shift in center of gravity on the line of fifths (albeit small), as shown in Example 14. Thus a change in expressive implication is predicted. A similar verse-chorus shift from Mixolydian to Major-no-7ˆ is seen in James Taylor's "Fire and Rain," though this case is more complex; the mostly Mixolydian verse contains a brief occurrence of V (with 7ˆ), and the Mixolydian collection returns at the end of the chorus.
While the verse lyric conjures a sleazy atmosphere of strip joints and pool halls, the pre-chorus focuses on the object of the singer's affection—a single dancer whose beauty and purity set her apart from the rest.
[4.2] It is not obvious how momentary scalar shifts such as the one in "Then Came You" should be characterized under the current framework; there are several possibilities. One could posit a scalar collection including only the pitches of the chord segment itself, as shown in Example 16; see also Example 17a.(16) Alternatively, one could say that this segment invokes a larger collection, though it is sometimes not easy to say what that collection would be; Example 17b shows Dorian mode. Another possibility would be to add the pitches of the VII segment to the scale of the prior context (Example 17c). Or one could say that the "foreign" pitches of the segment are simply outside the scale, and that the previous scalar framework remains in force (Example 17d). It is difficult to decide between these options; I favor the first. Notably, however, all four options have something in common: They represent the scale-degree content of the VII segment as moving in the flatward direction in relation to the previous measures. And in this sense, all of the representations of the VII segment in Example 17 capture its surprising and disruptive effect.
[4.3] In harmonic terms, "Then Came You" could be characterized as a major-mode verse-chorus that moves to VII at the end of the chorus. This is in fact a common pattern in popular songs of the 1970s. In the Commodores' "Easy" and Nazareth's "Love Hurts" (Example 18a), the end of the chorus features VII moving to IV and then to I, just as in "Then Came You"; in Diana Ross's "Touch Me in the Morning," VII moves to V (Example 18b). A move to VI (in a major-mode context) can create a similar effect, as seen at the end of the chorus in Elton John's "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road" (Example 18c); the end of the final chorus of the Beatles' "With a Little Help from my Friends" offers another fine example. It is notable that all of these cases feature a momentary shift in the flat direction. Momentary sharpward shifts are more difficult to find.(17) One example is in Dire Straits' "Money for Nothing" (Example 18d). Here, the minor pentatonic scale that forms the primary collection for the song is interrupted by a vi chord (just an open fifth), introducing the 3ˆ and 6ˆ degrees. In each of these cases, the momentary shift occurs right at the end of the chorus of the song, and is followed by a return to the song's primary scale.
[4.4] Often momentary scalar shifts receive rhetorical reinforcement of some kind, which seems to acknowledge their dramatic and surprising effect. The eighth-note reiteration of the VII chord in "Then Came You" has already been mentioned. In "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road," the VI chord is expanded to two measures, creating a five-measure phrase and disrupting the preceding four-measure hypermeter; in "Money For Nothing," the vi chord is itself a kind of phrase expansion, falling in the fifth measure of the phrase and (again) creating a hypermetrical irregularity.
[4.5] An exquisite sharpward momentary shift is seen in Marvin Gaye's "Heard it Through the Grapevine"; Example 19 shows the second VCU. The scale of the verse is primarily Dorian; the V chords of the accompaniment add 7ˆ. Moving into the end of the verse (or perhaps the pre-chorus), the harmony shifts to vi, reflected in the 3ˆ (G) of the vocal; 6ˆ (C) is emphasized in both the melody and the bass. (Though 6ˆ is present in the "Dorian+7ˆ" collection as well, it is toward the sharp end of the collection; thus emphasizing it creates a "sharpward" inclination.) The lyric here, "You could have told me yourself," is particularly poignant—a wistful contemplation of what might have been—and the major-mode leaning of the music captures it perfectly.(18) (Note also the shift in Gaye's vocal timbre from the rather harsh quality of the preceding and following lines to a pure falsetto on the syllable "told.") The abrupt return to 3ˆ in the following phrase ("that you loved someone else") brings us back to cruel reality. In the chorus, the vocal consistently uses 3ˆ, but the accompaniment employs 3ˆ throughout, thus merging the two collections of the verse.
5. Scalar Shift or Mixed Collection?
[5.1] A difficult issue, and one that arises fairly frequently, is illustrated by Example 21—the end of the chorus of "Woodstock," by Crosby, Stills, Nash, & Young. The VCU up to this point has employed a Dorian collection, using 3ˆ rather than 3ˆ (and with prominent IV chords). The end of the chorus, however, moves emphatically to major tonic harmony—dramatically emphasized by the sustained 3ˆ in the uppermost vocal line. As with other examples discussed earlier, it is unclear how this situation should be characterized under the current framework. Should we posit a momentary shift in scale, or should we assign a single scale collection, containing both 3ˆ and 3ˆ, to the entire section? While most songs and song sections employ just one form of the third degree, there are certainly cases where 3ˆ and 3ˆ are featured in close proximity or even simultaneously. In the Beatles' "Can't Buy Me Love," for example, 3ˆ in the vocal is juxtaposed with 3ˆ in the accompaniment throughout the verse. In such cases, a scale collection including both 3ˆ and 3ˆ—what I will call a "mixed" collection—seems unavoidable. (I will use this term for any collection containing two forms of the same diatonic scale degree.) Several other song sections discussed earlier also employ mixed collections, such as the verse-refrain of "A Hard Day's Night" (Example 7) and the verse and chorus of Duran Duran's "Rio" (Example 11). I favor a "mixed collection" analysis in Example 21 as well, including both 3ˆ and 3ˆ in the scale; one reason for doing so will be discussed below.
[5.3] A somewhat similar issue arises with 6ˆ and 6ˆ. Here, too, one sometimes finds a section that predominantly uses 6ˆ, but momentarily switches to 6ˆ. Two examples are seen in Example 22; in both cases, the 6ˆ that predominates throughout the chorus gives way to 6ˆ at the very end. Again, I would suggest that the function of the 6ˆ here is primarily harmonic: for reasons that are not obvious, the IV chord in plagal (IV–I) cadences in rock is nearly always major (Temperley 2011). The 6ˆ (D) in "Rikki Don't Lose That Number" is part of a plagal stop cadence, a common harmonic device in rock which involves a "stop" in the instruments and a sectional overlap in the vocal (Temperley 2011); again, this gesture almost always involves IV rather than iv.(21) (If one imagines the passage with iv at the end rather than IV, it can be seen how the cadential effect is weakened.) A similar argument could be made for "No Excuses"; even though there is arguably no real cadence here (since the vocal does not overlap into the next section), the major IV chord invokes the schema of the rock plagal cadence and thus gives a certain closural effect.
[5.4] Another common situation involving mixed scale collections is illustrated by the songs in Example 23. Each of these songs features a chromatic line that descends from the tonic (to 6ˆ in the first case, to 5ˆ in the second); thus both 7ˆ and 7ˆ are used, as well as 6ˆ and 6ˆ. In "Always Something There To Remind Me," the chromatic line is in the bass; in "Hotel California," it is in an inner voice of the texture. As others have discussed, these somewhat unusual harmonic juxtapositions can be explained as arising from the underlying linear pattern. (See, in particular, Everett 2008, 149–51, for discussion and many examples.) However, the idea that scale degrees arise from chromatic linear motions (or from cadential harmonic gestures, as discussed above) does not mean that they cannot have expressive meaning as well. Every scale degree in a collection, in my view, is heard in relation to a certain position on the line of fifths, and consequently has potential expressive implications. Passages such as those in Example 23 span a range on the line of fifths from 6ˆ to 7ˆ; this span contains the entire supermode and is therefore equivocal in expressive terms (though the wide span may, in itself, create a sense of instability). But the expressive effect of such a collection may still vary depending on the relative emphasis of degrees within the span, and in particular, on whether 3ˆ or 3ˆ is used. The 3ˆ in "Hotel California" evokes a dark and ominous atmosphere, whereas 3ˆ in "Always Something There to Remind Me" creates a lighter mood.
[5.5] A mixed scale collection can sometimes project an ambivalent, even bittersweet expressive quality. A wonderful example of this is seen in the chorus of Alanis Morissette's "You Oughta Know" (Example 24). The verse of the song presents three distinct melodic ideas in succession, all emphasizing 3ˆ (in both vocal and accompaniment) rather than 3ˆ, as the singer angrily berates her selfish and hypocritical former boyfriend. At the beginning of the chorus (the first downbeat of the example), 3ˆ gives way to 3ˆ. The function of this 3ˆ is, in part, harmonic, reinforcing the structurally important I at the beginning of the chorus; but it has clear expressive implications as well, as the singer revels in her survival ("and I'm HERE") and enjoys the momentary revenge of embarrassing her ex-lover "in the middle of dinner." Significantly, 3ˆ does not completely replace 3ˆ in the chorus; rather, the two coexist in an uneasy balance. Despite the moment of triumph, an undercurrent of anger and bitterness still remains.
[5.6] I have suggested that many songs and song sections that appear to alternate between two versions of a scale degree (such as 3ˆ/ 3ˆ or 6ˆ/ 6ˆ) are best viewed as having a "mixed" scale collection containing both versions. The choice of one version or the other at a particular moment may then be guided by a variety of considerations—harmonic, linear, or expressive. The assumption here, as it has been elsewhere in the article, is that the emotional connotations of a section, at least with regard to pitch content, arise primarily from the scale collection itself. While I find this view convincing in many cases, it is also open to question. In some cases, the momentary emphasis of one version of a degree over another within a mixed collection has a clear expressive impact. Consider, for example, the joyful effect of 3ˆ at the end of the chorus of "Woodstock" (Example 21), which perfectly reflects the sentiment of the song—an ever-growing crowd heading toward Woodstock for "song and celebration." Indeed, throughout this article, I have drawn attention to the prominence or emphasis of particular degrees within a collection, implying that this has expressive import. This is difficult to reconcile with the idea that expressive effects arise solely from the scale collection itself. Alternatively, one might attribute expressive effects directly to the notes that are being used, rather than to the underlying scale. But this view, too, seems unsatisfactory. If expressive meaning arose directly from sounding pitches, we should experience a constant shifting of expressive content from chord to chord and from note to note in a melody; this is not generally the case, in my opinion. In many cases, the scale-degree content of a section seems to impart a certain character to the entire section that is relatively unaffected by slight emphases of one degree over another.
[5.8] My final example in this section features a particularly effective use of scale-degree mixture, and a particularly mysterious one. The riff of Fleetwood Mac's "The Chain" employs just scale degrees 1ˆ, 2ˆ, 5ˆ, and 7ˆ (Examples 25 and 26). This is a somewhat neutral scale collection in expressive terms, as it employs neither the raised nor the lowered versions of 3ˆ and 6ˆ; in this context, it creates a cold and austere effect. The vocals enter on a Idom7 chord (or V7/IV?), moving to IV; the addition of 3ˆ and 6ˆ creates a sharpward leaning. (The IV chord features the "overtone-series" voicing of a major triad, but it is on subdominant harmony, not tonic; the result is intense and impassioned, but hardly joyful.) This is immediately followed by i and iv6, replacing 3ˆ and 6ˆ with 3ˆ and 6ˆ and pulling the collection violently flatward. The riff then resumes, restoring the neutral 1ˆ–2ˆ–5ˆ– 7ˆ collection and leaving the flat-side/sharp-side conflict of the previous measures unresolved. (I am unsure whether to represent these changes as scalar shifts or as shifts of emphasis within a single collection; Example 26 adopts the former approach.) Note, once again, the "S-shaped" trajectory on the line of fifths. The 3ˆ/ 3ˆ and 6ˆ/ 6ˆ juxtapositions here are not easily explained, either in harmonic or linear terms, nor can their emotional connotations be easily articulated; but their sheer beauty and expressive power cannot be denied.
[6.1] My aim in this essay has been to offer a new and more satisfactory account of scalar structures in rock. The central feature of this approach is the use of the line of fifths as a cognitive representation of scale collections. I have argued that this allows for a more flexible representation of pitch collections than traditional systems of modes and scales. It also captures, in a very natural way, the expressive connotations of scales, which depend in large part on their position or "center of gravity" on the line of fifths. I have suggested that shifts between scales within a song are an important resource in rock composition. They can be used in a variety of ways: to delineate and reinforce sectional boundaries; to convey a change in mood or situation, simply through the shift itself, or more specifically through sharpward or flatward motion on the line of fifths; to create a momentary effect of surprise or disorientation; or to construct more complex trajectories of tension and resolution. Sometimes, I have suggested, apparent shifts in scalar content may better be regarded as alternations within the same scale, though even then, the emphasis of particular degrees within the scale may have expressive implications.
[6.2] In part, my argument for the cognitive reality of the line-of-fifths representation has been based on perceptual evidence; I have suggested that it captures important features of the listening experience, such as the surprising effect of the VII chord in "Then Came You." But I have also pointed to evidence that creators of rock music have been influenced by "line-of-fifths" thinking—as reflected, for example, in connections between music and text in songs like "A Hard Day's Night" and "Mainstreet," and in the rhetorical reinforcement of chords that move outside the previously established scale. I have noted that it is sometimes difficult to decide with certainty how a scalar shift should be represented—whether a shift occurs, where it occurs, and exactly what scales are involved. This may make the theory somewhat frustrating to use from an analytical perspective. But I would argue it does not detract from the theory's cognitive plausibility. Quite likely, scalar representations are somewhat ambiguous in the minds of composers and listeners as well. As noted with regard to "Then Came You," the important thing is simply the presence of a shift and its direction on the line of fifths; and in many cases, alternative analyses lead to the same predictions in this regard.
[6.3] Clearly, what I have proposed here is just one aspect of the expressive language of rock—an expressive language that appears to be very rich and complex. Many other aspects of pitch organization—such as the shape of a melodic phrase, a repeated motive, or a clash between melody and harmony—may have expressive meaning, to say nothing of other parameters such as rhythm and timbre. It may seem, also, that the expressive interpretation of scale collections proposed here—based entirely on the one-dimensional "happiness axis"—is rather simplistic. It is worth noting that many studies have found happiness—or "valence," as it is sometimes called—to be one of the basic dimensions underlying musical emotion, and indeed emotion in general.(23) And of course, the lyrical and musical context in which a scale is used may give it a richer and more specific emotional meaning. Still, it is possible that scales themselves carry expressive associations that go beyond the "valence" dimension; this deserves further study.
[6.4] Aside from the global constraint of the supermode, we have said little so far about constraints or norms concerning the scale collections that are used in rock. It seems clear that some collections are more common than others; in particular, scales that form compact sets on the line of fifths are particularly favored. This of course includes diatonic and pentatonic collections, whose prevalence in rock is well known, but it also includes hexatonic scales such as the "Major-no-7ˆ" collection seen in "Firework" (Example 14) and compact "mixed" collections such as those in the verse and chorus of "Rio" (Example 11). Among diatonic collections, Spicer (2009) has argued that the Ionian and Aeolian modes are especially normative in rock, and I concur. Consider Example 4 once again; it was noted that F is an impossible tonal center for this progression, due to the presence of B ( 4ˆ of F), and that songs featuring this progression in the verse generally establish an alternative tonality in the chorus (see Table 1). It is noteworthy that this tonal center is most often C, never D, and rarely A or G—though given just the supermode, the pitch collection of Example 4 should be compatible with all of these tonalities. In effect, a tonality of C interprets the F–G progression as being in Ionian mode; the preference for this interpretation seems to point to the primacy of the major scale collection in rock.
[6.6] I have focused here on a particular aspect of pitch organization, scale collection, and the structural and expressive possibilities afforded by shifts in scale. But another very important aspect of the pitch organization of a song is the tonal center itself; and this too may shift. Changes of tonal center—what I will call "tonal shifts"—are not at all uncommon in rock.(25) Many songs feature different tonal centers in the verse and chorus: the Beatles' "Penny Lane," Derek and the Dominoes' "Layla," Elton John's "Rocket Man," and the Police's "Don't Stand So Close To Me" are just a few well-known examples. At first blush, it appears that tonal shifts function in many of the same ways as scalar shifts: to articulate structural boundaries, to create surprise or tension, and for expressive purposes as well. But what, then, is the relationship between scalar shifts and tonal shifts? The issue of expression is of particular interest here: If a shift from C Mixolydian to C Aeolian carries negative connotations because of the flatward shift on the line, what is the expressive meaning of a change from C Mixolydian to E Ionian, which entails the same shift of pitch collection (in absolute terms) but shifts in tonal center as well? What are the expressive implications when a song contains both scalar and tonal shifts—the Beatles' "Penny Lane," for example, which features a flatward scalar shift within the verse and then shifts tonally down a whole step for the chorus?
[6.7] Scalar shift and tonal shift are interrelated in another way as well. Consider, one final time, the progression VII–IV–I. I suggested earlier that this progression is sometimes used, in a major-mode context, to create a moment of tension and drama at the end of a chorus, as exemplified in "Then Came You" (Example 1) and "Love Hurts" (Example 18a). I attributed this effect to the implied scalar shift, introducing 7ˆ into an Ionian context. But another way to view this pattern is from the perspective of tonal shift—as a momentary implication or "tonicization" of IV (thus treating the VII as IV of IV—in common-practice language, an "applied chord"). This view is more plausible in some cases than others. In "Then Came You," the emphasis on the VII chord itself, as well as the outlining of the minor tonic triad in the vocal (especially in Example 1b), seems to thwart any tonicization of IV. In "Love Hurts," by contrast, the grouping of VII and IV into a single vocal gesture encourages us to hear the former as an elaboration of the latter, supporting the "tonicization" hearing; indeed, I have argued for such an interpretation elsewhere (Temperley 2011). By this view, the sense of reorientation caused by the VII is caused not by a shift of scale-degree content in relation to the tonal center, but by a shift in the tonal center itself.(26) This is another way, then, that tonal shift and scalar shift are intertwined: in some cases, it is not obvious which of these two phenomena is involved. It may be, indeed, that the two are not mutually exclusive, and that both forces can be at work in our perception of a passage.
[6.8] Whatever the answers to these questions, the expressive implications of changes in pitch organization—tonal or scalar—deserve much more attention than they have received. Our experimental work (Temperley and Tan, forthcoming) suggests that listeners—even untrained listeners—are sensitive even to quite subtle shifts in pitch organization and to their expressive connotations. Thus further research in this area may yield important insights into the expressive language of popular music, and may also shed light on broader issues of musical meaning and experience.
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Covach, John. 1997. "Progressive Rock, 'Close to the Edge,' and the Boundaries of Style." In Understanding Rock, ed. John Covach and Graeme M. Boone, 171–210. New York: Oxford University Press.
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—————. 2008. "Pitch Down the Middle." In Expression in Pop-Rock Music: Critical and Analytical Essays, 2nd ed., ed. Walter Everett, 111–74. London: Routledge Press.
"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time." 2004. Rolling Stone 963: 65–165.
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Lerdahl, Fred. 2001. Tonal Pitch Space. New York: Oxford University Press.
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Moore, Allan. 1995. "The So-Called 'Flattened Seventh' in Rock." Popular Music 14, no. 2: 185–201.
—————. 1995. "The So-Called 'Flattened Seventh' in Rock." Popular Music 14, no. 2: 185–201.
Moore, Allan. 2001. Rock: The Primary Text: Developing a Musicology of Rock, 2nd ed. Aldershot: Aldgate.
—————. 2001. Rock: The Primary Text: Developing a Musicology of Rock, 2nd ed. Aldershot: Aldgate.
Regener, Eric. 1974. "On Allen Forte's Theory of Chords." Perspectives of New Music 13, no. 1: 191–212.
Spicer, Mark. 2008. "Large-Scale Strategy and Compositional Design in the Early Music of Genesis." In Expression in Pop-Rock Music: Critical and Analytical Essays, 2nd ed., ed. Walter Everett, 313–44. London: Routledge.
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—————. 2009. "Absent Tonics in Pop and Rock Songs." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Music Theory, Montreal.
Stephenson, Ken. 2002. What to Listen for in Rock: A Stylistic Analysis. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Temperley, David. 2001. The Cognition of Basic Musical Structures. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Temperley, David. 2011. "The Cadential IV in Rock." Music Theory Online 17, no. 1.
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Temperley, David, and Daphne Tan. In press. "The Emotional Connotations of Diatonic Modes." Music Perception.
Wagner, Napthali. 2003. "'Domestication' of Blue Notes in the Beatles' Songs." Music Theory Spectrum 25, no. 2: 353–65.
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—————. 2003. "Forging Masculinity: Heavy-Metal Sounds and Images of Gender." In Sound and Vision: The Music Video Reader, ed. Simon Frith and Lawrence Grossberg, 153–81. London: Routledge.
Aerosmith. 1975. "Walk This Way." Songwriters Joe Perry and Steven Tyler. On Toys in the Attic. Columbia.
Alice in Chains. 1994. "No Excuses." Songwriter Jerry Cantrell. On Jar of Flies. Columbia.
The Beatles. 1964. "A Hard Day's Night." Songwriters John Lennon and Paul McCartney. On A Hard Day's Night. Capitol.
Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young. 1970. "Woodstock." Songwriter Joni Mitchell. On Déjà Vu. Atlantic.
Dire Straits. 1985. "Money for Nothing." Songwriters Mark Knopfler and Sting. On Brothers in Arms. Warner Brothers.
The Doobie Brothers. 1973. "China Grove." Songwriter Tom Johnston. On The Captain and Me. Warner Brothers.
The Doors. 1967. "Light My Fire." Songwriters Jim Morrison, John Densmore, Ray Manzarek, and Robby Krieger. On The Doors. Elektra.
Duran Duran. 1982. "Rio." Songwriter Andy Taylor, John Taylor, Nick Rhodes, Roger Taylor, and Simon LeBon. On Rio. Capitol.
The Eagles. 1977. "Hotel California." Songwriters Don Felder, Don Henley, and Glenn Frey. On Hotel California. Asylum.
Fleetwood Mac. 1977. "The Chain." Songwriters Christine McVie, John McVie, Lindsey Buckingham, Mick Fleetwood, and Stevie Nicks. On Rumours. Warner Brothers.
Gaye, Marvin. 1968. "I Heard it Through the Grapevine." Songwriters Barrett Strong and Norman Whitfield. On In the Groove. Tamla.
John, Elton. 1973. "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road." Songwriters Elton John and Bernie Taupin. On Goodbye Yellow Brick Road. MCA.
Led Zeppelin. 1973. "Dancing Days." Songwriters Jimmy Page and Robert Plant. On Houses of the Holy. Atlantic.
Lewis, Huey, and the News. 1983. "I Want a New Drug." Songwriters Chris Hayes and Huey Lewis. On Sports. Chrysalis.
The Moody Blues. 1967. "Nights in White Satin." Songwriter Justin Hayward. On Days of Future Passed. Deram.
Morissette, Alanis. 1995. "You Oughta Know." Songwriters Alanis Morissette and Glen Ballard. On Jagged Little Pill. Maverick.
Naked Eyes. 1983. "Always Something There to Remind Me." Songwriters Burt Bacharach and Hal David. On Burning Bridges. EMI.
Nazareth. 1975. "Love Hurts." Songwriter Boudleaux Bryant. On Hair of the Dog. A&M.
Perry, Katy. 2010. "Firework." Songwriters Katy Perry, Mikkel S. Eriksen, Tor Erik Hermansen, Sandy Wilhelm, and Ester Dean. On Teenage Dream. Capitol.
The Police. 1983. "Synchronicity II." Songwriter Sting. On Synchronicity. A&M.
Rogers, Kenny. 1982. "Love Will Turn You Around." Songwriters Kenny Rogers, David Malloy, Thom Schuyler, and Even Stevens. On Love Will Turn You Around. Liberty.
Diana Ross. 1973. "Touch Me in the Morning." Songwriter Michael Masser and Ron Miller. On Touch Me in the Morning. Motown.
Rush. 1980. "The Spirit of Radio." Songwriter Neil Peart, Geddy Lee, and Alex Lifeson. On Permanent Waves. Mercury.
Seger, Bob, and The Silver Bullet Band. 1977. "Mainstreet." Songwriter Bob Seger. On Night Moves. Capitol.
Steely Dan. 1974. "Rikki Don't Lose That Number." Songwriters Donald Fagen and Walter Becker. On Pretzel Logic. ABC.
Warwick, Dionne, and The Spinners. 1974. "Then Came You." Songwriters Philip Pugh and Sherman Marshall. On Then Came You. Atlantic.
1. Following a common convention, I represent major triads with upper-case Roman numerals, minor triads with lower-case. Scale degrees and roots within the major scale are represented by plain integers and Roman numerals, respectively; others are indicated by a preceding " " or " ". Keys are represented as pitch classes only, not as major or minor; this will be explained below.
2. Note that common-practice minor is not the same as Aeolian mode, or any other diatonic mode; it is most closely approximated by the harmonic minor scale (1ˆ–2ˆ– 3̂–4ˆ–5ˆ– 6ˆ–7ˆ), but also has distinct ascending and descending melodic scales. (Alternatively, and perhaps preferably, it can be viewed as having a single scale with a flat third and variable sixth and seventh degrees.) The application of the major/minor system to rock is discussed and rejected by Covach (1997, 10–11), Stephenson (2002, 42–3), and Burns (2008, 65). This point is also often made implicitly: theorists who propose tonal classification schemes for popular music generally do not use major and minor keys, but rather employ either diatonic modes or alternative custom-made systems. See for example Moore 1992, Stephenson 2002, and Everett 2004, whose approaches will be discussed further below. Everett does consider the major/minor system as one option in rock, but notes that songs in "pure" minor are uncommon (2004, paragraph 7).
3. By all accounts, rock songs are generally tonal in the broadest sense of having a focal pitch class or tonal center. In light of this, it makes sense to represent scale collections in relative terms—in relation to the tonic—rather than in terms of absolute pitch classes.
4. A word is needed about my use of the term "creators." Following the usual convention of pop/rock scholarship, I define a "song" as a particular recording by a particular artist or group. It should be borne in mind, however, that the creation of a rock song is almost always a complex collaborative effort. Obviously, the writers of a song deserve a substantial share of the credit for it; in some cases, they are not members of the performing group. (Songwriters are identified in the attached discography.) Yet the performers of a song may also contribute to it in ways that are relevant to the issues in this paper—in particular, contributions that affect the pitch content of the song. To disentangle the contributions of these various individuals is often difficult or impossible, however, and I do not attempt it here.
5. de Clercq and Temperley 2011 reports analyses of ninety-nine songs; since then, we have analyzed an additional 101 songs. The website www.theory.esm.rochester.edu/rock_corpus contains our analyses of all 200 songs.
7. It is difficult to find any progression containing 2ˆ or 4ˆ that is at all common in popular music. Perhaps the closest candidate is I–II–IV–I (with II containing 4ˆ), which forms the basic progression in several well-known songs, including the Beatles' "Eight Days A Week," "You Won't See Me," and "Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" (verse); the Faces' "Stay With Me"; and Dishwalla's "Counting Blue Cars." Admittedly, the 4ˆ degree does not sound particularly unstable or disruptive in this context; I am unable to explain why. (An anonymous reviewer points out that it might arise as a harmonization of the chromatic line ^5– 4ˆ–4ˆ–3̂.) It has also been noted that Phrygian mode (containing 2ˆ) is common in some types of heavy metal (Walser 1993, 46; Biamonte 2010, 108).
8. The 4ˆ here is undoubtedly non-harmonic, and is resolved by step. (It is either three separate non-chord-tones, or—perhaps more plausibly—a single incomplete neighbor that itself is ornamented by upper-neighbor Ds.) But it is emphasized much more than the typical non-chord-tone.
9. The chorus of the song employs a major VI chord (in C), including the 1ˆ degree—again, the same pitch class (C /D ). This pitch is barely audible in the first chorus, more so in the second when it is sustained by the lead guitar in a high register.
10. The line of fifths was first proposed by Regener 1974; in Temperley 2001, I present it as a general framework for the cognitive representation of pitch classes in common-practice music and rock as well. To my knowledge, it has not been applied to popular music by other authors. The approach of Capuzzo 2009 is related, however; Capuzzo represents pitch collections in rock using "5-cycles," which are essentially sets of adjacent positions on the line.
11. While the positive and negative connotations of major and minor (respectively) have been well established by experimental work (see Gabrielsson and Lindström 2001 for a review), the emotional connotations of diatonic modes have received little attention. With regard to popular music scholarship, the idea that scales carry emotional connotations appears to be quite widely accepted, but it has been discussed only in passing. Some authors have invoked the conventional associations of major and minor keys (Stephenson 2002, 149–50; Walser 1993, 165); while the applicability of the major/minor system to rock is doubtful (as discussed earlier), there is clearly a parallel between major/minor keys and "sharp-side/flat-side" collections in rock, both in terms of their line-of-fifths positions and their emotional associations. Occasional comments are also found on the connotations of diatonic modes. Middleton comments that modes with the raised seventh have an effect of "yearning" and "progress" while the lowered seventh represents "stability and realism" (1972, 166); Björnberg describes the effect of Aeolian mode as one of "stasis" and "coldness" (1985, 4); Moore writes that Aeolian implies "resignation," while Dorian "at least carries the illusory possibility of escape" (1995, 188); Covach suggests that the effect of Dorian mode in Yes's "Close to the Edge" is "primitive" and "chaotic," in contrast to the "refined" and "life-affirming" effect of major mode (1997, 18). Again, however, the expressive meaning of scales in rock has not, to my knowledge, received any systematic treatment.
12. Admittedly, the correspondence between scale content and lyrics is only approximate. The last four measures of the VCU also touch on the "night" ("but when I get home to you..."). This shift in focus within the VCU is reflected not so much in scale content, but rather in texture: While the melody and accompaniment of the first eight measures are relatively independent, the last four measures reflect a close coordination. See Temperley 2007 for further discussion.
13. Wagner notes a general strategy in the Beatles' early music of combining what he calls "blues" sections—those that employ I, IV, and V with added 3̂ and 7ˆ—with "lyric" sections employing ii, vi, and iii (2003, 355).
14. It could also be called a diatonic hexachord, but this term is indeterminate as to the location of the tonal center.
15. In scalar terms, one could view the cadential IV as returning to the primary Ionian collection or anticipating the Mixolydian scale of the link; Example 16 represents the latter option.
16. 5ˆ does not occur over the VII in the first chorus, but it appears at the parallel point in the third chorus (see Example 1b).
17. One might point to applied chords, such as the V/vi in "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road" (Example 18c), which introduces 5ˆ, the leading-tone of vi. I would suggest, however, that applied chords such as this are better understood as implying a (momentary) shift of tonic, rather than implying a shift of scale in relation to a fixed tonic. The relationship between scalar shifts and tonal shifts is complex; I return to it below.
18. The parallel point in the first verse is also of interest. The lyric here, "I was surprised I must say," conveys a sense of ironic politeness and detachment that is nicely expressed by the sharpward move to vi. (A kind of musical sarcasm, perhaps.) In this case, however, the vocal maintains 3̂ over the vi chord, so the musical effect is more acerbic.
Stephenson analyzes this song from a different perspective (2002, 49–51). For him, the issue is whether the song is in major or minor mode; he suggests that this is initially ambiguous, due to the absence of a full major or minor tonic triad in the introduction and verse. I find this puzzling, since elsewhere Stephenson generally avoids applying the major/minor dichotomy to rock and indeed explicitly rejects it (42–43)—correctly, in my view.
19. A similar pattern of scalar shifts is seen in "Stomp," by the Brothers Johnson. The verse is in Dorian; the pre-chorus moves to Ionian; the chorus shifts in the opposite direction to Aeolian, but with an emphatic IV at the end of the section, returning to Dorian for the link. Again, the result is an "S-shaped" trajectory over the entire VCU.
20. The Beatles' "A Hard Day's Night" (discussed earlier, Example 7) reverses this pattern, employing 3̂ only at the end of the verse-refrain melody, 3̂ elsewhere. The Beatles' "Fixing a Hole" alters the pattern in another way: 3̂ appears only in the initial chord of the verse, yielding to 3̂ for the remainder of the section.
21. An analogy might be drawn with classical minor, where the 7ˆ degree has a harmonic function as part of the V triad. Indeed, even in rock, the V triad is sometimes used in "flat-side" contexts (i.e., contexts with 3̂ rather than 3̂). This is relatively rare, however, and when it occurs, it usually involves paradigms that are clearly derived from common-practice harmony, most notably the descending tetrachord i– VII– VI–V. This is seen, for example, in the Mamas and Papas' "California Dreamin'," Heart's "Crazy on You," and the chorus of the Police's "Synchronicity II" (Example 13), as well as some chromatic descending tetrachord patterns to be discussed below.
22. Another option would be to introduce distinctions of importance or prominence within the scale representation itself—essentially, treating scale membership as a matter of "more or less" rather than "all or nothing." One could show such distinctions, for example, by allowing rectangles of different heights in the line-of-fifths representation. (This brings to mind the "basic space" of Lerdahl 2001, which represents scale degrees with a five-level hierarchy of stability: tonic, tonic/fifth, tonic-triad, diatonic, and chromatic.) This approach also has drawbacks, however. It further increases the complexity and subjectivity of the analytical system. And in many cases, as noted above, treating a scale as an essentially "all-or-nothing" scale degree set that sets the emotional tone of an entire song or section seems quite satisfactory.
23. A survey of research on music and emotion by Gabrielsson and Lindström concludes that the studies reviewed "show similar results converging on two main emotion dimensions: valence (pleasantness–unpleasantness, gaiety–gloom) and activity/arousal (tension–relaxation, excited–calm)" (2001, 226). Happiness is perhaps not quite equivalent to positive valence, as it also implies a certain degree of positive arousal; sadness is negative in both valence and arousal.
24. This brings to mind Stephenson's theory of harmonic systems, described earlier. The weirdness of Example 27 is nicely predicted by Stephenson's theory, actually, since i and vi do not occur together in any of his three harmonic systems.
25. The term "modulation" might also be used, though this may invoke unwanted associations with the common-practice major/minor system. See Capuzzo 2009 for a recent exploration of tonal shifts in rock songs; see also Stephenson 2002, 47–52, and Everett 2008, 142–45. Tonal shift also plays an important role in several analytical essays on individual songs, such as Boone 1997, Burns 2008, and Koozin 2008.
26. This view of the VII–IV–I progression implies that the major scale has primacy in rock, and that moves outside of this scale cause us to search for alternative tonal centers; there is other evidence for this as well, as I have discussed.
Following a common convention, I represent major triads with upper-case Roman numerals, minor triads with lower-case. Scale degrees and roots within the major scale are represented by plain integers and Roman numerals, respectively; others are indicated by a preceding " " or " ". Keys are represented as pitch classes only, not as major or minor; this will be explained below.
Note that common-practice minor is not the same as Aeolian mode, or any other diatonic mode; it is most closely approximated by the harmonic minor scale (1ˆ–2ˆ– 3̂–4ˆ–5ˆ– 6ˆ–7ˆ), but also has distinct ascending and descending melodic scales. (Alternatively, and perhaps preferably, it can be viewed as having a single scale with a flat third and variable sixth and seventh degrees.) The application of the major/minor system to rock is discussed and rejected by Covach (1997, 10–11), Stephenson (2002, 42–3), and Burns (2008, 65). This point is also often made implicitly: theorists who propose tonal classification schemes for popular music generally do not use major and minor keys, but rather employ either diatonic modes or alternative custom-made systems. See for example Moore 1992, Stephenson 2002, and Everett 2004, whose approaches will be discussed further below. Everett does consider the major/minor system as one option in rock, but notes that songs in "pure" minor are uncommon (2004, paragraph 7).
By all accounts, rock songs are generally tonal in the broadest sense of having a focal pitch class or tonal center. In light of this, it makes sense to represent scale collections in relative terms—in relation to the tonic—rather than in terms of absolute pitch classes.
A word is needed about my use of the term "creators." Following the usual convention of pop/rock scholarship, I define a "song" as a particular recording by a particular artist or group. It should be borne in mind, however, that the creation of a rock song is almost always a complex collaborative effort. Obviously, the writers of a song deserve a substantial share of the credit for it; in some cases, they are not members of the performing group. (Songwriters are identified in the attached discography.) Yet the performers of a song may also contribute to it in ways that are relevant to the issues in this paper—in particular, contributions that affect the pitch content of the song. To disentangle the contributions of these various individuals is often difficult or impossible, however, and I do not attempt it here.
de Clercq and Temperley 2011 reports analyses of ninety-nine songs; since then, we have analyzed an additional 101 songs. The website www.theory.esm.rochester.edu/rock_corpus contains our analyses of all 200 songs.
It is difficult to find any progression containing 2ˆ or 4ˆ that is at all common in popular music. Perhaps the closest candidate is I–II–IV–I (with II containing 4ˆ), which forms the basic progression in several well-known songs, including the Beatles' "Eight Days A Week," "You Won't See Me," and "Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" (verse); the Faces' "Stay With Me"; and Dishwalla's "Counting Blue Cars." Admittedly, the 4ˆ degree does not sound particularly unstable or disruptive in this context; I am unable to explain why. (An anonymous reviewer points out that it might arise as a harmonization of the chromatic line ^5– 4ˆ–4ˆ–3̂.) It has also been noted that Phrygian mode (containing 2ˆ) is common in some types of heavy metal (Walser 1993, 46; Biamonte 2010, 108).
The 4ˆ here is undoubtedly non-harmonic, and is resolved by step. (It is either three separate non-chord-tones, or—perhaps more plausibly—a single incomplete neighbor that itself is ornamented by upper-neighbor Ds.) But it is emphasized much more than the typical non-chord-tone.
The chorus of the song employs a major VI chord (in C), including the 1ˆ degree—again, the same pitch class (C /D ). This pitch is barely audible in the first chorus, more so in the second when it is sustained by the lead guitar in a high register.
The line of fifths was first proposed by Regener 1974; in Temperley 2001, I present it as a general framework for the cognitive representation of pitch classes in common-practice music and rock as well. To my knowledge, it has not been applied to popular music by other authors. The approach of Capuzzo 2009 is related, however; Capuzzo represents pitch collections in rock using "5-cycles," which are essentially sets of adjacent positions on the line.
While the positive and negative connotations of major and minor (respectively) have been well established by experimental work (see Gabrielsson and Lindström 2001 for a review), the emotional connotations of diatonic modes have received little attention. With regard to popular music scholarship, the idea that scales carry emotional connotations appears to be quite widely accepted, but it has been discussed only in passing. Some authors have invoked the conventional associations of major and minor keys (Stephenson 2002, 149–50; Walser 1993, 165); while the applicability of the major/minor system to rock is doubtful (as discussed earlier), there is clearly a parallel between major/minor keys and "sharp-side/flat-side" collections in rock, both in terms of their line-of-fifths positions and their emotional associations. Occasional comments are also found on the connotations of diatonic modes. Middleton comments that modes with the raised seventh have an effect of "yearning" and "progress" while the lowered seventh represents "stability and realism" (1972, 166); Björnberg describes the effect of Aeolian mode as one of "stasis" and "coldness" (1985, 4); Moore writes that Aeolian implies "resignation," while Dorian "at least carries the illusory possibility of escape" (1995, 188); Covach suggests that the effect of Dorian mode in Yes's "Close to the Edge" is "primitive" and "chaotic," in contrast to the "refined" and "life-affirming" effect of major mode (1997, 18). Again, however, the expressive meaning of scales in rock has not, to my knowledge, received any systematic treatment.
Admittedly, the correspondence between scale content and lyrics is only approximate. The last four measures of the VCU also touch on the "night" ("but when I get home to you..."). This shift in focus within the VCU is reflected not so much in scale content, but rather in texture: While the melody and accompaniment of the first eight measures are relatively independent, the last four measures reflect a close coordination. See Temperley 2007 for further discussion.
Wagner notes a general strategy in the Beatles' early music of combining what he calls "blues" sections—those that employ I, IV, and V with added 3̂ and 7ˆ—with "lyric" sections employing ii, vi, and iii (2003, 355).
It could also be called a diatonic hexachord, but this term is indeterminate as to the location of the tonal center.
In scalar terms, one could view the cadential IV as returning to the primary Ionian collection or anticipating the Mixolydian scale of the link; Example 16 represents the latter option.
5ˆ does not occur over the VII in the first chorus, but it appears at the parallel point in the third chorus (see Example 1b).
One might point to applied chords, such as the V/vi in "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road" (Example 18c), which introduces 5ˆ, the leading-tone of vi. I would suggest, however, that applied chords such as this are better understood as implying a (momentary) shift of tonic, rather than implying a shift of scale in relation to a fixed tonic. The relationship between scalar shifts and tonal shifts is complex; I return to it below.
The parallel point in the first verse is also of interest. The lyric here, "I was surprised I must say," conveys a sense of ironic politeness and detachment that is nicely expressed by the sharpward move to vi. (A kind of musical sarcasm, perhaps.) In this case, however, the vocal maintains 3̂ over the vi chord, so the musical effect is more acerbic.
A similar pattern of scalar shifts is seen in "Stomp," by the Brothers Johnson. The verse is in Dorian; the pre-chorus moves to Ionian; the chorus shifts in the opposite direction to Aeolian, but with an emphatic IV at the end of the section, returning to Dorian for the link. Again, the result is an "S-shaped" trajectory over the entire VCU.
The Beatles' "A Hard Day's Night" (discussed earlier, Example 7) reverses this pattern, employing 3̂ only at the end of the verse-refrain melody, 3̂ elsewhere. The Beatles' "Fixing a Hole" alters the pattern in another way: 3̂ appears only in the initial chord of the verse, yielding to 3̂ for the remainder of the section.
An analogy might be drawn with classical minor, where the 7ˆ degree has a harmonic function as part of the V triad. Indeed, even in rock, the V triad is sometimes used in "flat-side" contexts (i.e., contexts with 3̂ rather than 3̂). This is relatively rare, however, and when it occurs, it usually involves paradigms that are clearly derived from common-practice harmony, most notably the descending tetrachord i– VII– VI–V. This is seen, for example, in the Mamas and Papas' "California Dreamin'," Heart's "Crazy on You," and the chorus of the Police's "Synchronicity II" (Example 13), as well as some chromatic descending tetrachord patterns to be discussed below.
Another option would be to introduce distinctions of importance or prominence within the scale representation itself—essentially, treating scale membership as a matter of "more or less" rather than "all or nothing." One could show such distinctions, for example, by allowing rectangles of different heights in the line-of-fifths representation. (This brings to mind the "basic space" of Lerdahl 2001, which represents scale degrees with a five-level hierarchy of stability: tonic, tonic/fifth, tonic-triad, diatonic, and chromatic.) This approach also has drawbacks, however. It further increases the complexity and subjectivity of the analytical system. And in many cases, as noted above, treating a scale as an essentially "all-or-nothing" scale degree set that sets the emotional tone of an entire song or section seems quite satisfactory.
A survey of research on music and emotion by Gabrielsson and Lindström concludes that the studies reviewed "show similar results converging on two main emotion dimensions: valence (pleasantness–unpleasantness, gaiety–gloom) and activity/arousal (tension–relaxation, excited–calm)" (2001, 226). Happiness is perhaps not quite equivalent to positive valence, as it also implies a certain degree of positive arousal; sadness is negative in both valence and arousal.
This brings to mind Stephenson's theory of harmonic systems, described earlier. The weirdness of Example 27 is nicely predicted by Stephenson's theory, actually, since i and vi do not occur together in any of his three harmonic systems.
The term "modulation" might also be used, though this may invoke unwanted associations with the common-practice major/minor system. See Capuzzo 2009 for a recent exploration of tonal shifts in rock songs; see also Stephenson 2002, 47–52, and Everett 2008, 142–45. Tonal shift also plays an important role in several analytical essays on individual songs, such as Boone 1997, Burns 2008, and Koozin 2008.
This view of the VII–IV–I progression implies that the major scale has primacy in rock, and that moves outside of this scale cause us to search for alternative tonal centers; there is other evidence for this as well, as I have discussed.


text:
King Mohammed VI Emphasizes Morocco's Commitments and Achievements on Human Rights
Updated November 7, 2013 04:33 PM EST
* Reiterates Commitment to Africa, Immigrants, Political Solution for Western Sahara *
Washington, DC (November 7, 2013) — In a speech on the 38th anniversary of Morocco's Green March, King Mohammed VI stressed Morocco's commitments and achievements on human rights, noting the openness and freedom enjoyed by Moroccans in the Southern Provinces as well as in the north.
"Our aim is to see the Moroccan citizen properly honored, endowed with the attributes of full-fledged citizenship," he said. "It is in this spirit that we have undertaken a series of profound reforms and major projects," including the establishment of national institutions and regional bodies for the protection and promotion of human rights that are "known for their independence and credibility." He also said that no country accepts being "subjected to behavior that is harmful to their security and stability, especially as violence, subversion and intimidation of citizens are incompatible with human rights, and the exercise of freedom can only be done in compliance with the law."
King Mohammed VI rejected attempts by adversaries "to undermine Morocco's reputation" and ignore its progress on freedom and human rights. He pledged to continue to work with human rights organizations and to reach an equitable political solution for Western Sahara with the UN and its Special Envoy, and international partners who recognize Morocco's achievements.
The King vowed to build on those achievements and on Morocco's investment in the Southern Provinces by adopting the new regional development model proposed by CESE for increased economic and political autonomy. This is "an integrated developmental vision, based on an objective analysis of the current situation in our Southern Provinces… to make them a space for integrated development, instrumental in providing a dignified life for the people of the region."
King Mohammed VI reiterated Morocco's commitment to helping other African countries achieve the same dignity and human rights progress through continued cooperation "and active solidarity with these countries and to contribute to the achievement of the expectations of their peoples who aspire to development and stability." He also noted that Morocco's commitment to human rights extends to African immigrants, through Morocco's "new comprehensive policy on immigration and asylum issues, based on a humanitarian approach in line with our country's international commitments and respectful of the rights of immigrants."
The King stressed Morocco's "sincere commitment" to promoting peace and the rule of law in Africa, most recently through its "support for our sister country Mali in its fight against extremist and terrorist groups."
For more on Morocco and the region, visit https://moroccoonthemove.com/.
Follow us on Twitter – @MorocOnTheMove.
Like us on Facebook at http://www.facebook.com/MoroccoOnTheMove
CONTACT: Garth Neuffer, 202.470.2055
The Moroccan American Center for Policy (MACP) is a non-profit organization whose principal mission is to inform opinion makers, government officials, and interested publics in the United States about political and social developments in Morocco and the role being played by the Kingdom of Morocco in broader strategic developments in North Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. For more, please visit www.moroccoonthemove.com
This material is distributed by the Moroccan American Center for Policy on behalf of the Government of Morocco.
Additional information is available at the Department of Justice in Washington, DC.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
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A New Framework for Using Climate Scenario Data for Impacts and Assessment Studies (Opens in a new Window)
In progress. The New Framework for Using Climate Scenario Data for Impacts and Assessment Studies will provide data on estimates of regional temperature and precipitation changes as a result of cumulative CO2 emissions which is expected to be applicable to efforts to estimate regional impacts and adaptation needs.
Ouranos, University of Concordia
Adjusted and Homogenized Canadian Climate Data (Opens in a new Window)
Adjusted and homogenized climate datasets consist of monthly, seasonal, and annual means of homogenized daily maximum, minimum, and mean surface temperature, daily precipitation, hourly wind speed, and hourly station and sea level pressure across Canada. The data have been adjusted to account for discontinuities in the data from non-climatic factors such as changes in observation methods or station location. Sites are also sometimes combined resulting in longer time series.
Government of Canada: Environment and Climate Change Canada
Climate Research Division
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Agroclimate Maps (Opens in a new Window)
Agroclimate maps display agroclimate conditions in Canada. Available maps include both current agroclimate conditions and historic agroclimate conditions. Agroclimate variables include precipitation characteristics, temperature, and drought indices. Maps can be seen based on region and time span (from Weekly to 5 years). National, Pacific, Prairie, Central, Atlantic, and Ontario maps can be selected.
Government of Canada: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis (CCCma) Climate Model Datasets (Opens in a new Window)
Climate model data from a number of climate models developed by the Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis (CCCma) are available for download. Climate model output is available for the Fourth Generation Global Climate Model (CanESM2 / CGCM4 ), the Canadian Regional Climate Model (CanRCM4), and the Canadian Middle Atmosphere Model (CMAM). Gridded historical simulations and future projections from these climate models are available for downloading.
Government of Canada: Environment and Climate Change Canada, Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium
Canadian ensemble of CMIP5 ocean wave heights simulations mean and extremes (Opens in a new Window)
Canadian ensemble of CMIP5 ocean wave heights simulations mean and extremes contains monthly, seasonal and annual statistics (mean and maximum) of significant wave height that were produced using a statistical modelling approach and 6-hourly sea level pressure. Sea level pressure was simulated by 20 global climate models included in the Coupled Climate Model Comparison Phase 5 (CMIP5) project. The gridded global dataset contains projected data. Data are available for the historical period 1950-2005 and two different future emission scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5).
Climate Atlas of Canada (Opens in a new Window)
The Climate Atlas of Canada is an interactive tool developed for users to learn about climate change in Canada. It combines climate science, mapping and storytelling. The primary source of climate model data presented in maps, charts and tables is the Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium. Statistically downscaled data was derived from 12 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) global climate models for two emissions scenarios: Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5. For comparative purposes, observed data are included in all time-series graphs for the period 1950-2005. The source of the observed data used in the Atlas is Natural Resources Canada.
Prairie Climate Centre
Educational and awareness-raising material
Climate Indices (Opens in a new Window)
Climate Indices includes time series, seasonal, and annual data for a number of variables including sea & air temperature, salinity, runoff, flow, ice coverage, iceberg count, and North Atlantic Oscillation Index. Data are observed or observation-based, and are available in a variety of temporal resolutions and historical periods, depending on the variable of interest. Data are available in tabular and graphical formats.
Government of Canada: Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Marine Environmental Data Service
Climate scenarios - Graphics and tables of projected climate change for Canada (Opens in a new Window)
Graphics and tables of projected changes in climate across Canada are computed from an ensemble of multi-model output gathered as part of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5). Projections are based on the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios. Time series data are available for projected changes in temperature, precipitation, and snow depth annually and seasonally. Maps of projected changes in temperature, precipitation, snow depth, sea ice concentration, sea ice thickness, and wind speed are available for three future time periods between 2016 and 2100.
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis


Arriving in Mazatlan :: A New World!
Following the trucks to the ferry entrance.
On June 26th at around 6 p.m. we boarded the ferry that would take us from La Paz to the city of Mazatlan. The ride took over 17 hours and I spent most of that time roaming the decks and practicing my Spanish with truck drivers and children (who are usually eager to practice their English and also are VERY patient with me).
It was a restless night. Although we had fairly comfortable seats (they were more like theatre seats than airline seats), we were in coach class, in a room filled with about 100 other passengers and to keep us all occupied there was a constant stream of movies being shown on two large flat screen televisions mounted to the walls. As with all things audio in Mexico, the volume was set at an eardrum-bursting level, which meant we were unlikely to catch a decent nap, even with ear plugs in. Around midnight the movies ended and for a brief 6 hours we caught bits and pieces of sleep in between the sounds of humanity – children crying, coughing, snoring, chattering and various genres of music coming from phones or mp3 players.
Chatting with the truck drivers.
Sunset as seen from the ferry.
Morning on the ferry. Clouds!!! Something we didn't seen much of in Baja.
Bringing us in to port.
We rolled off the ferry and in to our third Mexican state. Heading in to Centro Mazatlan, toward our hosts' house, we were enamored. Lush, flowering trees lined cobbled streets that meandered by tightly knit and colorful homes. The streets were alive with pedestrians, vendors, bicycles, buses, motorcycles, and pulmonia taxis (think golf-carts). It was obvious that the historic center of town was in the midst of a revival of sorts, crumbling edifices mixed amongst beautifully restored homes, worn-down business fronts mixed with modern and marketed fronts. Art galleries and museums, theatres and street musicians peppered the corners.
A square in Mazatlan Centro.
Vendors on the steps of the church selling religious articles.
We visited the historic center's food market.
Lots of good food in the market!
Games could be found outside some small mercados lining the streets.
Took a break in this park one day…..
…in front of the Art Museum. And if you look closely, you'll see….
…the museum's cat taking her afternoon nap in the windowsill.
Our hosts, Cris and Fred, welcomed us in to their gorgeous and fantastically located home (only a couple of blocks from the malecon and historic downtown) and after we chatted a bit they surprised us by sharing a delicious lunch with us. They were so generous during our stay, we literally felt spoiled! After spending only a couple of short days getting to know them we knew we had made new life-long friends.
We found another gem of a person (and place) in Mazatlan at the Suitel 522 Ecological Hostel. Kai and I ended up spending an additional three weeks in town, due to a combination of having to extend our visas (a week's wait for the paperwork to be processed), our website being hacked (twice in a week!) and Kai coming down with a nasty cold that lasted a full week. Sichem, the young and ecologically-minded owner, bent over backwards to accommodate our unexpected delays and to make us feel like his place was our home. He was fantastic and we quickly became friends, talking about politics, gardening, daily activism, and sustainability.
Sheila & Kai in front of the Suitel 522, Ecological Hostel.
Just like us, Sichem believes that small, everyday actions can greatly affect the health of the planet. He helps to raise guest consciousness about nature and conservation through his on-site environmental programs. Guests are informed about food waste, conservation of resources, recycling and more, and invited to participate, voluntarily, in any of the programs during their stay. The goal is to give people the ability to take simple steps toward action, which will then, hopefully, spread beyond their stay to their personal homes, then on to others. Things we especially appreciated about his program: composting of food waste in an on-site worm compost bin, recycling (rare so far in Mexico), use of non-disposable/washable dishes and utensils (instead of plastic/throwaway), providing guests with biodegradable soaps, rainwater collection, lending guests reusable cloth bags for grocery shopping, and, of course, rental of bicycles! We were so impressed with Sichem's ambition and determination to make a difference.
In between illness and work, we did find time to walk along the beaches, watch cliff-divers, ride along the malecon, visit local bakeries and bicycle shops, and to spend more time with our new friends, Cris and Fred.
Although most days were uncomfortably hot and humid, afternoon thunderclouds would roll in late in the day to create dramatic sunsets. It was refreshing to see clouds, to smell rain again and to be surrounded by lush vegetation. After spending so much time in the dry deserts of Baja, it was like we entered an alternate universe.
Molika Bakery : Great Bread. Kai with owner & avid cyclist, Hector.
Lots of cool murals in Mazatlan.
Catching the beach scene off the malecon.
Eventually we had to say goodbye to beautiful Mazatlan and it's lively streets. We were feeling really out of shape, were ready to ride again and were looking forward to climbing into a cooler part of Mexico. We waved goodbye to our friend Sichem and made a plan to meet Cris and Fred in Patzcuaro in August then rode out of town late in the morning. It felt good to be moving again and we were excited to discover more about Mexico.
Leaving Mazatlan. That little guy was strong, held on to his grandpa's shirt and held his feet straight out for a long way!
Looking back at Mazatlan. We have shoulders!!
4 comments to Arriving in Mazatlan :: A New World!
Great to hear about your time in Mazatlan and its awesome to have your website up and running, again! Good luck with the climbing!
Interesting to see the Velo Cult tee on Cris. It's a bike shop originally from San Diego who just moved to Portland. They restore and sell products for older bikes and support the commuting/touring community. A great shop.
Hi Mike, it was his favorite shop when he lived in San Diego!


text:
U.S. Geography General Knowledge #3
Answer these random American geography questions.
Quiz by Quizmaster
Featured Quiz
First submitted November 9, 2015
Times taken 25,426
What is the official nickname of Florida?
What city is sometimes called "Nola"?
On what ocean sound is Seattle located?
What is the biggest U.S. city whose name starts with "Fort"?
What is the state animal of Wisconsin?
What is the nearest major city to the Hoover Dam?
What bridge connects the two peninsulas of Michigan?
Mackinac Bridge
What blue-green rock is the state gemstone of Arizona?
What unusual religious group are numerous in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania?
What type of moss commonly grows on Live Oak and Bald Cypress
trees in the southeast?
What is the name of the region that includes Raleigh, Durham, and Chapel Hill?
Research Triangle
Which state grows the most corn?
What is the most well-known nickname of Denver?
The Mile-High City
What is the capital of Idaho?
What is the largest city on Alabama's Gulf Coast?
In what city would you find Beale Street, famous for its blues clubs?
What is the northernmost city in the United States?
Barrow, Alaska
What is the least populous borough of New York City?
In what city might you visit the Alamo or take a stroll on the River Walk?
What is the biggest city in North Dakota?
foxpenguin
Probably should accept "Worth" w/o having to type "Fort" given tbe context of the question
plattitude
+1. Couldn't think of something bigger than it.
Level ∞
"Worth" will work now
Jerry928
How small can towns be and still be called a "city"? I would have thought Barrow would struggle to meet the definition of a city!
akwildrose
Agreed. I would think that Fairbanks would be considered to be the farthest north city. I still got it, because I know the farthest north town, but that is a bit iffy of a definition.
In most states, the requirement to be a city has little to do with size, but whether or not the area has been incorporated into a city. Oversimplified, it's because they filled out the paperwork to be one. Here's a list of the smallest incorporated cities in the US, including Greenhorn, Oregon which boasts a population of... 2.
UMCPGreg
I agree. 4,200 people does not make a city, regardless of incorporation status.
bitterblue
It is legally considered a city, and when it comes to what people generally consider a town vs a city I find that different people have very different views on that. The issue I take with that question is the fact that the city changed back to its indigenous name and while Barrow could be a write in answer I think Utqiagvik should be displayed as the correct answer.
larrylevine
Correctamundo.
balok
"Spanish moss" is not a type of moss -- it is a flowering plant.
pensta
I should've known Spanish Moss, as there was an article about it in the most recent PSAT.
sawmos
Hermiana NO! Don't publish your poems!
Thorvald
Could you accept "tourquoise" as an alternative spelling? I was 1000% sure it is one of those "extremely French" words
PrinceEric
If you like vampires, I suggest you read the graphic novel, 30 Days of Night. It's set in Barrow, Alaska, where the sun doesn't rise for a full month. Very creepy! (There's also a movie based on it, but... feh.)
kalbahamut
My mother grew up in Alaska when it was still a U.S. territory. In the summertime my grandmother would walk around the house at night and pull the shades and announce that it was now night time (because the sun was still out).
Never ran into any vampires.
"Mennonite" for Amish? Though I'll admit I have no idea how major the differences between the two would be...
GeographyGeek42
correct me if I am wrong, but I believe that the Amish and Mennonites started as a the same group but then split because the Mennonites are more conservative than Amish?
ander217
It's the opposite in my area. The Amish drive horses and buggies and the few who drive cars only have black cars with no chrome or trim. They wear only dark clothing and keep more to themselves. The men and women always wear black hats. The Mennonites drive vehicles like the rest of us, have cellphones, and the women wear long, colored dresses, and they wear aprons over them and wear a small, white head covering. They are very friendly to other people. They have a store in our area which is very popular, and one of the families built an addition to our house. We really enjoyed getting to know them. The Amish are nice, too, but more severe. My brother is on the volunteer fire department and he said one of the Amish men joined the volunteer fire department but got in trouble because they let him drive the bright red, shiny firetruck to a fire. He was told by the other Amish that he could ride on the truck only if it was to an emergency, and he couldn't drive it under any circumstances.
geographyisthebestsubject
I wouldn't really consider the Amish an "unusual" religious group.
TinklePork
I'd say it's pretty unusual to choose a random time period and decide that that period has the perfect amount of technology. Ahhh, between 1806 and 1824, perfect, not too much technology, and not too little. Using any less technology is subjecting yourself to undue hardship but using any more technology is vile and will get you expelled from their culture.
I unironically believe that the level of technology that existed in 2002 was the ideal level. Anyone want to start a religion with me? It won't be too hard to follow. Just no smart phones or social media.
martay
It's a poor choice of words even if it is technically correct. There's a negative air around the word "unusual". Feels like people would say something like "unique" to put a more positive spin on something singular or uncommon.
jmellor13
There's nothing negative about "unusual." And whether the Amish's religious beliefs themselves are unusual, the Amish are certainly unusual.
Wow I completely forgot about Alaska. I was trying cities in Maine and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan for the northernmost city question....
Says I earned four points, yet my score only moved from 7358 to 7359.
Time for a strongly worded letter!
Perhaps you'd taken the quiz before, and earned 3 points on it then?
markthoma
Maybe I spelled it wrong, but I believe you should change Barrow to "Utqiagvik" or just both since it still kind of goes by both.
SirGeorgington
Utqiagvik (Formerly known as Barrow) is the northernmost city in the United States.
shortyoh
Do we have to spell it right? :O
EcceHomo
So that's 11/20 for US geography quizzes number 1, 2 and 3. Must do more research. Or visit again.
shape816
1. I imagine this would be difficult for non-Americans.
2. I don't see how knowing a particular type of moss is considered Geography. That's botany.
puget sound is not an ocean.
You're not an ocean.
not a fan of an entire culture being classed as "unusual"
They are definitely becoming less unusual. The population of Amish was about 5,000 in 1900 and is now about 345,000. The Amish population increased by 40% between 2010–2020.
The numbers might be even higher were it not for all the buggy/vehicle accidents. The black buggies are hard to see on dark-colored roads, especially at dusk. We had a close call with one just last year.
jkabq
can't please everyone...
dunkinggandalf2
I can never remember the Alamo. Somebody should really do something about that.
Can you change the name of Barrow to Utqiagvik (but still accept Barrow)?
frankdebruin
In 2016, Barrow was renamed to Utqiaġvik - so you might want to change the name and add Barrow as a type-in :)
Good thing the Amish won't know that you called them unusual...
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text:
Q: How do unit testing for IgnoreRoute in ASP.NET MVC In ASP.NET MVC, I can get information on unit testing for routes and custom routes, but I can not figure out how to do unit testing for IgnoreRoute.
routes.IgnoreRoute("{resource}.axd/{*pathInfo}");
Practical code is much appreciated.
ASP.NET MVC Framework (Part 2): URL Routing
ASP.NET MVC Tip #13 – Unit Test Your Custom Routes
ASP.NET MVC Tip #30 – Create Custom Route Constraints

A: I would check that the RouteHandler on the RouteData for a route matching the ignored path is of type StopRoutingHandler;
    [TestMethod]
    public void TestIgnoredRoute()
    {
        // Arrange
        var routes = new RouteCollection();
        GlobalApplication.RegisterRoutes(routes);

        // Act
        var context = new FakeHttpContext("~/some.axd/path");
        var routeData = routes.GetRouteData(context);

        // Assert
        Assert.IsInstanceOfType( routeData.RouteHandler, typeof(StopRoutingHandler) );
    }

A: If you use the MvcContrib testhelper class (http://nuget.org/packages/MvcContrib.Mvc3.TestHelper-ci), you can simpifly it even further:
[TestMethod]
public void TestIgnoredRoute()
{
    // Arrange
    RouteTable.Routes.Clear();

    // Act
    GlobalApplication.RegisterRoutes(RouteTable.Routes);

    // Assert
    "~/some.axd/path".ShouldBeIgnored();
}

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