text:
Title: Feminism
Subject: Klas Pontus Arnoldson, Louis Renault (jurist), Ernesto Teodoro Moneta, Charles Albert Gobat, Hammond Pros
Collection: Civil Rights and Liberties, Feminism, Gender, Gender and Education, Social Theories, Third-Wave Feminism, Women in History, Women's Rights
International Women's Day rally in Dhaka, Bangladesh, on 8 March 2005, organized by the National Women Workers Trade Union Centre
Feminist history
History of feminism
(Muslim-majority countries · United States)
Other women's rights
Suffrage by country
Chicana
French post-structuralist
Poststructural
Neopagan
Sex-positive
Womanism
Networked feminism
Effects on society
Feminism in culture
Political lesbianism
Pro-feminism
Antifeminism
Postfeminism
Revisionist mythology
Male gaze
State feminism
Gynocentrism
Kyriarchy
Feminist...
composition studies
political ecology
Womanist theology
history of women
Lists and categories
Feminists
Conservative feminisms
Ecofeminist authors
Feminist economists
Feminist rhetoricians
Suffragists and suffragettes
Women's rights activists
Women's studies journals
Women's suffrage organizations
Women's rights by country
Feminists by nationality
Feminism portal
A generic symbol for feminism
Feminism is a range of movements and ideologies that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve equal political, economic, cultural, personal, and social rights for women.[1][2] This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. A feminist advocates or supports the rights and equality of women.[3]
Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to earn fair wages or equal pay, to own property, to education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within marriage, and to have maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to promote bodily autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence.[4]
Feminist campaigns are generally considered to be one of the main forces behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited with having achieved women's suffrage, gender neutrality in English, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property.[5] Although feminist advocacy is and has been mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists, including bell hooks, argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims because men are also harmed by traditional gender roles.[6] Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues such as the social construction of gender.[7][8]
Some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class, and educated perspectives. This led to the creation of ethnically specific or multiculturalist forms of feminism.[9]
Nineteenth and early twentieth centuries 1.1
Mid-twentieth century 1.2
Late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries 1.3
Third-wave feminism 1.3.1
Standpoint feminism 1.3.2
Post-feminism 1.3.3
Movements and ideologies 3
Political movements 3.1
Materialist ideologies 3.2
Black and postcolonial ideologies 3.3
Social constructionist ideologies 3.4
Cultural movements 3.5
Feminism and sexuality 4
Sex industry 4.1
Affirming female sexual autonomy 4.2
Feminism and science 5
Biology and gender 5.1
Feminist psychology 5.2
Feminist culture 6
Architecture 6.1
Visual arts 6.2
Relationship to political movements 7
Socialism 7.1
Fascism 7.2
Civil rights movement and anti-racism 7.3
Societal impact 8
Civil rights 8.1
Jurisprudence 8.2
Theology 8.4
Patriarchy 8.5
Men and masculinity 8.6
Reactions 9
Pro-feminism 9.1
Critique of feminism and anti-feminism 9.2
Further reading 12
Listings 13.2
Tools 13.3
Multimedia and documents 13.4
Feminist Suffrage Parade in New York City, 6 May 1912
Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word "féminisme" in 1837.[10] The words "féminisme" ("feminisme") and "féminist" ("feminist") first appeared in France and the Netherlands in 1872,[11] Great Britain in the 1890s, and the United States in 1910,[12][13] and the Oxford English Dictionary lists 1852 as the year of the first appearance of "feminist"[14] and 1895 for "feminism".[15] Depending on historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all movements that work to obtain women's rights should be considered feminist movements, even when they did not (or do not) apply the term to themselves.[16][17][18][19][20][21] Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and its descendants. Those historians use the label "protofeminist" to describe earlier movements.[22]
The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three "waves".[23][24] Each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised women's suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, promoting women's right to vote. The second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the women's liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women. The third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s.[25]
Nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
After selling her home, Emmeline Pankhurst, pictured in New York City in 1913, travelled constantly, giving speeches throughout Britain and the United States.
In the Netherlands, Wilhelmina Drucker (1847-1925) fought successfully for the vote and equal rights for women through political and feminist organisations she founded.
Louise Weiss along with other Parisian suffragettes in 1935. The newspaper headline reads "The Frenchwoman Must Vote."
First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. In the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. By the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage, though some feminists were active in campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights as well.[26]
Women's suffrage began in Britain's Australasian colonies at the close of the 19th century, with the self-governing colonies of New Zealand granting women the right to vote in 1893 and South Australia granting female suffrage (the right to vote and stand for parliamentary office) in 1895. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902.[27][28]
In Britain the Suffragettes and the Suffragists campaigned for the women's vote, and in 1918 the Representation of the People Act was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. In 1928 this was extended to all women over twenty-one.[29] Emmeline Pankhurst was the most notable activist, with Time naming her one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century stating: "she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back."[30] In the U.S., notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, which asserts that men and women are equal under God.[31] In the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states. The term first wave was coined retroactively to categorize these western movements after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as political inequalities.[26][32][33][34][35]
During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days' Reform, Chinese feminists called for women's liberation from traditional roles and Neo-Confucian gender segregation.[36][37][38] Later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved women's liberation.[39]
According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism. In 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the "father" of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women.[40] He drew links between women's position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University and the National Movement.[41] In 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab women's rights movement.[41]
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution in 1905 triggered the Iranian women's movement, which aimed to achieve women's equality in education, marriage, careers, and legal rights.[42] However, during the Iranian revolution of 1979, many of the rights that women had gained from the women's movement were systematically abolished, such as the Family Protection Law.[43]
In France, women obtained the right to vote only with the Provisional Government of the French Republic of 21 April 1944. The Consultative Assembly of Algiers of 1944 proposed on 24 March 1944 to grant eligibility to women but following an amendment by Fernand Grenier, they were given full citizenship, including the right to vote. Grenier's proposition was adopted 51 to 16. In May 1947, following the November 1946 elections, the sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the "gender gap," stating in Le Populaire that women had not voted in a consistent way, dividing themselves, as men, according to social classes. During the baby boom period, feminism waned in importance. Wars (both World War I and World War II) had seen the provisional emancipation of some, individual, women, but post-war periods signaled the return to conservative roles.[44]
Mid-twentieth century
By the mid 20th century, in some European countries, women still lacked some significant rights. Feminists in these countries continued to fight for voting rights. In Switzerland, women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971;[45] but in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland.[46] In Liechtenstein, women were given the right to vote by the women's suffrage referendum of 1984. Three prior referendums held in 1968, 1971 and 1973 had failed to secure women's right to vote.
Photograph of American women replacing men fighting in Europe, 1945
Feminists continued to campaign for the reform of family laws which gave husbands control over their wives. Although by the 20th century coverture had been abolished in the UK and the US, in many continental European countries married women still had very few rights. For instance, in France married women did not receive the right to work without their husband's permission until 1965.[47][48] Feminists have also worked to abolish the "marital exemption" in rape laws which precluded the prosecution of husbands for the rape of their wives.[49] Earlier efforts by first-wave feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre, Victoria Woodhull and Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy to criminalize marital rape in the late 19th century had failed;[50][51] this was only achieved a century later in most Western countries, but is still not achieved in many other parts of the world.[52]
French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir provided a Marxist solution and an existentialist view on many of the questions of feminism with the publication of Le Deuxième Sexe (The Second Sex) in 1949.[53] The book expressed feminists' sense of injustice. Second-wave feminism is a feminist movement beginning in the early 1960s[54] and continuing to the present; as such, it coexists with third-wave feminism. Second-wave feminism is largely concerned with issues of equality other than suffrage, such as ending discrimination.[26]
Second-wave feminists see women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encourage women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures. The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined the slogan "The Personal is Political", which became synonymous with the second wave.[4][55]
Second- and third-wave feminism in China has been characterized by a reexamination of women's roles during the communist revolution and other reform movements, and new discussions about whether women's equality has actually been fully achieved.[39]
In 1956, President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt initiated "state feminism", which outlawed discrimination based on gender and granted women's suffrage, but also blocked political activism by feminist leaders.[56] During Sadat's presidency, his wife, Jehan Sadat, publicly advocated further women's rights, though Egyptian policy and society began to move away from women's equality with the new Islamist movement and growing conservatism.[57] However, some activists proposed a new feminist movement, Islamic feminism, which argues for women's equality within an Islamic framework.[58]
In Latin America, revolutions brought changes in women's status in countries such as Nicaragua, where feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution aided women's quality of life but fell short of achieving a social and ideological change.[59]
Late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries
Third-wave feminism
In the early 1990s in the USA, third-wave feminism began as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and to the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Third-wave feminism distinguished itself from the second wave around issues of sexuality, challenging female heterosexuality and celebrating sexuality as a means of female empowerment.[60] Third-wave feminism also seeks to challenge or avoid what it deems the second wave's essentialist definitions of femininity, which, they argue, over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women. Third-wave feminists often focus on "micro-politics" and challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for women, and tend to use a post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality.[26][61][62][63] Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave, such as Gloria Anzaldúa, bell hooks, Chela Sandoval, Cherríe Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other non-white feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities.[62][64][65] Third-wave feminism also contains internal debates between difference feminists, who believe that there are important differences between the sexes, and those who believe that there are no inherent differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to social conditioning.[66]
Standpoint feminism
Since the 1980s, standpoint feminists have argued that the feminist movement should address global issues (such as rape, incest, and prostitution) and culturally specific issues (such as female genital mutilation in some parts of Africa and the Middle East, as well as glass ceiling practices that impede women's advancement in developed economies) in order to understand how gender inequality interacts with racism, homophobia, classism and colonization in a "matrix of domination."[67][68]
Post-feminism
The term post-feminism is used to describe a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism since the 1980s. While not being "anti-feminist", post-feminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third wave feminist goals. The term was first used to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism, but it is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas.[69] Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society.[70] Amelia Jones has written that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity.[71] Dorothy Chunn notes a "blaming narrative" under the post-feminist moniker, where feminists are undermined for continuing to make demands for gender equality in a "post-feminist" society, where "gender equality has (already) been achieved." According to Chunn, "many feminists have voiced disquiet about the ways in which rights and equality discourses are now used against them."[72]
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, economics, women's studies, literary criticism,[73][74] art history,[75] psychoanalysis[76] and philosophy.[77][78] Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations, and sexuality. While providing a critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and interests. Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, and patriarchy.[7][8]
In the field of literary criticism, Elaine Showalter describes the development of feminist theory as having three phases. The first she calls "feminist critique", in which the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls "gynocriticism", in which the "woman is producer of textual meaning". The last phase she calls "gender theory", in which the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system are explored".[79]
This was paralleled in the 1970s by French feminists, who developed the concept of écriture féminine (which translates as 'female or feminine writing').[69] Helene Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasize "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise.[69] The work of Julia Kristeva, a feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, and Bracha Ettinger,[80] artist and psychoanalyst, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright points out, "none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the Anglophone world".[69][81] More recent feminist theory, such as that of Lisa Lucile Owens, has concentrated on characterizing feminism as a universal emancipatory movement.
Movements and ideologies
Symbol of feminism based on Venus symbol
Many overlapping feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years.
Political movements
Some branches of feminism closely track the political leanings of the larger society, such as liberalism and conservatism, or focus on the environment. Liberal feminism seeks individualistic equality of men and women through political and legal reform without altering the structure of society. Radical feminism considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as the defining feature of women's oppression and the total uprooting and reconstruction of society as necessary.[4] Conservative feminism is conservative relative to the society in which it resides. Libertarian feminism conceives of people as self-owners and therefore as entitled to freedom from coercive interference.[82] Separatist feminism does not support heterosexual relationships. Lesbian feminism is thus closely related. Other feminists criticize separatist feminism as sexist.[6] Ecofeminists see men's control of land as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment; ecofeminism has been criticised for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature.[83]
Materialist ideologies
Rosemary Hennessy and Chrys Ingraham say that materialist forms of feminism grew out of Western Marxist thought and have inspired a number of different (but overlapping) movements, all of which are involved in a critique of capitalism and are focussed on ideology's relationship to women.[84] Marxist feminism argues that capitalism is the root cause of women's oppression, and that discrimination against women in domestic life and employment is an effect of capitalist ideologies.[85] Socialist feminism distinguishes itself from Marxist feminism by arguing that women's liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression.[86] Anarcha-feminists believe that class struggle and anarchy against the state[87] require struggling against patriarchy, which comes from involuntary hierarchy.
Black and postcolonial ideologies
[88] During much of its history, feminist movements and theoretical developments were led predominantly by middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America.[64][67][89] However women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms.[67] This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in developing nations and former colonies and who are of colour or various ethnicities or living in poverty have proposed additional feminisms.[89] Womanism[90][91] emerged after early feminist movements were largely white and middle-class.[64] Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless.[9] Third-world feminism and Indigenous feminism are closely related to postcolonial feminism.[89] These ideas also correspond with ideas in African feminism, motherism,[92] Stiwanism,[93] negofeminism,[94] femalism, transnational feminism, and Africana womanism.[95]
Social constructionist ideologies
In the late twentieth century various feminists began to argue that gender roles are socially constructed,[96][97] and that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and histories.[98] Post-structural feminism draws on the philosophies of post-structuralism and deconstruction in order to argue that the concept of gender is created socially and culturally through discourse.[99] Postmodern feminists also emphasize the social construction of gender and the discursive nature of reality,[96] however as Pamela Abbot et al. note, a postmodern approach to feminism highlights "the existence of multiple truths (rather than simply men and women's standpoints)".[100]
Cultural movements
Flower Power Feminists were part of the transformative Second Feminism Wave in the 1960s. The peace and love symbolized opposition to the violent police raids, the military troops on college campuses, and the millions of young men being sent overseas. In regards to feminism this was the sexual revolution for women in the 20th century. For the first time a woman's life, sex was about desire, not marriage. A marriage might get to wait a few years to make sure it was about love. These were all revolutionary notions. The "me" generation was all flower power era. Riot grrrl (or riot grrl) is an underground feminist punk movement that started in the 1990s and is often associated with third-wave feminism. It was grounded in the DIY philosophy of punk values. Riot grrls took an anti-corporate stance of self-sufficiency and self-reliance.[101] Riot grrrl's emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave.[102] The movement encouraged and made "adolescent girls' standpoints central," allowing them to express themselves fully.[103] Lipstick feminism is a cultural feminist movement that attempts to respond to the backlash of second-wave radical feminism of the 1960s and 1970s by reclaiming symbols of "feminine" identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure as valid and empowering personal choices.[104][105]
Feminism and sexuality
Feminist views on sexuality vary, and have differed by historical period and by cultural context. Feminist attitudes to female sexuality have taken a few different directions. Matters such as the sex industry, sexual representation in the media, and issues regarding consent to sex under conditions of male dominance have been particularly controversial among feminists. This debate has culminated in the late 1970s and the 1980s, in what came to be known as the feminist sex wars, which pitted anti-pornography feminism against sex-positive feminism, and parts of the feminist movement were deeply divided by these debates.[106][107][108][109][110] Feminists have taken a variety of positions on different aspects of the sexual revolution from the 1960s and 70s. Over the course of the 1970s, a large number of influential women accepted lesbian and bisexual women as part of feminism.[111]
Opinions on the sex industry are diverse. Feminists critical of the sex industry generally see it as the exploitative result of patriarchal social structures which reinforce sexual and cultural attitudes complicit in rape and sexual harassment. Alternately, feminists who support at least part of the sex industry argue that it can be a medium of feminist expression and a means for women to take control of their sexuality.
Feminist views of pornography range from condemnation of pornography as a form of violence against women, to an embracing of some forms of pornography as a medium of feminist expression.[106][107][108][109][110] Feminists' views on prostitution vary, but many of these perspectives can be loosely arranged into an overarching standpoint that is generally either critical or supportive of prostitution and sex work.[112]
Affirming female sexual autonomy
For feminists, a woman's right to control her own sexuality is a key issue. Feminists such as Catharine MacKinnon argue that women have very little control over their own bodies, with female sexuality being largely controlled and defined by men in patriarchal societies. Feminists argue that sexual violence committed by men is often rooted in ideologies of male sexual entitlement, and that these systems grant women very few legitimate options to refuse sexual advances.[113][114] In many cultures, men do not believe that a woman has the right to reject a man's sexual advances or to make an autonomous decision about participating in sex. Feminists argue that all cultures are, in one way or another, dominated by ideologies that largely deny women the right to decide how to express their sexuality, because men under patriarchy feel entitled to define sex on their own terms. This entitlement can take different forms, depending on the culture. In many parts of the world, especially in conservative and religious cultures, marriage is regarded as an institution which requires a wife to be sexually available at all times, virtually without limit; thus, forcing or coercing sex on a wife is not considered a crime or even an abusive behavior.[115][116] In more liberal cultures, this entitlement takes the form of a general sexualization of the whole culture. This is played out in the sexual objectification of women, with pornography and other forms of sexual entertainment creating the fantasy that all women exist solely for men's sexual pleasure, and that women are readily available and desiring to engage in sex at any time, with any man, on a man's terms.[117]
Feminism and science
Sandra Harding says that the "moral and political insights of the women's movement have inspired social scientists and biologists to raise critical questions about the ways traditional researchers have explained gender, sex and relations within and between the social and natural worlds."[118] Some feminists, such as Ruth Hubbard and Evelyn Fox Keller, criticize traditional scientific discourse as being historically biased towards a male perspective.[119] A part of the feminist research agenda is the examination of the ways in which power inequities are created and/or reinforced in scientific and academic institutions.[120] Physicist Lisa Randall, appointed to a task force at Harvard by then-president Lawrence Summers after his controversial discussion of why women may be underrepresented in science and engineering, said, "I just want to see a whole bunch more women enter the field so these issues don't have to come up anymore."[121]
Lynn Hankinson Nelson notes that feminist empiricists find fundamental differences between the experiences of men and women. Thus, they seek to obtain knowledge through the examination of the experiences of women, and to "uncover the consequences of omitting, misdescribing, or devaluing them" to account for a range of human experience.[122] Another part of the feminist research agenda is the uncovering of ways in which power inequities are created and/or reinforced in society and in scientific and academic institutions.[120] Furthermore, despite calls for greater attention to be paid to structures of gender inequity in the academic literature, structural analyses of gender bias rarely appear in highly cited psychological journals, especially in the commonly studied areas of psychology and personality.[123]
One criticism of feminist epistemology is that it allows social and political values to influence its findings.[124] Susan Haack also points out that feminist epistemology reinforces traditional stereotypes about women's thinking (as intuitive and emotional, etc.), Meera Nanda further cautions that this may in fact trap women within "traditional gender roles and help justify patriarchy".[125]
Biology and gender
Modern feminist science challenges the biological essentialist view of gender.[126][127] For example, Anne Fausto-Sterling's book, Myths of Gender, explores the assumptions embodied in scientific research that support a biologically essentialist view of gender.[128] In Delusions of Gender, Cordelia Fine disputes scientific evidence that suggests that there is an innate biological difference between men's and women's minds, asserting instead that cultural and societal beliefs are the reason for differences between individuals that are commonly perceived as sex differences.[129]
Feminist psychology
Feminism in psychology emerged as a critique of the dominant male outlook on psychological research where only male perspectives were studied with all male subjects. As women earned doctorates in psychology, females and their issues were introduced as legitimate topics of study. Feminist psychology emphasizes social context, lived experience, and qualitative analysis.[130] Projects such as Psychology's Feminist Voices have emerged to catalogue the influence of feminist psychologists on the discipline.[131]
Feminist culture
Gender-based inquiries into and conceptualization of architecture have also come about, leading to feminism in modern architecture. Piyush Mathur coined the term "archigenderic". Claiming that "architectural planning has an inextricable link with the defining and regulation of gender roles, responsibilities, rights, and limitations", Mathur came up with that term "to explore ... the meaning of 'architecture' in terms of gender" and "to explore the meaning of 'gender' in terms of architecture".[132]
Corresponding with general developments within feminism, and often including such self-organizing tactics as the consciousness-raising group, the movement began in the 1960s and flourished throughout the 1970s.[133] Jeremy Strick, director of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles, described the feminist art movement as "the most influential international movement of any during the postwar period", and Peggy Phelan says that it "brought about the most far-reaching transformations in both artmaking and art writing over the past four decades".[133] Judy Chicago, who with a team of 129 created The Dinner Party, said in 2009 to ARTnews, "There is still an institutional lag and an insistence on a male Eurocentric narrative. We are trying to change the future: to get girls and boys to realize that women's art is not an exception—it's a normal part of art history."[134]
Octavia Butler, award-winning feminist science fiction author
The feminist movement produced both feminist fiction and non-fiction, and created new interest in women's writing. It also prompted a general reevaluation of women's historical and academic contributions in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest.[135] Much of the early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. Studies like Dale Spender's Mothers of the Novel (1986) and Jane Spencer's The Rise of the Woman Novelist (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing. Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. Virago Press began to publish its large list of 19th and early-20th-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. In the 1980s Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spender's study, issued a companion line of 18th-century novels written by women.[136] More recently, Broadview Press continues to issue 18th- and 19th-century novels, many hitherto out of print, and the University of Kentucky has a series of republications of early women's novels. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) by Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. A Room of One's Own (1929) by Virginia Woolf, is noted in its argument for both a literal and figural space for women writers within a literary tradition dominated by patriarchy.
The widespread interest in women's writing is related to a general reassessment and expansion of the literary canon. Interest in post-colonial literatures, gay and lesbian literature, writing by people of colour, working people's writing, and the cultural productions of other historically marginalized groups has resulted in a whole scale expansion of what is considered "literature," and genres hitherto not regarded as "literary," such as children's writing, journals, letters, travel writing, and many others are now the subjects of scholarly interest.[135][137][138] Most genres and subgenres have undergone a similar analysis, so that one now sees work on the "female gothic"[139] or women's science fiction.
According to Elyce Rae Helford, "Science fiction and fantasy serve as important vehicles for feminist thought, particularly as bridges between theory and practice."[140] Feminist science fiction is sometimes taught at the university level to explore the role of social constructs in understanding gender.[141] Notable texts of this kind are Ursula K. Le Guin's The Left Hand of Darkness (1969), Joanna Russ' The Female Man (1970), Octavia Butler's Kindred (1979) and Margaret Atwood's Handmaid's Tale (1985).
Women's music (or womyn's music or wimmin's music) is the music by women, for women, and about women.[142] The genre emerged as a musical expression of the
WorldHeritage articles needing page number citations from October 2012
WorldHeritage articles incorporating a citation from Collier's Encyclopedia
WorldHeritage articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference
Feminism on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
Early Video on the Emancipation of Women, documentary filmed ca. 1930, which includes footage from the 1890s
Documents from the Women's Liberation Movement, Special Collections Library, Duke University
Multimedia and documents
Feminist Perspectives Scale from Henley, Meng, O'Brien, McCarthy, and Sockloskie (1998).
Feminist.com directory
Psychology's Feminist Voices
Topics in Feminism, at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Library resources about
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Hewlett, Sylvia Ann (1986). A Lesser Life: the Myth of Women's Liberation in America. First ed. New York: W. Morrow and Co. ISBN 0-688-04855-2
Lyndon, Neil (1992). No More Sex Wars: the Failures of Feminism. London: Mandarin, 1993, cop. 1992. ISBN 0-7493-1565-2
Richard, Janet Radcliffe (1980). The Sceptical Feminist: a Philosophical Enquiry, in series, Pelican Books. Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin Books, 1982, cop. 1980. Without ISBN
Mitchell, Brian (1998). Women in the Military: Flirting with Disaster. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. xvii, 390 p. 0-89526-376-9
Steichen, Donna (1991). Ungodly Rage: the Hidden Face of Catholic Feminism. San Francisco, Calif.: Ignatius Press. ISBN 0-89870-348-4
^ a b
^ Goldstein 1982, p.92.Goldstein, L (1982). "Early Feminist Themes in French Utopian Socialism: The St.-Simonians and Fourier", Journal of the History of Ideas, vol.43, No. 1.
^ Dutch feminist pioneer Mina Kruseman in a letter to Alexandre Dumas – in: Maria Grever, Strijd tegen de stilte. Johanna Naber (1859–1941) en de vrouwenstem in geschiedenis (Hilversum 1994) ISBN 90-6550-395-1, page 31
^ Offen, Karen. "Les origines des mots 'feminisme' et 'feministe'". Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine. July–September 1987 34: 492-496
^ Cott, Nancy F. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987 at 13-5.
^ Humm, Maggie. 1995. The Dictionary of Feminist Theory. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, p. 251
^ a b c d
^ Chunn, D. (2007). "Take it easy girls": Feminism, equality, and social change in the media. In D. Chunn, S. Boyd, & H. Lessard (Eds.), Reaction and resistance: Feminism, law, and social change (pp. 31). Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
^ Brabeck, M. and Brown, L. (With Christian, L., Espin, O., Hare-Mustin, R., Kaplan, A., Kaschak, E., Miller, D., Phillips, E., Ferns, T., and Van Ormer, A.). (1997). Feminist theory and psychological practice. In J. Worell and N. Johnson (Eds.) Shaping the future of feminist psychology: Education, research, and practice (pp.15–35). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
^ Ettinger, Bracha, 'The Matrixial Borderspace'. (Essays from 1994-1999), University of Minnesota Press 2006. ISBN 0-8166-3587-0.
^ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
^ Bennett L, Manderson L, Astbury J. Mapping a global pandemic: review of current literature on rape, sexual assault and sexual harassment of women. University of Melbourne, 2000.
^ Sen P. Ending the presumption of consent: nonconsensual sex in marriage. London, Centre for Health and Gender Equity, 1999
^ Cortina, L. M., Curtin, N., & Stewart, A. J. (2012). "Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36", 259-273. doi: 10.1177/0361684312448056
^ Bern, Sandra L., The lenses of gender: transforming the debate on sexual inequality, Yale University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-300-05676-1, p. 6.
^ Mathur, Piyush, in Women's Writing, p. 71 (1998) (British journal) (article).
^ Sandra M. Gilbert, "Paperbacks: From Our Mothers' Libraries: women who created the novel." New York Times, 4 May 1986.
^ Term coined by Ellen Moers in Literary Women: The Great Writers (New York: Doubleday, 1976). See also Juliann E. Fleenor, ed., The Female Gothic (Montreal: Eden Press, 1983) and Gary Kelly, ed., Varieties of Female Gothic 6 Vols. (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2002).
^ a b c Beard, David; Gload, Kenneth. 2005. Musicology : The Key Concepts. London and New York: Routledge.
^ Hayward S, Cinema Studies – The Key Concepts 3rd ed. Routledge 2006;134-5.
^ Erens P, Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. Wiley & Sons 1991;270.
^ Kuhn A, Radstone S (eds.) Women's Companion to International Film. Virago 1990;153.
^ http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2013/11/what-really-makes-a-film-feminist/281402/ |What really makes a feminist film?
^ Giannetti L, Understanding Movies, 7th ed. Prentice-Hall 1996;416.
^ http://namesorts.com/2014/04/16/assessing-the-gender-gap-in-the-film-industry/\Assessing the Gender Gap in the Film Industry
^ Wisdom's Feast: Sophia in Study and Celebration - Page 9, Susan Cole, Marian Ronan, Hal Taussig - 1996
^ Gaylor, Annie Laurie, Woe To The Women: The Bible Tells Me So, Freedom From Religion Foundation, Inc. (1 July 1981) ISBN 1-877733-02-4
^ Ali, Ayaan Hirsi The Caged Virgin: A Muslim Woman's Cry for Reason, Free Press 2004, ISBN 978-0-7432-8833-0
^ Miles, Rosalind, Who cooked the Last Supper?,Random House Digital, Inc., 2001, ISBN 0-609-80695-5
^ Pateman, Carole (1988). The Sexual Contract, Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 207.
^ Sarah Hoagland, Lesbian Ethics: toward new value
^ Friedan, Betty. The Second Stage: With a New Introduction. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1981 1986 1991 1998, 1st Harvard Univ. Press pbk. ed. (ISBN 0-674-79655-1) 1998.
^ Bullough, Vern L. Human sexuality: an encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 1994, ISBN 0-8240-7972-8
^ Echols, Alice, Daring to Be Bad, op. cit., p. 78 & n. 124 ("124. Interview with Cindy Cisler.") and see p. 119.
^ Feminism for Men: Legal Ideology and the Construction of Maleness, N Levit – UCLA L. Rev., 1995 – works.bepress.com
^ Digby, Tom (1998). Men Doing Feminism. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91625-7.
^ Phillips, Layli, The Womanist reader, CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0-415-95411-8
^ Jardine, Alice, Paul Smith, Men in feminism , ISBN 0-415-90251-7
^ Owens, Lisa Lucile, Coerced Parenthood as Family Policy: Feminism, the Moral Agency of Women, and Men's 'Right to Choose' (May 20, 2014). Alabama Civil Rights & Civil Liberties Law Review, Vol. 5, p. 1, 2013. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2439294
Index of feminism articles
List of feminist theories
Masculism
Writers such as Camille Paglia, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Lisa Lucile Owens[220] and Daphne Patai oppose some forms of feminism, though they identify as feminists. They argue, for example, that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women.[221] Daphne Patai and Noretta Koertge argue that the term "anti-feminist" is used to silence academic debate about feminism.[222][223] Lisa Lucile Owens argues that certain rights extended exclusively to women are patriarchal because they relieve women from exercising a crucial aspect of their moral agency.[224]
Some people have opposed feminism on the grounds that they believe it is contrary to traditional values or religious beliefs. These anti-feminists argue, for example, that social acceptance of divorce and non-married women is wrong and harmful, and that men and women are fundamentally different and thus their different traditional roles in society should be maintained.[215][216][217] Other anti-feminists oppose women's entry into the workforce, political office, and the voting process, as well as the lessening of male authority in families.[218][219]
In the nineteenth century, anti-feminism was mainly focused on opposition to women's suffrage. Later, opponents of women's entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a physical burden on women. Other anti-feminists opposed women's entry into the labor force, or their right to join unions, to sit on juries, or to obtain birth control and control of their sexuality.[214]
Anti-feminism is opposition to feminism in some or all of its forms.[213]
Critique of feminism and anti-feminism
Pro-feminism is the support of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement. The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism. The activities of pro-feminist men's groups include anti-violence work with boys and young men in schools, offering sexual harassment workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and counseling male perpetrators of violence. Pro-feminist men also may be involved in men's health, activism against pornography including anti-pornography legislation, men's studies, and the development of gender equity curricula in schools. This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women's services, such as domestic violence and rape crisis centers.[211][212]
Different groups of people have responded to feminism, and both men and women have been among its supporters and critics. Among American university students, for both men and women, support for feminist ideas is more common than self-identification as a feminist.[204][205][206] The US media tends to portray feminism negatively and feminists "are less often associated with day-to-day work/leisure activities of regular women."[207][208] However, as recent research has demonstrated, as people are exposed to self-identified feminists and to discussions relating to various forms of feminism, their own self-identification with feminism increases.[209] Roy Baumeister has criticized feminists who "look only at the top of society and draw conclusions about society as a whole. Yes, there are mostly men at the top. But if you look at the bottom, really at the bottom, you'll find mostly men there, too."[210]
Male participation in feminism is encouraged by feminists and is seen as an important strategy for achieving full societal commitment to gender equality.[6][200][201] Many male feminists and pro-feminists are active in both women's rights activism, feminist theory, and masculinity studies. However, some argue that while male engagement with feminism is necessary, it is problematic due to the ingrained social influences of patriarchy in gender relations.[202] The consensus today in feminist and masculinity theories is that both genders can and should cooperate to achieve the larger goals of feminism.[196] It has been proposed that, in large part, this can be achieved through considerations of women's agency.[203]
Feminist theory has explored the social construction of masculinity and its implications for the goal of gender equality. The social construct of masculinity is seen by feminism as problematic because it associates males with aggression and competition, and reinforces patriarchal and unequal gender relations.[63][195] Patriarchal cultures are criticized for "limiting forms of masculinity" available to men and thus narrowing their life choices.[196] Some feminists are engaged with men's issues activism, such as bringing attention to male rape and spousal battery and addressing negative social expectations for men.[197][198][199]
Men and masculinity
Patriarchy is a social system in which society is organized around male authority figures. In this system fathers have authority over women, children, and property. It implies the institutions of male rule and privilege, and is dependent on female subordination.[188] Most forms of feminism characterize patriarchy as an unjust social system that is oppressive to women. Carole Pateman argues that the patriarchal distinction "between masculinity and femininity is the political difference between freedom and subjection."[189] In feminist theory the concept of patriarchy often includes all the social mechanisms that reproduce and exert male dominance over women. Feminist theory typically characterizes patriarchy as a social construction, which can be overcome by revealing and critically analyzing its manifestations.[190] Some radical feminists have proposed that because patriarchy is too deeply rooted in society, separatism is the only viable solution.[191] Other feminists have criticized these views as being anti-men.[192][193][194]
"Female Muslims- The tsar, beys and khans took your rights away" – Soviet poster issued in Azerbaijan, 1921
Secular or atheist feminists have engaged in feminist criticism of religion, arguing that many religions have oppressive rules towards women and misogynistic themes and elements in religious texts.[185][186][187]
Dianic Wicca is a feminist-centered thealogy.[184]
Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience and leadership for Jewish women. The main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion from the all-male prayer group or minyan, the exemption from positive time-bound mitzvot, and women's inability to function as witnesses and to initiate divorce.[182] Many Jewish women have become leaders of feminist movements throughout their history.[183]
Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded within an Islamic framework. Advocates seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Quran and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, hadith (sayings of Muhammad), and sharia (law) towards the creation of a more equal and just society.[180] Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilized secular and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement.[181]
Christian feminism is a branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality of women and men, and that this interpretation is necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of sex, and are involved in issues such as the ordination of women, male dominance and the balance of parenting in Christian marriage, claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of women compared to men, and the overall treatment of women in the church.[178][179]
Feminist theology is a movement that reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts.[177] The Christian Bible refers to women in positions of authority in Judges 4:4 and 2 Kings 22:14.
Cmdr. Adrienne Simmons speaking at the 2008 ceremony for the only women's mosque in Khost City, a symbol of progress for growing women's rights in the Pashtun belt.
Proponents of gender-neutral language argue that the use of gender-specific language often implies male superiority or reflects an unequal state of society.[175] According to The Handbook of English Linguistics, generic masculine pronouns and gender-specific job titles are instances "where English linguistic convention has historically treated men as prototypical of the human species."[176]
Feminist jurisprudence signifies a reaction to the philosophical approach of modern legal scholars, who typically see law as a process for interpreting and perpetuating a society's universal, gender-neutral ideals. Feminist legal scholars claim that this fails to acknowledge women's values or legal interests or the harms that they may anticipate or experience.[174]
Feminist jurisprudence is a branch of jurisprudence that examines the relationship between women and law. It addresses questions about the history of legal and social biases against women and about the enhancement of their legal rights.[173]
In international law, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is an international convention adopted by the United Nations General Assembly and described as an international bill of rights for women. It came into force in those nations ratifying it.[172]
The division of labor within households was affected by the increased entry of women into workplaces in the 20th century. Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild found that, in two-career couples, men and women, on average, spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework,[168][169] although Cathy Young responded by arguing that women may prevent equal participation by men in housework and parenting.[170] Judith K. Brown writes, "Women are most likely to make a substantial contribution when subsistence activities have the following characteristics: the participant is not obliged to be far from home; the tasks are relatively monotonous and do not require rapt concentration; and the work is not dangerous, can be performed in spite of interruptions, and is easily resumed once interrupted."[171]
In the U.S., the NOW) began in 1966 to seek women's equality, including through the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA),[166] which did not pass, although some states enacted their own. Reproductive rights in the U.S. centered on the court decision in Roe v. Wade enunciating a woman's right to choose whether to carry a pregnancy to term. Western women gained more reliable birth control, allowing family planning and careers. The movement started in the 1910s in the U.S. under Margaret Sanger and elsewhere under Marie Stopes. In the final three decades of the 20th century, Western women knew a new freedom through birth control, which enabled women to plan their adult lives, often making way for both career and family.[167]
Some feminist campaigning also helped reform attitudes to child sexual abuse. The view that young girls cause men to have sexual intercourse with them was replaced by that of men's responsibility for their own conduct, the men being adults.[165]
From the 1960s on, the campaign for women's rights[163] was met with mixed results[164] in the U.S. and the U.K. Other countries of the EEC agreed to ensure that discriminatory laws would be phased out across the European Community.
Participation in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.
Signed and ratified
Acceded or succeeded
Unrecognized state, abiding by treaty
Non-signatory
The feminist movement has effected change in Western society, including women's suffrage; greater access to education; more nearly equitable pay with men; the right to initiate divorce proceedings; the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion); and the right to own property.[5]
The civil rights movement has influenced and informed the feminist movement and vice versa. Many Western feminists adapted the language and theories of black equality activism and drew parallels between women's rights and the rights of non-white people.[159] Despite the connections between the women's and civil rights movements, some tension arose during the late 1960s and early 1970s as non-white women argued that feminism was predominantly white and middle class, and did not understand and was not concerned with race issues.[160] Similarly, some women argued that the civil rights movement had sexist elements and did not adequately address minority women's concerns.[159] These criticisms created new feminist social theories about the intersections of racism, classism, and sexism, and new feminisms, such as black feminism and Chicana feminism.[161][162]
Civil rights movement and anti-racism
[158] Blamires also notes that Neofascism has since the 1960s been hostile towards feminism and advocates that women accept "their traditional roles".[153] Cyprian Blamires states that although feminists were among those who opposed the rise of
Fascism has been prescribed dubious stances on feminism by its practitioners and by women's groups. Amongst other demands concerning social reform presented in the Fascist manifesto in 1919 was expanding the suffrage to all Italian citizens of age 18 and above, including women (accomplished only in 1946, after the defeat of fascism) and eligibility for all to stand for office from age 25. This demand was particularly championed by special Fascist women's auxiliary groups such as the fasci femminilli and only partly realized in 1925, under pressure from Prime Minister Benito Mussolini's more conservative coalition partners.[156][157]
[155].Mujeres Libres anarcha-feminist. Although she supported equal rights for women, she opposed women fighting on the front and clashed with the Communist Party of Spain) led the La Pasionaria (Dolores Ibárruri, Spanish Civil War During the [154] In Britain, the women's movement was allied with the
Since the late nineteenth century some feminists have allied with socialism, whereas others have criticized socialist ideology for being insufficiently concerned about women's rights. August Bebel, an early activist of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD), published his work Die Frau und der Sozialismus, juxtaposing the struggle for equal rights between sexes with social equality in general. In 1907 there was an International Conference of Socialist Women in Stuttgart where suffrage was described as a tool of class struggle. Clara Zetkin of the SPD called for women's suffrage to build a "socialist order, the only one that allows for a radical solution to the women's question".[152][153]
Feminism had complex interactions with the major political movements of the twentieth century.
Relationship to political movements
During the 1930s-1950s heyday of the big Hollywood studios, the status of women in the industry was abysmal[150] and, while much has improved, many would argue that there is still much to be done. From art films by Sally Potter, Catherine Breillat, Claire Denis and Jane Campion to action movies by Kathryn Bigelow, women now have a stronger voice, but are only too aware of the still lingering gender gap.[151]
It has been argued that there are two distinct approaches to independent, theoretically inspired feminist filmmaking. 'Deconstruction' concerns itself with analysing and breaking down codes of mainstream cinema, aiming to create a different relationship between the spectator and dominant cinema. The second approach, a feminist counterculture, embodies feminine writing to investigate a specifically feminine cinematic language.[148] Some recent criticism[149] of 'feminist film' approaches has centred around a Swedish rating system called the Bechdel test.
Feminist cinema, advocating or illustrating feminist perspectives, arose largely with the development of Edinburgh Film Festival.[147] Other theorists making a powerful impact on feminist film include Teresa de Lauretis, Anneke Smelik and Kaja Silverman. Approaches in philosophy and psychoanalysis fuelled Feminist Film Criticism, Feminist Independent Film and Feminist Distribution.
Through the 1980s and 1990s, this trend continued as musicologists like Susan McClary, Marcia Citron and Ruth Solie began to consider the cultural reasons for the marginalizing of women from the received body of work. Concepts such as music as gendered discourse; professionalism; reception of women's music; examination of the sites of music production; relative wealth and education of women; popular music studies in relation to women's identity; patriarchal ideas in music analysis; and notions of gender and difference are among the themes examined during this time.[145]
Feminism became a principal concern of musicologists in the 1980s.[145] Prior to this, in the 1970s, musicologists were beginning to discover women composers and performers, and had begun to review concepts of canon, genius, genre and periodization from a feminist perspective. In other words, the question of how women musicians fit into traditional music history was now being asked.[145]
Second-wave feminism
Feminism, Supreme Court of the United States, New York City, Feminist theory, Third-wave feminism
World War I, Portugal, Italy, San Marino, New Zealand
Gender studies, Feminism, Psychoanalysis, Women's studies, Patriarchy
Feminism, Human rights, Women's suffrage, Feminist theory, Genocide
Feminism, Second-wave feminism, Feminist theory, Gender studies, United States Senate
Klas Pontus Arnoldson
Christian democracy, Socialism, Politics, Anarchism, Capitalism
Louis Renault (jurist)
Ernesto Teodoro Moneta
Charles Albert Gobat
Hammond Pros


text:
Hydrolagus melanophasma е вид хрущялна риба от семейство Chimaeridae.

Разпространение
Видът е разпространен в Еквадор, Мексико и САЩ (Калифорния).

Източници

Hydrolagus

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


This is the easiest way to enter the sport of sailboat racing. Boats are always looking for energetic crew. There are a number of ways to start, one is to learn when the local races are, show up at the club (all clubs on Lake Michigan are "open" and won't question your arrival) 1-2 hours before race time. Walk around, introduce yourself and let people know you would like to crew, be frank about your experience level and ask if you can be introduced to others who may take you out for a race. If you don't wish to show up without some level of experience, Google "Crew School" and see which yacht clubs have a program in your area.
Everyone is willing to teach and bring along a new crew. Camaraderie is strong onboard all boats.
What do you need to bring along with you?
Deck shoes – black sole's are frowned upon, they leave scuffs that are hard to clean off.
Rain gear – start with something to keep the water off you, look at a couple of marine chandelry websites for ideas.
Good hat, sailing gloves, sunscreen, and a waterproof stop watch.
An inflatable Personal Flotation Device (life jacket – and wear it) only if you are an experienced swimmer, bring a foam filled Personal Flotation Device if not comfortable in being in the water..
Even on the warmest days on shore, you'll be surprised at how cool it will be on the water, pretty much always bring a fleece top for warmth.
6-pack to case of brew and some munchies.
First time out bring your own food, but then learn how food is done for subsequent events when they ask you to come back.
In a little time you'll be soaking in a lot of knowledge. You'll learn that it is a sport of rules. The best advice we can give is to become an avid reader. You'll be introduced to such things as the Notice of Race, Race Entry Form, Sailing Instructions, Racing Rules of Sailing, US SAILING Prescriptions to the Racing Rules of Sailing, Offshore Rating Rule (ORR), Lake Michigan Performance Handicap Racing Fleet (LMPHRF), Sailor Classification, Appeals, International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, ISAF Special Regulations, ISAF Case Book. Almost all of these are online and when you're ready, start reading. The reason for reading is, you will become an asset to your boat, by bringing up special rules that occur in almost every race to keep your boat from being disqualified after completing the race course. This is one of the best pieces of advice we can offer – Read!
As you develop your skills, you'll learn of all sorts of seminars and sailing schools which will increase your knowledge about what makes a boat go faster through the water, how to operate boats safely, learn the right of way rules, sail trim, tactics and so forth. Consider taking seminars to enhance your skills.
Are You Brand New To Sailing And Have A Quest For The Sea?
Many who show up wishing to sail wish to contribute right away. But how can you learn something before showing up looking for a ride? Some clubs offer "Crew School" or "Crew U" or Skipjacks" in the springtime to teach brand new adult sailors about the parts and functions of the boats, so that they have a primer. Then they mate them up with club volunteers who will take you out on their boats and practice what was learned in the classroom. Most clubs will also offer charging privileges during class time.
Another way to get a primer is online to learn the terminolgy and functions that make a boat sail , try this one out - Online Sailing Course.
The best advice anyone can give a beginner is to "read." It must become a habit for successful racing. Each race runs with slightly different variations to rules, and it is these variations that trip up even the seasoned sailor. Become a veracious reader.
Every boat needs a sail number on both sides of it's mainsail, its spinnakers and on jibs that overlap the main's foot by 30% or more. It is preferable that the number is unique and is registered in the US SAILING National Database to avoid duplicate and arbitrary numbers that may have been affixed by the manufacturer or sail-maker. If numbers are already on the sails, it's okay. Unique numbers are a safety feature when used in Search and Rescue operations. Commonly Race Committees can handle that even if a duplicate number exists in the same race but if you need or want a unique sail number, contact the US SAILING Offshore Office, P.O. Box 1260, Portsmouth, RI 02871, 401.683.0800 and you will be assigned one within 24 hours.
This document is the "Invitation to the party." It outlines what boats are eligible to race, who, what, where, when, why and how. It will also explain how to enter the race. Read!
One must enter a race, giving data on yourself, your boat, sometimes your crew and may require reading and complying with other supporting documents. Read it carefully and complete all items required. The sport determined that Indemnification, Hold Harmless and Assumption of Risk wording in an entry is contrary to public policy and is not allowed. Look carefully for these words, if they are in the Race Entry, strike through those words, initial and date it, then sign the entry. A "waiver" is an acceptable risk tool for clubs and you should consult your attorney any time you have a question. Read!
These are commonly handed out at the event or available online shortly before the event. These explain the intentions of the race committee, protest committee and the obligations of competitors. Examples include starting times, courses to be sailed, time limites, and other requirements on the water. If any of the Racing Rules of Sailing are being changed, it will display the change. Read!
These explain when two boats come together on a course, which boat has the right-or-way, and which is the "give-away" boat. It also has rules on personal conduct. This is the backbone of racing and learning these rules will help you keep safe to begin with, and later you can learn how to use the rules tactically to strategically position your boat to have an advantage on your competitors. You must buy a US SAILING Racing Rules of Sailing book. If you use the online "ISAF" rules, then you also must download the "US SAILING Prescriptions" to have a complete set of rules. Read!
Of course, you would already be familiar with the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (International and Inland Right of Way Rules for all vessels) that applies to when you come across a boat that is not racing at all times. Read!
In some races in some classes of boats to help level the playing field, sailors on these boats must apply to determine whether they meet the criteria of being a "professional," and if so, becomes a "Group 3" sailor, while the amateur is a "Group 1" sailor. The Notice of Race and Sailing Instructions will explain how many Group 3 sailors are allowed on board each boat. Read!
When there is a conflict between two boats under the aforementioned rules, a competitor "protests" the action of another competitor. A hearing is held where testimony is given to an impartial panel of sailing "judges." The outcomes can be: One boat may be disqualified; The other boat may be disqualified; Both boats are disqualified; or, The protest is dismissed with no penalty. Read!
Sometimes the sailing judges err. It is their job to write the "Facts Found" in the protest hearing, and those facts can not be disputed or changed in an Appeal. What is disputed in the appeal is if the sailing judges interpreted the Facts Found incorrectly, and applied the Racing Rule incorrectly. The protest hearing decision may either be: Upheld; or, Overturned by the Appeals Committee. If there is inadequate documentation from the original protest hearing, the Appeals Committee will request additional information from the original judges, if the sailing judges did not gather that information, a "re-opening of the hearing" shall occur where both parties in the protest come and give additional testimony and the additional testimony is forwarded to the Appeals Committee. The Lake Michigan Sail Racing Federation runs all Appeals on Lake Michigan. Many sailors own the US SAILING Appeals Book. It gives examples of odd situations that the Racing Rules needed clarification on. Another document many sailors download is the ISAF Case Book. Again this is examples of odd situations that the Racing Rules needed clarification on. Read!
Sometimes the Regional Appeals Committee errs. It is possible to appeal a second time, this one going to the national appeals committee at US SAILING. The same process is followed as in Part 1. Read!
While all boats are required to comply with the USCG Safety Regulations, some races add additional safety rules. These are called the "ISAF Offshore Special Regulations with US SAILING Prescriptions." It is broken down into "Categories" of races (close to shore within rescue, to far from shore with no rescue services available and self-reliance is needed). It lists equipment and practices onboard, as well as assuring all of your crew knows where all equipment is, and how it is to be used. Read!
Boats that are built alike have their own "class rules." These may have crew weight limits, and parts of your boat, sails, rig or other things that are measured or can not be changed. As these are "rules" you are required to be in compliance with them while racing. Read!
When boats of different make, model, and sizes compete against one another that all go different speeds in different winds, a panel assigns the difference in boat speed from one to the next in "seconds per mile." In general language we call it a PHRF (perf) rating. There are rules to comply with on what you must carry on your boat and how things are measured. Read!
When boats of different make, model, and sized compete against one another that all go different speeds in different winds, a computer calculates the difference in boat speed from one to the next in "seconds per mile." In order for this to work your boat must be measured out of the water as well as in, to give the computer a complete 3D model of your boat. If your boat is a sistership, it may get a waiver if other sisterships were already measured. Read!
Did we say it enough times?


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The film is a mass entertainer and is slated to arrive in the theatres tomorrow September 13, 2018. This sounds like a guitar-powered theme for an exciting fight sequence. Sema Raja song, Seemaraja free songs download, Sema Raja mp3, masstamilan, Sema Raja songs free download starmusiq. Vaaren Vaaren Seemaraja Karaoke — D. Imman song, Seema Raja tamil mp3 download, Seema Raja high quality songs, Seema Raja starmusiq zip download, Seema Raja tamiltunes sensongsmp3 saavn gaana itunes, Free Seema Raja Song download starmusiq Posted in Tagged , , ,. Kodutha adiya adiya Thiruppi thiruppi kodukkuran Siruthai puliye puliye Madiyil anachi nadakkuran Edutha mudive mudive Iruthi varaikkum mathikkuran Adutha usuru kalange Manasu vathange thudikkiran Seema seema raja Ivan unga thanga raja Seema seema raja Ivan enga singa raja.
Imman — 128 Kbps 4. Singampatti and Puliyampatti have been in a grudge over the market square for many years. Music composer , cinematographer and editor were also retained to be a part of the project from the director's previous films. Imman Artist: Sean Roldan, Shreya Ghoshal Artist: D. Seema Raja is a jobless youth from Singampatti, born in a family with a long lineage of brave people; the main one being King Kadambavel Sivakarthikeyan. Vaaren Vaaren Seemaraja Vocals: Diwakar and Kavitha Gopi Lyrics: Yugabharathi Vaaren Vaaren Seemaraja is the perfect introductory track for Sivakarthikeyan's rising mass image! The orchestration is great and the string solos are lovely. He is known for his deep voice and it sounds functional in this track.
This match also ends in failure. Vaaren Vaaren Seema Raja — D. It started again, where some villagers from Singampatti entered the closed market square and began to play cricket. Seema Raja 2018 Songs Mp3 Download Link Artist: Punya Srinivas Artist: D. Varum Aana Varaathu — Karaoke D. Ennai kanden naanum unakkulla Onna vitta yaarum yenakilla Paaru paaru.


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Price quote as of Apr 26 2019 12:36PM ET. Supplied by EDGAR Online.


text:
Q: Copy/Pasting a Range of Values into the Next Empty Set of Cells on a Separate Sheet I am attempting to take data from a "worksheet" which will always begin as the active sheet into a seperate sheet that is determined by the month of the year. That has been no problem so far and my code does function in this way. However I can not understand how to take that predetermined amount of info "A9:AG11" in our static worksheet and paste into the next empty set of rows on our shared monthly sheet. Here is my current code that does work, ui button, and all. But it will of course only write over any data already existing on the second sheet. Any help would be appreciated!
function BP3CallTab() {
  var ui = SpreadsheetApp.getUi(); // Same variations.

  var result = ui.alert(
     'Please confirm',
     'Ready to Submit 3-Call Audit?',
      ui.ButtonSet.YES_NO);

  // Process the user's response.
  if (result == ui.Button.YES) {
    // User clicked "Yes".
    copyFunction ();
  }

    function copyFunction () {
      var inputRange =  SpreadsheetApp.getActiveSpreadsheet().getRange("A9:AG11");
      var inputValues = inputRange.getValues();
      var shname = SpreadsheetApp.getActiveSpreadsheet().getSheetByName("Dash").getRange("Q4").getValue()
      var emptyrow = SpreadsheetApp.getActive();
       emptyrow.getRange('A17').activate();
       emptyrow.getCurrentCell().getNextDataCell(SpreadsheetApp.Direction.DOWN).activate();
       emptyrow.getCurrentCell().offset(1, 0).activate();
      var outputRange = SpreadsheetApp.getActiveSpreadsheet().getSheetByName(shname).getRange("A17:AG19").setValues(inputValues);
    }

    ui.alert('Audit Complete!✅');

  if (result ==ui.Button.NO) {
    // User clicked "No" or X in the title bar.
    ui.alert('No Changes Made.');
  }
};

A: You need to use a different method to define the output range.

*

*Try getRange(row, column, numRows, numColumns).

*"row" is obtained by using getLastRow(), say...

*

*var targetLR = SpreadsheetApp.getActiveSpreadsheet().getSheetByName(shname).getLastRow()

*"Column" =1 (to denote column A)

*"numRows" = 3 (the number of rows between "A17:A19")

*"numColumns" = 33 (the number of columns between "A" and "AG")
So your output range would be something like:

*

*var outputRange = SpreadsheetApp.getActiveSpreadsheet().getSheetByName(shname).getRange(targetLR,1,2,33).setValues(inputValues)

A: A slight variation of @Tedinoz's approach so that (a) the destination range is always exactly the same as the size of data being copied, otherwise it results to an error and (b) the checking of the next empty row is still correct even if a cell somewhere down below was accidentally edited --- something that affects getLastRow()
function copyFunction () {
  var inputRange =  SpreadsheetApp.getActiveSpreadsheet().getRange("A9:AG11");
  var inputValues = inputRange.getValues();
  var inputValuesRows = inputValues.length;     // no. of rows of copied data
  var inputValuesCols = inputValues[0].length;  // no. of columns of copied data

  //get your destination sheet and its first empty row
  var sharedSheet = SpreadsheetApp.getActiveSpreadsheet().getSheetByName("Shared Monthly Sheet");
  var firstEmptyRow = getFirstEmptyWholeRow("Shared Monthly Sheet");
  Logger.log(firstEmptyRow);

  //copy your data into your destination starting from firstEmptyRow and column A
  sharedSheet.getRange(firstEmptyRow,1,inputValuesRows,inputValuesCols).setValues(inputValues);
}

/*
 * Adapted from Mogsdad's "whole row" checker
 * from https://stackoverflow.com/questions/6882104/faster-way-to-find-the-first-empty-row-in-a-google-sheet-column
 */
function getFirstEmptyWholeRow(sheetname) {
  var sheet = SpreadsheetApp.getActiveSpreadsheet().getSheetByName(sheetname);
  var range = sheet.getDataRange();
  var values = range.getValues();
  var row = 0;
  for (var row=0; row<values.length; row++) {
    if (!values[row].join("")) break;
  }
  return (row+1);
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
NIHR Birmingham Biomedical Research Centre
Inflammatory Arthritis
Inflammatory Gastroenterology
Inflammatory Sarcopenia
Trial Design and Delivery
Diagnostics and Biomarkers
Entrepreneurship and Commercialisation
Patients, carers and the public
Challenge accepted! Patient and Public Involvement during COVID-19
Posted on 24th September 2020 24th September 2020 by Pernille Woods
As we restart non-COVID-19 research, Patient and Public Involvement Leads (PPI) from the NIHR Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre (Kasia Kurowska) and NIHR Birmingham Biomedical Research Centre (Laura Chapman), discuss patient and public involvement partnership work during the continuing pandemic.
ADMISSION is a new research collaborative, designed to transform understanding of patients with two or more long-term health conditions admitted to hospital. Five research organisations make up the collaborative; Newcastle University, University of Birmingham, University College London, Manchester Metropolitan University, and University of Dundee.
When patients with multiple long-term health conditions are admitted to hospital, they often experience a complicated and prolonged journey through the hospital system. The first step in improving how we care for these people is to understanding the following:
What causes people to have multiple conditions?
How these conditions tend to group together
How these patients are treated as they move from hospital admission to discharge
What impact things like lifestyle may have?
With these questions in mind, patients are absolutely central to the success of ADMISSION's research. But how do we achieve patient involvement during a pandemic when most of the people we want to talk to will be staying at home?
Images above: PPIE Leads, Laura Chapman (left) and Kasia Kurowksa (right)
To involve people in ADMISSION, we had a number of challenges to overcome. We needed to:
Involve a range of people with multiple long-term conditions during lockdown when many were staying home and dealing with the varying challenges that COVID-19 has created.
Include people who live across the country
Include a diverse range of people including ages and ethnicities
To overcome these challenges, we decided to run three PPI virtual workshops during July where people could come together with the research team to discuss the research questions, design and help us plan patient and public involvement and engagement activities for the research.
Jeremy Taylor, NIHR Director for Public Voice, NIHR Centre for Engagement and Dissemination said in a recent blog:
It should be simple for researchers and public contributors to find each other
We can thankfully report that our experience has been just that. In spite of the challenges it was relatively simple to find one another.
We were delighted to have 22 people interested in joining us for the online workshops, after using all our existing networks to share the invitation across the partner areas. This included our existing patient and public networks at the NIHR BRCs, local patient groups and charities and NIHR partners across the areas such as the NIHR Research Design Service. VOICE (based at Newcastle University) a sector-leading community digital platform of patients and the public across the country, was also an invaluable resource to contact people on a national level. .
Inclusivity in a pandemic?
To reduce the barriers of getting involved in the PPI workshops we:
Organised them at different times of the day, including after the end of the working day
Offered assistance and practice Zoom calls before workshops for anyone new to using Zoom
Provided payment for contributors' time
Provided the option to attend one, two or three workshops, rather than making all three mandatory
Of course, there will be people we missed because this activity was digital and not face-to-face. Tackling the digital divide is at the forefront of our minds. However, we found, with these enablers, we were able to reach and involve a diverse group of ages and ethnicities in the work. Importantly, by changing the times of the workshops we also involved people who were working, have caring responsibilities, and those managing multiple long-term conditions, which make some times of the day difficult to engage in online meetings.
Managing virtual PPI meetings
Working together across University and NIHR boundaries to deliver the PPI workshops helped us make the most of the time we had with the public contributors including:
Planning meetings and debriefs to ensure all partners were able to share thoughts and reflections on what people in the workshops told us
At each workshop, we summarised reflections from the previous workshops and explained how it had influenced the research team's thinking so the group could see how their input was making a difference to the research
A short evaluation form was sent to participants at the end of each workshop to ensure we made the workshops as accessible, enjoyable and effective as possible
We had some wonderful feedback from the public contributors. Gillian, a contributor from the West Midlands who took part in all three workshops said:
So enjoyable I didn't want it to end. I love the fact they listened to feedback and implemented everything from previous meeting… I enjoy working with the ADMISSION team of researchers. The poll was great, as everyone had a say.
We were thrilled to have received a great response to the expression of interest for co-applicants from the group, which we hope was a sign they valued the involvement activities of the three PPI workshops. Two public co-applicants have agreed to join the ADMISSION team. The research team is working with them to finalise the proposed research for the funding application. The contributions of everyone in the PPI workshops will influence the final proposals submitted.
We know that feedback is critical even in these early involvement activities. At the end of the last workshop we ran a poll to find out from the group what the best form of feedback would be. Based on their responses, we plan to host another Zoom meeting in early October to let the group know how their input has made a difference to the final research proposal. We will also create a short summary feedback report for those who prefer to receive an email follow up.
As PPIE Managers, we have relished the opportunity to work across geographical borders and learn from each other in delivering this involvement activity. We have really enjoyed getting to know, and involving a range of fantastic patient representatives who have dedicated time to talking to us whilst dealing with their health conditions and the pandemic. They are a true inspiration.
It has left us wondering what else we could do together to the benefit of the patients and public contributors we work with…
New guidelines developed for clinical trials involving artificial intelligence interventions
Birmingham BRC promote public involvement in research on local radio programme
Tweets by @NIHRBhamBRC
Institute of Translational Medicine
Birmingham B15 2TH
brc@contacts.bham.ac.uk
New Funding Awarded
Please bear with us as we update the website over the coming months.

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