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Do Your Research, Featured, From Our Collections, Human Rights Archive, Travel Grants
Educational Opportunity and Legal Strategy: Exploring the ACLU of North Carolina Records
September 13, 2018 John Gartrell
Post contributed by Esther Cyna, doctoral student in History and Education at Teachers College, Columbia University, a recipient of a 2018 Marshall T. Meyer Research Travel Grant.
How did advocates for equal educational opportunities for children in North Carolina shift their legal strategies when desegregation battles became increasingly difficult to wage in the mid-1970s? It is with this research question in mind that I explored the American Civil Liberties Union of North Carolina (NCCLU) records, which are part of the Human Rights Archive at the David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library. I spent a week exploring this rich collection to get a better understanding of civil rights attorneys' thinking.
One case in particular captures many of the tensions that my work seeks to disentangle: Leandro v. State of North Carolina, the major school finance case in the state, tackles issues of educational inequalities in the state and sheds light on structural inequities exacerbated by an inequitable funding formula, and provides a fascinating example of how legal strategy changed over time.[1]
While at Duke University, I had the honor of interviewing a leading scholar and attorney in the field, Prof. John Charles Boger, former Dean of the UNC Law School, whose name appeared in the NCCLU papers on several occasions, and who was involved in writing amici briefs for the Leandro case in the 1990s and 2000s.[2] I was immersed in the NCCLU papers, and then had a long conversation with Prof. Boger in the Von der Hayden Pavilion, just a few feet away from the archival research room, in a wonderful dialogue between written sources and human accounts.
One of the major themes in this research is the relationship between funding inequities and test scores, and implications for poor students' opportunities. The period that I study witnessed the rise of standards-based reform and standardized testing, most notably promoted by Governor Jim Hunt. Attorneys in the Leandro case underlined the disturbing correlation between low-wealth—and therefore low funding, since school funding relies on property tax—and low achievement as measured by standardized tests. The following excerpts from the initial Leandro complaint points out that students in poor, rural counties in the state often failed on the state's own standards because of a chronic lack of resources in their districts.[3] Attorneys claimed this was evidence of the state's failure to honor its constitutional obligation to provide a sound basic education to all children in the state:
"The inadequacies of the educational opportunities for schoolchildren in the plaintiff districts may also be seen from the State's designation of the school systems of Halifax, Hoke, Robeson, and Vance Counties as being on either low performing or warning status for 1991, 1992, and 1993." (Complaint draft, Leandro v. State, May 25, 1994, p. 21)
"A further indication of the inadequate educational opportunities available to schoolchildren in the plaintiff districts is student performance on the State's own standardized tests." (Complaint draft, Leandro v. State, May 25, 1994, p. 76)
Delving into these issues thus provides us with necessary context to understand what many have called the "achievement gap," as well as labels such as "low performing" and "failing," which became increasingly used to designate poor, struggling school districts at the end of the 20th century.
In the Common Sense Foundation records of the Human Rights Archive, I found that in 2001, a commission sponsored by the Durham Public Education Network studied the discrepancy between test scores of white students and black and Hispanic students in the public schools of Durham, North Carolina. 90% of white and Asian students performed at or above grade level in reading and math, compared to 60% of African American students. The report included the following sentence in bold, capital letters: "the achievement gap is no one's fault, but it's everyone's responsibility."[4] The statement suggests that differences in test scores between students could not be traced to the decisions and policies of historical actors. The commission agreed that the difference should be addressed, but it presented it as a disembodied reality: the "achievement gap"—as measured by standardized testing in 2001—had no history, no context, and no fixed meaning. Yet understanding the history of unequal funding and chronic disadvantage for poor school districts and poor students sheds light on a true, documented opportunity gap.
The Marshall T. Meyer travel grant allowed me to delve into archival sources that will be the backbone of a chapter on legal strategy in my dissertation, and I want to thank Patrick Stawski and the entire staff at the library for their support. Not only did I gather important archival sources, but I was also able to really gain a much better understanding of the legal and economic context of the period I am investigating. I left the library with a lot of pictures, but more importantly with a deeper and much more nuanced understanding of people's actions, discourse, and beliefs.
[1] American Civil Liberties Union of North Carolina Records, Box 323, Folder: "Paralegal Office Cases, Leandro (4 of 14), Complaint / Super Ct.," David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University.
[2] See for example NCCLU papers, Box 284, Folder: Legal Committee Meeting Minutes, 1987, July 17-1997, Dec. 6. Prof. Boger's work was praised in a NCCLU meeting document: "Leandro v. State – amicus brief was filed at the NC Supreme Court. Kudos were given to Ann Hubbard and Jack Boger for their fantastic job on the brief."
[3] Complaint draft of Leandro v. State, May 25, 1994, American Civil Liberties Union of North Carolina Records, Box 323, Folder: "Paralegal Office Cases, Leandro (4 of 14), Complaint / Super Ct," David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University.
[4] "Closing the Achievement Gap Through Community Action" Spring 2001, Common Sense Foundation Records, Box 14, Folder: "Achievement Gap," David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University. I also found a copy of this document in the Theresa El-Amin papers. "Closing the Achievement Gap Through Community Action" Spring 2001, Box 4, Folder "Durham Public Schools: Education+Testing," sub-folder "Closing the Achievement Gap," Theresa El-Amin papers, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript, Duke University.
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Booklet, poster design and layout for Riga Film museum event Kino Lektorijs (Lectures on Film).
Yearbook in Photo Narrative is a new concept on high school yearbooks with a unified photo narrative "memory".
Minimalistic design focuses attention on quality photos and neat comments. The satellite-shape of school, that is visualized on the cover, is embossed and creates an illusion of an actual 3D building from satellite.
The shape you see is the shape of my school from satellite. It is embossed and creates an illusion of an actual 3D building from satellite.
The photo in the shape is the main entrance in my school.
It is not easy to uncover the scenes of the past, maybe just as hard as sketching out the future says Paul Valéry. But a task this complicated is assigned to photography.
Both graduate classes have made their own photo narrative story about "memory". The subject is favorable for interpretation so in the end we have two different stories on how we reflect our memories nowadays.
Despite the fact that memory is one of the most subjective and untrustworthy sources of information, it's still the most precious, adaptable and always favorable collection of reality, which to some extent we all own.
The closing photo which symbolizes an open path back to our memories - home.


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Lufthansa 7.9
Air France 7.4
British Airways 7.3
Pros: "The flight was on time"
Cons: "too crowded"
Cons: "flight left without 1/6 of the passengers. ¯\_(ツ)_/¯"
Pros: "Food on long legs was excellent."
Cons: "Delayed in Atlanta. What's new?"
Cons: "Provide earphones or headphones"
Pros: "Comfort, efficiency and entertainment were great."
Cons: "Crew was a little sassy and sour. Maybe one gal was in a happy mood."
Pros: "Everything except the delay was fine, not extraordinary."
Cons: "7-hour flight delay. If this was a European flight we would have been entitled to at least $250 for our inconvenience. We were not offered anything to compensate us for a 7hour delay, which was ridiculous."
Cons: "13 hour delay"
Pros: "Crew was amazing."
Cons: "Took forever to wait in line to board this relatively small plane."
Pros: "Good service great aircraft"
Cons: "Takes along time to get off airplane with everyone getting their bags from the overhead bins"
Pros: "The crew were nice."
Cons: "We could have used more legroom between the seats."
Pros: "Comfortable and spacious seating. Quick and smooth flight."
Cons: "Since this was such a short flight, there wasn't much to improve."
Cons: "The flight was an hour and a half late."
Cons: "No delay"
Pros: "Never made the connecting flight."
Pros: "Nothing special"
Cons: "That was the most uncomfortable and cramped seat I had ever had on a plane flight. Even sitting on the pillow did not help."
Cons: "Departure delayed by 1hr30"
Pros: "great flight attendant"
Cons: "Healthier snacks instead of just candy and cookies... an apple for example would be great."
Cons: "Crew could have proactively provided more water. I was really thirsty mid-flight and had to stand up and ask for water myself."
Pros: "Crew superb"
Cons: "Better food at a homeless shelter..ugh.."
Pros: "The crew was nice, helpful abd friendly. Very seemed glad to serve us."
Cons: "The seats were so close that we could not sleep. You couldnt put your head back or down on table even with pillows. Will not fly Delta again on long flights."
Pros: "Gate agent inATL helped an elderly man get on board early at my suggestion.Proud of our female pilot from ATL-PHF"
Cons: "I'm so used to the nice screens with free tv games and flight tracker and really missed that on this trip. I'm glad I decided not to pay to upgrade to comfort + this trip for the first time in a long time. I was able to use my tablet for flight tracker but could only see the map and not the stats"
Pros: "I was very impressed with the flight attendants. They were very pleasant & very attentive to the guests. The premium seats were very comfortable. The only disappointment was the chicken dinner but the ice cream dessert & refreshments were wonderful."
Pros: "The check in was well staffed and went smoothly and easily. Loved the large movie selection and picture quality."
Pros: "Short flight"
Cons: "Flight attendant was not willing to go above and beyond as he stated he would. My husband asked for a coke and the flight attendant told him he could only get water."
Cons: "Nothing!"
Cons: "Late boarding and take off with no explanation."
Pros: "Hot towel was a plus"
Cons: "The seats weren't that comfortable"
Pros: "The seat was comfy foe the whole 20 min flight"
Cons: "You delayed my flight . Missed my connection and got.stuck at the airport for 6 hours . Now I have to miss work tomorrow"
Pros: "Flight was on time, flight attendants were very nice and professional."
Pros: "Air crew was excellent"
Pros: "Delay. First it was about 20 min, then 30, then 49 and 55. At the end more than 70 minutes delay. Too much, too frequent on delta!!!!"
Cons: "Retrofitted entertainment system under the seats made it very uncomfortable. It was hard to even stretch your legs."
Pros: "I was rerouted."
Cons: "No one would reissue me a ticket for the next flight. Delta and West Jet kept saying the other company should do this, and in the end no one did and I had to purchase another ticket."
Pros: "The flight attendant in Delta Comfort/Main Cabin was very nice and made for an excellent trip. Smooth ride and on time. I like that!"
Pros: "No complaints. A puddle-hopper to a yes."
Pros: "All that one would want."
Pros: "Some "perk" for Diamond status on Delta to get to a shorter security line, but customs and immigration was... customs and immigration."
Cons: "No available SkyTeam lounge unless you had a business class ticket. As a Diamond flier, I can always access the SkyTeam lounges. Audio for boarding was a little unclear so there was some confusion at boarding. For reasons unknown, my bag was moved from one overhead bin to another. Very frustrating since I board early to avoid this confusion and hassle."
Pros: "Smaller plane, aisle seat with a lot of leg room (5c), smooth flight"
Cons: "Shorter flight so no snacks/drinks were served, although requests were fulfilled."
Pros: "Wonderful experience with the staff."
Cons: "No complaints."
Pros: "Comfortable seats and incredible kind staff"
Cons: "No food, drinks, or entertainment. But it was an extremely short flight."
Pros: "There were no problems at all, the only thing some times the entertainment would go out or slow, nothing else."
Cons: "No blankets or pillows. Froze"
Pros: "Food and choice of entertainment was excellent."
Cons: "Was stuck with the middle seat so I knew what I was in for."
Pros: "Friendly crew, ok seats"
Cons: "Was not possible to even request a coffee"
Cons: "No westjet checkin area and no signage. Staff didn't know what was going on."
Pros: "The crew kept it together even though the situation was stacked against them."
Cons: "The plane was really late, changed gates a number of times and switched from one terminal to another then back to the original terminal again. My understanding was this flight was a mess the previous week as well which says that something needs to be fixed. The temperature on the flight fluctuated back and forth from too hot to okay. You get the picture."
Cons: "Delayed to point we would miss connection. So we had to make an effort to find another plane that would get us to connection"
Pros: "Crew was amazing. I will never fly to Europe with anyone else. No joke. Best flying expierence ever."
Cons: "Honestly nothing. From start to finish great time."
Pros: "Great flight and food options."
Cons: "The seats we were in were where it went from 4 in a row to 3, so the telvisions were not directly in front of us, and i had to keep my head turned at an angle for ten hours. It sounds silly, but my neck hurt after the flight a little. Might be a pop out tv you can attach that is moveable to fix this"
Pros: "Hydration station during the long flight. Leg room adequate."
Cons: "They checked my bag at the gate - despite me traveling all over the world NEVER having to check it - and would not take no for an answer, despite me having a 25 minute connection due to their one hour delay. Once boarded there was an incredible amount of empty overhead bins! Bag didn't make it"
Pros: "The Agent at the Lufthansa baggage location services was very nice and helpful."
Cons: "The flight from Copenhagen to Brussels was delayed long enough that I barely made my connecting flight to Frankfurt. However, my luggage did not. I hope it will arrive today."
Pros: "Just about brand new Airbus airplane, very nice! Everything worked, seats reasonably comfortable for a long flight. Boarding worked well by area of the plane, friendly crew."
Pros: "The process and the food. Plane was much too crowded and the seats were impossibly tight. Zero leg room."
Cons: "More leg room."
Pros: "We struggled to get the system to add our bags. Never got it to work and had to pay at check-in. It was even worse coming back! When bad weather caused delays and we missed our connecting flight from Frankfurt to Istanbul they put us on Turkish Airlines which was fabulous!!"
Cons: "Lufhtansa is slipping. They are acting like a budget airline when the expectation is for a full service airline. The online check-in would not let us add bags even though we tried for 3 hours. Not impressed with this."
Pros: "Nice plane, free checked bag, and a snack,"
Cons: "Left 20 minutes late as the copilot was late, middle row seat (as I refused to pay the seat choice charge, (and it was only a one hour flight.)"
Pros: "Comfortable seats and great movie selection. They also had books and games for kids."
Cons: "The food was good but could have been better."
Pros: "easy boarding, great flight attendants"
Cons: "Luggage lost"
Pros: "The fact that I could have upgraded to premium economy. The space available in economy."
Cons: "The length of the flight but it is what it is. I couldn't upgrade to premium economy before arriving at the airport because of this being a code share flight with Lufthansa."
Pros: "service was very good,"
Pros: "Food is provided"
Cons: "Delayed 6 hours on the plane"
Pros: "Excellent service from staff on the flight"
Cons: "Long line-up in Frankfurt at Lufthansa Passport control . Could probably open up the third counter and not just one Business and one Economy? First meal ( Turkey) had something in it that blowded me up all the way to Vancouver! Not sure if it was the vegetables or?? Not nice if you can't walk around and also not great for your neighbor to the right and left. I usually don't experience this with my food that I cook or choose."
Pros: "I travel in so many airline but lufthasen is very good airline i want to travel again"
Pros: "Courteous and friendly staff - did enjoy my gluten free meal"
Cons: "Economy seats leave no room for relaxed arms - i had mine in front of me for 9 hours as the seat was SO small! As am I!!"
Cons: "The food"
Pros: "Individual screens for all seats with a varied selection of entertainment options. Plenty of room under the seat for my carry-on. (It helped that no one was in the seat next to me.) Beverages were offered frequently. Smooth flight, smooth landing."
Pros: "Thank goodness the movies were good."
Cons: "Had to wait in 5 lines before someone could check our bags. no organization at boarding time. Just a free for all."
Cons: "Hickups in entertainment screens. Seats seem te be smaller again Rows without windows"
Pros: "The crew was nice Checking was quick and painless Entertainment had a limited options but good"
Cons: "Very limited food options. I get it is not first class but not everyone likes only chicken or fish"
Cons: "This flight was the second leg on my trip from New York to Munich. Many people on the flight from NY to Brussels were scheduled on this flight and that plane landed in time that this flight would only need to be delayed 10 minutes to allow for us to connect. However, they decided to leave all of us with a long unexpected layover in Brussels, costing many of us a day of what was supposed to be a short vacation for most."
Pros: "Air Canada could learn a few things from you - ie, the incredible impact of providing free food and excellence customer service at the checkout and gates."
Pros: "I like that they doesn't take so much time for boarding"
Cons: "A cookie would be better than a Corny in short flight"
Pros: "Not a good experience overall."
Cons: "Our luggage did not arrive in Naples with us. We heard nothing from Lufthansa despite making numerous attempts to email and call the airline. Our hotel tried to call as well to see if someone could at least tell us if and when our luggage might arrive.We had to go out and buy clothes and personal items. It was a terrible way to start a holiday."
Pros: "I liked professionalisam of the flight crew from the start till the end of the flight. They were always nice and ready to serve on 10 hours flight."
Pros: "That the plane brought me safely to San Diego"
Cons: "Paid entertainment on a 12 hour flight"
Cons: "Late departure"
Pros: "Decent flight. Nice crew. Clean cabin."
Cons: "We booked these flights expecting Lufthansa. Little disappointed to learn they were Brussels airlines. Inflight entertainment options and meal options don't seem to be as good. Flight crew was pleasant and fine. After learning it was Brussels airlines I went through their check-in process for families and requested kid-friendly meals, but nothing came of it. Slightly disappointed."
Cons: "Flight got canceled and never got new flight! Also never got money back!"
Pros: "Seats were decent 36A, entertainment was very good, also paid full r WiFi access which made a 10 hour flight more bearable. Food was ok, nothing special."
Cons: "huge plane, no space. painful."
Cons: "Too many controls during boarding"
Pros: "USB at every seat"
Pros: "Taking off was good"
Cons: "Landing was a little bit stressful. But still ok."
Cons: "Flight got canceled, everything was slow."
Pros: "Crew was helpful. Liked the ice cream bars"
Cons: "Repetitive food choices. Same movies as last month so if you take long trips,you run out of options. I spent 28 hours on flights in Nov and Dec"
Cons: "No boarding lines. Boarded late. I was not given enough time from my arriving flight. I had to spring the length of the airport and up and down stairs as the elevators had long lines. Maybe it was good it boarded late or I wouldn't have made it."
Pros: "The crew was especially cheerful and helpful. The food was surprisingly good for airline food. I have always had a good experience on Lufthansa and this trip was no exception."
Cons: "Some of the movie choices were a little dated."
Cons: "The airplane was extremely cold and the flight staff was rude"
Pros: "The crew was very nice and provided snacks even though the flight was short"
Cons: "This flight was good!"
Cons: "Na"
Pros: "crew was very nice engaging. shopping at Munich airport was unexpectedly good."
Cons: "My seat didn't recline. I changed seats with my sister mid flight so I could sleep."
Pros: "the service,order, attention, human quality, punctuality. all in general."
Pros: "Food, drink and entertainment are very good."
Cons: "Did not care if I made my connecting flight or help me to understand if I could make it, seats are terribly overbooked and crammed. Many people visibly aggravated and mobility compromised due to seats,"
Cons: "Too much sugary bread as nourishment."
Pros: "Excellent service, great airplane, and a high level of professionalism on the part of all Lufthansa crew members. I felt pampered."
Cons: "I was in the next to last row in economy class. The person ahead of me put his seat back as far as it would go. that is his right. Behind me were two friends traveling with me. I doubt if their seats reclined (the last row) so I did not attempt to recline my seat. As a result I was a true "sardine". There was so little space between my face and the seat back ahead of me I could not look at the video screen, which was positioned at an angle when the seat was back. I just closed my eyes and let it pass. Economy plus next time? I have long legs."
Pros: "The chairs were the comfiest I've ever flown in!! Amazing"
Cons: "KLM lost my suitcase and did not deliver it until three days later... They refused to compensate me for having delivered the bag with broken articles inside (A pair of Rayban Wayfarers!)"
Pros: "I was sorted on Row 3 and the drapes kept hitting the back of my head."
Cons: "Move the drapes a few more inches back."
Pros: "Usual faultless KLM experience"
Cons: "Boarding was crazy. Could not everyone in the gate area."
Pros: "Pleasant crew. Appropriate and efficiently served snack."
Cons: "Boarding and disembarkation were slow."
Pros: "Comfortable seat, great crew."
Cons: "Flight delayed, no USB port and no entertainment"
Pros: "Crew great, boarding at Nice very organised, boarding in Amsterdam not so organised!"
Cons: "A queuing system would be better-it was a bit disorganised at Amsterdam!"
Cons: "1. In Flight Entertainment 2. Controlled In Flight Temperature"
Pros: "The seat was a little uncomfortable but the crew were amazing."
Pros: "Seat was good"
Cons: "Depart on time (1 hour late), hostess put a laptop in the overhead, which fell out and hit me when the bin was opened"
Pros: "Our flight was delayed in Bejing, than we loosed the booked flight of KLM. When we arrived in Amsterdam, we get the recheked in flight."
Cons: "Doesn't"
Pros: "Entertainment was amazing"
Cons: "Seats a bit hard"
Cons: "There was no wifi on flight"
Cons: "Delays, took my hand luggage into the hold,"
Cons: "We had 4 hour delay causing a stop over at 3am. So yeah"
Pros: "The earphones for out two seats only worked intermittently, but the Purser, Lee-Ann handled it professionally and pleasantly. That was the only disappointment in an otherwise pleasant flight"
Cons: "The earphones could have worked!"
Pros: "The flight was smooth, the service was friendly, and the food with plentiful."
Cons: "Too much activity in the cabin during the flight."
Pros: "The crew!!"
Pros: "They considered my reguest of vegiterian food."
Cons: "I have no complaints."
Pros: "Friendly and efficient crew. I travel KLM often and always enjoy the flights."
Cons: "There were several flight delays and gates were changes a few times."
Cons: "I ordered Wheel chair for my parents but one of them didn't get it at all. When my parents were checking in for flight they asked the representative about meal selection and she didn't answer their questions properly and because of that my mom didn't get proper Hindu Vegetarian food on flight instead she got Egg omelet which she couldn't eat. She has to eat just fruits. My mother is a diabetic patient and she needs a food every after some time. I never had such a bad experience before with any other airlines."
Cons: "Landlords gave an unpleasant service! Which continued with late of 50min of the flight, they didn't do anything to help/ to provide the passengers the answers. The food was cold It was comfort place to sit. Bad experience with KLM"
Pros: "The seat was spacious and the concept of the evening meal being the lighter option was innovative and well thought out"
Cons: "Boarding was chaotic and congested with not much information or order."
Cons: "Very slow service at checkin, was not even available when I arrived at the airport"
Pros: "The food rocks! I know that I will always be eating well with KLM. The staff is always so nice, professional and cordial...I always know I'll be in good hands with the flight. KLM #605 from Amsterdam to SFO---please pass the praise to all of them."
Pros: "Food and staff behaviour"
Cons: "Entertainment"
Pros: "expedited check in with nice staff. Security staff were pleasant, and the entire check in process for everything was easy"
Cons: "there was no lounge close to our departure gate"
Cons: "I can't take the flight because i'm not Chilean and I don't have a reembolse or other flight ,... nothing . Finally I take other flight with other company"
Pros: "Very friendly service!"
Pros: "Just great crew."
Cons: "Not comfortable at all and will not book KLM again."
Cons: "Service from airline host Poorly maintained plane Bad food Old entertainment"
Pros: "From pre-boarding, to boarding, to the food, and the attentiveness, everything was top notch! The cleanliness of the plane was only topped by the friendliness of the crew."
Cons: "The flight was marked at almost 11hrs but ended up being only 9...not a negative other than it meant not spending as much time on board!"
Cons: "KLM can't seem to figure out the order of boarding the plane. Should be business - priority - everyone else. Instead they do priority first, and that's usually two-thirds of the passengers. Also, really tired of the fake business class on these flights..."
Pros: "Airline staff good and professional"
Cons: "Nothing one can do, for a 6.2" guy, the metal bar that forms the shape for the pouch for magazines and such digs into knees, ESP if person in front adjusts seat back. Fold out table barely accommodates laptop."
Pros: "Everything - Checkin, crew, food, entertainment"
Cons: "They didn't let us board the plane. Allegedly the plane was changed and make us travel by train!! They offered us a compensation but we haven't heard from them yet. Not good experience at all."
Pros: "."
Pros: "The constant supply of food that was offered to you. The crew was nice and always helpful."
Cons: "The process of boarding in Amsterdam was not organized and felt more stressful than it needed to be."
Pros: "Night flight so no entertainment allowed sleeping"
Cons: "Kosher food could be improved"
Pros: "Spacious cabins, friendly service"
Pros: "Flight crew on flight from Amsterdam to Cape Town were probably the most friendly and enthusiastic I've experienced and no, they were not all young. The plane was spotless throughout the flight. They were always coming around with water and juice and they genuinely seemed to care about all the passengers. The Flight back crew were just the opposite. More like the old lazy farts you get on the American carriers or BA or QF long haul. Whoo have been there for the long haul and should have stopped ages ago."
Cons: "The Entertainment images on the screens promoted Beauty and the Beast, Batman Lego movie but neither were on the system! Food quality was rubbish"
Cons: "Did not get the luggage from connecting flight from Amsterdan to Basel"
Pros: "leg room economy compared to KLM"
Cons: "full flight, no upgrade possible"
Pros: "captain was great."
Cons: "With skyteam elite status cannot select free upgrade from economy to premium economy unless it is 30hrs before boarding for this code share which is actually a KLM flight"
Pros: "We really liked the KLM people, from the check in crew to the flight attendants."
Cons: "seats on Jet air flight are very uncomfortable"
Pros: "Having exit aisle made a huge difference in comfort Crew were EXCELLENT"
Cons: "Food was not very good Tasteless and rubbery"
Cons: "Boarding was a disaster as my companion was selected for random search which held us up as there was no urgency to process us. Then there was no sign for where we should go since upper deck on 747 so we went in "economy" line as indicated on ticket and then was sent to correct line when we got to the front, wasting more time. The seatrs were the most uncomfortable I have ever beeon on for a long flight. I also paid extra to be in the exit row, to have people constantly congregating in front of us.The food was also mediocre."
Pros: "The rest area"
Cons: "The airport was cold and it should be warmer"
Cons: "Seat recline was broken- wouldn't hold position."
Pros: "The bread was fresh and food better than other times"
Cons: "Crew is always aggressive and unfriendly"
Pros: "Entertainment programs"
Cons: "New variety of food"
Cons: "Thé qualité officielle the images"
Cons: "No leg room at all, cant believe those seats met legal standard. The plane smelled, boarding was a nightmare because too many people had big bags. An announcement had been madd that vags would be collected, but obviously were not."
Pros: "Crew was attentive. Timings were spot on."
Cons: "Virtually no information at boarding which made everybody just make a huge line. Boarding they a bus, it was raining and we got wet."
Pros: "Well trained, professional, highly efficient flight attendant, and what is more important, in good mood during the whole the flight"
Cons: "The mobile application Air France didn't know the city or airport Dubai. Often same thing happens on the android application work Sheremetievo airport in Moscow"
Pros: "The crew was nice and the seat comfortable."
Cons: "Never got the pre-ordered wheelchair in Paris and only after long negotiations at JFK. Also, Delta lost my checked bag between JFK and DCA."
Pros: "I'm not Hindu, but I requested Hindu Vegetarian meal. It was very tasty and enjoyable."
Cons: "Seats were not comfortable, even in Comfort + seating isle."
Cons: "The flight delayed for 2xhours from Paris to Cincinnati"
Pros: "crew was wonderful, great food, quick boarding"
Cons: "cant think of anything"
Pros: "The crew was efficient and friendly. The plane took off on time and landed on time."
Cons: "Boarding was slow and tedious. People still crowd around the boarding area despite there being row for the zones. Why they don't board from back to front is beyond me. The food was mediocre at best."
Pros: "Nice staff. Flight on time."
Cons: "Bus to plane. Long walk to terminal upon arrival. Long Liong customs line?!!??"
Cons: "WiFi"
Cons: "Air conditioning too cold. Wasn't offered an evening meal. My luggage went missing and I'm still waiting for it to be delivered."
Pros: "FA kept bumping into my seat waking me up"
Cons: "Return the 777 to 9 across"
Pros: "I did like Flying with Delta and Air France but not with Ukrainian airlines (when booking , it should tell you what airlines will be used , to make a better selection )"
Cons: "When I purchased my flight ticket , I purchased with a checked bag (23 kg /50 #) how ever ( who will fly to Ukraine with a 10kg suitcase) I booked for a KLM flight , they used (partener airlines ) when I arrived to LA I flew with Delta , they checked my Suitcase at no cost all the way to my final destinations , that was expected ! When I was going to return , they made me payed 120 dollars ( in Kiev , Ukraine (UIA) , I was very disappointed and I really will love an explanation about all this !"
Pros: "Staff was so helpful and attentive to our needs.Providing service with a smile."
Cons: "Engine noise in the cabin is loud."
Cons: "My entire travel experience became extremely rushed and chaotic due to my flight being canceled and me being alerted -LESS THAN AN HOUR BEFORE IT TOOK OFF! This is unacceptable."
Pros: "I like the service. They caring and give snacks, comfort and overall"
Cons: "None. I like everything"
Pros: "I liked the crew, they were professional and tried their best"
Cons: "The flight was a chartered flight . Air France informed us that due to cabin crew shortage they couldn't operate an air france flight and hence they hired Air Belgium. Whilst the crew were nice , the actual plane was old and creaky. It wasn't up to the standards expected of Air France. They could have done better in getting a plane up to standard. A lot of the passengers were disappointed ."
Pros: "It was quick, very good space in premium economy. Good and friendly service. The food was better than expected"
Cons: "The crew did not announce the score of soccer cup semi final between Belgium and France"
Cons: "CDG is a monster. The distances are long . The signage is poor and when I asked for directions the diirections I got were wrong."
Pros: "The noise-canceling headset is good."
Cons: "The premium economy seat is not reclined at all. The neighbor's seat is too much flexible. This is a maintenance problem. We report these problems to the crew, though there ignored... I should have chosen an economy class seat."
Cons: "Plane was canceled at the last minute with a transfer desk literally assaulted by 100s of people. Only 3 persons on the desk. No lane for sky priority. Queued for nearly two hours before some airport employee gave us instructions to travel by train without any other information or tickets etc. Had to buy my ticket. Couldn't recuperate my suitcase. Had to wait for it the next day for three hours. Up to this hour I don't know how I am going to be reimbursed (train and plane)."
Pros: "Standard on most parts with pleasant staff"
Cons: "Flight was 1/2hr with poor pre-flight communication on the topic. Food wise, the chocolate cookie was better than nothing...but a little savory snack would have been nice."
Cons: "The flight was late, real late."
Pros: "Plane was clean. Pilots made up some of departure delay time in the air between NCE & CDG."
Cons: "Unorganized boarding process and minimal info or announcements regarding delay. Failure to respect SkyPriority status at boarding were disappointing. (Staff allowed it to be a bit pushy and chaotic and people were able to force their way in line, ahead of those who had been waiting in line.) Seats were okay but no recline and underseat storage was small. (Backpack wouldn't fit underseat and had to be stored in overhead.) Passengers crowding from back of plane upon arrival made it hard to deplane and felt rude."
Cons: "There should be more layover time as I almost missed my flight and My luggage was delayed!!"
Pros: "Todo muy bien Volvería a viajar con ellos."
Pros: "Good cabin, but very conjugated :|"
Cons: "Too much of hassle checking in as the airlines partners with a couple of other airlines like Jet Airways, WestJet & Aircanada. The food was just okay and the cabin crew refused to serve extra butter. When you are serving extra bread, make sure you serve the butter as well. How could someone eat bread by itself?"
Pros: "Cabin crew very friendly and caring."
Cons: "Airport services and lounge are OK."
Pros: "it was cancelled so they got me on the next flight on Turkish"
Pros: "The crew was very nice and helpful."
Cons: "We ordered a vegetarian meal. However, the vegetarian option offered to those who did not order a special meal looked better than the vegetarian option that we received."
Cons: "My baggage was broken"
Pros: "Very old plane with very poor screens where images was horrible"
Pros: "All of the crew were friendly and the flight was on time."
Cons: "No problems"
Pros: "The time of the flight was great as well as the arrival time and subsequent connections to Paris. Enjoyed the rather full line of in flight beverages!"
Cons: "Leaving late seemingly without reason from Paris - chaotic boarding line in Paris with difficult to hear PA. Seats were ok'ish but than again, it's a 45 minute flight. The sandwich was gross and I'm somewhat known as a person who eats everything!"
Pros: "Seats were comfortable with good recline. Food was good, but not excellent."
Cons: "They forgot the snack/breakfast service for the front right section of economy then had to rush it. Overall, the service was good, but some things just seemed off. An attendant call was never answered, etc."
Pros: "Friendly crew and exit row had nice legroom."
Cons: "Ran out of the (already not sufficient) salty crackers and, as the flight had been delayed, we had a one packet of cracker 'lunch' at noon... the flight really should have had a sandwich or at least something slightly more substantial."
Cons: "Everything. AF changed seats without authorization or notification, separating a mother from her 3 year old daughter. Their entire attitude was "nothing to be done, now board plane and leave" no compensation was offered, nothing done to remedy their mistake or rude behavior and treatment"
Pros: "Seats were comfortable, but the sliding action, instead of recline, took getting used to. Food was very good. Snacks available on demand, along with drinks. Complimentary wine with meal was also quite good. Entertainment system was first rate with plenty of options for TV. movies, music, games, etc..."
Cons: "Sitting in the middle two seats in the center of the 777 left me stuck for most of the flight. Got up only once. Wife's feet and ankles were swollen by the end of the flight. Not enough legroom to move much during the flight and not enough aisle space to get around with the plane so full. Have made flights twice as long on the 747 and were able to get up and walk."
Cons: "We tried to check our bags through Charles DeGaulle onto our connecting Air Canada flight and the agent refused to even discuss it. Pretty bad service."
Cons: "Wheel chairs for my ill and aged parents was not provided"
Cons: "Very warm and stiffy air on board. Need change light. Very sad neon. Probably Boing style."
Pros: "Was upgraded to Business class, so the food was acceptable. Comfort score also reflects the Business class seat. Cabin crew were friendly and efficient."
Cons: "One bag did not arrive in Toronto, apparently delayed in Paris."
Pros: "Friendly staff"
Cons: "Fly on time"
Pros: "Again staff at mobility assistance were excellent! We were late leaving and pilot made uptime.They really seemed to care about passengers"
Pros: "Crew and airline was fine"
Cons: "Due to the way the flights were booked, even though I flew on the same airline on both legs of my trip they were two separate bookings causing me to wait in line for two hours in Heathrow to get my bags and check back in. I will probably never use kayak / kiwi.com again."
Pros: "Comfortable new plane, friendly staff."
Cons: "Not having over an hour delay followed by buses to disembark resulting in a missed connection."
Cons: "When allotting seats to seniors, BA could have been more considerate and not placed them in middle seats"
Pros: "Crew, food"
Cons: "I had to pay for the luggage. I thought it was included."
Cons: "not ONE single smile !!!!"
Cons: "Entertainment totally outdated ! Unresponsive screen"
Pros: "The staff was very friendly, professional and personal. Had a great seat with extra leg room and the washrooms were always clean. The staff were generous and prompt with the food and beverages and very accommodating."
Cons: "It was a long haul flight so the seat got a little uncomfortable near the end."
Pros: "BA is reliable in many respects. 1- Timely 2- Friendly staff 3- Decent food served in a timely manner 4- In a BA flight, you know exactly what you get"
Cons: "The airlines are pushing people to upgrade with those ever shrinking seats. I had a slightly above average size gentleman seated next to me and the seat was so tight he had to totally take over the shared arm rest and our shoulders were rubbing most of the time. That's not a way to spend 9+ hours"
Pros: "It's a non-stop from Austin to Heathrow. Flight attendants were helpful and professional. Flight was on time."
Cons: "This 747 should be refurbished or retired. I've traveled this flight on 777s and newer 747s. This plane was an embarassment."
Pros: "Friendly and helpful cabin crew, even on this short flight. I liked the fact that the Captain stood outside the flight deck to say goodbye to the passengers. A nice touch."
Pros: "Comfortable seat, great food and service. Very quiet and smooth ride on the upper deck of an A380."
Cons: "Worst issue was the noisy baby at the front of the cabin - no airline seems to have a good solution to this problem!"
Pros: "Crew are really the highlight. Food and seats are good in business class."
Cons: "Boarding was a bit chaotic. Passengers were bunched up outside the departure lounge - not sure if there were lines or not. Got sorted when we got into the lounge."
Pros: "Crew professionalism and on-schedule."
Cons: "Luggage drop off took a while to complete."
Pros: "Everything was dealt-with efficiently. Very friendly staff. I didn't want to have to make that journey but it was as comfortable as it could be."
Cons: "Nothing could have been better."
Pros: "Good staff and food"
Cons: "Seats could have been better"
Pros: "Nice crew, short flight, comfortable seats."
Cons: "Only a small carry-on allowed and one SMALL purse. Also, there is a charge for beverages unless you are in first class."
Cons: "Service was incredibly slow Seats were tight No USB port or charger Tiny entertainment screens Forced to check laptop despite this not being a standard with any other airline for the same route"
Pros: "Good"
Pros: "Great flight and services"
Cons: "It was all good"
Pros: "The efficiency of the boardign"
Cons: "The fact I could not even get a glass of water without a credit card."
Cons: "Service is awful, last time I or my family using ba"
Pros: "Premium Economy seats LHR-SAN. Comfortable, decent food, nice variety of entertainment. This flight is the best way to get from San Diego to Europe."
Cons: "The TV portion of the entertainment system didn't work, but there were enough movies to keep me occupied for the 11 hours of the flight."
Cons: "Gate not given until last minute. The most cramped plane I have ever been on and I'm petite. No complimentary anything."
Pros: "Scum bags wanted >$5k to change flights, daylight robbery"
Pros: "The quality of food let it down but crew cheerful and helpful throughout the flight!"
Cons: "Not good enough to let back of plane consistently have no choice of food because it has run out. Maybe alternate end of plane you start service to avoid this happening."
Pros: "Very pleasant crew"
Pros: "politeness"
Cons: "cold"
Pros: "I require a wheelchair for getting around the airport. When I first checked in at LHR, they claimed to have no record of my wheelchair request and my seat change, despite my very clear notations of who and when these were made. They did have a record of my paying for one suitcase. The agent at LHR promised to make these corrections so I would not have the same problem when returning to London. Furthermore, to turn this into a humiliating situation, at the gate I was informed that the jetway was broken and they would have to find some other way to get me onboard the plane. I cannot believe that British Airways has no contingency plan for a situation like mine. After many discussions between BA reps and ground crewmen they decided to bring me down in a lift at Gate 34, though my plane was at Gate 32. I was then loaded onto the freight platform of one of those food delivery trucks and driven over to my plane. The truck backed into place and again I hoisted up to the plane. However the plane door was locked and we had to bang on it for them to finally open it. To my great embarrassment I helped down the aisle to my assigned seat, looking back at the curious looks and glares from all those passengers who had no explanation for the delay and humiliating scene. Officially the flight was listed at 28 minutes late, when in reality it was 40 minutes till we taxied away from the gate My return flight from Brussels was little better because the changes that were supposed to have been entered at LHR never were and so I had to go through this whole routine again costing me over one hour in delays. Fortunately I was able to board the flight through the jetway and did not have to be hoisted up again, and delivered like freight. How would you rate these flights. I had problems with every single British Airways flight!!"
Pros: "Extended information from the captain was very nice"
Pros: "Because of the cabin crew strike the old biddies pushing the trolleys were smart enough to give the passengers double the quota of wine to keep us quiet so we didn't mind the slow food service. I had an excellent flight sleeping thru half of it."
Cons: "The audio provided by the ear buds provided produced very poor results, probably causes long term hearing loss."
Pros: "Got food poisoning from flight or Italian restaurant at terminal 3"
Pros: "the plane was clean"
Cons: "3 hour delay, no communication with customers regarding delay or connection. Once we finally arrived st Heathrow for the 2nd leg of our journey, we were put on a later connection, no apologies whatsoever from any of the employees. Overall we spent over 4 hours in the air. We were never served even a glass of water or a bag of pretzels. The seats were very tight with very little leg room, and I am only a 5'6" female."
Cons: "Boarding the plane. I do not know why the airlines load the people who are at the front of the plane first. Load the people on the back of the plane first. That way, when you call the next section, the people in the back are not blocking people as they enter. An alternative is to call people in sections based on where they sit in a row. If you have window seat, you should be called first. Why? Because so many passengers who have aisle seats have to get up to let people with middle or window seats get in. So, they hold traffic up as people are trying to get to their seats. After window seat passengers get called, then call middle seat passengers, and last, call aisle seat passengers."
Pros: "I was prepared with my smart phone and iPad and external batteries, turns out I needed none of those things! What a pleasant surprise for the in flight movies, music and tv to be perfect. I didn't even have to use my external battery on the flight because there is a perfect USB port in the screen in front of you. The food was as good as airplane good gets, the plane incredibly comfortable and staff was attentive. I don't love the long flights but this BA flight is now my go to anytime Im headed to Europe."
Pros: "Al parts of flight expertly handled by staff, especially cabin people. Thanks for a great flight, VA."
Pros: "It was a short leg."
Cons: "You had to pay for your drinks! How cheap! Also, they spent a significant amount of time trying to get your to shop after they tried to sell you the drinks. I used to love the quality of British Air. I'll use other options in the future."
Cons: "The seats on this British Airways flight were so tight and pitched forward that my knees were jammed into the seat in front of me and I felt as if I was being launched forward the entire flight. Not comfortable or safe."
Pros: "I wish the menu can be more kid friendly. I enjoy the food no my kiddos"
Pros: "The ground crew at checkin were friendly."
Cons: "The old aircraft that looked like it had seen better days. The old entertainment system that was jittery and crashed."
Pros: "Great crew good service, except a little unorganized at the gate. Best service I've gotten compared to other airlines I've experienced."
Cons: "Food was a little cold. Sitting in the middle of the row is the worst most uncomfortable in economy."
Pros: "I was seated on the upper deck of a 747 (63K) and had plenty of room. The cabin was quiet even though the plane was full. Service was excellent. I enjoyed the food. Cabin crew were great."
Cons: "The entertainment system was old and didn't have the selection of programs available on newer aircraft. Flight map was not at all detailed. Time for an upgrade BA! Boarding was a bit of mess. BA has so many different categories of who gets to board first that it got to be very confusing. People couldn't understand if it was their turn or not and people kept being turned away to wait their turn. It would be far easier if people were given a number from 1-5 like Air Canada and they call those numbers which are also printed on your boarding pass. I was flying business class and I think it a terrible cheek that they charge extra (in my case $129-$159 EACH WAY) to select your seat in advance. That's insane considering what I have already spent on the business class ticket. Seems like a money grab to me. I usually fly Air Canada, and this high extra charge will probably make me think twice about flying BA in the future."
Cons: "The low resolution screens and limited programming compared to other airlines and aircraft"
Pros: "Pleasant flight crew"
Pros: "Great food."
Cons: "Not much space for a long flight."
Pros: "The food was good and free."
Cons: "I bought a ticket from British airlines but the first leg of the trip was with Vueling. The online check in at British Airlines sent me to Vueling but I couldn't check in with British. We had to stand in line at Vueling to check our bags and then with British Airlines to get Get the boarding passes for the other two legs of our our trip. The bags didn't make the switch. British Airlines found our bags in 2 days but 5 days later that's a week later the web check of our file says bags ready for Delivery and call help line can not talk to the airport to find out the problem."
Pros: "even better!"
Cons: "Wheelchair attendant was late picking me up from the Club World lounge (at least the British Airways agent monitoring the whole thing cared and kept us updated while we sat out front waiting. Despite the fact that I'd checked with BA the previous night that yes, I was registered to have a gluten-free meal (as of two weeks beforfehand), the flight attendants had no record of this and no GF meal had been included for me. Entertainment = faded screens, bad touch screen interface, crashed nd needed to be rebooted at one point, touch screen minimally responsive, a shockingly small number of choices. Did not have wireless or a usb port, but fortunately there was a universal AC outlet and I had my wall charger along so that I could spend most of the flight using my iPad to read. I'm especially displease with the food, boarding process, and entertainment considering my boyfriend's and my seats were Club World seats I'd paid for (rather than receiving them as a reward). On the bright side, the lie-flat seats saved me from days of post-flight pain, so it could have been worse. Not pleased overall, and the next time I travel internationally, I'll probably chooseanother airline if the prices only differ by a few hundred dollars."
Cons: "Missed the flight and the next flight was to expense had to take a train to my destination and pay $400 extra dollars. Was at airport and checked in 2 hours early sitting at what seemed to be the only London flight going out. Our flight was not listed on the computer monitors and we checked it several times. Our names were not announced over loud speaker and no one helped us to rebook."
Safety measures for airlines flying from Belgium to Vancouver Intl
Airlines flying from Belgium to Vancouver Intl have enacted additional safety measures and adjusted policies to better accommodate travellers. Policies vary by airline.
Daily cleaning, installation of cabin HEPA filters on flights from Belgium to Vancouver Intl
Masks required on board, masks provided on flights from Belgium to Vancouver Intl
Middle seats unavailable to book on flights from Belgium to Vancouver Intl
Testing for antibodies, testing for symptoms for flights from Belgium to Vancouver Intl
Waiving of change fees. Search flexible flights from Belgium to Vancouver Intl
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1932 Modern kingdom of Saudi Arabia founded
King Abdel Aziz ibn Saud unified the kingdom of Saudi Arabia following a series of military conquests between 1902 and 1926. He established an absolute monarchy, which gained legitimacy from an 18th century alliance between the Al Saud family and the Wahhabi sect of Islam. Muhammed bin Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of Wahhabism, preached a strict adherence to the principles of sharia (Islamic law). His relationship with a local chieftain of the Al Saud family contributed to the strengthening and endurance of both the Wahhabis' religious authority, and the Al Sauds' political authority.
Saudi Arabia and the United States established diplomatic relations in 1933.
1933 Saudi Arabia and Standard Oil sign concession agreement
King Abdel Aziz granted a concession to the U.S. company, Standard Oil, which allowed them to explore for oil in the country's Eastern Province. The joint enterprise eventually became known as the Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco). The company granted a loan of £50,000 to the Saudi government and paid it other assorted rental fees and royalty payments. In exchange, Aramco received exclusive rights to mine, produce and export oil from the eastern part of the country, free of Saudi taxes and duties. In 1938, efforts were rewarded with the first discovery of commercial quantities of oil at Dammam Well Number 7, located near Dhahran.
The agreement was modified several times over the years. In 1950, Saudi Arabia and Aramco agreed to a 50-50 profit-sharing arrangement, and a series of agreements between 1973 and 1980 resulted in the Saudis' regaining full control of the company. In 1988, King Fahd issued a royal decree establishing the Saudi Arabian Oil Company, known as Saudi Aramco, to replace Aramco.
1945 Saudi Arabia gains strategic importance during World War II
Although Saudi Arabia officially maintained neutrality through most of the war, the U.S. began to court the kingdom as it realized the strategic importance of Saudi oil reserves. In 1943, President Franklin Roosevelt made Saudi Arabia eligible for Lend-Lease assistance by declaring the defense of Saudi Arabia of vital interest to the U.S. In 1945, King Abdel Aziz and President Roosevelt cemented the tacit oil-for-security relationship when they met aboard the USS Quincy in the Suez Canal.
1951 U.S. and Saudi Arabia formalize security relationship
Under a mutual defense agreement, the U.S. established a permanent U.S. Military Training Mission in the kingdom and agreed to provide training support in the use of weapons and other security-related services to the Saudi armed forces. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers assisted in the construction of military installations in the kingdom. This agreement formed the basis of what grew into a longstanding security relationship.
1953 Crown Prince Saud becomes king
Upon his death, King Abdel Aziz was succeeded by his son, Crown Prince Saud, who was known for his reputation as a spendthrift. Under King Saud, the kingdom's treasury diminished rapidly and he was forced to turn over direct control of government affairs to his half-brother Faisal from 1958 to 1961. In 1964, the royal family and religious leadership forced Saud to abdicate in favor of Faisal.
1960 OPEC is founded
At a conference in Baghdad, Saudi Arabia joined Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Venezuela in founding the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). The organization -- which was later joined by Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Algeria and Nigeria -- was established to coordinate and unify petroleum production and pricing among the member nations.
1963 U.S. fighter jets sent to Saudi Arabia
The 1962-1967 civil war in Yemen pitted Saudi-supported royalists against Egyptian-supported republicans. In November 1963, Egyptian aircraft bombed several villages inside Saudi territory. U.S. President John F. Kennedy responded by sending a squadron of F-100 fighter jets to protect Saudi Arabia. The Egyptians backed down after the threat from the U.S., but tensions between the two nations did not subside until Egypt withdrew its troops from Yemen in 1967.
1964 Faisal becomes king
Upon his accession to the throne, King Faisal began a modernization program, which stressed economic development and included increased expenditures for education. Partly because of his reputation as a pious Muslim, King Faisal was able to cautiously introduce Western technology as part of his modernization efforts, including the kingdom's first television broadcasts in 1965. The introduction of television offended some Saudis, including one of the king's nephews, who was killed in a police shootout after he lead an assault on one of the new television stations.
1985 Saudi Arabia develops infrastructure during oil boom years
Petroleum prices rose during the 1970s and early 1980s, and the Saudi economy became one of the fastest-growing world economies. By 1981, oil revenues in the kingdom had reached $116 billion per year.
The explosion of petrodollars into the Saudi economy led to a rapid infrastructure development during the government's First Five Year Development Plan (1970-75) and Second Five Year Development Plan (1975-80). The nation rapidly increased its pipeline capacity, seaports, and telecommunication structure. The government also invested large sums of money in building new airports, hotels, schools, hospitals and power plants, and tripled the total length of paved highways. Many foreign private firms invested in joint ventures to build refineries and other technologies important to the petrochemical industry. During the Third Five-Year Development Plan (1980-1985), the government targeted spending on social services, education and healthcare.
The petrodollars were also used to fund the construction of new mosques and religious schools, known as madrassas, throughout the kingdom and abroad. There was an explosion in religious charities that were funded by a newly wealthy citizenry. U.S. officials believe that the network of madrassas across the world -- funded by the Saudi charities and fueled by the strict Wahhabi interpretation of Islam -- evolved into a network of recruiting schools that were to train Islamic militants to fight the jihad war in Afghanistan against the Soviet invasion (1979-1989).
1975 King Faisal assassinated
On March 25, King Faisal was shot and killed by a disgruntled nephew -- the brother of the king's nephew who had been killed in the 1965 shootout at the television station. The king's assassin was executed after an investigation showed he had acted alone.
King Faisal was succeeded by Crown Prince Khalid, whose reign was marked by continued modernization efforts and a more influential role for Saudi Arabia in regional politics.
1979 Saudi Arabia breaks off diplomatic relations with Egypt
Outraged by the Egypt-Israeli Camp David peace treaty, King Khalid broke off relations with Egypt. Diplomatic relations were not restored until November 1987.
1979 The monarchy faces internal political dissent
Surprising many who believed fundamentalism was not a strong force in Saudi Arabia, Sunni Islamic dissidents seized control of the Grand Mosque at Mecca, one of the holiest sites in Islam. The armed dissidents charged that the Al Saud regime had lost its legitimacy due to corruption and its closer ties to Western nations. The standoff lasted for several weeks before the Saudi military succeeded in removing the dissidents. More than 200 troops and dissidents were killed at the mosque, and subsequently over 60 dissidents were publicly beheaded.
Two weeks later the monarchy faced riots in the Eastern Province by Shi'a Muslims inspired by Ayatollah Khomeini's victory in Iran. The government sent 20,000 troops to the area. Several protesters were killed and hundreds were reportedly arrested. In the wake of the riots, the government announced economic development projects for the region to improve the standard of living in Shi'a areas.
1979 U.S. military sales to Saudi Arabia
In the wake of Ayatollah Khomeini's revolution in Iran and the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan, the U.S. and Saudi Arabia continued to strengthen their security relationship. The continuing explosion of petrodollars into the Saudi treasury allowed the government to increase military expenditures. Since 1979, the kingdom has spent more than $50 billion on U.S. military purchases, including 5 airborne warning and control systems (AWACS) and a $5.6 billion "peace shield" -- a state of the art command and control system for the Royal Saudi Air Force with six underground command centers linking 147 defense-related sites.
In the U.S., arms sales to Saudi Arabia often faced strong congressional opposition because of fears that the arming of Saudi Arabia would threaten Israel. In 1985, Congress rejected President Reagan's proposed sale of an arms package to Saudi Arabia that included 42 F-15s, antiaircraft missiles, Harpoon antiship missiles, and Blackhawk helicopters, and Reagan was forced to withdraw the proposal. In 1986 and 1988, Congress approved scaled-down arms packages that included Bradley fighting vehicles, TOW II antitank missiles, electronic upgrades for the F-15s, and 12 replacement F-15s that would remain in the U.S. until they were needed by the Saudis. The Stinger antiaircraft and Maverick antitank missiles were deleted from the president's earlier request.
1981 Formation of Gulf Cooperation Council
Saudi Arabia joined five other Persian Gulf nations -- Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates -- in forming the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), an economic and political policy-coordinating forum. At the time, the six countries contained more than half the world's oil resources.
1982 King Fahd assumes the throne
After a short illness, King Khalid died and was succeeded by Crown Prince Fahd. King Fahd faced decreased oil revenues due to declining global oil prices in the late 1980s and 1990s. However, under King Fahd, Saudi Arabia continued to maintain its influence in the Arab world, with the king serving as a mediator in both the Lebanese civil war and the Iran-Iraq conflict that was resolved in 1988. King Fahd maintained healthy relations with the United States.
1991 Persian Gulf War
Saudi Arabia and the United States were close allies during the crisis and war that followed the surprise Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990. As Iraqi combat forces moved toward the Saudi border, King Fahd authorized the deployment of U.S. forces to aid in his border defense.
The kingdom hosted over 600,000 allied forces, and its treasury reached record deficit levels in 1990 and 1991. The U.S. spent $60 billion on the Gulf War, with the Saudis and Kuwaitis footing half the bill. As a result, the Saudi government was forced to borrow from commercial banks and export credit agencies for the first time.
Approximately 5,000 U.S. troops have remained in the kingdom since the Gulf War. Their presence has served as a major grievance for fundamentalist critics of the regime, including Saudi-born Osama bin Laden.
1992 Religious leaders criticize King Fahd
A group of 107 Wahhabi religious figures sent a 46-page "Memorandum of Advice" to King Fahd, which criticized the government for corruption and human-rights abuses and for allowing U.S. troops on Saudi soil. The document advocated that the government follow a stricter adherence to sharia and repudiate relations with non-Western governments. King Fahd dismissed seven of the seventeen members of the country's highest clerical body, the Supreme Authority of Senior Scholars, for refusing to denounce the memorandum.
1994 Monarchy faces protests in Buraida
Prompted by the government's arrest of two dissident Wahhabi clerics for anti-government preaching, several thousand protestors staged demonstrations in the Saudi town of Buraida. The clerics had accused the monarchy of corruption and of betraying Islam by allowing U.S. troops on the Saudi peninsula. While the government admitted it arrested over 100 protestors, opposition groups claimed thousands were arrested after the demonstrations.
The incident forced the government to cede more control to the Wahhabi clerics, but only with the promise of their support. The clerics were quietly released from prison in 1999.
1995 Terrorist bombing in Riyadh kills five Americans
In the first terrorist attack against U.S. troops on Saudi soil, five Americans were killed when a bomb exploded at a U.S.-operated Saudi National Guard training center in Riyadh.
The Saudi government arrested four Saudi men in connection with the bombing and coerced them into a public confession. In the confession, they claimed to have been inspired by bin Laden communiqués. Although bin Laden denied involvement, he praised the attack. Before the FBI had a chance to interview the suspects, they were beheaded in Riyadh's main square.
1995 King Fahd suffers a stroke
Since suffering the stroke, King Fahd's health has continued to decline. By the end of 1997, Crown Prince Abdullah had become the de facto leader of the country and assumed many of the day-to-day responsibilities of running the government.
In contrast to King Fahd, who was seen as a staunch U.S. ally, Crown Prince Abdullah is known for his support of Arab and Islamic causes, particularly his strong support of the Palestinian intifada. He has criticized the U.S. for not opposing Israeli violence in Palestine, turning down a May 2001 invitation to visit the White House.
1996 Khobar Towers bombing kills 19 U.S. servicemen
A large truck bomb devastated the U.S. military residence in Dhahran, called Khobar Towers, killing 19 servicemen. Again, U.S. law-enforcement efforts to investigate the bombing were met with resistance by Saudi officials. In June 2001, a federal grand jury indicted 13 Saudis and one Lebanese man for the attack. As of mid-November 2001, Saudi Arabia has ruled out the idea of any extraditions.
1997 Saudi Arabia recognizes the Taliban
In September 1996, the Taliban gained control of the Afghan city of Kabul. The following year, Saudi Arabia became one of only three countries to establish diplomatic relations with the Taliban. The Taliban are followers of the Deobandi school of Islam, an extreme form of the faith closely related to Wahhabism. Although diplomatic ties were not broken until after the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks, relations were scaled back in 1998 after the kingdom accused the Taliban of harboring Osama bin Laden.
On Sept. 25, 2001, the kingdom broke relations with the Taliban and issued a statement that said: "It is to be regretted that the government of the Taliban made use of Afghanistan's special status, not to build up brotherly relations or set up high Islamic values, but to make its land a center to attract and train a number of misguided people of all nationalities, and in particular, from among the citizens of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, in order to carry out criminal acts that are against every tenet of Shariah [Islamic Law] and faith: moreover, Taliban has continued to refuse to hand those criminals over to justice."
2001 Strains in U.S.-Saudi relationship
Frustrated by the lack of U.S. response to Israeli-Palestinian violence, Crown Prince Abdullah sent President George W. Bush an angry letter on August 29, according to an October 2001 report in The Wall Street Journal. He warned that Saudi Arabia was being put in an untenable position and reportedly wrote: "A time comes when peoples and nations part. We are at a crossroads. It is time for the United States and Saudi Arabia to look at their separate interests. Those governments that don't feel the pulse of their people and respond to it will suffer the fate of the Shah of Iran."
Sep. 11,
2001 Saudi response to terrorist attacks
Saudi Arabia issued a statement on the day of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, calling them "regrettable and inhuman." As of mid-November, the Bush administration has continued to publicly praise Saudi support for the war on terrorism.
However, published media reports have indicated U.S. frustration with Saudi inaction. Although 15 of the 19 Sept. 11 hijackers were Saudi nationals, publicly the Saudis were not cooperating with Americans wanting to look at background files of the hijackers or interview the hijackers' families. Although the U.S. might have wanted to use Saudi bases for its campaign in Afghanistan, the U.S. knew it couldn't ask the Saudis to allow American planes to fly bombing raids against the Taliban.
U.S. State Department, Background Note: Saudi Arabia
Library of Congress, Saudi Arabia: A Country Study
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Brunswick weighs options for $350K revenue-sharing windfall
The town manager hopes to use some of the money to reduce the tax rate.
By Taylor AbbottMorning Sentinel
BRUNSWICK — The town manager is recommending a $350,000 state revenue sharing surplus be used to reduce the tax rate, pave roads and increase the town's contingency fund.
At Monday's Town Council meeting, where Maine Department of Transportation officials introduced a potential redesign of the Maine Street/Route 1 overpass, councilors also voted to share animal control services with Freeport.
The town had expected to receive $1.45 million from state revenue sharing. The surplus is the result of the state's $8 billion biennial budget.
Town Manager John Eldridge's recommendation is to use $200,000 to reduce the property tax rate from $19.86 per $1,000 of valuation to $19.77. If approved, the annual tax bill for a home valued at $200,000 would drop from $3,972 to $3,954 a year. The tax increase for fiscal year 2020 would decline from 4.97% to 4.47%.
Eldridge also recommends putting $100,000 toward road paving and the remaining $50,000 to go into a contingency reserve fund.
No decision was made at the July 15 meeting, where councilors and residents offered their own suggestions about how to divide the funds.
Councilor Dan Ankeles suggested giving some of the surplus to Curtis Memorial Library for programming. Several residents suggested reserving more money to assist asylum-seekers moving into Brunswick.
The council is expected to vote on the funding Aug. 5, after Eldridge takes the comments under consideration.
MDOT officials said they have been working to come up with an alternative to the Maine Street and Route 1 overpass, often referred to as the "Pool Table." The agency has hired T.Y.Lin, an engineering firm in Falmouth, to assess the condition of the overpass and create ways to make the area safer and more accessible to drivers.
Six alternatives were presented at the meeting, including partial updates and lane expansions, creating a roundabout. Cost estimates ranged from $2.5 million to $11.1 million.
Town Engineer Ryan Barnes said a public hearing on the project will likely be held in early September.
South Portland's last independent pharmacy acquired by CVS
South Portland OKs affordable housing fund, historic preservation rules
brunswick maine, Forecaster News
Former Holly's to become auto detail shop
Brunswick art museum celebrates Maine bicentennial with lithography exhibit
Midcoast residents seek ways to stem rise in youth mental illness
Older than Maine, Gorham Academy due for facelift
Orland man charged with manslaughter after fatal car crash


The issue continues, however, to rear its ugly head. As recently as last month (June 2011), an unemployed Pittsburgh man registered at a job fair. According to the The Quarter Roll, an internet magazine based in a suburb of Pittsburgh, registrants were told that if they were currently unemployed they could not apply with the company hosting the job fair, although they were free to visit the booths of other employers..
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The DNA is the biological molecule that stores all the genetic information of the cell (in some viruses RNA may function as the molecule that stores the genetic information). Everything that the cells has to do, at what time in its life cycle, and how it has to do it is determined by the information contained in the DNA molecule. In addition, DNA functions as the molecule that carries on the genetic information from parent to offspring..
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1st Bolster Moor Farm Shop, Golcar, Huddersfield.
2nd. Hinchliffes's Farm Shop, Netherton, Huddersfield.
3rd. Broster's Farm Shop, Lindley, Huddersfield.
4th. Wilson's of Crossgates, Leeds.
1st. Peter Middlemiss, Otley. (Pork, Chicken and stuffing).
2nd. The Gourmet Pork Pie Company, Dewsbury. (Pork, spicy mango & chutney).
3rd. Bolster Moor Farm Shop, Golcar, Huddersfield. (Pork, caramelised onionrelish & Wensleydale cheese).
4th. Hinchliffe's Farm Shop, Netherton, Huddersfield. (Pork, Wensleydale cheese & apricot).
Thanks to the generosity of competitors, and the proceeds of pie and pea sales and auction, we estimate to have raised over £3000 for charity.
This year's main benefactor will be Overgate Hospice, Elland.& apricot).
This year's main benefactor will be Overgate Hospice, Elland.


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Ha scritto e prodotto più di cento episodi di The Big Bang Theory. Ha anche lavorato per altre sitcom come Samantha chi?, Le cose che amo di te e Raven.

Collegamenti esterni

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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OR LODGE CELEBRATES 50TH ANNIVERSARY
Were you aware that there is a Masonic Lodge associated with the School ?
The formation of a School Lodge was first considered in 1938/39, again in 1945/46 and finally the Lodge was eventually consecrated on 12 January 1965 in Gundulph Masonic Hall, Rochester, by the Right Worshipful the Provincial Grand Master of Kent, The Right Hon. The Lord Cornwallis. On the 26th April 2015, the Lodge celebrated its golden anniversary with a special luncheon in the historic Cobham Hall.
Tradition says that a Lodge had met at the Goose and Gridiron pub near St. Paul's Churchyard for decades and had initiated Sir Christopher Wren in 1691. In the evening of the 24th June 1717, a group of freemasons met there to create the world's first Grand Lodge and in 2017, the Craft marked this special anniversary with many events to celebrate its tercentenary. By 1730, the Grand Lodge met regularly and had over one hundred Lodges under its authority and had constituted Lodges in Spain and India. Due to some disagreements, in 1751 a rival Ancients Grand Lodge was formed claiming that the original 1717 Grand Lodge had departed from the ancient landmarks of the order. These two Grand Lodges continued their rivalry for sixty two years with some Brethren belonging to both. HRH The Prince of Wales (later King George IV) had been Grand Master of the premier Grand Lodge since 1791 but becoming Prince Regent in 1813, he resigned and was succeeded by HRH The Duke of Sussex. The Duke of Athol also resigned as Grand Master of the Antients Grand Lodge and was succeeded by HRH The Duke of Kent. The two brothers soon had Articles of Union drawn up and with great ceremony on the 27th December 1813, the United Grand Lodge of England was formed.
In 1874, HRH The Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII) was elected Grand Master and held that office until succeeding Queen Victoria as King in 1901. Successive members of the Royal family have participated in our Lodges and of course, our present Grand Master is the Duke of Kent.
Every year, members of the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) donate over £30 million pounds to charity, over half of which goes to support non-Masonic causes. Caring for people less fortunate than themselves has been from the earliest times a principle of the Order. Freemasonry is spread all over the world and providing support where natural disasters and crises happen at home and abroad is an important part of Masonic charitable giving – over the past five years over £600,000 had been donated. To celebrate the Tercentenary, an additional £3 million pounds was given to 300 charities operating in England and Wales. Another milestone was also reached as Freemasons have provided over two million teddy bears and soft toys to A&E Departments for medical staff to give to distressed children.
The Old Roffensian Lodge is in good heart and is open to embrace men who do not necessarily have a connection with the School and who can appreciate the ethos of a school founded in 604 AD and the charitable aims of Masonry. The past two years have seen three initiates and three joining members to boost our numbers. The Lodge meets four times a year in October, December, March and the Installation of the new Master takes place in June.
For the future the Lodge needs new members, both young and not so young, who with perseverance and fortitude will uphold the Masonic principles of care and charity and take the Lodge into its next fifty years. Those who are over 21 years of age and fulfil the criteria above may apply.
If anyone is interested in joining the Old Roffensian Lodge please contact the Secretary, Robert Edmond, 12, The Grange, Shepherdswell, Dover, Kent, CT15 7QB.
David Littlejohn (OC 1959 – 1964) OR


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E-mail the academic coach directly.


See the historic quarter of Dubai from Abu Dhabi with this comprehensive Dubai sightseeing tour. Dubai is one of the world's fastest growing cities, and has changed from a small Gulf trading centre to a glamorous modern hub.
Drive around the city and see how the old and the new has blended and has given Dubai a vibrant character.
You will drive from Abu Dhabi to Dubai and cover its major attractions like the Jumeirah Mosque, Sheikh Mohammed's Palace, Dubai Creek, and spice and gold souks.
Accompanied by a bilingual guide at all times, this enchanting tour takes you from ancient to the modern world.
You will be picked up in an air-conditioned vehicle from your Abu Dhabi hotel for your Dubai sightseeing tour. You will drive for approximately 2 hours to reach Dubai.
During the drive, you will pass by Jumeirah Beach Road, going past exclusive residential neighbourhood with villas, mansions and palaces.
Your first stop will be the Jumeirah Mosque which is one of the most attractive mosques in Dubai. Built in Egyptian style, it is the only mosque in Dubai open for non-Muslims.
You will continue your journey to the Zabeel area, an impressive and illustrious part of Dubai.
Next, you will see the palace of Sheikh Mohammed, the ruler of Dubai. It is one of the oldest buildings in the city and houses a rare collection of historic photographs, coins, stamps and documents that record Dubai's history.
Witness a few more opulent and majestic residences before reaching the banks of Dubai Creek from where you catch views of the amazing Dubai skyline, which serves for brilliant photography.
Just a few-minutes-drive away is the Al Fahidi Fort. Believed to be Dubai's oldest fort, it is home to the Dubai museum. It has walls built from coral and shell cemented together with lime. It was built to defend Dubai's early community from warlike neighbouring tribes.
You will enter the Dubai Museum and learn about the rich history and cultural heritage of Dubai.
Moving forward, you will board an Abra, a type of water taxi, to reach the opposite bank of the Creek, and the suburb of Deira. At Deira, you will visit the traditional gold and spice souks and mingle with the merchants. You will experience an amazing contrast in just one city with shopping facilities like in the old times as well as in the modern world.
After Deira, you will drive back to Abu Dhabi and dropped at your hotel.
Guests are requested not to wear shorts, skirts or clothes which may be sleeveless or transparent.
Minimum 6 passengers (Adults) required to operate the tour.


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