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Made How
A topographic map is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional land surface. Topographic maps are differentiated from other maps in that they show both the horizontal and vertical positions of the terrain. Through a combination of contour lines, colors, symbols, labels, and other graphical representations, topographic maps portray the shapes and locations of mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, cities, roads, bridges, and many other natural and man-made features. They also contain valuable reference information for surveyors and map makers, including bench marks, base lines and meridians, and magnetic declinations. Topographic maps are used by civil engineers, environmental managers, and urban planners, as well as by outdoor enthusiasts, emergency services agencies, and historians.
Some of the earliest known maps were made in Mesopotamnia, in the area now known as Iraq, where a series of maps showing property boundaries were drawn in about 2400 B.C. for the purpose of land taxation. A Roman map dating from about 335-366 A.D. showed such topographical features as roads, cities, rivers, and mountains. The word topography is derived from the Greek words topos, meaning a place, and graphien, meaning to write. Thus, topography is the written, or drawn, description of a place.
Although the basics of land surveying were known as early as 1200 B.C. , and perhaps even earlier, the use of surveying techniques in preparing maps was limited to cities and other small-scale areas. Larger-scale maps were prepared from sketches or journals kept by explorers and sometimes reflected more imagination than observation. As a result, the exact positions of points on a map were often grossly in error.
In 1539, the Dutch mathematician and geographer Reiner Gemma Frisius described a method for surveying an area by dividing it into triangles. This concept of triangulation became one of the basic techniques of field surveying and is still used today. One of the first large-scale mapping projects using triangulation was started in the 1670s by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, who had been persuaded to make a detailed map of France. After Cassini's death, his children and grandchildren continued to labor on the project. The final result, called the Carte de Cassini, was published in 1793 and was the first accurate topographic map of an entire country. Its only shortcoming was the general lack of elevation measurements, other than a few spot elevations determined by measuring the variation in air pressure with altitude using a barometer. The concept of contour lines to show different elevations on a map was developed by the French engineer J.L. Dupain-Triel in 1791. Although this method allowed the accurate depiction of land contours and elevations on a flat, two-dimensional map, it was not widely used until the mid-1800s.
In the United States, the federal government recognized the importance of accurate topographic maps in a rapidly growing country. In 1807, President Thomas Jefferson established the Survey of the Coast to map the Atlantic coastline as an aid to travel and commerce. In 1836, this organization was renamed the U.S. Coast Survey, and in 1878 the name changed to the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In the meantime, mapping of the interior of the country fell to a variety of individuals and organizations, including the Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804-1806, who mapped their route from St. Louis, Missouri, to the Pacific Northwest. During the period from 1838 until the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, the Army's Corps of Topographical Engineers made major contributions in mapping the western United States, including a detailed map published in 1848 based on John Fremont's explorations. By the 1870s, so many different groups were conducting surveys that their work began to overlap. To consolidate this effort, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) was established in 1879.
Most of the early map making was done by laborious field surveys. Starting in the 1930s, the USGS began using aerial photography techniques to produce and update maps. In the 1980s the use of computers to scan and redraw existing maps significantly reduced the time required to update maps in areas of rapid growth.
Today, the USGS has more than 56,000 topographic maps of the United States in various scales, plus maps of the moon and planets. They also publish specialty maps including geologic, hydrologic, and photoimage maps for a variety of uses.
Map Scales, Symbols,
In order to be useful, topographic maps must show sufficient information on a map size that is convenient to use. This is accomplished by selecting a map scale that is neither too large nor too small and by enhancing the map details through the use of symbols and colors.
The most common USGS topographic map scale is 1:24,000. In this scale 1 inch on the map represents 24,000 in, or 2,000 ft. (1 cm represents 240 m) on the ground. These maps are called 7.5 minute quadrangle maps because each map covers a four-sided area on the surface of Earth that is 7.5 minutes of longitude wide and 7.5 minutes of latitude high, where 60 minutes equals one degree of angle. Because the distance between longitude lines gets narrower as you move from the equator towards the poles, the widths of the maps also vary. For maps of the United States, the maps measure about 23 in (58.4 cm) wide by 27 in (68.6 cm) high for locations below a latitude of 31 degrees and about 22 in (55.9 cm) wide by 27 in (68.6 cm high) for locations above that latitude. Other common USGS map scales are 1:63,360, 1:100,000, and 1:250,000. These scales cover larger areas than the 1:24,000 maps, but with less detail.
In order to make the topographic maps easier to interpret, symbols and colors are used to represent various natural and man-made features. Some symbols are designed to look like the feature when viewed from overhead. For example, buildings are shown as solid objects in the shape of the building outline. Other symbols are universally recognized representations such as a long line with small cross marks to represent a railroad. Colors play an even more important role. Rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water are shown in blue. Forests and heavily vegetated areas are shown in green. Minor roads and highways are shown in black, while major highways are shown in red. Contour lines, which represent the shape of the ground itself, are shown in brown. Recent revisions to the map are shown in purple.
The Manufacturing
The production of an accurate topographic map is a long and complex process that may take as much as five years from start to finish. It takes a skilled team of surveyors, engravers, fact checkers, printers, and others to produce a good map. Here is a typical sequence of operations used by the U.S. Geological Survey to produce a 7.5 minute quadrangle topographic map.
Photographing the area
1 The area to be mapped must first be photographed from the air. Each section of ground is photographed from two different angles to provide a stereoscopic three-dimensional image that can be converted into contour lines. The sky must be clear, and the sun must be at the proper angle for the type of terrain being photographed. Seasonal
Each section of ground is photographed from two different angles to provide a stereoscopic three-dimensional image that can be converted into contour lines.
factors must also be taken into consideration. For example, in areas where there are deciduous trees, the photos are usually taken between late fall and early spring when the trees are bare and the underlying ground features are more visible.
2 The aircraft is flown over the area at a constant altitude in a north-south direction along carefully determined flight paths while special cameras take 10 precisely positioned photographs of each quadrangle. Each camera can cost $250,000 or more.
Surveying the control points
3 To ensure the accuracy of a map, the exact location of various control points must be established by field surveys. Typical control points may be the intersection of two roads or other prominent features within the map area. Horizontal control points are surveyed to determine the longitude and latitude, while vertical control points are surveyed separately to determine elevations. The location and elevation of these control points help the map makers correctly position the aerial photo images and assign values to the contour lines.
4 While the surveyors are in the field, they also look for features, which may require further checking, such as roads or streams hidden beneath overhanging foliage, or buildings that may have been constructed or demolished since the aerial photographs were taken.
Verifying the map features
5 Some map features may require additional verification. For example, some streams may run only intermittently, in which case they would be represented on the map by a dash-dot or lighter-weight instead of a solid line. Certain roads may turn out to be private roads, rather than public roads, and these must be marked. Field checkers go into the area and verify these features by talking with local residents or consulting local property records. Any questionable features noted by the survey crews must also be verified. The correct spelling of place names must be determined.
Compiling the map manuscript
6 After the area has been surveyed and all the features have been checked, the pairs of overlapping aerial photographs are placed in a stereoscopic projector. One image is projected to the operator's left eye and the other image to his right eye. The result is a three-dimensional view of the terrain. Two small beams of light are connected to a pointer and are adjusted to intersect in a tiny white dot corresponding to a given elevation on the three-dimensional terrain image. By
To ensure the accuracy of a map, the exact location of various control points must be established by field surveys. A separate scribecoat is made for each color used.
moving the pointer while keeping the two beams focused in a dot, the operator traces each contour line of the ground and the location of various features. The pointer is connected to a pen on the tracing table that draws the contour or feature being traced. All contours and features are drawn in black at this point. This process is called compiling the map manuscript.
7 When the tracing is completed, the finished map manuscript is photographed, and a map-sized film negative is made. This negative is photochemically reproduced onto several thin plastic sheets coated with a soft, translucent coating called a scribecoat.
Scribing and editing the map
8 The plastic sheets are taken one at a time and placed on a light table, where a soft light shines up through a white plastic surface. This illumination from below makes the lines of the map manuscript visible through the scribecoat. An engraver carefully cuts away the scribecoat along the lines and areas that are to be a certain color on the finished map. For example, one sheet will have all the lines for rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water that are to be blue. This process is repeated for each color.
9 Separate sheets for the lettering are prepared by placing a clear plastic sheet over each scribed sheet and carefully aligning the lettering with the features to be labeled. Type sizes, styles, and fonts are selected according to standards, which assure consistency and legibility from one map to another. A film negative is then made of each finished type sheet.
10 After the scribed sheets are reviewed and edited several times, a color proof sheet is made by exposing each sheet under different color light to produce a color print that looks very much like the finished map. After further review and editing, the map is ready to be printed.
Printing the map
11 A press plate is prepared for each map color by exposing the scribed sheets and the lettering negatives. Paper is loaded into a lithographic printing press, and the first color is printed. The press plate and ink are changed and the paper is run through the press a second time to print the second color. This process is repeated until all the colors have been printed. Some of the largest presses can print up to five colors in sequence without changing plates or reloading the paper.
The USGS uses the National Map Accuracy Standards set up in 1947. Starting in 1958, the USGS began testing the accuracy of their maps by field checking 20 or more well defined points on about 10% of the maps being produced each year.
For a 7.5 minute map at 1:24,000 scale, the horizontal accuracy standard requires that the locations shown on the map for at least 90% of the points checked must be accurate to within 40 ft (12.2 m) of the actual locations on the ground. The vertical accuracy standard requires that the elevations shown on the map for at least 90% of the points checked must be accurate to within one half of the contour interval on the ground. For a map with 10 ft (3 m) contour intervals, this means the elevations shown on the map must be accurate to within 5 ft (1.5 m) of the actual elevations on the ground. To give you an idea of what these standards mean to map makers, the horizontal accuracy standard requires that the location of at least 90% of the check points on the map must be drawn to within 0.02 in (0.05 cm) of the correct position.
Most of the topographic maps currently in use were produced manually. For mapmakers, however, the future is here today. A well-established network of navigational satellites form the basis of the Global Positioning System (GPS). This system allows field surveyors to accurately determine horizontal positions within a few feet, even in the most remote terrain where conventional surveying techniques are impossible.
Other satellites carrying a variety of sensors may soon replace the aerial photography method of making maps. The first of a series of Landsat satellites was launched in 1972, and by 1984 they could detect objects on the surface of Earth about 100 ft (30 m) in size. In 1998, an American company was preparing to launch a satellite that could detect objects as small as 3 ft (1 m), which would produce images with as much detail as current USGS 7.5 minute maps. More importantly, these images would be captured and transmitted as digital data, which could then be processed and printed by computers. This would significantly reduce the time required to produce or update maps and would improve the overall accuracy as well.
Thompson, Morris M. Maps for America, 3rd edition. U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey National Center, 1987.
Pike, Richard J. and Gail P. Thelin. "Building a Better Map." Earth (January 1992): 44-51.
Wilford, John Noble. "Revolutions in Mapping." National Geographic (February 1998): 6-39.
"Map Accuracy Standards." U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, July 1996.
"Map Scales." U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, October 1993.
"Topographic Mapping." U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
"Topographic Map Symbols." U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
U.S. Geological Survey. http://www.usgs.gov .
—Chris Cavette
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Also read article about Topographic Map from Wikipedia
Al Mosher
Sep 2, 2013 @ 7:19 pm
Puzzled by the paragraph on Quality Control, seems inconsistent. It talks of horizontal accuracy to 40 feet but the end they say 2/100ths of an INCH.??!?
"To give you an idea of what these standards mean to map makers, the horizontal accuracy standard requires that the location of at least 90% of the check points on the map must be drawn to within 0.02 in (0.05 cm) of the correct position."
Topographic Map forum
Tin Toy Wagon


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9 Unusual Things You Can Order From Hotel Room Service
Jennifer Wood
Overpriced or not, there are few things that make you feel more pampered during a hotel stay than ordering room service. While any old hotel can send up a plate of pancakes or a burger and fries under a silver domed lid, some hotels are taking the concept of "room service" to new heights by delivering everything from Fender guitars to an oversized Tom Selleck pillow. Here are nine of our favorites.
1. Celebrity Pillows for Cuddling
At Seattle's Kimpton Palladian Hotel, pillow talk is all the rage. Guests looking to cuddle up with their favorite celebrities at the end of a long day of travel or sightseeing. Brad Pitt, Leonardo DiCaprio, David Bowie, Elvis Presley and Bill Murray are among the A-listers you can ask to sleep with. (If you're more into mustaches and a retro '80s vibe, Tom Selleck and Chuck Norris are on the menu, too.) And if you grow a little too attached, don't worry — and definitely don't try to stick the pillow in your suitcase: the hotel makes them available for purchase, too.
We'll take one Tom Selleck, stat! Image courtesy Kimpton Palladian Hotel.
2. Guitars for Rocking Out
Rock stars and hotels have a long and contentious history, but the nhow Berlin is hoping to change that with its music-centric amenities, which include two professional recording studios, a monthly open mic night in the hotel bar (bring your A game if you want to participate), and iPod terminals in the guest rooms. While a half-dozen of the hotel's junior suites come equipped with a Casio digital piano, there's also a music room service menu that will let you order up guitars, keyboards, amplifiers, and headphones at no charge. (Don't forget those headphones: your neighbors will thank you.)
Perhaps unsurprisingly, the Hard Rock Hotels live up to their name with their "The Sound of Your Stay" program, which allows guests to turn their hotel rooms into personalized recording studios by simply reserving one of 20 Fender guitars, which will be delivered to your room with headphones and a floor amplifier. For newbies, in-room video tutorials will teach you how to move beyond simple strumming.
Rock out at the Hotel nhow Berlin. Image courtesy of Hotel nhow Berlin.
3. Complimentary Nightcaps
The Bedtime Butler might just be the most popular employee at Portland, Oregon's Kimpton RiverPlace Hotel — and with good reason. Four to five nights each week, the butler (and his or her cart) surprises guests with a knock on the door and the opportunity to indulge in all sorts of p.m. treats, including complimentary nightcaps made with local bourbons, a selection of books to help lull you to sleep and hot cocoa and cookies for the kids (or the young at heart). But there's a small catch: you can't pick up the phone and ask for the service — you need to be in the right place, at the right time. Which is reason enough to say "cheers!"
Surprise — it's the Bedtime Butler! Image courtesy Kimpton RiverPlace Hotel
4. Personal Bartenders for Custom Cocktails
Craving a cocktail? While it would be easy enough for guests of California's Cavallo Point, overlooking the Golden Gate Bridge in Sausalito, to make their way over to the lodge's Murray Circle restaurant or Farley Bar, why bother? A simple call down to room service can have a personal bartender in your room, ready to craft a cocktail to your very demanding specifications — shaken or stirred.
Cheers — your in-room bartender has arrived. Image courtesy of Cavallo Point.
5. Weber Grills for Impromptu Barbecues
It's the goal of most hotels to feel like a home away from home — particularly a hotel that specializes in extended-stay accommodations. TownePlace Suites, Marriott's all-suite chain that caters to business travelers, understands this and knows that few things feel more "homey" than cooking up some burgers and dogs on the grill (even if it's a borrowed one). That's why Weber grills are just one of the many just-like-home items you'll find waiting for you to fire up — same goes for those ever-important grilling utensils (though you'll have to venture outside your room, to the official area where they're stationed, to get to 'em. Safety first!).
Get grilling at TownPlace Suites by Marriott. Image courtesy of Marriott International Inc.
6. IV Infusion Therapies to Revive Your System
To call the HGU New York a wellness-focused hotel would be a major understatement — wellness-obsessed would be much more accurate. For proof, look no further than the property's partnership with REVIV, one of the world's leading wellness centers, which will deliver any one of its range of IV infusion therapies right to your room to fix what ails you, whether it's jet lag or a hangover.
From jet lag to hangovers, there's an IV therapy to cure what ails you. Image courtesy of HGU New York's Facebook page.
7. Make-You-Own Ice Cream Sundae Bar
If you're traveling with kids, it's important to keep them entertained. And that's where the Four Seasons Chicago's Ice Cream Man comes in. Kids (and, well, you) will hardly be able to contain themselves when the hotel's Ice Cream Man arrives, with cart in tow, ready to let young guests concoct a sundae with all the toppings they can handle.
The Ice Cream Man has arrived. Image courtesy of Four Seasons Chicago.
8. 24-Scoop Sundae for You and 11 Friends
When it comes to ice cream, kids aren't the only ones who get to have all the fun. At the Hotel Victor in South Beach, guests can order up a 24-scoop sundae, a.k.a. the King Kong Sundae, from the onsite (and pretty famous) outpost of Sugar Factory, a sweets-loving brasserie. Though it's priced at a hefty $99, it easily serves 12 (or fewer — it's your vacation, so it's up to you) and is topped with hot fudge, caramel, strawberry sauce, bananas, toasted marshmallows, Reese's Pieces, chocolate chip cookies, crushed waffle cones, gummi bears, white chocolate strawberry shavings, toasted walnuts, and whipped cream — all of that topped with a couple of gigantic lollipops and sparklers.
To share or not to share? Sugar Factory's King Kong Sundae begs the question. Image courtesy of Scott Eisen/Getty Images for Sugar Factory American Brasserie.
9. Traditional Luau — With Entertainment
Sure it may seem cliché, but a visit to Hawaii just isn't quite complete without partaking in a luau. Fortunately for guests of the Four Seasons Resort Maui, they don't even have to leave their room to experience one. For $180, you can order up a luau for two on the lanai, complete with a fresh Mai Tai, a selection of poke, poi, coconut haupia, and a bevy of local delicacies. Staying in a larger suite? If there's enough room to fit some dancers and singers, you can order up some entertainment at the same time. (Just don't expect any of those pyrotechnic tricks).
Photo by Colin Anderson/Getty Images
Jennifer Wood is a contributing writer for The Points Guy

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


We'll miss it when it's gone. In a week when there's news of ITV's half year results being 'hit by the worst decline in UK television advertising on record' and when losses at News International (owners of The Sun and The Times) are causing a rethink on free access to the newspapers' news websites, now is a good time to consider what's so good about advertising.
The strict separation of editorial from advertising is important in defence of press freedom and in helping consumers make choices. (Public relations can tend to blur these boundaries).
The advertising-funding model has given us an abundance of free television, free magazines, free commercial radio and nearly-free newspapers as well as free websites and some free products. How much are we willing to pay to keep these?
Commercial-free spaces (such as the BBC) are welcome – but a world with no commercials would be a greyer place. Some of us can remember the communist Soviet Union; it was commercial-free, but there was no lack of government propaganda.
Advertising can be entertaining and even culturally important. Look at a newspaper of a hundred years ago, and the advertising is more interesting (because more culturally specific) than the news. Look at an old photograph of a street scene in a major city and you can date it from the transport, the fashions – and the advertising and branding.
I'll find it much harder to teach public relations to first year undergraduates without reference to advertising (young people are particularly responsive to advertising – and public relations concepts and practices are elusive at first).


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FreedomPop To Offer App-Sized Data Plans, Free Use Of Sponsored Apps
Ingrid Lunden	@ingridlunden / 5 years
Earlier this month, Facebook made some waves in the mobile world when it acquired Pryte, a platform for carriers to sell bite-sized (byte-sized), cheaper, data for specific apps or other services. Facebook's interest was for its Internet.org push into developing markets, but it's not the only one interested in a la carte data: a similar model is also getting rolled out in the U.S.
FreedomPop, the U.S. mobile carrier that offers users "free" mobile services (coming soon to Europe, too), is planning a Pryte-style "pay as you app" feature where users can buy data allowances for specific apps. On top of that, it's also launching a "sponsored" service that will give people free data allowances for specific mobile apps for a period of time. The service is set to go live in Q3.
This will sit alongside FreedomPop's basic mobile service, with gives users 500 megabytes of free 4G usage each month, either on phones they purchase via FreedomPop or bring in to use on the network.
The screenshot above shows how the service (now in test mode) currently looks, and what kinds of offerings will be on it.
For example, users can buy Facebook usage for one hour for $1, or pay $7 to get it for a whole month; or get "sponsored" access to CNN's app for free.
From what I understand, the placement of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and CNN is more hypothetical than actual — FreedomPop has not yet confirmed what apps will be in the mix but says there will be at least three sponsored apps at launch, as well the option to pay by the hour/month for 50 of the most popular apps.
Since the sponsored data usage is effectively a kind of mobile advertising, I wouldn't be surprised to see gaming companies, which are strong users of mobile ads, among them.
FreedomPop will also include add-ons for its own services as part of the offering. They will include one-off purchases of unlimited voice, or "anything data" options that people can use for whatever they want.
FreedomPop's move will give the carrier a clearer way to sell its own services — possibly a response to some of the criticism that it has faced over its lack of charging transparency, with some users accruing extra charges when they've unwittingly exceeded their "free" allowances.
This is partly to do with the disconnect between "bytes" and actual usage. "The biggest issue we see is a majority of users that don't really understand how data is measured or consumed, e.g. 1 MB vs 1 GB, or what apps consume what. They burn through 500MBs on 30 mins of YouTube," the company says. So instead it's working out charges for data usage based on particular apps.
That will likely mean that data-heavy options for a YouTube app package may be charged somewhat higher than, say, monthly package for Twitter. It's an interesting development, given the currents around net neutrality, although FreedomPop says that while it's a supporter of net neutrality, this is less about that "and more about an alternative model to our current 'freemium' model to try and make access free."
It's also interesting for a couple of other reasons.
For one, it points to how mobile data is evolving as we move from early and mid-stage adopters to more ubiquitous use of smartphones.
Those who have shied away from spending hundreds of dollars every month on mobile phone plans could be more likely to buy into mobile data use if it's offered in smaller segments and cheaper prices — or so the thinking goes. This trend's also being played out in devices themselves, with handset makers moving to offer low-cost smartphones targeting the same users.
"Currently, wireless access is a commodity that users pay a large premium for. However we see no reason why the access model can't look more like TV or the internet where advertisers essentially subsidize the "basic" content creation (e.g. NBC or TC) and users only pay for premium (e.g. HBO or WSJ.com)," the company tells me.
All the same, it's not guaranteed that a la carte will be to everyone's taste.
"From a user perspective, we will need to see if demand is significant enough to deliver real traction," the company says. "But, if you step back, a menu model is actually a more intuitive way to consume mobile data for a large segment of the population. It gives more control to the user and delivers more savings for a large segment of users who do most of their data consumption on a small segment of apps. Ultimately, it should allow an average user the ability to spend $10-$20 per month all in and fluctuate that up/down with actual consumption."
Although a la carte offerings may bring in lower average revenues per user, at least it gets those later adopters spending a little, with he hopes that it will eventually lead to more over time. It's a trend that is also being applied in other areas like streaming video, where some providers (like Wuaki in Europe) are playing around with how to charge for individual films and TV shows.
The other interesting point is that this is another step in how mobile advertising is changing.
It doesn't necessarily mean that invasive display ads on your mobile screen will be disappearing, but app sponsorship becomes another part of the ad inventory on offer. ESPN might sponsor an ESPN feed, but in theory LG or Samsung could sponsor it, too.
The idea will be to offer this in a programmatic way to advertisers: letting them sponsor data use of an app on a particular day (e.g. Monday nights), for a particular demographic (e.g. 21-34 year-olds), or in a particular region (e.g. in L.A.). "We are investing a lot to build out the capability for any app developer or company to sponsor data with pricing determined by an apps' 'proximate data consumption,'" a source at the company says.
FreedomPop is also going to offer "blitzes" of free app usage, which will tie sponsored data usage into SMS ads as well. For example, if, during the World Cup, ESPN or another brand wants to sponsor ESPN's app for the duration of a game, FreedomPop would send out paid SMS to users that says something like "Use of ESPN is free for the next two hours and your data plan will not be charged."
FreedomPop's user base of one-quarter of a million subscribers is tiny compared to the size of carriers like Verizon Wireless, which has nearly 125 million subscribers. FreedomPop says it's growing subscribers at a rate of 20% month-on-month.
It's also planning to make its first move outside the U.S., and it will announce its first carrier partner in Europe in the next two months.


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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8">
<title>Inter-component Interfaces: compmgr.h File Reference</title>
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Main Page

Modules

Packages

Classes

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compmgr.h File Reference

Detailed Description

The file contains description of public component manager handles and interfaces for initialization and dynamic linking of VM components.

Classes

struct  	_OpenInterface

 	The _OpenInterface structure represents a virtual table of interface functions.  More...

struct  	_OpenComponent

 	Default component interface.  More...

struct  	_OpenInstance

 	The generic component instance.  More...

struct  	_OpenInstanceAllocator

 	The private component interface used by a component manager to allocate and dispose instances.  More...

struct  	_OpenComponentManager

 	The virtual table which contains public component manager interface.  More...

Typedefs

Handles

Handles are opaque for an interface user.

The user operates with handles by means of interface functions.

typedef _OpenInterface * 	OpenInterfaceHandle

 	The handle of the abstract component interface.

typedef _OpenComponent * 	OpenComponentHandle

 	The handle of the open component.

typedef _OpenInstance * 	OpenInstanceHandle

 	The handle of the open instance.

typedef _OpenInstanceAllocator * 	OpenInstanceAllocatorHandle

 	The handle of the instance allocator interface.

typedef _OpenComponentManager * 	OpenComponentManagerHandle

 	The handle of the component manager interface.

typedef int(*) 	OpenComponentInitializer (OpenComponentHandle *p_component, OpenInstanceAllocatorHandle *p_allocator, apr_pool_t *pool)

 	The generic component initialization function type.

Typedef Documentation

          typedef struct _OpenInterface* OpenInterfaceHandle

The handle of the abstract component interface.

          typedef struct _OpenComponent* OpenComponentHandle

The handle of the open component.

          typedef struct _OpenInstance* OpenInstanceHandle

The handle of the open instance.

          typedef struct _OpenInstanceAllocator* OpenInstanceAllocatorHandle

The handle of the instance allocator interface.

          typedef struct _OpenComponentManager* OpenComponentManagerHandle

The handle of the component manager interface.

          typedef int(*) OpenComponentInitializer(OpenComponentHandle *p_component, OpenInstanceAllocatorHandle *p_allocator, apr_pool_t *pool)

The generic component initialization function type.

Parameters:

<tt>[out]</tt> 	p_component 	on return, points to a handle of a default component interface

<tt>[out]</tt> 	p_allocator 	on return, points to a handle of a private instance allocation interface

	pool 	a memory pool with the component lifetime

Returns:

APR_SUCCESS if successful, otherwise a non-zero error code

<address style="text-align: center;">

Genereated on Tue Mar 11 19:25:22 2008 by Doxygen.

(c) Copyright 2005, 2008 The Apache Software Foundation or its licensors, as applicable.

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Joe Breen has been awarded the Sumner M. Redstone Fellowship to work at the New York Legal Assistance Group, where he will combat fraud and predatory lending in higher education with a focus on representing military veterans. While at Harvard Law, Joe was Editor-in-Chief of the Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, a researcher for the Access to Justice Lab, and a clinical student in the Project on Predatory Student Lending. Joe is also a co-founder of Resistance School, an online learning platform for skills in organizing and activism. Prior to law school, Joe served as an Urban Fellow and Policy Advisor to the Commissioner of the New York City Department of Small Business Services. He has a B.A. in American Studies from Yale and a Master's in Public Policy from the Harvard Kennedy School.


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Xª Flottiglia MAS – unità della Regia Marina del Regno d'Italia
Xª Flottiglia MAS – unità della Marina Nazionale Repubblicana della Repubblica Sociale Italiana

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When it comes to profit a large percentage of businesses have a problem with expenses, not income. Hundreds of business owners the coaches meet in their normal week are wasting thousands of dollars on many different unnecessary expenses. Advertising is just one of them.
So let's just look at advertising for a moment. Let's look how that fits in with the grand scale of marketing. The dictionary definition of marketing is something that quite a few business owners need to be aware of. I say that because in our travels as coaches we meet business owners who have an unusual reaction to our invitation to the free sales and marketing seminars we present across the country. When personally invited on numerous occasions the answer is no thanks I don't do any marketing in my business! As Brad would say that, 'isn't that interesting!!'.
I'll now give you the Webster dictionary definition of marketing, 'the act of buying and selling in a market'. Which includes everything from manufacturing to selling to packaging. So every single business does marketing. Just like every business sells. As Robert Johnson, a professional sales trainer says and I quote, 'anyone who can get in front of another person who can say uh huh to another is a salesperson'.
So let's look at some of the ways to save profit through marketing. A good place to start is knowing what it costs you to acquire a customer from every sort of advertising promotion you do. By that, I mean actual paying customers, not inquiries. Most business owners we meet don't know how to work out if their ads are working and they just feel that advertising is a necessary expense that doesn't work.
If you compare the acquisition costs for all types of advertising that you do you'll find an interesting mix of numbers. For example, you may find it costs you $95 to 'buy a customer' through Yellow Pages, $54 to buy one from the local newspaper and $25 to buy one from a letterbox flier. So what do you do now?
Well, you could stop running the Yellow Pages ad or at least redo it with a headline of some sort offering the reader an incentive to read on. Doing this alone we've seen 19 times increase in response from an ad! Imagine having that sort of an inquiry increase in your business. What would that do for you?
The numbers are interesting because if your average customer spends $500 with you, it means that if you got them from Yellow Pages you have already spent $95 to get them just in advertising costs without considering anything else.
If you acquired a customer from a flier it means you have just made $70 more profit on a sale of $500, a 14% increase. Once you know your acquisition cost you can try to improve it. You'll find it varies quite a bit for all the different types of advertising. It's important to look at other ways to generate leads like strategic alliances, direct mail, seminars, shows and host beneficiaries (Yes. This is a marketing strategy that very few people know about and it just happens to be about the lowest acquisition cost and most profitable marketing strategy there is and no one knows about it!!).
The old saying that you shouldn't put all your eggs in one basket is very true with advertising. Yellow Pages is totally passive as an advertising promotion. By that I mean, if people happen to decide on their own that they want a product or a service then they happen to decide to look in the Yellow Pages then they happen to decide to look at your ad then they may ring you. There are so many opportunities for them to find someone else before they see your number that the percentage of sales that you can win from Yellow Pages before they get to another business before yours is very high.
A better way or another way of thinking is to take your business to your customer by asking yourself where can you find them. Then what will you use to communicate to them to get them interested in using your business? A direct mail letter is an obvious choice if you define your target market accurately. Or what about a host-beneficiary marketing strategy where you find other businesses that have a complimentary (but not competing) customer database that you can distribute to. This idea will work for nearly every business type there is!
Can you see how these marketing strategies can have a better result than the Yellow Pages? It's because you are taking your business to them. Educating a prospect as to why they choose to buy from you now.
It's important to know all these things and the best judge is acquisition cost. Work it out for your business. While you're doing that you'll need to know what your conversion rate from initial inquiry to actual sale is. You may find that very interesting too when you compare that with different forms of lead generation. But that's another story for another day.
Work on testing and measuring and you'll find thousands of dollars in extra profit even without our help!


When the first generation of the Skagit Compact lines from Airflo were Introduced in 2008, they were instantly a hit. They are tremendously easy to cast and will allow you to cast in tight quarters like when your back is up against the trees. They bomb across the river with ease and will cast flies the size of a chicken.
In 2016, Airflo with the help of Tom Larimer, released the second generation of the Skagit Compact, the Skagit Compact G2. The new Skagit Compact G2 boasts a slightly shorter overall length, increased rear taper, a manipulation of material densities, and the high-float Super-DRI tecnology. All of those changes have combined to make the G2 a high floating, easier casting line with eye-popping tight and precise loops. But who wants easy casting with tight loops when you can't look good doing it? With a new two toned line color scheme of Mint Green and Blue you can have all the benefits of the new line and you can look good to. Yes, Airflo does think of everything.


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Civil Rights & Social Justice
Help support independent media!
AZ Only State Cutting Welfare During Government Shutdown
Home > Economy Published October 7, 2013 - 7:00am
Arizona's decision to withhold welfare checks because of the federal government shutdown appears to make it the only state to cut off funding for the very poor because of the budget crisis, according to policy experts.
The state stopped payments averaging $207 a week to 5,200 families eligible for Temporary Assistance for Needy Families after Tuesday's government shutdown. TANF provides cash assistance and other support to low-income children and their parents.
The Arizona Republic reports (http://bit.ly/18HBAiQ ) the decision came despite assurances from federal officials that states would be reimbursed for any payments they made for the federal program. It also comes as the state sits on a $450 million rainy day fund.
Democratic lawmakers are now urging Republican Gov. Jan Brewer to reverse the decision, even if it means calling a special legislative session to get the authority to tap the fund.
"The rainy-day fund is for emergencies, and this is an emergency," said Senate Minority Leader Leah Landrum Taylor, D-Phoenix. "This is beyond hurting the families. ... Families are relying upon this."
Landrum Taylor said Department of Economic Security Director Clarence Carter told her he had no funds available to make the welfare payments, which amount to about $1 million a week for the 5,200 families affected.
DES and Brewer's office did not respond to telephone calls and emails from the Republic seeking comment Thursday and Friday. The Associated Press also left a message for a Brewer spokesman Sunday.
The cuts essentially mean very low income families who were approved for the aid don't get it, with little warning, said LaDonna Pavetti, vice president for family income support at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities in Washington, D.C.
Pavetti and Elizabeth Lower-Basch, a senior policy analyst at the Center for Law and Social Policy in Washington, said they aren't aware of any other states that have failed to make welfare payments because of the shutdown.
Rep. Debbie McCune Davis, D-Phoenix, said DES officials indicated "there isn't money that they can free up to cover this."
"So the ball is in the governor's court. She would either need to release emergency funds or call the Legislature back into session," McCune Davis said. "These are resources that are going to the most needy families in our state. They are families with children who are very unlikely to have any cash reserves to fall back on."
DES last week also told vendors there would be slight delays in payments because of the shutdown. The memo said the agency was analyzing the impact of the shutdown on its federally funded programs.
In an interoffice bulletin to supervisors, the DES listed the payment programs that were placed on hold Wednesday, including cash assistance, refugee assistance and TANF funds for the Hopi, Pascua Yaqui, Salt River Pima-Maricopa and San Carlos Apache tribes.
Read more here: http://www.star-telegram.com/2013/10/06/5224810/ariz-only-state-cutting-...
Go to AZ State Page
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Architecture, Arts / Style, Awards/Honors, Commemorations, International	 October 27, 2012 October 27, 2012
David Adjaye Tops Britain's PowerList 2013
David Adjaye is hailed as the UK's most inspirational black figure by the 2013 PowerList. Photograph: Graeme Robertson for the Guardian
David Adjaye, the architect chosen to design Washington DC's $500 million National Museum of African American History and Culture, has topped a list of Britain's most influential black people, ahead of double Olympic gold medalist Mo Farah and "The Wire" star Idris Elba.
In the sixth edition of the annual PowerList, the top 100 people regarded as role models in their fields, the Tanzanian-born founder of Adjaye Associates is hailed as an inspirational figure who saw off financial crisis during the recession to become one of the country's most high-profile architects.
At No 2 is Pat McGrath, a make-up artist from Northampton who has worked with designers including Prada and Armani. Farah is third and at No 5 is Damon Buffini, the former chairman of the private equity firm Permira. Also in the top 10 are John Sentamu, the outspoken archbishop of York, and Chuka Umunna, the telegenic Labour MP and shadow business secretary.
Michael Eboda, the editor who began the PowerList, said the initial idea was to show that "there was more to the black community than footballers and entertainers". "Since then it's taken on a life of its own," he said. "What we've realised is this is about role models primarily … It's become more about showing youngsters that with a bit of hard work and dedication this is what you can do. We feel the easiest way of showing somebody what's possible is by showing them somebody who's already done it, who maybe looks like them and has come from a similar background as them."
Eboda said about 20,000 copies of the PowerList 2013 would be sent to schools across the UK.
The qualification for selection on the list was "the ability to alter events and change lives in a positive way", Eboda said. It's not about how much money someone has but about how much influence they have."
He said the list was a useful tool in smashing stereotypes.
"The truth is most people who are on screen and most footballers are not that influential when you judge it by that definition. They probably get paid a good sum of money and they're probably quite famous and well-known. But if you look at people who really … make things happen it tends not to be them. It tends to be people who are behind the scenes."
This year, figures who have previously topped the list, such as Tidjane Thiam, the chief executive of the Prudential insurance group, Baroness Scotland, Baroness Amos and the billionaire philanthropist Mo Ibrahim, have been moved to a Hall of Fame to make way for new names. Also in 2013's top 10 are businessman Ken Olisa, lawyer Sandie Okoro, and Karen Blackett, the chief executive of MediaCom.
In 2009 Adjaye agreed a company voluntary arrangement with creditors to prevent his business collapsing and he has since consolidated his reputation as a creative showman and "starchitect" to celebrity clients. Eboda said he was inspirational not only for his achievements but his comeback of the past three years. Earlier this year he was present at the ground breaking ceremony of the African American museum on the National Mall in Washington DC, which was first proposed by black Civil War veterans nearly a century ago.
In 2005, Adjaye incurred the wrath of the columnist and broadcaster Janet Street-Porter over problems with her house. She later wrote that she dreamed "of ritually disemboweling" him "before mopping up the stormwater in my living room with his designer sweaters". Adjaye, the son of a Ghanaian diplomat who came to Britain at the age of nine, said the row was a shame but that the problems had not been due to his designs.
He is expected to attend a reception at Downing Street on Thursday to mark Black History Month. Writing in the PowerList, David Cameron said: "We should never underestimate the power of role models. When teenagers see high achievers who look like them, who have reached the top in law, business, politics, they're going to think: 'I can do that; I can go far too.'"
1. David Adjaye, architect
2. Pat McGrath, global creative design director, Procter & Gamble
3. Mo Farah, Olympic double gold medalist
4. Ken Olisa, chairman, Restoration Partners, non-executive director, Thomson Reuters
5. Damon Buffini, philanthropist/private equity magnate
6. Sandie Okoro, global general counsel, Barings Asset Management
7 Karen Blackett, chief executive, MediaCom
8. Chuka Umunna, shadow business secretary
9. John Sentamu, archbishop of York
10. Idris Elba, actor/producer
article by Lizzy Davies via guardian.co.uk
Filed under: Adjaye Associates, Architect, architecture, David Adjaye, Idris Elba, Micahel Eboda, Mo Farah, most influential black people, National Museum of African American History And Culture, Pat McGrath, Powerlist, Tanzania, United Kingdom, Washington DC
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text:
Spaceflight Insider
Mission Monitor
Pluto surprises scientists with atmospheric haze and flowing ice
Laurel Kornfeld
Artist's impression of how the surface of Pluto might look, according to one of the two models that a team of astronomers has developed to account for the observed properties of Pluto's atmosphere, as studied with CRIRES. The image shows patches of pure methane ice on the surface and a tenuous haze in the horizon. At the distance of Pluto, the Sun appears about 1,000 times fainter than on Earth. Image Credit: ESO / L. Calçada
Pluto's complex surface geology and unusual atmosphere continue to baffle scientists almost two weeks after the spacecraft's closest approach to Pluto as NASA's New Horizons spacecraft returns data from the historic July 14, 2015, flyby.
Images taken by the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI), released at a press conference on Friday, July 24, show evidence of flowing ices in the area informally dubbed Sputnik Planum, on the west side of Pluto's famous heart feature.
A sheet of ice in this bright region appears to have flowed or could still be flowing in a manner similar to the movement of glaciers on Earth. Mission co-investigator John Spencer noted the only other places in the Solar System experiencing this kind of activity are the planets Earth and Mars, both of which are active worlds.
Annotated image of the northwestern region of Pluto's Sputnik Planum, swirl-shaped patterns of light and dark suggest that a surface layer of exotic ices has flowed around obstacles and into depressions, much like glaciers on Earth. Image Credit: NASA/JHU-APL/SwRI
New Horizons' Ralph instrument identified an abundance of nitrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide ices in Sputnik Planum.
Bill McKinnon, deputy leader of the mission's Geology, Geophysics, and Imaging (GGI) team, pointed out that icy deposits from Sputnik Planum appear to have flowed into a dark, crater-filled area adjacent to the southern part of the heart.
"At Pluto's temperatures of minus-390 degrees Fahrenheit (–234.4 ºC), these ices can flow like a glacier," McKinnon said.
Patterns of swirling light and dark at the north of Sputnik Planum suggests surface ice also has flowed there, making its way into troughs.
Annotated image of the southern region of Pluto's Sputnik Planum. The large crater highlighted in the image is about 30 miles (50 kilometers) wide, approximately the size of the greater Washington, D.C., area. Image Credit: NASA/JH U-APL/SwRI
A new mountain range discovered on the western side of Sputnik Planum has been informally dubbed Hillary Montes after explorer Sir Edmund Hillary, one of the first two people to successfully reach the top of Mount Everest in 1953.
Using several close-approach images of Sputnik Planum and Hillary Montes, NASA created a simulated video flyover of these regions of Pluto's surface.
The images in the video below were acquired by the LORRI instrument on the New Horizons as the spacecraft flew by Pluto's surface from a distance of 48,000 miles (77,000 kilometers) on July 14. Features as small as one-half mile (1 kilometer) across are visible.
Video courtesy of NASA/JHU-APL/SwRI
Also released was a sharper image (below) of Pluto's encounter side, generated by combining four LORRI images with color data provided by Ralph. The individual images were all taken on July 13 from a distance of 280,000 miles (450,000 km) with twice the resolution of the last pre-encounter image taken on July 13 and released the next day. They show features as small as 1.4 miles (2.2 km). (More images are available here.)
Four images from New Horizons' LORRI were combined with color data from the Ralph instrument to create this global view of Pluto. (The lower right edge of Pluto in this view currently lacks high-resolution color coverage.) The images, taken when the spacecraft was 280,000 miles (450,000 kilometers) away, show features as small as 1.4 miles (2.2 kilometers), twice the resolution of the single-image view taken on July 13. Image Credit: NASA/JHU-APL/SwRI
The New Horizons team recently released a striking image (below left) of Pluto taken by the spacecraft from a position behind the dwarf planet, which, backlit by the Sun, appears surrounded by a thin atmospheric halo. Mission members described the photo as "a breathtaking farewell to New Horizons." For one member of that team, the images highlight just how dynamic the distant sentinel at the edge of our Solar System is.
"I think this data means that Pluto is a world of unexpected complexity and riches," Alan Stern, New Horizons principal investigator, told SpaceFlight Insider in an exclusive interview.
Pluto backlit by the Sun. Image Credit: NASA/JHU-APL/SwRI
In the image on the left, taken by NASA's New Horizons spacecraft around midnight EDT on July 15, Pluto's atmosphere, backlit by the Sun, rings its silhouette like a luminous halo. This global portrait of the atmosphere was captured when the spacecraft was about 1.25 million miles (2 million kilometers) from Pluto and shows structures as small as 12 miles across. The image, delivered to Earth on July 23, is displayed with north at the top of the frame.
"Ninety-five percent of the data is still up in the Kuiper Belt with the spacecraft," Alan Stern said. "It should take us somewhere between four and five hundred days to get the remainder of the data captured during the flyby. Think of it like an orbiter, like MAVEN at Mars or Cassini at Saturn, where it's just data coming down all the time. We're not taking observations all the time. But, we took this vast amount and now we're starting to get it back."
In the image below right, two distinct layers of atmospheric haze are visible, taken by New Horizons only seven hours after its closest approach to Pluto. While the haze rises as high as 80 miles (130 km) above the planet's surface, the distinct layers figure prominently at 50 miles (80 km) and 30 miles (50 km).
Scientists surmise that the hazes are produced when ultraviolet sunlight breaks down particles of methane gas in Pluto's atmosphere. Methane is a simple hydrocarbon; breaking it down produces more complex hydrocarbons such as ethylene and acetylene, both of which have been identified in the atmosphere.
These complex hydrocarbons condense into ice particles as they fall to the colder, lower regions of Pluto's atmosphere, producing atmospheric haze. When complex hydrocarbon ices interact with the Sun's ultraviolet rays, they are converted into dark hydrocarbons known as tholins. The presence of tholins on Pluto's surface is presumed to be responsible for its reddish color.
Finding hazes so high in Pluto's atmosphere was a surprise to mission scientists, who had thought atmospheric temperatures 20 miles (30 km) or more above the surface would be too warm to produce this effect.
Image of Pluto's hazes; false-color inset reveals a variety of structures, including two distinct layers. (Click to enlarge.) Image Credit: NASA/JHU-APL/SwRI
One hour after closest approach to Pluto, New Horizons' REX radio experiment had made observations that Pluto's atmosphere has an unexpectedly low surface pressure – only 1/100-thousandth that of the pressure on the surface of Earth, which is about half of the amount that had been previously calculated from Earth-based observatories.
A possible explanation for the decrease in surface pressure on Pluto may be due to half of its atmosphere having recently frozen out onto its surface as it orbits farther from the Sun.
NASA has also released a second animation (below) depicting the hazes in Pluto's atmosphere.
"We knew that a mission to Pluto would bring some surprises, and now – 10 days after closest approach – we can say that our expectation has been more than surpassed," noted John Grunsfeld, associate administrator for NASA's Science Mission Directorate. "With flowing ices, exotic surface chemistry, mountain ranges, and vast haze, Pluto is showing a diversity of planetary geology that is truly thrilling."
While the July 14, 2015, flyby might have been a high point of the mission – New Horizons is not finished yet. If the spacecraft can receive the funding to continue its research, it will be sent to review other destinations out in the Kuiper Belt.
"We have two targets, and we have to choose between them because they are in different directions and we have to fire the engines this fall and then if NASA approves the extended mission's budget, we will fly by whichever one that is selected. In either case, it will be early 2019 flybys," Stern said.
Alan Stern will be making a recommendation to NASA in August 2015 on which of those two KBOs the New Horizons spacecraft should next visit. The preferred flyby target is 2014 MU69 (PT1), a 40–70 km object. Another slightly bigger object, 2014 PN70 (PT3), could also be targeted, but more fuel is required for the probe to maneuver for a flyby. The choice will be decided later in August 2015. (UPDATE.)
The animation in the above video shows several steps in the sunlight-driven chemistry: (1) Ultraviolet sunlight breaks apart methane in Pluto's upper atmosphere; (2) this leads to the buildup of complex hydrocarbons, such as ethylene and acetylene; (3) clumps of these hydrocarbons condense as ice particles to form the hazes; (4) the hazes are chemically converted to tholins, which fall to the surface and darken Pluto.
Tagged: Alan Stern Kuiper Belt Lead Stories LORRI NASA New Horizons Pluto Solar System
Laurel Kornfeld is an amateur astronomer and freelance writer from Highland Park, NJ, who enjoys writing about astronomy and planetary science. She studied journalism at Douglass College, Rutgers University, and earned a Graduate Certificate of Science from Swinburne University's Astronomy Online program. Her writings have been published online in The Atlantic, Astronomy magazine's guest blog section, the UK Space Conference, the 2009 IAU General Assembly newspaper, The Space Reporter, and newsletters of various astronomy clubs. She is a member of the Cranford, NJ-based Amateur Astronomers, Inc. Especially interested in the outer solar system, Laurel gave a brief presentation at the 2008 Great Planet Debate held at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab in Laurel, MD.
Mike Wrathell
Another tremendous article by Ms. Kornfeld about the greatest planet this side of Haumea besides Earth.
Shame We will never see the other side of Pluto in much detail.
The images on approach seemed to show lakes and channels of liquid methane or something on the other side.Like Titan.
(Ill see if I can find a link to the image)
James Lowman
anyone know the time period for more atmospheric data? i am hoping we hear something about density, so perhaps the next pluto craft can consider some aerobraking…
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Benoît Triquet has been with Airbus for over 11 years as a software engineer and operating system specialist for certified safety-critical avionics. Currently part of the digital cores architecture research group, he holds the position of Airbus Expert for embedded RTOS. He focuses on low-level software, dynamic design, parallelization of real-time software, incremental qualification and WCET analysis for IMA2G.


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