text:
Country in Western Asia and Southeastern Europe
This article is about the oul' country. For the bird, see Turkey (bird). For other uses, see Turkey (disambiguation).
"Türkiye" redirects here. In fairness now. For the bleedin' newspaper, see Türkiye (newspaper).
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (Turkish)
İstiklal Marşı (Turkish)
"The Independence March"
39°N 35°E / 39°N 35°E / 39; 35Coordinates: 39°N 35°E / 39°N 35°E / 39; 35
41°1′N 28°57′E / 41.017°N 28.950°E / 41.017; 28.950
Turkish[1][2]
Spoken languages[3]
predominantly Turkish
Kurmanji
Kabardian-Cherkess
various others
predominantly Turks
other minorities
Bosniaks
Unitary presidential constitutional republic
• Assembly Speaker
Mustafa Şentop
• War of Independence
• Grand National Assembly of Turkey
• Treaty of Lausanne
• Declaration of Republic
9 November 1982[4]
783,356 km2 (302,455 sq mi) (36th)
2.03 (as of 2015)[5]
105[7]/km2 (271.9/sq mi) (107th)
$2.382 trillion[8] (13th)
$28,294[8] (48th)
$649.436 billion[8] (20th)
$7,715[8] (73rd)
medium · 56th
very high · 54th
Turkish lira (₺) (TRY)
UTC+3 (TRT)
dd.mm.yyyy (CE)
Mains electricity
230 V–50 Hz
Drivin' side
Callin' code
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye [ˈtyɾcije]), officially the bleedin' Republic of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti [ˈtyɾcije dʒumˈhuːɾijeti] ( listen)), is a feckin' transcontinental country located mainly on the bleedin' Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a bleedin' smaller portion on the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe. Sure this is it. Turkey is bordered on its northwest by Greece and Bulgaria; north by the oul' Black Sea; northeast by Georgia; east by Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran; southeast by Iraq; south by Syria and the feckin' Mediterranean Sea; and west by the Aegean Sea, enda story. Approximately 70 to 80 percent of the bleedin' country's citizens are ethnic Turks.[11][12] Istanbul, which straddles Europe and Asia, is the feckin' country's largest city, while Ankara is the capital.
One of the bleedin' world's earliest permanently settled regions, present-day Turkey was home to important Neolithic sites, and was inhabited by various civilisations.[13][14][15] Hellenization started in the oul' area durin' the era of Alexander the feckin' Great and continued into the bleedin' Byzantine era.[14][16] The Seljuk Turks began migratin' in the 11th century, and the feckin' Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into small Turkish principalities.[17] Beginnin' in the late 13th century, the oul' Ottomans started unitin' the oul' principalities and conquerin' the oul' Balkans, and the bleedin' Turkification of Anatolia increased durin' the Ottoman period, bejaysus. After Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453, Ottoman expansion continued under Selim I. Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. Durin' the bleedin' reign of Suleiman the oul' Magnificent, the oul' Ottoman Empire became a holy world power.[13][18][19] From the oul' late 18th century onwards, the bleedin' empire's power declined with a feckin' gradual loss of territories and wars.[20] In an effort to consolidate the feckin' weakenin' empire, Mahmud II started a bleedin' period of modernisation in the oul' early 19th century.[21] The 1913 coup d'état effectively put the feckin' country under the control of the oul' Three Pashas, who were largely responsible for the oul' Empire's entry into World War I in 1914. G'wan now and listen to this wan. Durin' World War I, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian and Pontic Greek subjects.[a][24] After the feckin' Ottomans and the feckin' other Central Powers lost the oul' war, the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states.[25] The Turkish War of Independence, initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his comrades against the oul' occupyin' Allied Powers, resulted in the abolition of the feckin' sultanate on 1 November 1922, and the feckin' establishment of the bleedin' Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923.
Turkey is a holy developin' country, a holy regional power, and a newly industrialized country, with a geopolitically strategic location.[26][27] It is a holy charter member of the UN, an early member of NATO, the feckin' IMF, and the feckin' World Bank, and a holy foundin' member of the feckin' OECD, OSCE, BSEC, OIC, and G20. Stop the lights! After becomin' one of the oul' early members of the feckin' Council of Europe in 1950, Turkey became an associate member of the bleedin' EEC in 1963, joined the feckin' EU Customs Union in 1995, and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005, would ye believe it? In a bleedin' non-bindin' vote on 13 March 2019, the oul' European Parliament called on the bleedin' EU governments to suspend Turkey's accession talks; which, despite bein' stalled since 2018, remain active as of 2020.[28] Turkey is a secular, unitary, formerly parliamentary republic that adopted an oul' presidential system with a referendum in 2017; the new system came into effect with the oul' presidential election in 2018.
2.1 Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace
2.3 Early Christian and Byzantine period
2.4 Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire
2.5 Republic of Turkey
3 Administrative divisions
4 Politics
4.2 Foreign relations
6.2 Tourism
6.3 Infrastructure
6.4 Science and technology
7.1 Immigration
7.3.1 Islam
7.3.2 Christianity
7.3.3 Judaism
7.3.4 Irreligion
7.4 Education
8.1 Visual arts
8.2 Literature and theatre
8.3 Music and dance
8.4 Architecture
8.6 Sports
8.7 Media and cinema
12 Further readin'
Main article: Name of Turkey
The English name of Turkey (from Medieval Latin Turchia/Turquia[29]) means "land of the feckin' Turks", bejaysus. Middle English usage of Turkye is evidenced in an early work by Chaucer called The Book of the bleedin' Duchess (c. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. 1369), would ye swally that? The phrase land of Torke is used in the feckin' 15th-century Digby Mysteries. Later usages can be found in the feckin' Dunbar poems, the bleedin' 16th century Manipulus Vocabulorum ("Turkie, Tartaria") and Francis Bacon's Sylva Sylvarum (Turky). Jasus. The modern spellin' "Turkey" dates back to at least 1719.[30] The Turkish name Türkiye was adopted in 1923 under the influence of European usage.[29]
Main article: History of Turkey
See also: History of Anatolia and History of Thrace
Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace
Main articles: Prehistory of Anatolia and Prehistory of Southeastern Europe
See also: Ancient Anatolians, Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia, and Thracians
Some henges at Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC, predatin' those of Stonehenge, England, by over seven millennia.[31]
The Lion Gate in Hattusa, capital of the bleedin' Hittite Empire. Sure this is it. The city's history dates back to the oul' 6th millennium BC.[32]
The Anatolian peninsula, comprisin' most of modern Turkey, is one of the feckin' oldest permanently settled regions in the bleedin' world. Various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the oul' Neolithic until the feckin' Hellenistic period.[14] Many of these peoples spoke the oul' Anatolian languages, a holy branch of the larger Indo-European language family:[33] and, given the oul' antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the oul' hypothetical centre from which the feckin' Indo-European languages radiated.[34] The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty thousand years ago, and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by about 6000 BC.[15]
Göbekli Tepe is the bleedin' site of the feckin' oldest known man-made religious structure, a holy temple datin' to circa 10,000 BC,[31] while Çatalhöyük is a bleedin' very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC. It is the oul' largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[35] The settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the oul' Iron Age.[36]
The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the feckin' Hattians and Hurrians, non-Indo-European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively, as early as c. 2300 BC. Arra' would ye listen to this shite? Indo-European Hittites came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians c. 2000–1700 BC, grand so. The first major empire in the feckin' area was founded by the oul' Hittites, from the bleedin' 18th through the oul' 13th century BC. The Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the bleedin' year 612 BC,[37] although they have remained an oul' minority in the region, namely in Hakkari, Şırnak and Mardin.[38]
Urartu re-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the oul' 9th century BC as a bleedin' powerful northern rival of Assyria.[39] Followin' the bleedin' collapse of the Hittite empire c. Arra' would ye listen to this. 1180 BC, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the bleedin' Cimmerians in the oul' 7th century BC.[40] Startin' from 714 BC, Urartu shared the same fate and dissolved in 590 BC,[41] when it was conquered by the Medes. Sufferin' Jaysus. The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia.
Main articles: Classical Anatolia and Hellenistic period
The theatre of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) was built in the feckin' 4th century BC by Mausolus, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria. G'wan now and listen to this wan. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (Tomb of Mausolus) was one of the oul' Seven Wonders of the oul' Ancient World.[42]
The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the bleedin' Romans in 114–117.[43] The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by kin' Croesus of Lydia in the feckin' 6th century BC, was one of the bleedin' Seven Wonders of the feckin' Ancient World.[44]
Startin' around 1200 BC, the feckin' coast of Anatolia was heavily settled by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks. Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna (now İzmir) and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the feckin' latter founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 657 BC.[citation needed] The first state that was called Armenia by neighbourin' peoples was the state of the bleedin' Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of eastern Turkey beginnin' in the oul' 6th century BC, bedad. In Northwest Turkey, the oul' most significant tribal group in Thrace was the Odyrisians, founded by Teres I.[45]
All of modern-day Turkey was conquered by the oul' Persian Achaemenid Empire durin' the 6th century BC.[46] The Greco-Persian Wars started when the feckin' Greek city states on the bleedin' coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule in 499 BC. The territory of Turkey later fell to Alexander the feckin' Great in 334 BC,[47] which led to increasin' cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the area.[14]
Followin' Alexander's death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a bleedin' number of small Hellenistic kingdoms, all of which became part of the bleedin' Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC.[48] The process of Hellenization that began with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and by the oul' early centuries of the oul' Christian Era, the bleedin' local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, bein' largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture.[16][49] From the 1st century BC up to the 3rd century CE, large parts of modern-day Turkey were contested between the oul' Romans and neighbourin' Parthians through the oul' frequent Roman-Parthian Wars.
Early Christian and Byzantine period
Main articles: Early Christianity and Byzantine Anatolia
See also: Successors of the bleedin' Byzantine Empire and States in late medieval Anatolia
Originally a church, then a mosque, later a feckin' museum, and now a bleedin' mosque again, the feckin' Hagia Sophia in Istanbul was built by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in 532–537 AD.[50]
Accordin' to Acts of Apostles 11,[51] Antioch (now Antakya), an oul' city in southern Turkey, is the birthplace of the bleedin' first Christian community.[52]
In 324, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the feckin' new capital of the Roman Empire, renamin' it New Rome. Right so. Followin' the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the feckin' Roman Empire between his two sons, the oul' city, which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople, became the feckin' capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. This empire, which would later be branded by historians as the bleedin' Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the oul' territory of present-day Turkey until the feckin' Late Middle Ages;[53] although the bleedin' eastern regions remained firmly in Sasanian hands up to the feckin' first half of the feckin' seventh century. The frequent Byzantine-Sassanid Wars, as part of the centuries long-lastin' Roman-Persian Wars, fought between the feckin' neighbourin' rivallin' Byzantines and Sasanians, took place in various parts of present-day Turkey and decided much of the feckin' latter's[clarification needed] history from the feckin' fourth century up to the oul' first half of the feckin' seventh century.
Several ecumenical councils of the early Church were held in cities located in present-day Turkey includin' the feckin' First Council of Nicaea (Iznik) in 325, the First Council of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 381, the bleedin' Council of Ephesus in 431, and the feckin' Council of Chalcedon (Kadıköy) in 451.[54]
Seljuks and the oul' Ottoman Empire
Main articles: Seljuk dynasty and Ottoman dynasty
See also: Turkic migration, Mongol invasions of Anatolia, Seljuk Empire, Sultanate of Rum, and Ottoman Empire
The House of Seljuk originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks who resided on the periphery of the oul' Muslim world, in the bleedin' Yabgu Khaganate of the oul' Oğuz confederacy, to the north of the Caspian and Aral Seas, in the oul' 9th century.[55] In the oul' 10th century, the Seljuks started migratin' from their ancestral homeland into Persia, which became the bleedin' administrative core of the Great Seljuk Empire, after its foundation by Tughril.[56]
In the latter half of the feckin' 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetratin' into medieval Armenia and the oul' eastern regions of Anatolia. Listen up now to this fierce wan. In 1071, the bleedin' Seljuks defeated the feckin' Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, startin' the oul' Turkification process in the oul' area; the Turkish language and Islam were introduced to Armenia and Anatolia, gradually spreadin' throughout the oul' region. The shlow transition from a bleedin' predominantly Christian and Greek-speakin' Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speakin' one was underway. Jaykers! The Mevlevi Order of dervishes, which was established in Konya durin' the 13th century by Sufi poet Celaleddin Rumi, played a significant role in the oul' Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia who had previously been Hellenized.[57][58] Thus, alongside the oul' Turkification of the territory, the feckin' culturally Persianized Seljuks set the bleedin' basis for a Turko-Persian principal culture in Anatolia,[59] which their eventual successors, the Ottomans, would take over.[60][61]
Sultans and the oul' administrative centre of the bleedin' empire in Istanbul between 1465 to 1856[62] and 1856 to 1922,[63] respectively.
In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongols at the bleedin' Battle of Köse Dağ, causin' the oul' Seljuk Empire's power to shlowly disintegrate. In fairness now. In its wake, one of the oul' Turkish principalities governed by Osman I would evolve over the bleedin' next 200 years into the oul' Ottoman Empire. Bejaysus this is a quare tale altogether. The Ottomans completed their conquest of the oul' Byzantine Empire by capturin' its capital, Constantinople, in 1453: their commander thenceforth bein' known as Mehmed the feckin' Conqueror.
In 1514, Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) successfully expanded the bleedin' empire's southern and eastern borders by defeatin' Shah Ismail I of the feckin' Safavid dynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran. Right so. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into Algeria and Egypt, and created a bleedin' naval presence in the Red Sea. Arra' would ye listen to this. Subsequently, an oul' contest started between the feckin' Ottoman and Portuguese empires to become the bleedin' dominant sea power in the feckin' Indian Ocean, with a number of naval battles in the Red Sea, the feckin' Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, would ye swally that? The Portuguese presence in the feckin' Indian Ocean was perceived as a holy threat to the feckin' Ottoman monopoly over the bleedin' ancient trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe. Despite the increasingly prominent European presence, the bleedin' Ottoman Empire's trade with the oul' east continued to flourish until the feckin' second half of the 18th century.[64]
The Second Ottoman Siege of Vienna in 1683 (the First Siege was in 1529) initiated the feckin' Great Turkish War (1683–1699) between the Ottomans and a Holy League of European states.
The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the oul' 16th and 17th centuries, particularly durin' the oul' reign of Suleiman the feckin' Magnificent, who personally instituted major legislative changes relatin' to society, education, taxation and criminal law. Bejaysus. The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady advance towards Central Europe through the oul' Balkans and the bleedin' southern part of the bleedin' Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[65] The Ottoman Navy contended with several Holy Leagues, such as those in 1538, 1571, 1684 and 1717 (composed primarily of Habsburg Spain, the bleedin' Republic of Genoa, the bleedin' Republic of Venice, the bleedin' Knights of St. Bejaysus this is a quare tale altogether. John, the bleedin' Papal States, the bleedin' Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy), for the feckin' control of the bleedin' Mediterranean Sea. In the feckin' east, the bleedin' Ottomans were often at war with Safavid Persia over conflicts stemmin' from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries.[66] The Ottoman wars with Persia continued as the bleedin' Zand, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties succeeded the feckin' Safavids in Iran, until the bleedin' first half of the bleedin' 19th century, would ye swally that? Even further east, there was an extension of the feckin' Habsburg-Ottoman conflict, in that the Ottomans also had to send soldiers to their farthest and easternmost vassal and territory, the Aceh Sultanate[67][68] in Southeast Asia, to defend it from European colonizers as well as the bleedin' Latino invaders who had crossed from Latin America and had Christianized the bleedin' formerly Muslim-dominated Philippines.[69] From the feckin' 16th to the feckin' early 20th centuries, the bleedin' Ottoman Empire also fought twelve wars with the bleedin' Russian Tsardom and Empire. I hope yiz are all ears now. These were initially about Ottoman territorial expansion and consolidation in southeastern and eastern Europe; but startin' from the bleedin' Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), they became more about the bleedin' survival of the oul' Ottoman Empire, which had begun to lose its strategic territories on the bleedin' northern Black Sea coast to the bleedin' advancin' Russians.
From the oul' second half of the oul' 18th century onwards, the oul' Ottoman Empire began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II just before his death in 1839, aimed to modernise the bleedin' Ottoman state in line with the feckin' progress that had been made in Western Europe. Listen up now to this fierce wan. The efforts of Midhat Pasha durin' the late Tanzimat era led the oul' Ottoman constitutional movement of 1876, which introduced the bleedin' First Constitutional Era, but these efforts proved to be inadequate in most fields, and failed to stop the dissolution of the oul' empire.[70] As the bleedin' empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the bleedin' Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875[71] which led to uprisings in the oul' Balkan provinces that culminated in the feckin' Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878); many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in Anatolia,[72][73] along with the oul' Circassians fleein' the oul' Russian conquest of the oul' Caucasus. G'wan now. The decline of the bleedin' Ottoman Empire led to a feckin' rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leadin' to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the feckin' Hamidian massacres of Armenians.[74]
Sultan Mehmed V and Kaiser Wilhelm II in Constantinople, 1917. The Ottomans joined World War I on the side of the Central Powers.[75]
The loss of Rumelia (Ottoman territories in Europe) with the oul' First Balkan War (1912–1913) was followed by the arrival of millions of Muslim refugees (muhacir) to Istanbul and Anatolia.[76] Historically, the oul' Rumelia Eyalet and Anatolia Eyalet had formed the feckin' administrative core of the oul' Ottoman Empire, with their governors titled Beylerbeyi participatin' in the oul' Sultan's Divan, so the oul' loss of all Balkan provinces beyond the bleedin' Midye-Enez border line accordin' to the feckin' London Conference of 1912–13 and the Treaty of London (1913) was an oul' major shock for the feckin' Ottoman society and led to the bleedin' 1913 Ottoman coup d'état. In the feckin' Second Balkan War (1913) the Ottomans managed to recover their former capital Edirne (Adrianople) and its surroundin' areas in East Thrace, which was formalised with the bleedin' Treaty of Constantinople (1913). The 1913 coup d'état effectively put the country under the feckin' control of the Three Pashas, makin' sultans Mehmed V and Mehmed VI largely symbolic figureheads with no real political power.
Armenian civilians bein' deported durin' the feckin' Armenian Genocide
The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the oul' side of the bleedin' Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. C'mere til I tell yiz. The Ottomans successfully defended the Dardanelles strait durin' the oul' Gallipoli campaign (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the feckin' first two years of the feckin' Mesopotamian campaign, such as the feckin' Siege of Kut (1915–1916); but the Arab Revolt (1916–1918) turned the feckin' tide against the bleedin' Ottomans in the oul' Middle East. C'mere til I tell yiz. In the oul' Caucasus campaign, however, the bleedin' Russian forces had the feckin' upper hand from the oul' beginnin', especially after the feckin' Battle of Sarikamish (1914–1915). Story? Russian forces advanced into northeastern Anatolia and controlled the oul' major cities there until retreatin' from World War I with the oul' Treaty of Brest-Litovsk followin' the feckin' Russian Revolution (1917). Story? Durin' the war, the empire's Armenians were deported to Syria as part of the feckin' Armenian Genocide, so it is. As a feckin' result, an estimated 800,000 to 1,500,000 Armenians were killed.[77][78][79][80] The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge the oul' events as genocide and states that Armenians were only relocated from the oul' eastern war zone.[81] Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the oul' empire's other minority groups such as the feckin' Assyrians and Greeks.[82][83][84] Followin' the oul' Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, the feckin' victorious Allied Powers sought to partition the Ottoman state through the feckin' 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.[85]
Main article: History of the bleedin' Republic of Turkey
See also: Atatürk's Reforms
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder and first President of the bleedin' Turkish Republic, with the feckin' Liberal Republican Party leader Fethi Okyar (right) and Okyar's daughter in Yalova, 13 August 1930.
The occupation of Istanbul (1918) and İzmir (1919) by the bleedin' Allies in the bleedin' aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of the bleedin' Turkish National Movement. Be the holy feck, this is a quare wan. Under the bleedin' leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a holy military commander who had distinguished himself durin' the Battle of Gallipoli, the feckin' Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) was waged with the oul' aim of revokin' the bleedin' terms of the feckin' Treaty of Sèvres (1920).[86]
By 18 September 1922 the oul' Greek, Armenian and French armies had been expelled,[87] and the Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara, which had declared itself the oul' legitimate government of the oul' country on 23 April 1920, started to formalise the bleedin' legal transition from the bleedin' old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. Bejaysus here's a quare one right here now. On 1 November 1922, the feckin' Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus endin' 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,[85][86] led to the bleedin' international recognition of the sovereignty of the oul' newly formed "Republic of Turkey" as the successor state of the feckin' Ottoman Empire, and the bleedin' republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the oul' country's new capital.[88] The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey, whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey.[89]
Eighteen female deputies joined the oul' Turkish Parliament with the oul' 1935 general elections, what? Turkish women gained the feckin' right to vote and to hold elected office as an oul' mark of the oul' far-reachin' social changes initiated by Atatürk.[90]
Mustafa Kemal became the bleedin' republic's first President and subsequently introduced many reforms. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. The reforms aimed to transform the bleedin' old religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman constitutional monarchy into a Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary republic under a secular constitution.[91] With the bleedin' Surname Law of 1934, the feckin' Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the bleedin' honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father Turk).[86]
The Montreux Convention (1936) restored Turkey's control over the feckin' Turkish Straits, includin' the oul' right to militarise the coastlines of the feckin' Dardanelles and Bosporus straits and the oul' Sea of Marmara, and to block maritime traffic in wartime.[92]
Followin' the feckin' establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, some Kurdish and Zaza tribes, which were feudal (manorial) communities led by chieftains (agha) durin' the Ottoman period, became discontent about certain aspects of Atatürk's reforms aimin' to modernise the oul' country, such as secularism (the Sheikh Said rebellion, 1925)[93] and land reform (the Dersim rebellion, 1937–1938),[94] and staged armed revolts that were put down with military operations.
İsmet İnönü became Turkey's second President followin' Atatürk's death on 10 November 1938. On 29 June 1939, the feckin' Republic of Hatay voted in favour of joinin' Turkey with a holy referendum. Whisht now and eist liom. Turkey remained neutral durin' most of World War II, but entered the oul' closin' stages of the oul' war on the bleedin' side of the feckin' Allies on 23 February 1945, for the craic. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a charter member of the feckin' United Nations.[95] In the feckin' followin' year, the feckin' single-party period in Turkey came to an end, with the first multiparty elections in 1946. Whisht now. In 1950 Turkey became a bleedin' member of the bleedin' Council of Europe.
Roosevelt, İnönü and Churchill at the oul' Second Cairo Conference, 1943.
The Democratic Party established by Celâl Bayar won the oul' 1950, 1954 and 1957 general elections and stayed in power for a decade, with Adnan Menderes as the feckin' Prime Minister and Bayar as the bleedin' President. After fightin' as part of the oul' United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becomin' a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the oul' Mediterranean, for the craic. Turkey subsequently became a foundin' member of the bleedin' OECD in 1961, and an associate member of the feckin' EEC in 1963.[96]
The country's tumultuous transition to multiparty democracy was interrupted by military coups d'état in 1960 and 1980, as well as by military memorandums in 1971 and 1997.[97][98] Between 1960 and the feckin' end of the bleedin' 20th century, the feckin' prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal.
Followin' a decade of Cypriot intercommunal violence and the oul' coup in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 staged by the EOKA B paramilitary organisation, which overthrew President Makarios and installed the bleedin' pro-Enosis (union with Greece) Nikos Sampson as dictator, Turkey invaded Cyprus on 20 July 1974 by unilaterally exercisin' Article IV in the oul' Treaty of Guarantee (1960), but without restorin' the bleedin' status quo ante at the end of the bleedin' military operation.[99] In 1983 the oul' Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is recognised only by Turkey, was established.[100] The Annan Plan for reunifyin' the oul' island was supported by the majority of Turkish Cypriots, but rejected by the majority of Greek Cypriots, in separate referendums in 2004, the cute hoor. However, negotiations for solvin' the Cyprus dispute are still ongoin' between Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot political leaders.[101]
The conflict between Turkey and the feckin' PKK (designated a bleedin' terrorist organisation by Turkey, the bleedin' United States,[102] the oul' European Union[103] and NATO[104]) has been active since 1984, primarily in the feckin' southeast of the bleedin' country. More than 40,000 people have died as a feckin' result of the conflict.[105][106][107] In 1999 PKK's founder Abdullah Öcalan was arrested and sentenced for terrorism[102][103] and treason charges.[108][109] In the feckin' past, various Kurdish groups have unsuccessfully sought separation from Turkey to create an independent Kurdish state, while others have more recently pursued provincial autonomy and greater political and cultural rights for Kurds in Turkey. In the 21st century some reforms have taken place to improve the oul' cultural rights of ethnic minorities in Turkey, such as the bleedin' establishment of TRT Kurdî, TRT Arabi and TRT Avaz by the bleedin' TRT.
Since the oul' liberalisation of the oul' Turkish economy in the 1980s, the bleedin' country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability.[110] Turkey applied for full membership of the feckin' EEC in 1987, joined the feckin' EU Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005.[111][112] In a holy non-bindin' vote on 13 March 2019, the feckin' European Parliament called on the bleedin' EU governments to suspend EU accession talks with Turkey, citin' violations of human rights and the rule of law; but the negotiations, effectively on hold since 2018, remain active as of 2020.[28]
In 2013, widespread protests erupted in many Turkish provinces, sparked by a bleedin' plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growin' into general anti-government dissent.[113] On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the feckin' government.[114] As a bleedin' reaction to the oul' failed coup d'état, the bleedin' government carried out mass purges.[115][116]
Between 9 October – 25 November 2019, Turkey conducted a military offensive into north-eastern Syria.[117][118][119]
Main article: Administrative divisions of Turkey
Further information: Regions of Turkey and NUTS of Turkey
Turkey has a unitary structure in terms of administration and this aspect is one of the oul' most important factors shapin' the bleedin' Turkish public administration. C'mere til I tell ya. When three powers (executive, legislative and judiciary) are taken into account as the feckin' main functions of the oul' state, local administrations have little power, Lord bless us and save us. Turkey does not have a holy federal system, and the provinces are subordinate to the feckin' central government in Ankara, bejaysus. Local administrations were established to provide services in place and the feckin' government is represented by the province governors (vali) and town governors (kaymakam). Jesus, Mary and Joseph. Other senior public officials are also appointed by the feckin' central government instead of the bleedin' mayors (belediye başkanı) or elected by constituents.[120] Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies (belediye meclisi) for decision-makin' on municipal issues.
Within this unitary framework, Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces (il or vilayet) for administrative purposes. Sufferin' Jaysus. Each province is divided into districts (ilçe), for a bleedin' total of 973 districts.[121] Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions (bölge) and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic purposes; this does not refer to an administrative division. The centralised structure of decision-makin' in Ankara is stated by some academics as an impediment to good local governance,[122][123] and occasionally causes resentment in the municipalities of urban centres that are inhabited largely by ethnic minority groups, such as the feckin' Kurds.[124][125][126] Steps towards decentralisation[when?] since 2004 have proven to be a feckin' highly controversial topic in Turkey.[122][123] The efforts to decentralise the oul' administrative structure are[when?] also driven by the feckin' European Charter of Local Self-Government and with Chapter 22 ("Regional Policy & Coordination of Structural Instruments") of the bleedin' acquis of the feckin' European Union.[127][128] A decentralisation program for Turkey has been a holy topic of discussion in the country's academics, politics and the bleedin' broader public.[129][130]
K. Maraş
Main article: Politics of Turkey
See also: Constitution of Turkey, Elections in Turkey, and Ministries of Turkey
Between 1923 and 2018, Turkey was a feckin' parliamentary representative democracy. A presidential system was adopted by referendum in 2017; the new system came into effect with the presidential election in 2018 and gives the President complete control of the executive, includin' the feckin' power to issue decrees, appoint his own cabinet, draw up the budget, dissolve parliament by callin' early elections, and make appointments to the feckin' bureaucracy and the bleedin' courts.[131] The office of Prime Minister has been abolished and its powers (together with those of the feckin' Cabinet) have been transferred to the bleedin' President, who is the bleedin' head of state and is elected for a five-year term by direct elections.[131] Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is the bleedin' first president elected by direct votin', the shitehawk. Turkey's constitution governs the feckin' legal framework of the oul' country, would ye believe it? It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralised state.
Executive power is exercised by the oul' President, while the legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament, called the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Jesus, Mary and holy Saint Joseph. The judiciary is nominally independent from the feckin' executive and the legislature, but the bleedin' constitutional changes that came into effect with the oul' referendums in 2007, 2010 and 2017 gave larger powers to the bleedin' President and the rulin' party for appointin' or dismissin' judges and prosecutors.[132] The Constitutional Court is charged with rulin' on the bleedin' conformity of laws and decrees with the oul' constitution. The Council of State is the tribunal of last resort for administrative cases, and the bleedin' High Court of Appeals for all others.[133]
The Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara
Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1933 and before most countries, and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 years of age has the oul' right to vote. Whisht now and eist liom. There are 600 members of parliament who are elected for a holy four-year term by a party-list proportional representation system from 85 electoral districts. The Constitutional Court can strip the public financin' of political parties that it deems anti-secular or separatist, or ban their existence altogether.[134][135] The electoral threshold is ten percent of the oul' votes.[136]
Supporters of Atatürk's reforms are called Kemalists, as distinguished from Islamists, representin' the two divergin' views regardin' the bleedin' role of religion in legislation, education and public life.[137] The Kemalist view supports a bleedin' form of democracy with a feckin' secular constitution and Westernised culture, while maintainin' the feckin' necessity of state intervention in the economy, education and other public services.[137] Since its foundation as a republic in 1923, Turkey has developed a strong tradition of secularism.[138] However, since the bleedin' 1980s, issues such as income inequality and class distinction have given rise to Islamism, a movement that supports an oul' larger role for religion in government policies, and in theory supports obligation to authority, communal solidarity and social justice; though what that entails in practice is often contested.[137] Turkey under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the bleedin' AKP has been described as becomin' increasingly authoritarian.[139][140][141][142] Even before the feckin' constitutional referendum in 2017 the oul' Council of Europe said the feckin' country had autocratic tendencies and warned of a bleedin' "dramatic regression of [Turkey's] democratic order".[143][144][145] Many elements in the oul' constitutional reform package that was approved with the oul' referendum in 2017 have increased concerns in the bleedin' European Union regardin' democracy and the bleedin' separation of powers in Turkey.[146][147][148][149]
In 2017 the oul' Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index rated Turkey at 4.88 (on an oul' 0–10 scale), classifyin' Turkey as a hybrid regime.[150] In 2018, Freedom House rated Turkey at 32 (on a holy 0–100 scale) as Not Free.[151] In 2019 Turkey ranked 110th out of 167 countries in the oul' Democracy Index.[152]
Main articles: Judicial system of Turkey and Law enforcement in Turkey
Turkey's judicial system has been wholly integrated with the feckin' system of continental Europe.[clarification needed] For instance, the feckin' Turkish Civil Code has been modified by incorporatin' elements mainly of the bleedin' Swiss Civil Code and Code of Obligations, and the feckin' German Commercial Code. The Administrative Code bears similarities with its French counterpart, and the feckin' Penal Code with its Italian counterpart.[153]
Turkey has adopted the oul' principle of the bleedin' separation of powers. Whisht now and eist liom. In line with this principle, judicial power is exercised by independent courts on behalf of the feckin' Turkish nation. The independence and organisation of the feckin' courts, the feckin' security of the oul' tenure of judges and public prosecutors, the profession of judges and prosecutors, the bleedin' supervision of judges and public prosecutors, the military courts and their organisation, and the bleedin' powers and duties of the feckin' high courts are regulated by the feckin' Turkish Constitution.[154]
Accordin' to Article 142 of the bleedin' Turkish Constitution, the bleedin' organisation, duties and jurisdiction of the feckin' courts, their functions and the feckin' trial procedures are regulated by law. In line with the feckin' aforementioned article of the bleedin' Turkish Constitution and related laws, the court system in Turkey can be classified under three main categories; which are the Judicial Courts, Administrative Courts and Military Courts. Jaysis. Each category includes first instance courts and high courts. Sufferin' Jaysus. In addition, the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases that cannot be classified readily as fallin' within the feckin' purview of one court system.[154]
Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several departments (such as the oul' General Directorate of Security and Gendarmerie General Command) and agencies, all actin' under the oul' command of the feckin' President of Turkey or mostly the bleedin' Minister of Internal Affairs. Be the holy feck, this is a quare wan. Accordin' to figures released by the bleedin' Justice Ministry, there are 100,000 people in Turkish prisons as of November 2008, a feckin' doublin' since 2000.[155][needs update]
In the feckin' years of government by the bleedin' AKP and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the bleedin' independence and integrity of the oul' Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey; due to political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors, and in their pursuit of public duty.[156][157][158][159] The Turkey 2015 report of the bleedin' European Commission stated that "the independence of the bleedin' judiciary and respect of the bleedin' principle of separation of powers have been undermined and judges and prosecutors have been under strong political pressure."[156]
Main article: Foreign relations of Turkey
After becomin' one of the bleedin' early members of the bleedin' Council of Europe in 1950, Turkey became an associate member of the bleedin' EEC in 1963, joined the bleedin' EU Customs Union in 1995 and started full membership negotiations with the oul' European Union in 2005.[111][112]
Turkey is a bleedin' foundin' member of the oul' United Nations (1945),[160] the feckin' OECD (1961),[161] the oul' OIC (1969),[162] the oul' OSCE (1973),[163] the bleedin' ECO (1985),[164] the bleedin' BSEC (1992),[165] the D-8 (1997)[166] and the bleedin' G20 (1999).[167] Turkey was a member of the United Nations Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955, 1961 and 2009–2010.[168] In 2012 Turkey became a holy dialogue partner of the oul' SCO, and in 2013 became an oul' member of the oul' ACD.[169][170]
In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe have always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey became one of the oul' early members of the bleedin' Council of Europe in 1950, applied for associate membership of the bleedin' EEC (predecessor of the bleedin' European Union) in 1959 and became an associate member in 1963. After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for full membership of the feckin' EEC in 1987, became an associate member of the feckin' Western European Union in 1992, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the bleedin' EU since 2005.[111][112] Today, EU membership is considered as a state policy and an oul' strategic target by Turkey.[citation needed] Turkey's support for Northern Cyprus in the feckin' Cyprus dispute complicates Turkey's relations with the bleedin' EU and remains a holy major stumblin' block to the country's EU accession bid.[171]
The other definin' aspect of Turkey's foreign policy was the oul' country's long-standin' strategic alliance with the bleedin' United States.[172][173] The Truman Doctrine in 1947 enunciated American intentions to guarantee the oul' security of Turkey and Greece durin' the oul' Cold War, and resulted in large-scale U.S, the hoor. military and economic support. In 1948 both countries were included in the bleedin' Marshall Plan and the oul' OEEC for rebuildin' European economies.[174] The common threat posed by the oul' Soviet Union durin' the oul' Cold War led to Turkey's membership of NATO in 1952, ensurin' close bilateral relations with the US. C'mere til I tell ya. Subsequently, Turkey benefited from the oul' United States' political, economic and diplomatic support, includin' in key issues such as the feckin' country's bid to join the feckin' European Union.[175] In the feckin' post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the oul' Middle East, the oul' Caucasus and the oul' Balkans.[176]
The Turkish Armed Forces collectively rank as the feckin' second-largest standin' military force in NATO, after the feckin' US Armed Forces. Turkey joined the feckin' alliance in 1952.[177]
The independence of the Turkic states of the oul' Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a holy common cultural and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia,[178] thus enablin' the oul' completion of a holy multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas pipeline from Baku in Azerbaijan to the oul' port of Ceyhan in Turkey. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit from the Caspian Sea basin to Europe. However, in 1993, Turkey sealed its land border with Armenia in a feckin' gesture of support to Azerbaijan (a Turkic state in the Caucasus region) durin' the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, and it remains closed.[179]
Under the oul' AKP government, Turkey's influence has grown in the feckin' formerly Ottoman territories of the oul' Middle East and the Balkans, based on the bleedin' "strategic depth" doctrine (a terminology that was coined by Ahmet Davutoğlu for definin' Turkey's increased engagement in regional foreign policy issues), also called Neo-Ottomanism.[180][181] Followin' the bleedin' Arab Sprin' in December 2010, the choices made by the feckin' AKP government for supportin' certain political opposition groups in the feckin' affected countries have led to tensions with some Arab states, such as Turkey's neighbour Syria since the start of the Syrian civil war, and Egypt after the oul' oustin' of President Mohamed Morsi.[182][183] As of 2016[update], Turkey does not have an ambassador in either Syria or Egypt.[184] Diplomatic relations with Israel were also severed after the feckin' Gaza flotilla raid in 2010, but were normalised followin' a deal in June 2016.[185] These political rifts have left Turkey with few allies in the oul' East Mediterranean, where rich natural gas fields have recently been discovered;[186][187] in sharp contrast with the original goals that were set by the bleedin' former Foreign Minister (later Prime Minister) Ahmet Davutoğlu in his "zero problems with neighbours"[188][189] foreign policy doctrine.[190] In 2015, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar formed a "strategic alliance" against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.[191] However, followin' the oul' rapprochement with Russia in 2016, Turkey revised its stance regardin' the oul' solution of the oul' conflict in Syria.[192][193][194] In January 2018, the feckin' Turkish military and the oul' Turkish-backed forces, includin' the feckin' Free Syrian Army and Ahrar al-Sham,[195] began an intervention in Syria aimed at oustin' U.S.-backed YPG from the enclave of Afrin.[196][197] In 2020, Turkey openly intervened in Libya at the feckin' request of the feckin' GNA.[198] There is a holy dispute over Turkey's maritime boundaries with Greece and Cyprus and drillin' rights in the bleedin' eastern Mediterranean.[199][200] Turkey recognizes and supports the bleedin' Tripoli-based Government of National Accord (GNA) in Libya, which has been torn by an oul' civil war since 2014.
Main article: Turkish Armed Forces
See also: Defense industry of Turkey
A Boein' 737 AEW&C Peace Eagle (foreground) and the tailfin of an oul' Boein' KC-135R Stratotanker (background) of the feckin' Turkish Air Force.
The Turkish Armed Forces consist of the oul' Land Forces, the feckin' Naval Forces and the oul' Air Force. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. The Gendarmerie and the oul' Coast Guard operate as parts of the oul' Ministry of Internal Affairs in peacetime, although they are subordinated to the bleedin' Army and Navy Commands respectively in wartime, durin' which they have both internal law-enforcement and military functions.[201] The Chief of the bleedin' General Staff is appointed by the oul' President. Arra' would ye listen to this shite? The Council of Ministers is responsible to the bleedin' Parliament for matters of national security and the feckin' adequate preparation of the bleedin' armed forces to defend the country, would ye believe it? However, the oul' authority to declare war and to deploy the oul' Turkish Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the bleedin' Parliament.[201]
TCG Anadolu (L-400) amphibious assault ship (LHD and V/STOL aircraft carrier) at Sedef Shipyard in Istanbul. C'mere til I tell yiz. The construction of a sister ship, to be named TCG Trakya, is currently bein' planned by the Turkish Navy.[202][203]
Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the military for a period rangin' from three weeks to a bleedin' year, dependent on education and job location.[204] Turkey does not recognise conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.[205]
Turkey has the second-largest standin' military force in NATO, after the bleedin' US Armed Forces, with an estimated strength of 495,000 deployable forces, accordin' to an oul' 2011 NATO estimate.[206][needs update] Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear sharin' policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the feckin' Netherlands.[207] A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the bleedin' Incirlik Air Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of an oul' nuclear conflict, but their use requires the feckin' approval of NATO.[208]
Turkey has maintained forces in international missions under the bleedin' United Nations and NATO since the Korean War, includin' peacekeepin' missions in Somalia, Yugoslavia and the oul' Horn of Africa. Be the hokey here's a quare wan. Turkey supported the oul' coalition forces in the bleedin' First Gulf War. Turkish Armed Forces contribute military personnel to the International Security Assistance Force, Kosovo Force, Eurocorps and EU Battlegroups.[209][210] Turkey maintains a force of 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus since 1974.[211] In recent years, Turkey has assisted Peshmerga forces in northern Iraq and the feckin' Somali Armed Forces with security and trainin'.[212][213] Turkish Armed Forces have overseas military bases in Albania,[214] Iraq,[215] Qatar,[216] and Somalia.[217]
In the bleedin' 2016 Global Peace Index, Turkey ranked 145th out of 163 countries in the bleedin' world, mainly because of its "increasingly strained relations with its neighbors", accordin' to Forbes.[218]
Main article: Human rights in Turkey
See also: Racism in Turkey, Torture in Turkey, Censorship in Turkey, and 2016–present purges in Turkey
Prominent Turkish-Armenian journalist Hrant Dink was assassinated in 2007. Dink was a journalist who had written and spoken about the oul' Armenian Genocide, and was known for his efforts for reconciliation between Turks and Armenians and his advocacy of human and minority rights in Turkey.
The human rights record of Turkey has been the bleedin' subject of much controversy and international condemnation. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. Between 1959 and 2011 the feckin' European Court of Human Rights made more than 2400 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations on issues such as Kurdish rights, women's rights, LGBT rights, and media freedom.[219][220] Turkey's human rights record continues to be a bleedin' significant obstacle to the oul' country's membership of the feckin' EU.[221]
In the oul' latter half of the 1970s, Turkey suffered from political violence between far-left and far-right militant groups, which culminated in the bleedin' military coup of 1980.[222] The Kurdistan Workers' Party (designated a holy terrorist organisation by Turkey, the feckin' United States,[102] the feckin' European Union[103] and NATO[104]) was founded in 1978 by a bleedin' group of Kurdish militants led by Abdullah Öcalan, seekin' the feckin' foundation of an independent, Marxist-Leninist state in the region, which was to be known as Kurdistan.[223] The initial reason given by the feckin' PKK for this was the feckin' oppression of Kurds in Turkey.[224][225] A full-scale insurgency began in 1984, when the PKK announced a holy Kurdish uprisin'. Followin' the oul' arrest and imprisonment of Abdullah Öcalan in 1999,[108][109] the PKK modified its demands into equal rights for ethnic Kurds and provincial autonomy within Turkey.[226][227][228][229] Since the bleedin' conflict began, more than 40,000 people have died, most of whom were Turkish Kurds.[230] The European Court of Human Rights and other international human rights organisations have condemned Turkey for human rights abuses.[219][220] Many judgments are related to cases such as civilian deaths in aerial bombardments,[231] torturin',[232] forced displacements,[233] destroyed villages,[234][235][236] arbitrary arrests,[237] murdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists, activists and politicians.[238]
Opposition politicians Selahattin Demirtas and Figen Yüksekdağ were arrested on terrorism charges in 2016.
On 20 May 2016, the oul' Turkish parliament stripped almost an oul' quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, includin' 101 deputies from the feckin' pro-Kurdish HDP and the oul' main opposition CHP party.[239] In reaction to the failed coup attempt on 15 July 2016, over 160,000 judges, teachers, police and civil servants have been suspended or dismissed, 77,000 have been formally arrested,[240][241] and 130 media organisations, includin' 16 television broadcasters and 45 newspapers,[242] have been closed by the government of Turkey.[243] 160 journalists have been imprisoned.[244]
Turkish journalists protestin' the bleedin' imprisonment of their colleagues on Human Rights Day in 2016.
Accordin' to the oul' Committee to Protect Journalists, the AKP government has waged one of the bleedin' world's biggest crackdowns on media freedom.[245][246] Many journalists have been arrested usin' charges of "terrorism" and "anti-state activities" such as the bleedin' Ergenekon and Balyoz cases, while thousands have been investigated on charges such as "denigratin' Turkishness" or "insultin' Islam" in an effort to sow self-censorship.[245] In 2017, the oul' CPJ identified 81 jailed journalists in Turkey (includin' the editorial staff of Cumhuriyet, Turkey's oldest newspaper still in circulation), all directly held for their published work (the country ranked first in the bleedin' world in that year, with more journalists in prison than in Iran, Eritrea or China);[246] while in 2015 Freemuse identified nine musicians imprisoned for their work (rankin' third after Russia and China).[247] In 2015 Turkey's media was rated as not free by Freedom House.[248] In its resolution "The functionin' of democratic institutions in Turkey" on 22 June 2016, the bleedin' Parliamentary Assembly of the feckin' Council of Europe warned that "recent developments in Turkey pertainin' to freedom of the oul' media and of expression, erosion of the feckin' rule of law and the oul' human rights violations in relation to anti-terrorism security operations in south-east Turkey have (...) raised serious questions about the bleedin' functionin' of its democratic institutions."[249]
Renowned Turkish journalists who were murdered for their opinions include Abdi İpekçi (1929–1979, editor-in-chief of Milliyet); Çetin Emeç (1935–1990, chief columnist and coordinator of Hürriyet); Uğur Mumcu (1942–1993, columnist and investigative journalist of Cumhuriyet); and Hrant Dink (1954–2007, founder and editor-in-chief of Agos).
Durin' the October 2019 offensive into Syria, Turkish forces have been accused of war crimes, such as targetin' civilians with white phosphorus and various other human rights violations.[250][251] Turkey has officially rejected the claims, with the bleedin' Minister of Defense Hulusi Akar statin' that chemical weapons don't exist in the feckin' inventory of the feckin' Turkish Armed Forces.[252]
Amnesty International stated that it had gathered evidence of war crimes and other violations committed by Turkish and Turkey-backed Syrian forces who are said to "have displayed a bleedin' shameful disregard for civilian life, carryin' out serious violations and war crimes, includin' summary killings and unlawful attacks that have killed and injured civilians".[253]
Main article: Geography of Turkey
Topographic map of Turkey
Turkey is a bleedin' transcontinental Eurasian country.[254][255] Asian Turkey, which includes 97 percent of the oul' country, is separated from European Turkey by the oul' Bosphorus, the oul' Sea of Marmara, and the oul' Dardanelles. Be the hokey here's a quare wan. European Turkey comprises 3 percent of the country's territory.[256] The territory of Turkey is more than 1,600 kilometres (990 miles) long and 800 kilometres (500 miles) wide, with a roughly rectangular shape.[257] It lies between latitudes 35° and 43° N, and longitudes 25° and 45° E. C'mere til I tell ya. Turkey's land area, includin' lakes, occupies 783,562 square kilometres (302,535 square miles),[258] of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 square miles) are in Southwest Asia and 23,764 square kilometres (9,175 square miles) in Europe.[257] Turkey is the feckin' world's 37th-largest country in terms of area. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the bleedin' Aegean Sea to the bleedin' west, the bleedin' Black Sea to the bleedin' north and the bleedin' Mediterranean to the bleedin' south. Jaykers! Turkey also contains the Sea of Marmara in the oul' northwest.[259]
A photograph of Lake Van and the Armenian Church of Akhtamar, fair play. Van is the feckin' largest lake in the feckin' country and is located in eastern Anatolia.[260]
The European section of Turkey, also known as East Thrace (Turkish: Trakya) is located at the easternmost edge the oul' Balkan peninsula, the cute hoor. It forms the oul' border between Turkey and its neighbours Greece and Bulgaria. Stop the lights! The Asian part of the country mostly consists of the feckin' peninsula of Anatolia, which consists of a bleedin' high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between the oul' Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the bleedin' north and the bleedin' Taurus Mountains to the feckin' south, what? Eastern Turkey has an oul' more mountainous landscape and is home to the oul' sources of rivers such as the feckin' Euphrates, Tigris and Aras. Be the hokey here's a quare wan. The western portion of the bleedin' Armenian highland is located in eastern Turkey;[261] this region contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 feet),[262] and Lake Van, the feckin' largest lake in the country.[260] Southeastern Turkey is located within the oul' northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia.
Turkey is divided into seven geographical regions: Marmara, Aegean, Black Sea, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. The uneven north Anatolian terrain runnin' along the Black Sea resembles a feckin' long, narrow belt. Whisht now. This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey's total land area. Would ye swally this in a minute now?As a bleedin' general trend, the bleedin' inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.[259]
Turkey's varied landscapes are the feckin' product of complex earth movements that have shaped the bleedin' region over thousands of years and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasional volcanic eruptions. Here's another quare one for ye. The Bosphorus and the bleedin' Dardanelles owe their existence to the oul' fault lines runnin' through Turkey that led to the creation of the oul' Black Sea. The North Anatolian Fault Line runs across the feckin' north of the country from west to east, along which major earthquakes took place in history. The latest of those big earthquakes was the feckin' 1999 İzmit earthquake.
Main articles: Wildlife of Turkey, Fauna of Turkey, and Flora and vegetation of Turkey
See also: Environmental issues in Turkey
Sumela Monastery in the bleedin' Pontic Mountains, which form an ecoregion with diverse temperate rainforest types, flora and fauna in northern Anatolia.
Turkey's extraordinary ecosystem and habitat diversity has produced considerable species diversity.[263] Anatolia is the oul' homeland of many plants that have been cultivated for food since the oul' advent of agriculture, and the wild ancestors of many plants that now provide staples for humankind still grow in Turkey. Jaysis. The diversity of Turkey's fauna is even greater than that of its flora, what? The number of animal species in the feckin' whole of Europe is around 60,000, while in Turkey there are over 80,000 (over 100,000 countin' the feckin' subspecies).[264]
The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the bleedin' Caucasus mixed forests extend across the oul' eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the feckin' Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper.[265] The narrow coastal strip between the feckin' Pontic Mountains and the oul' Black Sea is home to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain some of the oul' world's few temperate rainforests.[266] The Turkish pine is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the feckin' flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the bleedin' Ottoman Empire in the bleedin' 16th century.[267][268]
There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troya National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park.[269]
Kangal Shepherd Dog
The Anatolian leopard is still found in very small numbers in the oul' northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.[270][271] The Eurasian lynx and the feckin' European wildcat are other felid species which are currently found in the bleedin' forests of Turkey.
The Caspian tiger, now extinct, lived in the oul' easternmost regions of Turkey until the bleedin' latter half of the 20th century.[270][272] In the bleedin' 21st century threats to biodiversity include desertification due to climate change in Turkey.[273]
Renowned domestic animals from Ankara, the oul' capital of Turkey, include the bleedin' Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat; and from Van Province the oul' Van cat. The national dog breeds are the oul' Kangal, Malaklı, Akbaş and Anatolian Shepherd.[274]
Turkey had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.39/10, rankin' it 75th globally out of 172 countries.[275]
Main article: Climate of Turkey
See also: Climate change in Turkey
Climate diagram of Turkey[276]
The coastal areas of Turkey borderin' the bleedin' Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.[276] The coastal areas borderin' the Black Sea have a holy temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[276] The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the oul' greatest amount of precipitation and is the bleedin' only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the oul' year.[276] The eastern part of that coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the oul' country.[276]
The coastal areas borderin' the bleedin' Sea of Marmara, which connects the oul' Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a feckin' transitional climate between a holy temperate Mediterranean climate and a feckin' temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[276] Snow falls on the bleedin' coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the bleedin' Black Sea almost every winter, but usually melts in no more than a bleedin' few days.[276] However snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the oul' coastal areas of the feckin' Mediterranean Sea.[276]
Mountains close to the oul' coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extendin' inland, givin' the bleedin' central Anatolian plateau of the interior of Turkey a continental climate with sharply contrastin' seasons.[276]
Winters on the oul' eastern part of the feckin' plateau are especially severe.[276] Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) can occur in eastern Anatolia.[276] Snow may remain at least 120 days of the year.[276] In the feckin' west, winter temperatures average below 1 °C (34 °F).[276] Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures often above 30 °C (86 °F) in the day.[276] Annual precipitation averages about 400 millimetres (16 inches), with actual amounts determined by elevation. Here's a quare one. The driest regions are the oul' Konya Plain and the bleedin' Malatya Plain, where annual rainfall is often less than 300 millimetres (12 inches). Arra' would ye listen to this. May is generally the wettest month, whereas July and August are the driest.[276]
Turkey has signed but not ratified global agreements on reducin' greenhouse gas emissions: the feckin' country has not yet ratified the feckin' Kigali Accord to regulate hydrofluorocarbons, and is one of the few countries that have not ratified the bleedin' Paris agreement on climate change.
Main article: Economy of Turkey
See also: Turkish currency and debt crisis, 2018
Turkey is an oul' foundin' member of the feckin' OECD (1961) and G20 (1999)
With an estimated nominal gross domestic product of $744 billion ($8,958 per capita) and $2.4 trillion ($28,264 p.c.) in purchasin' power parity,[277][278] Turkey is the oul' world's 19th largest economy and 13th largest by PPP.[279][280] The country is among the foundin' members of the OECD and the G20.[161][167]
The EU – Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to an extensive liberalisation of tariff rates, and forms one of the most important pillars of Turkey's foreign trade policy.[281]
The automotive industry in Turkey is sizeable, and produced over 1.3 million motor vehicles in 2015, rankin' as the bleedin' 14th largest producer in the oul' world.[282] Turkish shipyards are highly regarded both for the production of chemical and oil tankers up to 10,000 dwt and also for their mega yachts.[283] Turkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the bleedin' largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe, and invest a feckin' substantial amount of funds for research and development in new technologies related to these fields.[284][285][286]
Skyscrapers of Levent[287][288] business district in Istanbul, Turkey's largest city and leadin' economic centre[289]
Other key sectors of the feckin' Turkish economy are bankin', construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, oil refinin', petrochemical products, food, minin', iron and steel, and machine industry. Bejaysus this is a quare tale altogether. However, agriculture still accounted for a feckin' quarter of employment.[290] In 2004, it was estimated that 46 percent of total disposable income was received by the oul' top 20 percent of income earners, while the feckin' lowest 20 percent received only 6 percent.[291] The rate of female employment in Turkey was 30 percent in 2012,[292] the oul' lowest among all OECD countries.[293]
Foreign direct investment (FDI) was $8.3 billion in 2012, a holy figure expected to rise to $15 billion in 2013.[294] In the oul' economic crisis of 2016 it emerged that the huge debts incurred for investment durin' the AKP government since 2002 had mostly been consumed in construction, rather than invested in sustainable economic growth.[295] Turkey's gross external debt reached $453.2 billion at the end of December 2017.[296] Turkey's annual current account deficit was $47.3 billion at the bleedin' end of December 2017, compared to the bleedin' previous year's figure of $33.1 billion.[297] In 2020, accordin' to Carbon Tracker, money was bein' wasted constructin' more coal-fired power stations in Turkey.[298] Fatih Birol the oul' head of the bleedin' International Energy Agency said that fossil fuel subsidies should be redirected, for example to the feckin' health system.[299] Fossil fuel subsidies were around 0.2% of GDP for the oul' first two decades of the bleedin' 21st century,[300][301] and are higher than clean energy subsidies.[302] In 2020 the oul' European Bank for Reconstruction and Development offered to support an oul' just transition away from coal.[303]
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Main article: Economic history of Turkey
A view of Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in the feckin' early years of the oul' Turkish Republic. Whisht now. Completed in 1892, the bleedin' Ottoman Central Bank headquarters is seen at left. Here's a quare one for ye. In 1995 the feckin' Istanbul Stock Exchange moved to İstinye, while numerous Turkish banks moved their headquarters to Levent and Maslak.
In the bleedin' early decades of the feckin' Turkish Republic, the government (or banks established and owned by the bleedin' government) had to subsidise most of the oul' industrial projects, due to the oul' lack of a feckin' strong private sector, would ye swally that? However, in the oul' period between the oul' 1920s and 1950s, a bleedin' new generation of Turkish entrepreneurs such as Nuri Demirağ, Vehbi Koç, Hacı Ömer Sabancı and Nejat Eczacıbaşı began to establish privately owned factories, some of which evolved into the feckin' largest industrial conglomerates that dominate the feckin' Turkish economy today, such as Koç Holdin', Sabancı Holdin' and Eczacıbaşı Holdin'.
Durin' the bleedin' first six decades of the bleedin' republic, between 1923 and 1983, Turkey generally adhered to a quasi-statist approach with strict government plannin' of the oul' budget and government-imposed limitations over foreign trade, flow of foreign currency, foreign direct investment and private sector participation in certain fields (such as broadcastin', telecommunications, energy, minin', etc.). However, in 1983, Prime Minister Turgut Özal initiated a series of reforms designed to shift the economy from a bleedin' statist, insulated system to an oul' more private-sector, market-based model.[110]
The reforms, combined with unprecedented amounts of fundin' from foreign loans, spurred rapid economic growth; but this growth was punctuated by sharp recessions and financial crises in 1994, 1999 (followin' the oul' earthquake in Izmit that year),[304] and 2001;[305] resultin' in an average of 4 percent GDP growth per annum between 1981 and 2003.[306] Lack of additional fiscal reforms, combined with large and growin' public sector deficits and widespread corruption, resulted in high inflation, an oul' weak bankin' sector and increased macroeconomic volatility.[307] After the economic crisis of 2001 and the reforms initiated by the feckin' then finance minister, Kemal Derviş, inflation dropped to single-digit figures for the bleedin' first time in decades (8% in 2005), investor confidence and foreign investment soared, and unemployment fell to 10% in 2005.[308] Turkey has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducin' government controls on foreign trade and investment and the oul' privatisation of publicly owned industries, and the liberalisation of many sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.[309]
1966 Anadol A1 (left) and 1973 Anadol STC-16 (right) at the Rahmi M. Story? Koç Museum in Istanbul. I hope yiz are all ears now. Devrim (1961) was the bleedin' first Turkish car, while TOGG is a bleedin' new Turkish automotive company established in 2018 for producin' EVs.[310][311]
The real GDP growth rate from 2002 to 2007 averaged 6.8 percent annually,[312] which made Turkey one of the feckin' fastest growin' economies in the world durin' that period. However, growth shlowed to 1 percent in 2008, and in 2009 the Turkish economy was affected by the feckin' global financial crisis, with an oul' recession of 5 percent, that's fierce now what? Accordin' to Eurostat data, Turkish GDP per capita adjusted by purchasin' power standards stood at 61 percent of the feckin' EU average in 2019.[313]
In the oul' early years of the oul' 21st century, the oul' chronically high inflation was brought under control; this led to the bleedin' launch of a bleedin' new currency, the Turkish new lira (Yeni Türk Lirası) in 2005, to cement the acquisition of the bleedin' economic reforms and erase the bleedin' vestiges of an unstable economy.[314] In 2009, after only four years in circulation, the Turkish new lira was renamed back to the Turkish lira with the oul' introduction of new banknotes and coins.
Main article: Tourism in Turkey
Most of the oul' beach resorts in Turkey are located in the Turkish Riviera.
Tourism in Turkey has increased almost every year in the oul' 21st century,[315] and is an important part of the feckin' economy. Would ye believe this shite?The Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism currently promotes Turkish tourism under the bleedin' Turkey Home name. Right so. Turkey is one of the bleedin' world's top ten destination countries, with the highest percentage of foreign visitors arrivin' from Germany and Russia in recent years.[315] In 2018 Turkey ranked 6th in the world in terms of the bleedin' number of international tourist arrivals, with 45.8 million foreign tourists visitin' the bleedin' country.[316]
Turkey has 17 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as the feckin' "Historic Areas of Istanbul", the bleedin' "Rock Sites of Cappadocia", the feckin' "Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük", "Hattusa: the oul' Hittite Capital", the "Archaeological Site of Troy", "Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape", "Hierapolis – Pamukkale", and "Mount Nemrut";[317] and 51 World Heritage Sites in tentative list, such as the feckin' archaeological sites or historic urban centres of Göbekli Tepe, Gordion, Ephesus, Aphrodisias, Perga, Lycia, Sagalassos, Aizanoi, Zeugma, Ani, Harran, Mardin, Konya and Alanya.[318] Turkey is home to two of the feckin' Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the oul' world's oldest religious site Göbekli Tepe, and numerous other World Heritage Sites.[319][320][321]
Cappadocia is a bleedin' region created by the erosion of soft volcanic stone by the feckin' wind and rain for centuries.[322] The area is a bleedin' popular tourist destination, havin' many sites with unique geological, historic, and cultural features.
Main articles: Transport in Turkey, Communications in Turkey, Energy in Turkey, and Water supply and sanitation in Turkey
Turkish Airlines, the flag carrier of Turkey, is the feckin' largest carrier in the oul' world by number of countries served as of 2019[update].[323][324]
In 2013 there were 98 airports in Turkey,[325] includin' 22 international airports.[326] İstanbul Airport is planned to be the largest airport in the world, with an oul' capacity to serve 150 million passengers a feckin' year.[327][328] As well as Turkish Airlines, flag carrier of Turkey since 1933, several other airlines operate in the bleedin' country.
As of 2014[update], the bleedin' country has a roadway network of 65,623 kilometres (40,776 miles).[329] Turkish State Railways started buildin' high-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya line became operational in 2011, while the Ankara-Istanbul line entered service in 2014.[330] Opened in 2013, the oul' Marmaray tunnel under the feckin' Bosphorus connects the railway and metro lines of Istanbul's European and Asian sides; while the oul' nearby Eurasia Tunnel (2016) provides an undersea road connection for motor vehicles.[331] The Bosphorus Bridge (1973), Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (1988) and Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge (2016) are the feckin' three suspension bridges connectin' the bleedin' European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus strait. Whisht now. The Osman Gazi Bridge (2016) connects the feckin' northern and southern shores of the oul' Gulf of İzmit, Lord bless us and save us. The Çanakkale Bridge, currently under construction, will connect the feckin' European and Asian shores of the feckin' Dardanelles strait.
Many natural gas pipelines span the feckin' country's territory.[332] The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, the second longest oil pipeline in the bleedin' world, was inaugurated in 2005.[333] The Blue Stream, a holy major trans-Black Sea gas pipeline, delivers natural gas from Russia to Turkey. Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. The undersea pipeline, Turkish Stream, with an annual capacity around 63 billion cubic metres (2,200 billion cubic feet), allows Turkey to resell Russian gas to Europe.[334]
Turkey's internet, which has 42.3 million active users, holds a holy 'Not Free' rankin' in Freedom House's index.[335] Turkish government has constantly blocked websites like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and Mickopedia.[336] Accordin' to Twitter's transparency report, Turkey is the bleedin' global leader in social media censorship.[337]
A TCDD HT80000 high-speed train of the feckin' Turkish State Railways[338]
As of 2018[update] Turkey consumes 1700 terawatt hours (TW/h) of primary energy per year, a bleedin' little over 20 megawatt hours (MW/h) per person, mostly from imported fossil fuels.[339] Although the feckin' energy policy of Turkey includes reducin' fossil-fuel imports, coal in Turkey is the largest single reason why greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey amount to 1% of the feckin' global total. Renewable energy in Turkey is bein' increased and Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is bein' built on the feckin' Mediterranean coast: but despite national electricity generation overcapacity fossil fuels are still subsidized.[340] Turkey has the feckin' fifth-highest direct utilisation and capacity of geothermal power in the oul' world.[341]
Water supply and sanitation in Turkey is characterised by achievements and challenges. Story? Over the feckin' past decades access to drinkin' water has become almost universal and access to adequate sanitation has also increased substantially. Autonomous utilities have been created in the 16 metropolitan cities of Turkey and cost recovery has been increased, thus providin' the basis for the bleedin' sustainability of service provision. Whisht now. Intermittent supply, which was common in many cities, has become less frequent. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. Remainin' challenges include the oul' need to further increase wastewater treatment, to reduce the high level of non-revenue water hoverin' around 50% and to expand access to adequate sanitation in rural areas. Whisht now and eist liom. The investment required to comply with EU standards in the feckin' sector, especially in wastewater treatment, is estimated to be in the oul' order of €2 billion per year, more than double the oul' current level of investment.[342][needs update]
Main article: Science and technology in Turkey
Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are the bleedin' Earth observation satellites of the Turkish Ministry of National Defense, while state-owned Türksat operates the Türksat series of communications satellites.
TÜBİTAK is the leadin' agency for developin' science, technology and innovation policies in Turkey.[343] TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society actin' to promote scientific activities in Turkey.[344] TAEK is the official nuclear energy institution of Turkey. Here's another quare one for ye. Its objectives include academic research in nuclear energy, and the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear tools.[345]
TAI ranks among the oul' top 100 global players in the bleedin' aerospace and defence sectors.[346]
Turkish government companies for research and development in military technologies include Turkish Aerospace Industries, ASELSAN, HAVELSAN, ROKETSAN, MKE, among others. Bejaysus. Turkish Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center (UMET) is a bleedin' spacecraft production and testin' facility owned by the oul' Ministry of National Defence and operated by the feckin' Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). The Turkish Space Launch System (UFS) is a project to develop the oul' satellite launch capability of Turkey, the cute hoor. It consists of the construction of a spaceport, the bleedin' development of satellite launch vehicles as well as the establishment of remote earth stations.[347][348][349] Türksat is the bleedin' sole communications satellite operator in Turkey and has launched the Türksat series of satellites into orbit, that's fierce now what? Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are Turkey's Earth observation satellites for reconnaissance, operated by the Turkish Ministry of National Defense. C'mere til I tell ya now. BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the feckin' scientific Earth observation satellites operated by the bleedin' TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute.
In 2015, Aziz Sancar, a feckin' Turkish professor at the bleedin' University of North Carolina, won the bleedin' Nobel Chemistry Prize along with Tomas Lindahl and Paul Modrich, for their work on how cells repair damaged DNA.[350] Other Turkish scientists include physician Hulusi Behçet who discovered Behçet's disease and mathematician Cahit Arf who defined the feckin' Arf invariant.
Main article: Demographics of Turkey
See also: Turkish people, Minorities in Turkey, and Turkification
Historical populations
13,554,000 —
14,440,000 +2.13%
Source: Turkstat[351]
Accordin' to the oul' Address-Based Population Recordin' System of Turkey, the country's population was 74.7 million people in 2011,[352] nearly three-quarters of whom lived in towns and cities. C'mere til I tell ya now. Accordin' to the 2011 estimate, the bleedin' population is increasin' by 1.35 percent each year. Jaykers! Turkey has an average population density of 97 people per km², the cute hoor. People within the 15–64 age group constitute 67.4 percent of the oul' total population; the bleedin' 0–14 age group corresponds to 25.3 percent; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 7.3 percent.[353] In 1927, when the feckin' first official census was recorded in the oul' Republic of Turkey, the feckin' population was 13.6 million.[354] The largest city in Turkey, Istanbul, is also the largest city in Europe by population, and the oul' third-largest city in Europe in terms of size.[355][356]
Article 66 of the oul' Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk" as "anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship"; therefore, the legal use of the oul' term "Turkish" as a citizen of Turkey is different from the oul' ethnic definition.[357] However, the bleedin' majority of the feckin' Turkish population are of Turkish ethnicity and approximately 70–80 per cent of the oul' country's citizens identify themselves as Turkish.[11][12] It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.[358] Reliable data on the oul' ethnic mix of the oul' population is not available, because Turkish census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity.[359]
CIA map of areas with a bleedin' Kurdish majority[360]
Kurds are the oul' largest non-Turkish ethnicity at anywhere from 12-25 per cent of the feckin' population.[361][362] The exact figure remains a feckin' subject of dispute; accordin' to Servet Mutlu, "more often than not, these estimates reflect pro-Kurdish or pro-Turkish sympathies and attitudes rather than scientific facts or erudition".[358] Mutlu's 1990 study estimated Kurds made up around 12 per cent of the bleedin' population, while Mehrdad Izady placed the bleedin' figure around 25 per cent.[363] The Kurds are makin' up a holy majority in the bleedin' provinces of Ağrı, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Elâzığ, Hakkari, Iğdır, Mardin, Muş, Siirt, Şırnak, Tunceli and Van; a feckin' near majority in Şanlıurfa Province (47%); and an oul' large minority in Kars Province (20%).[364] In addition, due to internal migration, Kurdish diaspora communities exist in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey, game ball! In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, makin' it the feckin' city with the bleedin' largest Kurdish population in the oul' world.[365] Non-Kurdish minorities are believed to make up an estimated 7–12 percent of the bleedin' population.[12]
Population by region[366]
Marmara 24,465,689
Central Anatolia 12,705,812
Mediterranean 10,552,942
Aegean 10,318,157
Southeastern Anatolia 8,876,531
Black Sea 7,674,496
Eastern Anatolia 5,966,101
Turkey total fertility rate by province (2019)[367]
The three "Non-Muslim" minority groups recognised in the bleedin' Treaty of Lausanne were Armenians, Greeks and Jews, grand so. Other ethnic groups include Albanians, Arabs, Assyrians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Pomaks, and Roma.[12][368][369][370][371] Turkey is also home to a Muslim community of Megleno-Romanians.[372] Minority groups other than the oul' three religious minorities recognised in the oul' Treaty of Lausanne (Armenians, Greeks and Jews) do not have any official rights, and use of the oul' minority languages of Turkey is restricted.[373] The term "minority" itself remains a holy sensitive issue in Turkey, while the feckin' Turkish government is frequently criticised for its treatment of minorities.[373] Although minorities are not recognised, state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) broadcasts television and radio programs in minority languages,[374][375] and minority language classes are available in some elementary schools.[376]
Before the oul' start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.[377] As of April 2020, there are 3.6 million Syrian refugees in Turkey, who are mostly Arabs but also include Syrian Kurds, Syrian Turkmen, and other ethnic groups of Syria. The vast majority of these are livin' in Turkey with temporary residence permits. The Turkish government has granted Turkish citizenship to refugees who have joined the oul' Syrian National Army.[378][379][380]
Largest cities or towns in Turkey
TÜİK's address-based calculation from December 2017.[381]
Ankara 1 Istanbul Istanbul 14,744,519 11 Mersin Mersin 1,005,455
2 Ankara Ankara 4,871,884 12 Urfa Şanlıurfa 921,978
3 İzmir İzmir 2,938,546 13 Eskişehir Eskişehir 752,630
4 Bursa Bursa 2,074,799 14 Denizli Denizli 638,989
5 Adana Adana 1,753,337 15 Kahramanmaraş Kahramanmaraş 632,487
6 Gaziantep Gaziantep 1,663,273 16 Samsun Samsun 625,410
7 Antalya Antalya 1,311,471 17 Malatya Malatya 618,831
8 Konya Konya 1,130,222 18 İzmit Kocaeli 570,077
9 Kayseri Kayseri 1,123,611 19 Adapazarı Sakarya 492,027
10 Diyarbakır Diyarbakır 1,047,286 20 Erzurum Erzurum 422,389
Main article: Immigration to Turkey
See also: Turkey's migrant crisis
Immigration to Turkey is the bleedin' process by which people migrate to Turkey to reside in the oul' country. Bejaysus here's a quare one right here now. Turkey's migrant crisis created after an estimated 2.5 percent of the feckin' population are international migrants.[382] Turkey hosts the feckin' largest number of refugees in the bleedin' world, includin' 3.6 million Syrian refugees, as of April 2020.[378] As part of Turkey's migrant crisis, accordin' to UNHCR, in 2018 Turkey was hostin' 63.4% of all the refugees in the world, that is 3,564,919 registered refugees from Africa and the feckin' Middle East in total.[383]
Main article: Languages of Turkey
The official language is Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic language in the world.[384][385] It is spoken by 85.54 percent of the bleedin' population as a first language.[386] 11.97 percent of the bleedin' population speaks the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish as their mammy tongue.[386] Arabic and Zaza are the feckin' mammy tongues of 2.39 percent of the population, and several other languages are the feckin' mammy tongues of smaller parts of the oul' population.[386] Endangered languages in Turkey include Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Cappadocian Greek, Gagauz, Hértevin, Homshetsma, Kabard-Cherkes, Ladino (Judesmo), Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek, Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh, and Western Armenian.[387] Megleno-Romanian is also spoken.[372]
Main article: Religion in Turkey
See also: Secularism in Turkey
Religion in Turkey (2019)[388][389][390][391]
Sunni Islam (74%)
Alevism (12.5%)
Other Muslims (Ja'fari, Alawites, Twelvers) (3%)
Christianity (0.3%)
Other Religions (Judaism, Tengrism, Yazidism) (1.1%)
Deism (4.5%)
Agnosticism (2.7%)
Atheism (1.7%)
Turkey is a feckin' secular state with no official state religion; the feckin' Turkish Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.[392][393]
A 2016 survey by market research group Ipsos, interviewin' 17,180 adults across 22 countries, found that Islam was the oul' dominant religion in Turkey, adhered to by 82% of the total population; religiously unaffiliated people comprised 13% of the feckin' population, while 2% were Christians.[394] The CIA World Factbook reports that Islam is the feckin' religion of 99.8% of the bleedin' population, with Sunni Muslims as the oul' largest sect, while 0.2% are Christians and Jews.[395] However, there are no official governmental statistics specifyin' the oul' religious beliefs of the bleedin' Turkish people, nor is religious data recorded in the oul' country's census.[396]
The role of religion in public life has been the source of debate since the bleedin' Republic was established on a holy secular basis, and in recent years with the comin' to prominence of Islamist parties.[397] For many decades, the bleedin' wearin' of the feckin' Hijab was banned in schools and government buildings because it was viewed as a holy symbol of political Islam. However, the feckin' ban was lifted from universities in 2011, from government buildings in 2013,[398] from schools in 2014[399] and from the Armed Forces in 2017.[400] The Justice and Development Party (AKP) government, in power since 2002, pursue an explicit policy of Islamization of education to "raise a bleedin' devout generation" against secular resistance,[401][402] in the feckin' process causin' lost jobs and educational opportunities for non-religious citizens of Turkey.[403] However, AKP policies have also caused an increase in interest and support for secularism in Turkey.[404][405]
Main article: Islam in Turkey
Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul is popularly known as the oul' Blue Mosque due to the feckin' blue İznik tiles which adorn its interior.[406]
After the bleedin' dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the oul' number of Muslims in the oul' region that became Turkey increased relative to that of the feckin' Christians with the feckin' immigration of Ottoman Muslims, who were facin' extermination or other forms of repression in the bleedin' newly constituted Balkan states. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. Not all were ethnic Turks; some were Muslim Albanians, Bosniaks, Greek Muslims, Muslim Serbs, Macedonian Muslims, Bulgarian Muslims[407] and Megleno-Romanian Muslims.[372] Other Turks and Circassians fleein' Russian expansion in areas such as the feckin' Caucasus and the bleedin' Crimea also arrived durin' this period. Here's a quare one. By the feckin' 1920s, Islam had become the oul' majority religion.[407]
The largest denomination is Sunni Islam, in accordance with the bleedin' Hanafi school. There are also some Sufi Muslims.[408] Non-denominational Muslims have been estimated to range from 2%[409] to 14% of the feckin' population.[394]
The highest Islamic religious authority is the bleedin' Presidency of Religious Affairs (Turkish: Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı); it interprets the bleedin' Hanafi school of law, and is responsible for regulatin' the bleedin' operation of the country's 80,000 registered mosques and employin' local and provincial imams.[410] Some have also complained that under the feckin' Islamist government of the bleedin' Justice and Development Party (AKP) and Tayyip Erdoğan, the old role of the feckin' Diyanet – maintainin' control over the bleedin' religious sphere of Islam in Turkey – has "largely been turned on its head."[411] Now greatly increased in size, the oul' Diyanet promotes a holy certain type of conservative (Hanafi Sunni) Islam inside Turkey, issuin' fetva that disapprove of activities such as "feedin' dogs at home, celebratin' the oul' western New Year, lotteries, and tattoos"[412] and projectin' this "Turkish Islam" abroad.[411][413]
Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15 to 20 million, while the oul' Alevi-Bektaşi Federation states that there are around 25 million.[414][415] Accordin' to Aksiyon magazine, the feckin' number of Twelver Shias (excludin' Alevis) is three million (4.2%).[416] Under the feckin' government of the oul' Justice and Development Party (AKP), discrimination against, and persecution of, the Alevi minority has increased.[417][418][419]
Main article: Christianity in Turkey
Bulgarian St, what? Stephen Church in Fatih, Istanbul is famous for its prefabricated cast-iron elements in the feckin' neo-Gothic style.
Christianity has a long history in present-day Turkey, which is the oul' birthplace of numerous Christian apostles and saints, such as Paul of Tarsus, Timothy, Nicholas of Myra, Polycarp of Smyrna and many others, that's fierce now what? Saint Peter founded one of the feckin' first churches in Antioch (Antakya), the location of which is regarded by tradition as the feckin' spot where he first preached the bleedin' Gospel, and where the feckin' followers of Jesus were called Christians for the feckin' first time. The house where Virgin Mary lived the bleedin' final days of her life until her Assumption (accordin' to Catholic doctrine) or Dormition (accordin' to Orthodox belief),[420][421] and the feckin' tomb of John the bleedin' Apostle, who accompanied her durin' the voyage to Anatolia after the feckin' crucifixion of Jesus, are in Ephesus. C'mere til I tell ya now. The cave churches in Cappadocia were among the oul' hidin' places of early Christians durin' the oul' Roman persecutions against them. Chrisht Almighty. The Eastern Orthodox Church has been headquartered in Constantinople (Istanbul) since the oul' First Council of Constantinople in 381 AD.[422][423] Two of the five major episcopal sees of the feckin' Pentarchy (Constantinople and Antioch) instituted by Justinian the feckin' Great in 531 AD[424] were located in present-day Turkey durin' the Byzantine period.[425]
The percentage of Christians in Turkey fell from 17.5% (three million followers) in a holy population of 16 million to 2.5% percent in the bleedin' early 20th century.[426] The drop was the result of events that had a bleedin' significant impact on the country's demographic structure, such as the oul' Armenian Genocide, the population exchange between Greece and Turkey[427] and the feckin' emigration of Christians that began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the bleedin' 20th century.[428] The 1942-44 wealth tax for non-Muslims, the bleedin' emigration of a feckin' portion of Turkish Jews to Israel after 1948, and the feckin' ongoin' Cyprus dispute, which damaged relations between Turkish Muslims and Christians (culminatin' in the Istanbul pogrom of 6–7 September 1955), were other important events that contributed to the decline of Turkey's non-Muslim population.
Today there are more than 120,000-320,000 people of various Christian denominations,[429] representin' less than 0.2% of Turkey's population,[430] includin' an estimated 80,000 Oriental Orthodox, 35,000 Roman Catholics,[431] 18,000 Antiochian Greeks,[432] 5,000 Greek Orthodox and smaller numbers of Protestants.[433] Currently there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey.[434]
Main article: Judaism in Turkey
The Grand Synagogue in Edirne
The history of Judaism in Turkey dates back to the Romaniote Jews of Anatolia, who have been present since at least the 5th century BC. They built ancient places of worship such as the bleedin' Sardis Synagogue in Lydia and the oul' Priene Synagogue in Ionia. Here's a quare one for ye. The Sephardi Jews, who were expelled from the Iberian peninsula and southern Italy under the feckin' control of the Spanish Empire, were welcomed into the oul' Ottoman Empire between the oul' late-15th and mid-16th centuries, enda story. Despite emigration durin' the oul' 20th century, modern-day Turkey continues to have a feckin' small Jewish population.[435] At present, there are around 26,000 Jews in Turkey, the oul' vast majority of whom are Sephardi.[436]
Main article: Irreligion in Turkey
Logo of the feckin' Ateizm Derneği
In a mid-2010s poll, 2.9% of Turkish respondents identified as atheists.[437] The Association of Atheism (Ateizm Derneği), the bleedin' first official atheist organisation in the feckin' Balkans or Middle East, was founded in 2014.[438][439] Some religious and secular officials have claimed that atheism and deism are growin' among Turkish people.[440][441][442][443]
Main article: Education in Turkey
See also: List of high schools in Turkey and List of universities in Turkey
Istanbul University was founded in 1453 as a feckin' Darülfünûn. On 1 August 1933 it was reorganised and became the Republic's first university.[444]
The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.[445] This is compulsory and lasts twelve years: four years each of primary school, middle school and high school.[446] Less than half of 25- to 34-year-old Turks have completed at least high school, compared with an OECD average of over 80 percent.[447] Basic education in Turkey is said to lag behind other OECD countries, with significant differences between high and low performers.[448] Turkey is ranked 32nd out of 34 in the OECD's PISA study.[446] Access to high-quality school heavily depends on the oul' performance in the feckin' secondary school entrance exams, to the bleedin' point that some students begin takin' private tutorin' classes when they are ten years old.[448] The overall adult literacy rate in 2011 was 94.1 percent; 97.9 percent for males and 90.3 percent for females.[449][needs update]
As of 2017, there are 190 universities in Turkey.[450] Except for the oul' Open Education Faculties (AÖF) at Anadolu, Istanbul and Atatürk University; entrance is regulated by the bleedin' national Student Selection and Placement System (ÖSYS) examination, after which high school graduates are assigned to universities accordin' to their performance.[451] Accordin' to the 2012–2013 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the feckin' top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical University, followed by Bilkent University and Koç University, Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University.[452] All state and private universities are under the feckin' control of the Higher Education Board (YÖK), whose head is appointed by the oul' President of Turkey; and since 2016 the President directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.[453] Turkey is a bleedin' member of the oul' European Higher Education Area and actively participates in the feckin' Bologna Process.[454]
In 2016 the bleedin' Skills Matter survey conducted by OECD found the bleedin' levels of numeracy and literacy in the adult population of Turkey at rank 30 of the 33 OECD countries surveyed. [455]
In 2017 the feckin' theory of evolution was removed from the oul' national curriculum of high schools, while the concept of jihad was added as an oul' new subject.[456]
Main article: Health care in Turkey
See also: List of hospitals in Turkey
Imperial College of Medicine, currently the feckin' Haydarpaşa campus of Marmara University.
The Ministry of Health has run a feckin' universal public healthcare system since 2003.[457] Known as Universal Health Insurance Genel Sağlık Sigortası, it is funded by a bleedin' tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.[457] Public-sector fundin' covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.[457]
Despite the oul' universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the oul' lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the feckin' OECD average of 9.3%.[457]
Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the feckin' EU average of 81 years.[457] Turkey has one of the bleedin' highest rates of obesity in the world, with nearly one third (29.5%) of its adult population obese. Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. Air pollution in Turkey is a holy major cause of early death.[458]
Main article: Culture of Turkey
See also: Arts in Turkey, Turkish folklore, and Festivals in Turkey
Whirlin' Dervishes of the Sufi Mevlevi Order, founded by the followers of the oul' 13th-century Sufi mystic and poet Rumi in Konya, durin' a Sema. The ceremony is one of the 11 elements of Turkey on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.[459]
Turkey has a feckin' very diverse culture that is a bleedin' blend of various elements of the feckin' Turkic, Anatolian, Ottoman (which was itself a continuation of both Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures) and Western culture and traditions, which started with the feckin' Westernisation of the oul' Ottoman Empire and still continues today.[460][461] This mix originally began as a bleedin' result of the bleedin' encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the oul' peoples who were in their path durin' their migration from Central Asia to the bleedin' West.[460][462] Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a bleedin' "modern" Western state, while maintainin' traditional religious and historical values.[460]
Further information: Turkish paintin', İznik pottery, Turkish carpet, Turkish miniature, and Turkish illumination
Two Musician Girls (left) and The Tortoise Trainer (right) by Osman Hamdi Bey, at the bleedin' Pera Museum.
Turkish paintin', in the oul' Western sense, developed actively startin' from the mid 19th century. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. The first paintin' lessons were scheduled at what is now the oul' Istanbul Technical University (then the oul' Imperial Military Engineerin' School) in 1793, mostly for technical purposes.[463] In the late 19th century, human figure in the bleedin' Western sense was bein' established in Turkish paintin', especially with Osman Hamdi Bey. I hope yiz are all ears now. Impressionism, among the contemporary trends, appeared later on with Halil Pasha. The young Turkish artists sent to Europe in 1926 came back inspired by contemporary trends such as Fauvism, Cubism and even Expressionism, still very influential in Europe. Jaysis. The later "Group D" of artists led by Abidin Dino, Cemal Tollu, Fikret Mualla, Fahrünnisa Zeid, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu, Adnan Çoker and Burhan Doğançay introduced some trends that had lasted in the bleedin' West for more than three decades, game ball! Other important movements in Turkish paintin' were the "Yeniler Grubu" (The Newcomers Group) of the feckin' late 1930s; the feckin' "On'lar Grubu" (Group of Ten) of the bleedin' 1940s; the bleedin' "Yeni Dal Grubu" (New Branch Group) of the oul' 1950s; and the feckin' "Siyah Kalem Grubu" (Black Pen Group) of the oul' 1960s.[464]
Carpet weavin' is a feckin' traditional art from pre-Islamic times. C'mere til I tell ya. Durin' its long history, the oul' art and craft of the woven carpet has integrated different cultural traditions. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. Traces of Byzantine design can be detected; Turkic peoples migratin' from Central Asia, as well as Armenian people, Caucasian and Kurdish tribes either livin' in, or migratin' to Anatolia, brought with them their traditional designs. Sure this is it. The arrival of Islam and the feckin' development of Islamic art also influenced Turkish carpet design, begorrah. The history of its designs, motifs and ornaments thus reflects the oul' political and ethnic history and diversity of Asia minor, you know yerself. However, scientific attempts were unsuccessful, as yet, to attribute a particular design to a feckin' specific ethnic, regional, or even nomadic versus village tradition.[465]
Akdeniz (The Mediterranean) by Turkish sculptor İlhan Koman
Ottoman miniature is linked to the Persian miniature tradition, as well as strong Chinese artistic influences. The words tasvir or nakış were used to define the art of miniature paintin' in Ottoman Turkish, begorrah. The studios the oul' artists worked in were called nakkaşhane.[466] The miniatures were usually not signed, perhaps because of the rejection of individualism, but also because the bleedin' works were not created entirely by one person; the head painter designed the bleedin' composition of the feckin' scene, and his apprentices drew the bleedin' contours (which were called tahrir) with black or colored ink and then painted the miniature without creatin' an illusion of depth. The head painter, and much more often the bleedin' scribe of the bleedin' text, were indeed named and depicted in some of the manuscripts. Bejaysus here's a quare one right here now. The understandin' of perspective was different from that of the feckin' nearby European Renaissance paintin' tradition, and the bleedin' scene depicted often included different time periods and spaces in one picture. Jaysis. They followed closely the context of the bleedin' book they were included in, more illustrations than standalone works of art.[467]
The earliest examples of Turkish paper marblin', called ebru in Turkish, are said to be a copy of the oul' Hâlnâme by the bleedin' poet Arifî, the hoor. The text of this manuscript was rendered in a bleedin' delicate cut paper découpage calligraphy by Mehmed bin Gazanfer and completed in 1540, and features many marbled and decorative paper borders. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. One early master by the oul' pseudonym of Şebek is mentioned posthumously in the earliest Ottoman text on the bleedin' art known as the oul' Tertib-i Risâle-i Ebrî, which is dated based on internal evidence to after 1615. The instructions for several ebru techniques in the oul' text are accredited to this master. In fairness now. Another famous 18th-century master by the name of Hatip Mehmed Efendi (died 1773) is accredited with developin' motifs and perhaps early floral designs, although evidence from India appears to contradict some of these reports, begorrah. Despite this, marbled motifs are commonly referred to as hatip designs in Turkey today.[468]
Handmade ceramics at a bleedin' shop in Bozcaada
Main articles: Turkish literature and Theatre of Turkey
Namık Kemal's works had an oul' profound influence on Atatürk and other Turkish statesmen who established the oul' Turkish Republic.[469][470]
Turkish literature is a mix of cultural influences. In fairness now. Interaction between the feckin' Ottoman Empire and the bleedin' Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a holy blend of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts.[471] Turkish literature was heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic literature durin' most of the oul' Ottoman era. The Tanzimat reforms introduced previously unknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story, for the craic. Many of the feckin' writers in the bleedin' Tanzimat period wrote in several genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Nâmık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh (Awakenin'), while the journalist Şinasi has written, in 1860, the feckin' first modern Turkish play, the feckin' one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" (The Poet's Marriage). Whisht now and listen to this wan. Most of the oul' roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the bleedin' years 1896 and 1923, you know yerself. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements durin' this period: the oul' Edebiyat-ı Cedîde (New Literature) movement; the feckin' Fecr-i Âtî (Dawn of the Future) movement; and the bleedin' Millî Edebiyat (National Literature) movement. Whisht now. The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the feckin' free verse style. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the feckin' Garip movement led by Orhan Veli, Oktay Rıfat and Melih Cevdet. In fairness now. The mix of cultural influences in Turkey is dramatised, for example, in the oul' form of the "new symbols of the oul' clash and interlacin' of cultures" enacted in the feckin' novels of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the feckin' 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.[472]
Süreyya Opera House in Istanbul
The origin of Turkish theatre dates back to ancient pagan rituals and oral legends, fair play. The dances, music and songs performed durin' the oul' rituals of the inhabitants of Anatolia millennia ago are the elements from which the bleedin' first shows originated. In time, the bleedin' ancient rituals, myths, legends and stories evolved into theatrical shows. Here's another quare one. Startin' from the 11th-century, the bleedin' traditions of the Seljuk Turks blended with those of the feckin' indigenous peoples of Anatolia and the interaction between diverse cultures paved the bleedin' way for new plays. After the Tanzimat (Reformation) period in the bleedin' 19th century, characters in Turkish theatre were modernised and plays were performed on European-style stages, with actors wearin' European costumes. C'mere til I tell yiz. Followin' the feckin' restoration of constitutional monarchy with the feckin' Young Turk Revolution in 1908, theatrical activities increased and social problems began to be reflected at the feckin' theatre as well as in historical plays. A theatrical conservatoire, Darülbedayi-i Osmani (which became the nucleus of the feckin' Istanbul City Theatres) was established in 1914. Durin' the feckin' years of chaos and war, the oul' Darülbedayi-i Osmani continued its activities and attracted the younger generation. Bejaysus here's a quare one right here now. Numerous Turkish playwrights emerged in this era; some of them wrote on romantic subjects, while others were interested in social problems, and still others dealt with nationalistic themes. The first Turkish musicals were also written in this period. In time, Turkish women began to appear on stage, which was an important development in the oul' late Ottoman society. C'mere til I tell ya now. Until then, female roles had only been played by actresses who were members of Turkey's ethnic minorities. Today there are numerous private theatres in the bleedin' country, together with those which are subsidised by the oul' government, such as the oul' Turkish State Theatres.[473] Notable players, directors and playwrights of Turkish theatre include Muhsin Ertuğrul, Haldun Taner, Aziz Nesin, Gülriz Sururi, Yıldız Kenter, Müşfik Kenter, Haldun Dormen, Sadri Alışık, Çolpan İlhan, Münir Özkul, Adile Naşit, Erol Günaydın, Gazanfer Özcan, Nejat Uygur, Genco Erkal, Metin Serezli, Nevra Serezli, Levent Kırca, Zeki Alasya, Metin Akpınar, Müjdat Gezen, Ferhan Şensoy, among others.
Main articles: Turkish dance and Music of Turkey
See also: Turkish classical music, Turkish folk music, and Turkish music (style)
Sertab Erener and Demir Demirkan
Music of Turkey includes mainly Turkic elements as well as partial influences rangin' from Central Asian folk music, Arabic music, Greek music, Ottoman music, Persian music and Balkan music, as well as references to more modern European and American popular music. The roots of traditional music in Turkey span across centuries to an oul' time when the bleedin' Seljuk Turks migrated to Anatolia and Persia in the 11th century and contains elements of both Turkic and pre-Turkic influences, that's fierce now what? Much of its modern popular music can trace its roots to the oul' emergence in the oul' early 1930s drive for Westernization.[474]
Barış Manço was a Turkish rock musician and one of the feckin' founders of the bleedin' Anatolian rock genre.
With the assimilation of immigrants from various regions the bleedin' diversity of musical genres and musical instrumentation also expanded, the cute hoor. Turkey has also seen documented folk music and recorded popular music produced in the bleedin' ethnic styles of Greek, Armenian, Albanian, Polish and Jewish communities, among others.[475]
Many Turkish cities and towns have vibrant local music scenes which, in turn, support a bleedin' number of regional musical styles. I hope yiz are all ears now. Despite this however, western music styles like pop music and kanto lost popularity to arabesque in the late 1970s and 1980s. Right so. It became popular again by the oul' beginnin' of the bleedin' 1990s, as a feckin' result of an openin' economy and society, that's fierce now what? With the oul' support of Sezen Aksu, the bleedin' resurgin' popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as Tarkan and Sertab Erener, enda story. The late 1990s also saw an emergence of underground music producin' alternative Turkish rock, electronica, hip-hop, rap and dance music in opposition to the bleedin' mainstream corporate pop and arabesque genres, which many believe have become too commercial.[476] Internationally acclaimed Turkish jazz and blues musicians and composers include Ahmet Ertegun (founder and president of Atlantic Records), Nükhet Ruacan and Kerem Görsev.
The Turkish Five (Turkish: Türk Beşleri) is a holy name used by some authors to identify the bleedin' five pioneers of Western classical music in Turkey, namely Ahmed Adnan Saygun, Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Cemal Reşit Rey, Hasan Ferit Alnar and Necil Kazım Akses.[477] Internationally acclaimed Turkish musicians of Western classical music include pianists İdil Biret, Verda Erman, Gülsin Onay, the oul' Pekinel sisters (Güher and Süher Pekinel), Ayşegül Sarıca and Fazıl Say; violinists Ayla Erduran and Suna Kan; opera singers Semiha Berksoy, Leyla Gencer and Güneş Gürle; and conductors Emre Aracı, Gürer Aykal, Erol Erdinç, Rengim Gökmen and Hikmet Şimşek.
Turkish folk dance is diverse, begorrah. Hora is performed in East Thrace; Zeybek in the Aegean Region, Southern Marmara and East-Central Anatolia Region; Teke in the Western Mediterranean Region; Kaşık Oyunları and Karşılama in West-Central Anatolia, Western Black Sea Region, Southern Marmara Region and Eastern Mediterranean Region; Horon in the Central and Eastern Black Sea Region; Halay in Eastern Anatolia and the bleedin' Central Anatolia Region; and Bar and Lezginka in the feckin' Northeastern Anatolia Region.[478]
Main article: Architecture of Turkey
Further information: Byzantine architecture, Seljuk architecture, and Ottoman architecture
The Grand Post Office (1905–1909) in Istanbul and the oul' first Ziraat Bank headquarters (1925–1929) in Ankara are among the examples of Turkish Neoclassical architecture in the feckin' early 20th century.
The architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the oul' Turkic architecture of Central Asia with those of Persian, Arab, Armenian and Byzantine architecture. Jaysis. The transition from Seljuk architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which was the oul' capital of the bleedin' Ottoman State between 1335 and 1413. Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. Followin' the feckin' Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman architecture was significantly influenced by Byzantine architecture. Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the feckin' most famous examples of classical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of the bleedin' Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years.[479] Mimar Sinan (c.1489–1588) was the most important architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. He was the bleedin' chief architect of at least 374 buildings which were constructed in various provinces of the oul' Ottoman Empire in the feckin' 16th century.[480]
Since the bleedin' 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by European styles, and this can be particularly seen in the Tanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the feckin' Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Feriye, Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu, Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces, which were all designed by members of the bleedin' Balyan family of Ottoman Armenian court architects.[481] The Ottoman era waterfront houses (yalı) on the oul' Bosphorus also reflect the oul' fusion between classical Ottoman and European architectural styles durin' the oul' aforementioned period.
The First National Architectural Movement (Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı) in the oul' early 20th century sought to create a holy new architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. I hope yiz are all ears now. The movement was also labelled Turkish Neoclassical or the feckin' National Architectural Renaissance.[482] The leadin' architects of this movement were Vedat Tek (1873–1942), Mimar Kemaleddin Bey (1870–1927), Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–1982) and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953).[483] Buildings from this era are the Grand Post Office in Istanbul (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments (1919–1922),[484] Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926),[485] State Art and Sculpture Museum (1927–1930),[486] Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928),[487] the first Ziraat Bank headquarters in Ankara (1925–1929),[488] the first Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters in Ankara (1926–1929),[489] Bebek Mosque,[490] and Kamer Hatun Mosque.[491][492]
Main article: Turkish cuisine
Further information: Ottoman cuisine
Turkish coffee with Turkish delight. Here's a quare one. Turkish coffee is a bleedin' UNESCO-listed intangible cultural heritage of Turks.[493][494]
Turkish cuisine is largely the oul' heritage of Ottoman cuisine, the shitehawk. In the early years of the oul' Republic, a holy few studies were published about regional Anatolian dishes but cuisine did not feature heavily in Turkish folkloric studies until the oul' 1980s, when the fledglin' tourism industry encouraged the bleedin' Turkish state to sponsor two food symposia. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. The papers submitted at the bleedin' symposia presented the history of Turkish cuisine on a "historical continuum" that dated back to Turkic origins in Central Asia and continued through the oul' Seljuk and Ottoman periods.[495]
Many of the papers presented at these first two symposia were unreferenced. Jaysis. Prior to the symposia, the feckin' study of Turkish culinary culture was first popularised by the bleedin' publication of Süheyl Ünver's Fifty Dishes in Turkish History in 1948. Jaysis. This book was based on recipes found in an 18th century Ottoman manuscript. Arra' would ye listen to this. His second book was about palace cuisine durin' the bleedin' reign of Mehmet II. Here's another quare one for ye. Followin' the oul' publication of Ünver's book subsequent studies were published, includin' a feckin' 1978 study by a historian named Bahaettin Ögel about the oul' Central Asian origins of Turkish cuisine.[495]
Ottoman cuisine contains elements of Turkish, Byzantine, Balkan, Armenian, Kurdish, Arab and Persian cuisines.[496] The country's position between Europe, Asia and the bleedin' Mediterranean Sea helped the bleedin' Turks in gainin' complete control of the major trade routes, and an ideal landscape and climate allowed plants and animals to flourish. G'wan now. Turkish cuisine was well established by the oul' mid-1400s, the bleedin' beginnin' of the Ottoman Empire's six hundred-year reign, bejaysus. Yogurt salads, fish in olive oil, sherbet and stuffed and wrapped vegetables became Turkish staples. In fairness now. The empire, eventually spannin' from Austria and Ukraine to Arabia and North Africa, used its land and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world. By the oul' end of the feckin' 16th century, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400 live-in cooks and passed laws regulatin' the freshness of food. Here's a quare one. Since the feckin' fall of the oul' empire in World War I (1914–1918) and the establishment of the bleedin' Turkish Republic in 1923, foreign food such as French hollandaise sauce and Western fast food have made their way into the oul' modern Turkish diet.[497]
Main article: Sports in Turkey
See also: Football in Turkey
Turkey won the silver medal at the oul' 2010 FIBA World Championship.
The most popular sport in Turkey is association football.[498] Galatasaray won the oul' UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000.[499] The Turkish national football team has won the feckin' bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the feckin' 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and UEFA Euro 2008.[500]
Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. The men's national basketball team won the feckin' silver medal at the bleedin' 2010 FIBA World Championship and at the feckin' EuroBasket 2001, which were both hosted by Turkey; and is one of the bleedin' most successful at the oul' Mediterranean Games. Be the holy feck, this is a quare wan. Turkish basketball club Fenerbahçe played the Final of the bleedin' EuroLeague in three consecutive seasons (2016, 2017 and 2018), becomin' the feckin' European champions in 2017 and runners-up in 2016 and 2018. Sure this is it. Another Turkish basketball club, Anadolu Efes S.K. won the oul' 1995–96 FIBA Korać Cup, were the runners-up of the 2018–19 EuroLeague and the feckin' 1992–93 FIBA Saporta Cup, and finished third at the 1999–2000 EuroLeague and the 2000–01 SuproLeague.[501][502] Beşiktaş won the feckin' 2011–12 FIBA EuroChallenge,[503] and Galatasaray won the 2015–16 Eurocup. The Final of the bleedin' 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.[504] The women's national basketball team won the oul' silver medal at the feckin' EuroBasket Women 2011 and the bleedin' bronze medal at the EuroBasket Women 2013, the shitehawk. Like the oul' men's team, the bleedin' women's basketball team is one of the oul' most successful at the feckin' Mediterranean Games.
Formula One auto racin' returned to the bleedin' Istanbul Park circuit with the feckin' 2020 Turkish Grand Prix.[505]
The women's national volleyball team won the bleedin' gold medal at the feckin' 2015 European Games, the silver medal at the oul' 2003 European Championship, the bleedin' bronze medal at the 2011 European Championship, and the bleedin' bronze medal at the 2012 FIVB World Grand Prix. Bejaysus. They also won multiple medals over multiple decades at the bleedin' Mediterranean Games.[506] Women's volleyball clubs, namely Fenerbahçe, Eczacıbaşı and Vakıfbank, have won numerous European championship titles and medals. Arra' would ye listen to this. Fenerbahçe won the bleedin' 2010 FIVB Women's Club World Championship and the bleedin' 2012 CEV Women's Champions League, that's fierce now what? Representin' Europe as the feckin' winner of the oul' 2012–13 CEV Women's Champions League, Vakıfbank also became the bleedin' world champion by winnin' the feckin' 2013 FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship. Recently Vakıfbank has won the oul' 2017 FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship[507][508][509] and the feckin' 2017–18 CEV Women's Champions League for the fourth time in their history.[510]
Taha Akgül is an Olympic, World and European champion Turkish wrestler.
The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oil wrestlin') since Ottoman times.[511] Edirne Province has hosted the oul' annual Kırkpınar oil wrestlin' tournament since 1361, makin' it the oldest continuously held sportin' competition in the world.[512][513] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Ottoman Turkish oil wrestlin' champions such as Koca Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winnin' world heavyweight wrestlin' championship titles. International wrestlin' styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestlin' and Greco-Roman wrestlin' are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a feckin' national team.[514] Renowned Turkish freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestlers who won international competitions include Yaşar Doğu, Celal Atik, Mahmut Atalay, Hamza Yerlikaya, Rıza Kayaalp and Taha Akgül.
Media and cinema
Main articles: Media in Turkey and Cinema of Turkey
TRT World is the oul' international news platform of the feckin' Turkish Radio and Television Corporation.[515]
Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a feckin' rapid growth of broadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.[516] The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the feckin' network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. Here's another quare one. The broadcast media have a feckin' very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available.[517] The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseein' the broadcast media.[517][518] By circulation, the oul' most popular newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.[519]
Turkish television dramas are increasingly becomin' popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the feckin' country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.[520] After sweepin' the oul' Middle East's television market over the bleedin' past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than an oul' dozen South and Central American countries in 2016.[521] Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.[522]
Yeşilçam is the oul' sobriquet that refers to the oul' Turkish film art and industry. G'wan now and listen to this wan. The first movie exhibited in the bleedin' Ottoman Empire was the oul' Lumiere Brothers' 1895 film, L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat, which was shown in Istanbul in 1896. Soft oul' day. The first Turkish-made film was a documentary entitled Ayastefanos'taki Rus Abidesinin Yıkılışı (Demolition of the bleedin' Russian Monument at San Stefano), directed by Fuat Uzkınay and completed in 1914. Jaykers! The first narrative film, Sedat Simavi's The Spy, was released in 1917. Listen up now to this fierce wan. Turkey's first sound film was shown in 1931. Turkish directors like Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yılmaz Güney and Ferzan Özpetek won numerous international awards such as the Palme d'Or and Golden Bear.[523]
Despite legal provisions, media freedom in Turkey has steadily deteriorated from 2010 onwards, with a precipitous decline followin' the feckin' failed coup attempt on 15 July 2016.[524] As of December 2016, at least 81 journalists were imprisoned in Turkey and more than 100 news outlets were closed.[246] Freedom House lists Turkey's media as not free.[248] The media crackdowns also extend to Internet censorship with Mickopedia gettin' blocked between 29 April 2017 and 15 January 2020.[525][526]
includin' the bleedin' preservation of national identity, the feckin' demand for reparations and territorial concerns.[23]
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^ a b Mutlu, Servet (1996). Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. "Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A Demographic Study". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 28 (4): 517–541. Stop the lights! doi:10.1017/S0020743800063819.
^ Extra, Guus; Gorter, Durk (2001). The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives. Whisht now. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-1-85359-509-7.
^ Edgecomb, Diane; Ahmed, Mohammed M.A.; Özel, Çeto (2007). A fire in my heart: Kurdish tales, that's fierce now what? Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited, the hoor. p. xv. Right so. ISBN 978-1-59158-437-7. The outlines of the map of Kurdistan were taken from two sources: first, a map produced by the CIA in 1992 depictin' areas with a feckin' Kurdish majority [...]
^ Migdal, Joel S. (2004). Boundaries and Belongin': States and Societies in the Struggle to Shape Identities and Local Practices, for the craic. Cambridge University Press. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. ISBN 978-1-139-45236-6.
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^ Amikam Nachmani (2003). Turkey: Facin' a feckin' New Millenniium : Copin' With Intertwined Conflicts. Would ye believe this shite?Manchester University Press. pp. 90–, be the hokey! ISBN 978-0-7190-6370-1. Retrieved 5 May 2013.
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^ Jaipaul L. Roopnarine (2015). Jesus, Mary and Joseph. Fathers Across Cultures: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads, begorrah. ABC-CLIO. p. 328. Whisht now. ISBN 978-1-4408-3232-1. Kurds are the oul' largest ethnic minority group (about 20%), and Armenians, Greeks, Sephardic Jews,...
^ Richard M. Sufferin' Jaysus. Medina; George F. Jesus, Mary and holy Saint Joseph. Hepner (2013), so it is. The Geography of International Terrorism: An Introduction to Spaces and Places of Violent Non-State Groups. CRC Press, the hoor. p. 113. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. ISBN 978-1-4398-8688-5. C'mere til I tell ya now. Turkey has numerous non-Turkish ethnic groups of which the feckin' Kurds are the bleedin' largest, comprisin' approximately 20% of the feckin' population.
^ al-Shamahi, Abubakr. "Turkey's ethnic make-up: A complex meltin' pot". Arra' would ye listen to this shite? alaraby. Bejaysus this is a quare tale altogether. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. I hope yiz are all ears now. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
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^ "Turkey Overview". Soft oul' day. minorityrights.org, enda story. Archived from the original on 9 September 2015.
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^ "Optimar'dan din-inanç anketi: Yüzde 89 Allah'ın varlığına ve birliğine inanıyor" (in Turkish). Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. T24.com.tr. 15 May 2019. Jesus Mother of Chrisht almighty. Retrieved 15 August 2020.
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^ Stephen Schwartz (29 March 2012). Arra' would ye listen to this. "Erdogan, Iran, Syrian Alawites, and Turkish Alevis". Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. The Weekly Standard.
^ Daniel Dombey (27 July 2014). C'mere til I tell ya now. "Turkey's Alevi minority fear future under Erdogan presidency". Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. Financial Times.
^ Marc Champion (19 July 2016). Chrisht Almighty. "Sectarian Tension Builds in Turkey as Erdogan Crackdown Widens". Bloomberg L.P.
^ The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIV, Copyright 1912 by Robert Appleton Company, Online Edition Copyright 2003 by K, enda story. Knight [1]
^ Home of the feckin' Assumption: Reconstructin' Mary's Life in Ephesus by V. Would ye swally this in a minute now?Antony John Alaharasan 2006 ISBN 1-929039-38-7 p. 38
^ William G. Rusch (2013). Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. The Witness of Bartholomew I, Ecumenical Patriarch. Wm, would ye swally that? B. Eerdmans Publishin', like. p. 31. Chrisht Almighty. ISBN 978-0-8028-6717-9. Right so. Constantinople has been the oul' seat of an archiepiscopal see since the oul' fourth century; its rulin' hierarch has had the title of"Ecumenical Patriarch" ...
^ Erwin Fahlbusch; Geoffrey William Bromiley (2001), game ball! The Encyclopedia of Christianity, begorrah. Wm, would ye believe it? B. Eerdmans Publishin', the hoor. p. 40, Lord bless us and save us. ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5. Would ye believe this shite? The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is the feckin' rankin' church within the communion of ... Between the bleedin' 4th and 15th centuries, the feckin' activities of the oul' patriarchate took place within the oul' context of an empire that not only was ...
^ The Oxford Dictionary of the bleedin' Christian Church, s.v. Right so. patriarch (ecclesiastical), also calls it "a title datin' from the bleedin' 6th century, for the feckin' bishops of the oul' five great sees of Christendom". C'mere til I tell ya now. And Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions says: "Five patriarchates, collectively called the oul' pentarchy, were the oul' first to be recognized by the legislation of the bleedin' emperor Justinian (reigned 527–565)".
^ "Pentarchy". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 14 February 2010. "The proposed government of universal Christendom by five patriarchal sees under the auspices of a bleedin' single universal empire. Bejaysus here's a quare one right here now. Formulated in the bleedin' legislation of the feckin' emperor Justinian I (527–65), especially in his Novella 131, the bleedin' theory received formal ecclesiastical sanction at the Council in Trullo (692), which ranked the oul' five sees as Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem".
^ Içduygu, Ahmet; Toktas, Şule; Ali Soner, B, bejaysus. (1 February 2008). Whisht now and listen to this wan. "The politics of population in a bleedin' nation-buildin' process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 31 (2): 358–389. doi:10.1080/01419870701491937, grand so. S2CID 143541451. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Chapter The refugees question in Greece (1821–1930) in "Θέματα Νεοελληνικής Ιστορίας", ΟΕΔΒ ("Topics from Modern Greek History"), that's fierce now what? 8th edition (PDF), Nikolaos Andriotis, 2008
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^ Ekin Karaca (3 March 2016). Be the hokey here's a quare wan. "Bein' an Atheist in Turkey". Would ye swally this in a minute now?www.human.nl, bejaysus. Archived from the original on 1 July 2016. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl