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Elementary Statistics: A Step By Step Approach, (8th Edition)
Allan Bluman
11 5,964 8
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Important Formulas Chapter 3 Data Description
Mean for individual data: X
Mean for grouped data: X
Chapter 5 Discrete Probability Distributions X n
f • Xm n
X X 2 n 1
n X 2 X 2 n n 1 (Shortcut formula)
Standard deviation for grouped data: s
n f • X m2 f • Xm 2 n n 1
Range rule of thumb: s
s2 [X 2 P(X)] m2 s [X 2 • P X ] m2
Standard deviation for a sample: s
Mean for a probability distribution: m [X P(X)] Variance and standard deviation for a probability distribution:
n! • pX • q n X X !X! Mean for binomial distribution: m n p Variance and standard deviation for the binomial distribution: s2 n p q s n • p • q Multinomial probability: n! P X • p X 1 • p2X 2 • p3X 3 • • • pkX k X1!X2!X3! . . . Xk! 1 Binomial probability: P X
Poisson probability: P(X; l)
Chapter 4 Probability and Counting Rules Addition rule 1 (mutually exclusive events): P(A or B) P(A) P(B) Addition rule 2 (events not mutually exclusive): P(A or B) P(A) P(B) P(A and B) Multiplication rule 1 (independent events): P(A and B) P(A) P(B) Multiplication rule 2 (dependent events): P(A and B) P(A) P(B A) Conditional probability: P B A
Expectation: E(X) [X P(X)]
P A and B P A
Complementary events: P(E ) 1 P(E) Fundamental counting rule: Total number of outcomes of a sequence when each event has a different number of possibilities: k 1 k 2 k 3 k n Permutation rule: Number of permutations of n objects n! taking r at a time is n Pr n r ! Combination rule: Number of combinations of r objects n! selected from n objects is n Cr n r !r!
X 0, 1, 2, . . .
X where X!
Hypergeometric probability: P X a
CX • bCn X a bCn
Chapter 6 The Normal Distribution Standard score z
X X s
Mean of sample means: mX m
n X Central limit theorem formula: z n Standard error of the mean: sX
Chapter 7 Confidence Intervals and Sample Size z confidence interval for means:
X z 2
n X z n
t confidence interval for means:
X t 2
s n X t s n
z 2 • E maximum error of estimate
Sample size for means: n
where E is the
Confidence interval for a proportion: pˆ z 2
pˆ qˆ
p pˆ z 2 n
pˆ qˆ n
Sample size for a proportion: n pˆ qˆ
Formula for the confidence interval for difference of two means (small independent samples, variance unequal):
X and qˆ 1 pˆ n Confidence interval for variance: pˆ
X2 t 2
n 1 s2 1 s2
2 right 2left
1 s2
2right
X for any value n. If n 30, n population must be normally distributed.
(d.f. n 1)
1 s 2 2
X2 z 2
1 2 n1 n2
X2 1 2
n1 n1 1
X1 X2 n1 n2
q 1 p
pˆ 1
X1 n1
pˆ2
s21 s22 n1 n2
(d.f. the smaller of n 1 1 or n2 1)
pˆ2 z 2
pˆ 1 qˆ1 pˆ 2 qˆ2
p1 p2 n1 n2
pˆ1 pˆ 2 z 2
21 22 n1 n2
t test for comparing two means (independent samples, variances not equal): X1
pˆ 2 p1 p2
Formula for the confidence interval for the difference of two proportions:
X1 X2 z 2
Formula for the confidence interval for difference of two means (large samples): X1
z test for comparing two proportions:
z test for comparing two means (independent samples):
SD S
D D t 2 D n n (d.f. n 1)
Chapter 9 Testing the Difference Between Two Means, Two Proportions, and Two Variances
n D 2 D 2 n n 1
D t 2
pˆ p pq n
Chi-square test for a single variance: 2
D D sD n
Formula for confidence interval for the mean of the difference for dependent samples:
t test for comparing two means for dependent samples:
z test: z
z test for proportions: z
(d.f. smaller of n1 1 and n2 1)
1 s2 2left
Chapter 8 Hypothesis Testing
X t test: t s n
X1 X2 t 2
Confidence interval for standard deviation: n
s21 s22 1 2 n1 n2
pˆ 1 qˆ1 pˆ 2 qˆ2 n1 n2
s21 where s 21 is the s22 larger variance and d.f.N. n1 1, d.f.D. n2 1
F test for comparing two variances: F
Chapter 10 Correlation and Regression
Chapter 11 Other Chi-Square Tests
Correlation coefficient:
Chi-square test for goodness-of-fit:
n xy x y
t test for correlation coefficient: t r (d.f. n 2)
n 2 1 r2
The regression line equation: y a bx
E 2 E [d.f. (rows 1)(col. 1)]
x xy n x2 x 2
n xy x y n x 2 x 2
Coefficient of determination: r 2
explained variation total variation
ANOVA test: F d.f.N. k 1 d.f.D. N k
y2 a y b xy n 2
1 n x X 2 1 n n x 2 x 2
y y t 2s est
1 n x X 2 1 n n x2 x 2
(d.f. n 2) Formula for the multiple correlation coefficient: R
2 2 r yx r yx 2ryx 1 • ryx 2 • rx 1x2 1 2 1 r 2x 1 x 2
Formula for the F test for the multiple correlation coefficient: F
R 2 k k 1
R 2 n
ni Xi XGM 2 k 1
ni 1 s2i ni 1
Scheffé test: FS
R2 n 1 n k 1
Xi Xj sW2 n Formulas for two-way ANOVA: SSA a 1 SSB MSB b 1 MSA
Tukey test: q
(d.f.N. n k and d.f.D. n k 1)
R 2adj 1
Xj 2 ni 1 nj
sW2 1
F (k 1)(C.V.)
MSA B
Formula for the adjusted R2:
sB2 X where XGM sW2 N where N n1 n2 nk where k number of groups
Prediction interval for y: y t 2 sest
Chapter 12 Analysis of Variance
Standard error of estimate: sest
Chi-square test for independence and homogeneity of proportions: x2 a
y x2
E 2 E (d.f. no. of categories 1) x2 a
[n x2 x 2][n y2 y 2]
SSA B 1 b 1
SSW ab n 1
MSA MSW MSB FB MSW FA
FA B
MSA B MSW
Chapter 13 Nonparametric Statistics 0.5 n 2 z test value in the sign test: z n 2 where n sample size (greater than or equal to 26) X smaller number of or signs
Kruskal-Wallis test:
Wilcoxon rank sum test: z
R mR sR
n1 n1 n2 1 2
n 1 n 2 n1 n 2 1 12 R sum of the ranks for the smaller sample size (n1) n1 smaller of the sample sizes n2 larger of the sample sizes n1 10 and n2 10
Wilcoxon signed-rank test: z A where
n n 1 4
n n 1 2n 1 24
R21 R22 12 R2 • • • k 3 N 1 N N 1 n1 n2 nk
where R1 sum of the ranks of sample 1 n1 size of sample 1 R2 sum of the ranks of sample 2 n2 size of sample 2 Rk sum of the ranks of sample k nk size of sample k N n1 n2 nk k number of samples Spearman rank correlation coefficient: rS 1
6 d 2 n n2 1
where d difference in the ranks n number of data pairs
n number of pairs where the difference is not 0 ws smaller sum in absolute value of the signed ranks
Procedure Table
State the hypotheses and identify the claim.
Find the critical value(s) from the appropriate table in Appendix C.
Compute the test value.
Make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.
Summarize the results.
Solving Hypothesis-Testing Problems (P-value Method) Step 1
Find the P-value.
Make the decision.
ISBN-13: 978–0–07–743861–6 ISBN-10: 0–07–743861–2
Solving Hypothesis-Testing Problems (Traditional Method)
Table E
The Standard Normal Distribution
Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution z
For z values less than 3.49, use 0.0001. Area
(continued )
For z values greater than 3.49, use 0.9999. Area
Table F
The t Distribution Confidence intervals
One tail, A
Two tails, A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 34 36 38 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 90 100 500 1000 (z)
3.078 1.886 1.638 1.533 1.476 1.440 1.415 1.397 1.383 1.372 1.363 1.356 1.350 1.345 1.341 1.337 1.333 1.330 1.328 1.325 1.323 1.321 1.319 1.318 1.316 1.315 1.314 1.313 1.311 1.310 1.309 1.307 1.306 1.304 1.303 1.301 1.299 1.297 1.296 1.295 1.294 1.293 1.292 1.291 1.290 1.283 1.282 1.282a
6.314 2.920 2.353 2.132 2.015 1.943 1.895 1.860 1.833 1.812 1.796 1.782 1.771 1.761 1.753 1.746 1.740 1.734 1.729 1.725 1.721 1.717 1.714 1.711 1.708 1.706 1.703 1.701 1.699 1.697 1.694 1.691 1.688 1.686 1.684 1.679 1.676 1.673 1.671 1.669 1.667 1.665 1.664 1.662 1.660 1.648 1.646 1.645b
12.706 4.303 3.182 2.776 2.571 2.447 2.365 2.306 2.262 2.228 2.201 2.179 2.160 2.145 2.131 2.120 2.110 2.101 2.093 2.086 2.080 2.074 2.069 2.064 2.060 2.056 2.052 2.048 2.045 2.042 2.037 2.032 2.028 2.024 2.021 2.014 2.009 2.004 2.000 1.997 1.994 1.992 1.990 1.987 1.984 1.965 1.962 1.960
31.821 6.965 4.541 3.747 3.365 3.143 2.998 2.896 2.821 2.764 2.718 2.681 2.650 2.624 2.602 2.583 2.567 2.552 2.539 2.528 2.518 2.508 2.500 2.492 2.485 2.479 2.473 2.467 2.462 2.457 2.449 2.441 2.434 2.429 2.423 2.412 2.403 2.396 2.390 2.385 2.381 2.377 2.374 2.368 2.364 2.334 2.330 2.326c
63.657 9.925 5.841 4.604 4.032 3.707 3.499 3.355 3.250 3.169 3.106 3.055 3.012 2.977 2.947 2.921 2.898 2.878 2.861 2.845 2.831 2.819 2.807 2.797 2.787 2.779 2.771 2.763 2.756 2.750 2.738 2.728 2.719 2.712 2.704 2.690 2.678 2.668 2.660 2.654 2.648 2.643 2.639 2.632 2.626 2.586 2.581 2.576d
This value has been rounded to 1.28 in the textbook. This value has been rounded to 1.65 in the textbook. c This value has been rounded to 2.33 in the textbook. d This value has been rounded to 2.58 in the textbook.
One tail
Two tails
Source: Adapted from W. H. Beyer, Handbook of Tables for Probability and Statistics, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 1986. Reprinted with permission.
Area ␣
Area ␣ 2 ⫺t
Area ␣ 2 ⫹t
Table G
The Chi-Square Distribution A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
— 0.010 0.072 0.207 0.412 0.676 0.989 1.344 1.735 2.156 2.603 3.074 3.565 4.075 4.601 5.142 5.697 6.265 6.844 7.434 8.034 8.643 9.262 9.886 10.520 11.160 11.808 12.461 13.121 13.787 20.707 27.991 35.534 43.275 51.172 59.196 67.328
— 0.020 0.115 0.297 0.554 0.872 1.239 1.646 2.088 2.558 3.053 3.571 4.107 4.660 5.229 5.812 6.408 7.015 7.633 8.260 8.897 9.542 10.196 10.856 11.524 12.198 12.879 13.565 14.257 14.954 22.164 29.707 37.485 45.442 53.540 61.754 70.065
0.001 0.051 0.216 0.484 0.831 1.237 1.690 2.180 2.700 3.247 3.816 4.404 5.009 5.629 6.262 6.908 7.564 8.231 8.907 9.591 10.283 10.982 11.689 12.401 13.120 13.844 14.573 15.308 16.047 16.791 24.433 32.357 40.482 48.758 57.153 65.647 74.222
0.004 0.103 0.352 0.711 1.145 1.635 2.167 2.733 3.325 3.940 4.575 5.226 5.892 6.571 7.261 7.962 8.672 9.390 10.117 10.851 11.591 12.338 13.091 13.848 14.611 15.379 16.151 16.928 17.708 18.493 26.509 34.764 43.188 51.739 60.391 69.126 77.929
0.016 0.211 0.584 1.064 1.610 2.204 2.833 3.490 4.168 4.865 5.578 6.304 7.042 7.790 8.547 9.312 10.085 10.865 11.651 12.443 13.240 14.042 14.848 15.659 16.473 17.292 18.114 18.939 19.768 20.599 29.051 37.689 46.459 55.329 64.278 73.291 82.358
2.706 4.605 6.251 7.779 9.236 10.645 12.017 13.362 14.684 15.987 17.275 18.549 19.812 21.064 22.307 23.542 24.769 25.989 27.204 28.412 29.615 30.813 32.007 33.196 34.382 35.563 36.741 37.916 39.087 40.256 51.805 63.167 74.397 85.527 96.578 107.565 118.498
3.841 5.991 7.815 9.488 11.071 12.592 14.067 15.507 16.919 18.307 19.675 21.026 22.362 23.685 24.996 26.296 27.587 28.869 30.144 31.410 32.671 33.924 35.172 36.415 37.652 38.885 40.113 41.337 42.557 43.773 55.758 67.505 79.082 90.531 101.879 113.145 124.342
5.024 7.378 9.348 11.143 12.833 14.449 16.013 17.535 19.023 20.483 21.920 23.337 24.736 26.119 27.488 28.845 30.191 31.526 32.852 34.170 35.479 36.781 38.076 39.364 40.646 41.923 43.194 44.461 45.722 46.979 59.342 71.420 83.298 95.023 106.629 118.136 129.561
6.635 9.210 11.345 13.277 15.086 16.812 18.475 20.090 21.666 23.209 24.725 26.217 27.688 29.141 30.578 32.000 33.409 34.805 36.191 37.566 38.932 40.289 41.638 42.980 44.314 45.642 46.963 48.278 49.588 50.892 63.691 76.154 88.379 100.425 112.329 124.116 135.807
7.879 10.597 12.838 14.860 16.750 18.548 20.278 21.955 23.589 25.188 26.757 28.299 29.819 31.319 32.801 34.267 35.718 37.156 38.582 39.997 41.401 42.796 44.181 45.559 46.928 48.290 49.645 50.993 52.336 53.672 66.766 79.490 91.952 104.215 116.321 128.299 140.169
Source: Owen, Handbook of Statistical Tables, Table A–4 "Chi-Square Distribution Table," © 1962 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Copyright renewal © 1990. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Area ␣ ␹2
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E I G H T H
E D I T I O N
Elementary Statistics A Step by Step Approach
Allan G. Bluman Professor Emeritus Community College of Allegheny County
ELEMENTARY STATISTICS: A STEP BY STEP APPROACH, EIGHTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2009, 2007, and 2004. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 QDB/QDB 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 978–0–07–338610–2 MHID 0–07–338610–3 ISBN 978–0–07–743858–6 (Annotated Instructor's Edition) MHID 0–07–743858–2 Vice President, Editor-in-Chief: Marty Lange Vice President, EDP: Kimberly Meriwether David Senior Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts Editorial Director: Stewart K. Mattson Sponsoring Editor: John R. Osgood Developmental Editor: Adam Fischer Marketing Manager: Kevin M. Ernzen Senior Project Manager: Vicki Krug Senior Buyer: Sandy Ludovissy Designer: Tara McDermott Cover Designer: Ellen Pettengell Cover Image: © Ric Ergenbright/CORBIS Senior Photo Research Coordinator: Lori Hancock Compositor: MPS Limited, a Macmillan Company Typeface: 10.5/12 Times Roman Printer: Quad/Graphics All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bluman, Allan G. Elementary statistics : a step by step approach / Allan Bluman. — 8th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–0–07–338610–2 — ISBN 0–07–338610–3 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Statistics—Textbooks. I. Title. QA276.12.B59 2012 519.5—dc22 2010031466
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About the Author Allan G. Bluman Allan G. Bluman is a professor emeritus at the Community College of Allegheny County, South Campus, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He has taught mathematics and statistics for over 35 years. He received an Apple for the Teacher award in recognition of his bringing excellence to the learning environment at South Campus. He has also taught statistics for Penn State University at the Greater Allegheny (McKeesport) Campus and at the Monroeville Center. He received his master's and doctor's degrees from the University of Pittsburgh. He is also author of Elementary Statistics: A Brief Version and co-author of Math in Our World. In addition, he is the author of four mathematics books in the McGraw-Hill DeMystified Series. They are Pre-Algebra, Math Word Problems, Business Math, and Probability. He is married and has two sons and a granddaughter. Dedication: To Betty Bluman, Earl McPeek, and Dr. G. Bradley Seager, Jr.
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Page viii
Contents Preface xii
CHAPTE R
The Histogram 51
The Frequency Polygon 53 The Ogive 54
The Nature of Probability and Statistics 1
Relative Frequency Graphs 56 Distribution Shapes 59
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 3 Variables and Types of Data 6 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques 9
Observational and Experimental Studies 13 Uses and Misuses of Statistics 16 Suspect Samples 17 Ambiguous Averages 17 Changing the Subject 17 Detached Statistics 18 Implied Connections 18 Misleading Graphs 18 Faulty Survey Questions 18
Pareto Charts 70 The Time Series Graph 71 The Pie Graph 73 Misleading Graphs 76 Stem and Leaf Plots 80 Summary 94
Introduction 104
Frequency Distributions and Graphs 35 2–1
Measures of Central Tendency 105 The Mean 106 The Median 109 The Mode 111 The Midrange 114
Summary 25
Data Description 103
Computers and Calculators 19
Other Types of Graphs 68 Bar Graphs 69
Random Sampling 10 Systematic Sampling 11 Stratified Sampling 12 Cluster Sampling 12 Other Sampling Methods 12
Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives 51
The Weighted Mean 115 Distribution Shapes 117
Measures of Variation 123 Range 124 Population Variance and Standard Deviation 125
Sample Variance and Standard Deviation 128
Organizing Data 37
Variance and Standard Deviation for Grouped Data 129
Categorical Frequency Distributions 38 Grouped Frequency Distributions 39
Coefficient of Variation 132
All examples and exercises in this textbook (unless cited) are hypothetical and are presented to enable students to achieve a basic understanding of the statistical concepts explained. These examples and exercises should not be used in lieu of medical, psychological, or other professional advice. Neither the author nor the publisher shall be held responsible for any misuse of the information presented in this textbook.
Page ix
Range Rule of Thumb 133 Chebyshev's Theorem 134 The Empirical (Normal) Rule 136
Measures of Position 142 Standard Scores 142 Percentiles 143 Quartiles and Deciles 149 Outliers 151
Mean 259 Variance and Standard Deviation 262 Expectation 264
The Binomial Distribution 270 Other Types of Distributions (Optional) 283 The Multinomial Distribution 283 The Poisson Distribution 284 The Hypergeometric Distribution 286 Summary 292
Exploratory Data Analysis 162 The Five-Number Summary and Boxplots 162 Summary 171
CHAPTE R CHAPTE R
Probability and Counting Rules 181
The Normal Distribution 299 Introduction 300
The Addition Rules for Probability 199 The Multiplication Rules and Conditional Probability 211 The Multiplication Rules 211 Conditional Probability 216 Probabilities for "At Least" 218
Probability Distributions 253 Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation, and Expectation 259
Confidence Intervals and Sample Size 355 Introduction 356
Confidence Intervals for the Mean When s Is Known 357 Confidence Intervals 358 Sample Size 363
The Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution 340 Summary 347
Discrete Probability Distributions 251
The Central Limit Theorem 331 Distribution of Sample Means 331 Finite Population Correction Factor (Optional) 337
Probability and Counting Rules 237 Summary 242
Applications of the Normal Distribution 316 Finding Data Values Given Specific Probabilities 319 Determining Normality 322
Counting Rules 224 The Fundamental Counting Rule 224 Factorial Notation 227 Permutations 227 Combinations 229
Normal Distributions 302 The Standard Normal Distribution 304 Finding Areas Under the Standard Normal Distribution Curve 305 A Normal Distribution Curve as a Probability Distribution Curve 307
Sample Spaces and Probability 183 Basic Concepts 183 Classical Probability 186 Complementary Events 189 Empirical Probability 191 Law of Large Numbers 193 Subjective Probability 194 Probability and Risk Taking 194
Confidence Intervals for the Mean When s Is Unknown 370 Confidence Intervals and Sample Size for Proportions 377 Confidence Intervals 378 Sample Size for Proportions 379
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Confidence Intervals for Variances and Standard Deviations 385 Summary 392
Hypothesis Testing 399 Introduction 400
Steps in Hypothesis Testing—Traditional Method 401 z Test for a Mean 413 P-Value Method for Hypothesis Testing 418
t Test for a Mean 427 z Test for a Proportion 437 x2 Test for a Variance or Standard Deviation 445 Additional Topics Regarding Hypothesis Testing 457 Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Testing 457
10–2 Regression 551 Line of Best Fit 551 Determination of the Regression Line Equation 552
10–3 Coefficient of Determination and Standard Error of the Estimate 565 Types of Variation for the Regression Model 565 Residual Plots 568 Coefficient of Determination 569 Standard Error of the Estimate 570 Prediction Interval 572
10–4 Multiple Regression (Optional) 575 The Multiple Regression Equation 577 Testing the Significance of R 579 Adjusted R 2 579 Summary 584
Type II Error and the Power of a Test 459 Summary 462 CHAPTE R
Testing the Difference Between Two Means, Two Proportions, and Two Variances 471 Introduction 472
Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Using the z Test 473 Testing the Difference Between Two Means of Independent Samples: Using the t Test 484 Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Dependent Samples 492 Testing the Difference Between Proportions 504 Testing the Difference Between Two Variances 513 Summary 524 Hypothesis-Testing Summary 1 532
Correlation and Regression 533 Introduction 534
10–1 Scatter Plots and Correlation 535 Correlation 538
Other Chi-Square Tests 591 Introduction 592
11–1 Test for Goodness of Fit 593 Test of Normality (Optional) 598
11–2 Tests Using Contingency Tables 606 Test for Independence 606 Test for Homogeneity of Proportions 611 Summary 621
Analysis of Variance 629 Introduction 630
12–1 One-Way Analysis of Variance 631 12–2 The Scheffé Test and the Tukey Test 642 Scheffé Test 642 Tukey Test 644
12–3 Two-Way Analysis of Variance 647 Summary 661 Hypothesis-Testing Summary 2 669
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Algebra Review 753
Writing the Research Report 759
Bayes' Theorem 761
Alternate Approach to the Standard Normal Distribution 765
The Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test 683 The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test 688 The Kruskal-Wallis Test 693 The Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient and the Runs Test 700
Data Bank 799
Rank Correlation Coefficient 700
Bibliography 815
Photo Credits 817
Selected Answers SA–1 Instructor's Edition replaces Appendix H with all answers and additional material for instructors.
Nonparametric Statistics 671 Introduction 672
13–1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nonparametric Methods 673 Advantages 673 Disadvantages 673 Ranking 673
13–2 The Sign Test 675 Single-Sample Sign Test 675 Paired-Sample Sign Test 677
The Runs Test 702 Summary 710 Hypothesis-Testing Summary 3 716 CHAPTE R
Sampling and Simulation 719 Introduction 720
14–1 Common Sampling Techniques 721 Random Sampling 721 Systematic Sampling 725 Stratified Sampling 726 Cluster Sampling 728 Other Types of Sampling Techniques 729
14–2 Surveys and Questionnaire Design 736 14–3 Simulation Techniques and the Monte Carlo Method 739 The Monte Carlo Method 739 Summary 745
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Preface Approach
Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach was written as an aid in the beginning statistics course to students whose mathematical background is limited to basic algebra. The book follows a nontheoretical approach without formal proofs, explaining concepts intuitively and supporting them with abundant examples. The applications span a broad range of topics certain to appeal to the interests of students of diverse backgrounds and include problems in business, sports, health, architecture, education, entertainment, political science, psychology, history, criminal justice, the environment, transportation, physical sciences, demographics, eating habits, and travel and leisure.
While a number of important changes have been made in the eighth edition, the learning system remains untouched and provides students with a useful framework in which to learn and apply concepts. Some of the retained features include the following: • Over 1800 exercises are located at the end of major sections within each chapter. • Hypothesis-Testing Summaries are found at the end of Chapter 9 (z, t, x2, and F tests for testing means, proportions, and variances), Chapter 12 (correlation, chi-square, and ANOVA), and Chapter 13 (nonparametric tests) to show students the different types of hypotheses and the types of tests to use. • A Data Bank listing various attributes (educational level, cholesterol level, gender, etc.) for 100 people and several additional data sets using real data are included and referenced in various exercises and projects throughout the book. • An updated reference card containing the formulas and the z, t, x2, and PPMC tables is included with this textbook. • End-of-chapter Summaries, Important Terms, and Important Formulas give students a concise summary of the chapter topics and provide a good source for quiz or test preparation. • Review Exercises are found at the end of each chapter. • Special sections called Data Analysis require students to work with a data set to perform various statistical tests or procedures and then summarize the results. The data are included in the Data Bank in Appendix D and can be downloaded from the book's website at www.mhhe.com/bluman. • Chapter Quizzes, found at the end of each chapter, include multiple-choice, true/false, and completion questions along with exercises to test students' knowledge and comprehension of chapter content. • The Appendixes provide students with an essential algebra review, an outline for report writing, Bayes' theorem, extensive reference tables, a glossary, and answers to all quiz questions, all odd-numbered exercises, selected even-numbered exercises, and an alternate method for using the standard normal distribution. • The Applying the Concepts feature is included in all sections and gives students an opportunity to think about the new concepts and apply them to hypothetical examples and scenarios similar to those found in newspapers, magazines, and radio and television news programs.
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Changes in the Eighth Edition
Overall • Added over 30 new Examples and 250 new Exercises throughout the book. • Chapter summaries were revised into bulleted paragraphs representing each section from the chapter. • New Historical Notes and Interesting facts have been added throughout the book. Chapter 1 Updated and added new Speaking of Statistics. Revised the definition of nominal level of measurement. Chapter 6 Revised presentation for finding areas under the standard normal distribution curve. New figures created to clarify explanations for steps in the Central Limit Theorem. Chapter 7 Changed section 7.1 to Confidence Intervals for the Mean When s is Known. Maximum error of the estimate has been updated to the margin of error. Updated the Formula for the Confidence Interval of the Mean for a Specific a to include when s is Known. Added assumptions for Finding a Confidence Interval for a Mean When s is Known. Revised the explanation for rounding up when determining sample size. Added assumptions for Finding a Confidence Interval for a Mean when s is Unknown. Added assumptions for Finding a Confidence Interval for a Population Proportion. Added assumptions for Finding a Confidence Interval for a Variance or Standard Deviation. Chapter 8 Added assumptions for the z Test for a Mean When s Is Known. Added assumptions for the t Test for a Mean When s Is Unknown. Added assumptions for Testing a Proportion. Chapter 9 Revised the assumptions for the z Test to Determine the Difference Between Two Means. Added that it will be assumed that variances are not equal when using a t test to test the difference between means when the two samples are independent and when the samples are taken from two normally or approximately normally distributed populations. Added assumptions for the t Test for Two Independent Means When s1 and s2 Are Unknown. Added assumptions for the t Test for Two Means When the Samples Are Dependent. Added assumptions for the z Test for Two Proportions. Revised the assumptions for Testing the Difference Between Two Variables. Chapter 10 Added assumptions for the Correlation Coefficient. Residuals, are now covered in full with figures illustrating different examples of Residual Plots.
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Acknowledgments It is important to acknowledge the many people whose contributions have gone into the Eighth Edition of Elementary Statistics. Very special thanks are due to Jackie Miller of The Ohio State University for her provision of the Index of Applications, her exhaustive accuracy check of the page proofs, and her general availability and advice concerning all matters statistical. The Technology Step by Step sections were provided by Gerry Moultine of Northwood University (MINITAB), John Thomas of College of Lake County (Excel), and Michael Keller of St. Johns River Community College (TI-83 Plus and TI-84 Plus). I would also like to thank Diane P. Cope for providing the new exercises; Kelly Jackson for writing the new Data Projects; and Sally Robinson for error checking, adding technology-accurate answers to the answer appendix, and writing the Solutions Manuals. Finally, at McGraw-Hill Higher Education, thanks to John Osgood, Sponsoring Editor; Adam Fischer, Developmental Editor; Kevin Ernzen, Marketing Manager; Vicki Krug, Project Manager; and Sandra Schnee, Senior Media Project Manager. Allan G. Bluman
Special thanks for their advice and recommendations for revisions found in the Eighth Edition go to Rosalie Abraham, Florida State College, South Campus James Ball, Indiana State University Luis Beltran, Miami Dade College Abraham Biggs, Broward College Melissa Bingham, University of Wisconsin–Lacrosse Don Brown, Macon State College Richard Carney, Camden County College Joe Castillo, Broward College James Cook, Belmont University Rosemary Danaher, Sacred Heart University Gregory Davis, University of Wisconsin–Green Bay Hemangini Deshmukh, Mercy Hurst College Abdulaziz Elfessi, University of Wisconsin–Lacrosse Nancy Eschen, Florida State College, South Campus Elaine Fitt, Bucks County Community College David Gurney, Southeastern Louisiana University John Todd Hammond, Truman State University Willard Hannon, Las Positas College James Helmreich, Marist College Dr. James Hodge, Mountain State University Kelly Jackson, Camden County College Rose Jenkins, Midlands Technical College June Jones, Macon State College Grazyna Kamburowska, State University College–Oneonta Jong Sung Kim, Portland State University Janna Liberant, Rockland Community College Scott McClintock, West Chester University of Pennsylvania
James Meyer, University of Wisconsin–Green Bay David Milazzo, Niagara County Community College–Sanborn Tommy Minton, Seminole Community College Jason Molitierno, Sacred Heart University Barry Monk, Macon State College Carla Monticelli, Camden County College Lyn Noble, Florida State College, South Campus Jeanne Osborne, Middlesex County College Ronald Persky, Christopher Newport University Blanche Presley, Macon State College William Radulovich, Florida State College, South Campus Azar Raiszadeh, Chattanooga State College Kandethody Ramachandran, Hillsborough Community College–Brandon Dave Reineke, University of Wisconsin–Lacrosse Vicki Schell, Pensacola Junior College James Seibert, Regis University Lee Seltzer, Florida State College, South Campus Christine Tirella, Niagara County Community College–Sanborn Christina Vertullo, Marist College Jen-Ting Wang, State University College–Oneonta Xubo Wang, Macon State College Yajni Warnapala, Roger Williams University Robert White, Allan Hancock College Bridget Young, Suffolk County Community College Bashar Zogheib, Nova Southeastern College
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Guided Tour: Features and Supplements Each chapter begins with an outline and a list of learning objectives. The objectives are repeated at the beginning of each section to help students focus on the concepts presented within that section.
C H A P T E
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
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Over 300 examples with detailed solutions serve as models to help students solve problems on their own. Examples are solved by using a step by step explanation, and illustrations provide a clear display of results for students.
The Normal Distribution
Objectives Tests quare Chi-S Other er 11 Chapt
Identify distributions as symmetric or skewed.
Identify the properties of a normal distribution.
Find probabilities for a normally distributed variable by transforming it into a standard normal variable.
Find specific data values for given percentages, using the standard normal distribution.
Normal Distributions
6–2 Applications of the Normal Distribution
Find the area under the standard normal distribution, given various z values.
6–3 The Central Limit Theorem 6–4 The Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution Summary
The outline and learning objectives are followed by a feature titled Statistics Today, in which a real-life problem shows students the relevance of the material in the chapter. This problem is subsequently solved near the end of the chapter by using the statistical techniques presented in the chapter.
Chapter 2 Freque ncy Distrib utions and
Two typ frequency es of frequen cy structing distribution and distributions tha the grou these dis t are mo ped tributions st are show frequency distri often used are the Categor n now. bution. Th ical Freq e proced categorical ures for The categ uency conDistrib or utions gories, su ical frequency distribut ch as nomi ion religious na is used fo l- or ordin affiliatio r alda lev ta n, or major that can el data. Fo Exampl be fie r pla ex ld am ce of study e 2–1 would us ple, data such as d in specific cateDistribut e categor ion of Bl ical frequ political affiliatio ood Type n, ency distri Twentys butions. five arm y inductee data set is s were giv en a blo od test to A determine B their blo B O od type. AB O The O B B AB B B O A A O O O AB O A AB Construct O B a frequen A cy distri bution fo Solutio r the data. n Since the data are A, B, O, ca and AB. tegorical, discre These typ te classe The pr s can be es used given ne ocedure for cons will be used as xt. the classe . There are four tructing a frequen s for the blood typ Step 1 cy distri es: bution fo distribution. Make a tab r categor le as show ical data n. is A B Class Tally C Frequenc A D y Percent B O AB Step 2 Tally the data and Step 3 place the Count the results in tallies an column B. Step 4 d pla
ce the res Find the ults in co percenta lumn C. ge of value s in each f l
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re al change s a perso is not enough ev n's chole idence to sterol lev support the claim el. The steps that for this t test are su mmarize d in the Pr oc ed ure Table Proced . ure Tabl e
Exercises 8–2
State the hypotheses and identify the claim. Find the critical value(s). Compute the test value. Make the decision. Summarize the results.
Use diagrams to show the critical region (or regions), and use the traditional method of hypothesis testing unless otherwise specified. 1. Warming and Ice Melt The average depth of the Hudson Bay is 305 feet. Climatologists were interested in seeing if the effects of warming and ice melt were affecting the water level. Fifty-five measurements over a period of weeks yielded a sample mean of 306.2 feet. The population variance is known to be 3.57. Can it be concluded at the 0.05 level of significance that the average depth has increased? Is there evidence of what caused this to happen? Source: World Almanac and Book of Facts 2010.
2. Credit Card Debt It has been reported that the average credit card debt for college seniors at the college book store for a specific college is $3262. The student senate at a large university feels that their seniors have a debt much less than this, so it conducts a study of 50 randomly selected seniors and finds that the average debt is $2995, and the population standard deviation is $1100. With a 0.05, is the student senate correct? 3. Revenue of Large Businesses Aresearcher estimates that the average revenue of the largest businesses in the United States is greater than $24 billion. A sample of 50 companies is selected, and the revenues (in billions of
dollars) are shown. At a 0.05, is there enough evidence to support the researcher's claim? Assume s 28.7. 178
Testing th Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
e Between
A X2 D X 1 X B 2 D 2 (X 1 X )2 2 D b. Find the differ ences an 2 D d place the D X res ults in co 1 X2 lumn A. c. Find the mean of the dif ferences. D D n d. Squa re the dif ferences and place D 2 (X the result s in colum 1 X )2 2 n B. Comp e. Find lete the tab the stand ard devia le. tion of the difference sD n D 2 D 2 s. A n n 1 f. Find the test value . t D mD sD 2n with d.f. n 1 Make the decision . Summari ze the res ults
Unusual Stat
Source: New York Times Almanac.
4. Moviegoers The average "moviegoer" sees 8.5 movies a year. A moviegoer is defined as a person who sees at least one movie in a theater in a 12-month period. A random sample of 40 moviegoers from a large university revealed that the average number of movies seen per person was 9.6. The population standard deviation is 3.2 movies. At the 0.05 level of significance, can it be concluded that this represents a difference from the national average?
About 4% of America ns spen d at least one night in jail ea ch year.
Source: MPAA Study.
5. Nonparental Care According to the Digest of Educational Statistics, a certain group of preschool children under the age of one year each spends an average of 30.9 hours per week in nonparental care. A study of state university center-based programs indicated that a random sample of 32 infants spent an average of 32.1 hours per week in their care. The standard deviation of the population is 3.6 hours. At a 0.01 is there sufficient evidence to conclude that the sample mean differs from the national mean?
Step 4 Step 5
Numerous Procedure Tables summarize processes for students' quick reference. All use the step by step method.
Source: www.nces.ed.gov
Numerous examples and exercises use real data. The icon shown here indicates that the data set for the exercise is available in a variety of file formats on the text's website and Data CD. Section 14–1 Common Sampling Techniques
e Differenc
Means for State the Dependen hypotheses t and identi Find the fy the cla critical va im. lue(s). Compute the test va lue. a. Make a table, as shown. …
a. b. c. d. e.
Figure 2–2 Histogr am Example for 2–4
Section 2–2 His tograms, Frequency Polygons , and Og ives Recor
d High Tem
peratures
For Exercises 1 through 13, perform each of the following steps.
Graphs originate d when an 6 cient astronome rs drew 3 the position of the sta rs in the heav 0 ens. Roma n surveyors 99.5° also used 104.5° coordina 109.5° tes to loc 114.5° ate landmark 119.5° s on the Temperatu 124.5° Step 2 ir x maps. re (°F) 129.5° Represen 134.5° t the frequ The deve St ency on ep 3 lopment Using the the y axis of statis tical and the cla Figure 2– frequencies as the can be tra graphs ss boundarie 2. heights, ced to s on the draw verti William As the x axis. Playfair cal bars 109.5–114 histogram show for each (1748–1 s, class. Se 819), an clusterin .5, followed by 13 the class with the e enginee g around r and dra gr fo ea r 114.5–1 it. fter who used 19.5. Th test number of da e graph als graphs to ta present o has on values (18) is econom e peak wi The Freq ic data pic th the data uency torially. Poly Anoth
Speaking of Statistics Should We Be Afraid of Lightning? The National Weather Service collects various types of data about the weather. For example, each year in the United States about 400 million lightning strikes occur. On average, 400 people are struck by lightning, and 85% of those struck are men. About 100 of these people die. The cause of most of these deaths is not burns, even though temperatures as high as 54,000°F are reached, but heart attacks. The lightning strike short-circuits the body's autonomic nervous system, causing the heart to stop beating. In some instances, the heart will restart on its own. In other cases, the heart victim will need emergency resuscitation. The most dangerous places to be during a thunderstorm are open fields, golf courses, under trees, and near water, such as a lake or swimming pool. It's best to be inside a building during a thunderstorm although there's no guarantee that the building won't be struck by lightning. Are these statistics descriptive or inferential? Why do you think more men are struck by lightning than women? Should you be afraid of lightning?
er way to
Exampl e 2–5
gon represen t the same
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procedur e for cons tructing Record a frequen High Te cy polyg mperatu on. Using the res frequency distributio n given in Solutio Example n 2–4 c
Historical Notes, Unusual Stats, and Interesting Facts, located in the margins, make statistics come alive for the reader. The Speaking of Statistics sections invite students to think about poll results and other statistics-related news stories in another connection between statistics and the real world. Rules and definitions are set off for easy referencing by the student.
Again, remember that nothing is being proved true or false. The statistician is only stating that there is or is not enough evidence to say that a claim is probably true or false. As noted previously, the only way to prove something would be to use the entire population under study, and usually this cannot be done, especially when the population is large.
P-Value Method for Hypothesis Testing Statisticians usually test hypotheses at the common a levels of 0.05 or 0.01 and sometimes at 0.10. Recall that the choice of the level depends on the seriousness of the type I error. Besides listing an a value, many computer statistical packages give a P-value for hypothesis tests. The P-value (or probability value) is the probability of getting a sample statistic (such as the mean) or a more extreme sample statistic in the direction of the alternative hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true.
d th P
i th
d th
t d d
l di t ib ti
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Critical Thinking sections at the end of each chapter challenge students to apply what they have learned to new situations. The problems presented are designed to deepen conceptual understanding and/or to extend topical coverage.
At the end of appropriate sections, Technology Step by Step boxes show students how to use MINITAB, the TI-83 Plus and TI-84 Plus graphing calculators, and Excel to solve the types of problems covered in the section. Instructions are presented in numbered steps, usually in the context of examples—including examples from the main part of the section. Numerous computer or calculator screens are displayed, showing intermediate steps as well as the final answer.
Chapter 4 Probability and Counting Rules
Critical Thinking Challenges 1. Con Man Game Consider this problem: A con man has 3 coins. One coin has been specially made and has a head on each side. A second coin has been specially made, and on each side it has a tail. Finally, a third coin has a head and a tail on it. All coins are of the same denomination. The con man places the 3 coins in his pocket, selects one, and shows you one side. It is heads. He is willing to bet you even money that it is the two-headed coin. His reasoning is that it can't be the two-tailed coin since a head is showing; therefore, there is a 50-50 chance of it being the two-headed coin. Would you take the bet? (Hint: See Exercise 1 in Data Projects.) 2. de Méré Dice Game Chevalier de Méré won money when he bet unsuspecting patrons that in 4 rolls of 1 die, he could get at least one 6; but he lost money when he bet that in 24 rolls of 2 dice, he could get at least a double 6. Using the probability rules, find the probability of each event and explain why he won the majority of the time on the first game but lost the majority of the time when playing the second game. (Hint: Find the probabilities of losing each game and subtract from 1.) 3. Classical Birthday Problem How many people do you
MINITAB Step by Step
In a study to determine a person's yearly income 10 years after high school, it was found that the two biggest predictors are number of math courses taken and number of hours worked per week during a person's senior year of high school. The multiple regression equation generated from a sample of 20 individuals is y 6000 4540x1 1290x2
6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
What is the dependent variable? What are the independent variables? What are the multiple regression assumptions? Explain what 4540 and 1290 in the equation tell us. What is the predicted income if a person took 8 math classes and worked 20 hours per week during her or his senior year in high school? What does a multiple correlation coefficient of 0.77 mean? Compute R2. Compute the adjusted R2. Would the equation be considered a good predictor of income? What are your conclusions about the relationship among courses taken, hours worked, and yearly income?
See page 590 for the answers.
Data Projects 1. Business and Finance Use 30 stocks classified as the Dow Jones industrials as the sample. Note the amount each stock has gained or lost in the last quarter. Compute the mean and standard deviation for the data set. Compute the 95% confidence interval for the mean and the 95% confidence interval for the standard deviation. Compute the percentage of stocks that had a gain in the last quarter. Find a 95% confidence interval for the percentage of stocks with a gain. 2. Sports and Leisure Use the top home run hitter from each major league baseball team as the data set. Find the mean and the standard deviation for the number of home runs hit by the top hitter on each team. Find a 95% confidence interval for the mean number of home runs hit. 3. Technology Use the data collected in data project 3 of Chapter 2 regarding song lengths. Select a specific genre, and compute the percentage of songs in the sample that are of that genre. Create a 95% confidence interval for the true percentage. Use the entire music library, and find the population percentage of the library with that genre. Does the population percentage fall within the confidence interval?
P(at least 2 people have the same birthday) P 1 365 kk 365 Using your calculator, complete the table and verify that for at least a 50% chance of 2 people having the same birthday, 23 or more people will be needed.
Probability that at least 2 have the same birthday
Determining Normality There are several ways in which statisticians test a data set for normality. Four are shown here. Inspect the histogram for shape. 1. Enter the data in the first column of a new worksheet. Name the column Inventory. 2. Use Stat>Basic Statistics>Graphical Summary presented in Section 3–3 to create the histogram. Is it symmetric? Is there a single peak? Check for Outliers
Let x1 represent the number of mathematics courses taken and x2 represent hours worked. The correlation between income and mathematics courses is 0.63. The correlation between income and hours worked is 0.84, and the correlation between mathematics courses and hours worked is 0.31. Use this information to answer the following questions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
1 0.992 0.008 Hence, for k people, the formula is
Construct a Histogram
5 29 34 44 45 63 68 74 74 81 88 91 97 98 113 118 151 158
More Math Means More Money
365 364 363 365P3 • • 0.992 365 365 365 365 3 Hence, the probability that at least 2 of the 3 people will have the same birthday will be
Technology Step by Step
Applying the Concepts 10–4
For example, suppose there were 3 people in the room. The probability that each had a different birthday would be
4. Health and Wellness Use your class as the sample. Have each student take her or his temperature on a healthy day. Compute the mean and standard deviation for the sample. Create a 95% confidence interval for the mean temperature. Does the confidence interval obtained support the long-held belief that the average body temperature is 98.6 F? 5. Politics and Economics Select five political polls and note the margin of error, sample size, and percent favoring the candidate for each. For each poll, determine the level of confidence that must have been used to obtain the margin of error given, knowing the percent favoring the candidate and number of participants. Is there a pattern that emerges? 6. Your Class Have each student compute his or her body mass index (BMI) (703 times weight in pounds, divided by the quantity height in inches squared). Find the mean and standard deviation for the data set. Compute a 95% confidence interval for the mean BMI of a student. A BMI score over 30 is considered obese. Does the confidence interval indicate that the mean for BMI could be in the obese range?
Inspect the boxplot for outliers. There are no outliers in this graph. Furthermore, the box is in the middle of the range, and the median is in the middle of the box. Most likely this is not a skewed distribution either. Calculate The Pearson Coefficient of Skewness
The measure of skewness in the graphical summary is not the same as the Pearson coefficient. Use the calculator and the formula. PC
3 X median s
3. Select Calc>Calculator, then type PC in the text box for Store result in:. 4. Enter the expression: 3*(MEAN(C1) MEDI(C1))/(STDEV(C1)). Make sure you get all the parentheses in the right place! 5. Click [OK]. The result, 0.148318, will be stored in the first row of C2 named PC. Since it is smaller than 1, the distribution is not skewed. Construct a Normal Probability Plot
6. Select Graph>Probability Plot, then Single and click [OK]. 7. Double-click C1 Inventory to select the data to be graphed. 8 Cli k [Di ib i ] d k h N li l d Cli k [OK]
Applying the Concepts are exercises found at the end of each section to reinforce the concepts explained in the section. They give the student an opportunity to think about the concepts and apply them to hypothetical examples similar to real-life ones found in newspapers, magazines, and professional journals. Most contain open-ended questions—questions that require interpretation and may have more than one correct answer. These exercises can also be used as classroom discussion topics for instructors who like to use this type of teaching technique.
Data Projects, which appear at the end of each chapter, further challenge students' understanding and application of the material presented in the chapter. Many of these require the student to gather, analyze, and report on real data. xvii
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Guided Tour: Features and Supplements
Multimedia Supplements
Connect—www.connectstatistics.com McGraw-Hill's Connect is a complete online homework system for mathematics and statistics. Instructors can assign textbook-specific content from over 40 McGraw-Hill titles as well as customize the level of feedback students receive, including the ability to have students show their work for any given exercise. Assignable content includes an array of videos and other multimedia tools along with algorithmic exercises, providing study tools for students with many different learning styles. Within Connect, a diagnostic assessment tool powered by ALEKS™ is available to measure student preparedness and provide detailed reporting and personalized remediation. Connect also helps ensure consistent assignment delivery across several sections through a course administration function and makes sharing courses with other instructors easy. For more information, visit the book's website (www.mhhe.com/bluman) or contact your local McGraw-Hill sales representative (www.mhhe.com/rep). ALEKS—www.aleks.com ALEKS (Assessment and LEarning in Knowledge Spaces) is a dynamic online learning system for mathematics education, available over the Web 24/7. ALEKS assesses students, accurately determines their knowledge, and then guides them to the material that they are most ready to learn. With a variety of reports, Textbook Integration Plus, quizzes, and homework assignment capabilities, ALEKS offers flexibility and ease of use for instructors. • ALEKS uses artificial intelligence to determine exactly what each student knows and is ready to learn. ALEKS remediates student gaps and provides highly efficient learning and improved learning outcomes. • ALEKS is a comprehensive curriculum that aligns with syllabi or specified textbooks. When it is used in conjunction with McGraw-Hill texts, students also receive links to text-specific videos, multimedia tutorials, and textbook pages. • Textbook Integration Plus allows ALEKS to be automatically aligned with syllabi or specified McGraw-Hill textbooks with instructor-chosen dates, chapter goals, homework, and quizzes. • ALEKS with AI-2 gives instructors increased control over the scope and sequence of student learning. Students using ALEKS demonstrate a steadily increasing mastery of the content of the course. • ALEKS offers a dynamic classroom management system that enables instructors to monitor and direct student progress toward mastery of course objectives.
ALEKS Prep for Statistics ALEKS Prep for Statistics can be used during the beginning of the course to prepare students for future success and to increase retention and pass rates. Backed by two decades of National Science Foundation–funded research, ALEKS interacts with students much as a human tutor, with the ability to precisely assess a student's preparedness and provide instruction on the topics the student is ready to learn. ALEKS Prep for Statistics • Assists students in mastering core concepts that should have been learned prior to entering the present course. • Frees up lecture time for instructors, allowing more time to focus on current course material and not review material. • Provides up to six weeks of remediation and intelligent tutorial help to fill in students' individual knowledge gaps.
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TEGRITY—http://tegritycampus.mhhe.com Tegrity Campus is a service that makes class time available all the time by automatically capturing every lecture in a searchable format for students to review when they study and complete assignments. With a simple one-click start and stop process, you capture all computer screens and corresponding audio. Students replay any part of any class with easy-to-use browser-based viewing on a PC or Mac. Educators know that the more students can see, hear, and experience class resources, the better they learn. With Tegrity Campus, students quickly recall key moments by using Tegrity Campus's unique search feature. This search helps students efficiently find what they need, when they need it across an entire semester of class recordings. Help turn all your students' study time into learning moments immediately supported by your lecture. To learn more about Tegrity watch a 2 minute Flash demo at http://tegritycampus.mhhe.com Electronic Textbook CourseSmart is a new way for faculty to find and review eTextbooks. It's also a great option for students who are interested in accessing their course materials digitally and saving money. CourseSmart offers thousands of the most commonly adopted textbooks across hundreds of courses from a wide variety of higher education publishers. It is the only place for faculty to review and compare the full text of a textbook online, providing immediate access without the environmental impact of requesting a print exam copy. At CourseSmart, students can save up to 50% off the cost of a print book, reduce the impact on the environment, and gain access to powerful Web tools for learning including full text search, notes and highlighting, and e-mail tools for sharing notes between classmates. www.CourseSmart.com MegaStat® MegaStat® is a statistical add-in for Microsoft Excel, handcrafted by J. B. Orris of Butler University. When MegaStat is installed it appears as a menu item on the Excel menu bar and allows you to perform statistical analysis on data in an Excel workbook. ELEMENTARY STATISTICS: A BRIEF VERSION requires the use of this MegaStat add-in for Excel only for those Excel Technology Step by Step operations in the text that Excel would otherwise not have been able to perform. The MegaStat plug-in can be found at www.mhhe.com/bluman. Computerized Test Bank (CTB) Online (instructors only) The computerized test bank contains a variety of questions, including true/false, multiplechoice, short-answer, and short problems requiring analysis and written answers. The testing material is coded by type of question and level of difficulty. The Brownstone Diploma® system enables you to efficiently select, add, and organize questions, such as by type of question or by level of difficulty. It also allows for printing tests along with answer keys as well as editing the original questions, and it is available for Windows and Macintosh systems. Printable tests and a print version of the test bank can also be found on the website. Lecture Videos Lecture videos introduce concepts, definitions, theorems, formulas, and problem-solving procedures to help students better comprehend the topic at hand. These videos are closedcaptioned for the hearing-impaired, are subtitled in Spanish, and meet the Americans with Disabilities Act Standards for Accessible Design. They can be found online at www.mhhe.com/bluman.
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Exercise Videos In these videos the instructor works through selected exercises, following the solution methodology employed in the text. Also included are tutorials for using the TI-83 Plus and TI-84 Plus calculators, Excel, and MINITAB, presented in an engaging format for students. These videos are closed-captioned for the hearing-impaired, are subtitled in Spanish, and meet the Americans with Disabilities Act Standards for Accessible Design. They can be found online at www.mhhe.com/bluman. MINITAB Student Release 14 The student version of MINITAB statistical software is available with copies of the text. Ask your McGraw-Hill representative for details. SPSS Student Version for Windows A student version of SPSS statistical software is available with copies of this text. Consult your McGraw-Hill representative for details.
Print Supplements
Annotated Instructor's Edition (instructors only) The Annotated Instructor's Edition contains answers to all exercises and tests. The answers to most questions are printed in red next to each problem. Answers not appearing on the page can be found in the Answer Appendix at the end of the book. Instructor's Solutions Manual (instructors only) By Sally Robinson of South Plains College, this manual includes worked-out solutions to all the exercises in the text and answers to all quiz questions. This manual can be found online at www.mhhe.com/bluman. Student's Solutions Manual By Sally Robinson of South Plains College, this manual contains detailed solutions to all odd-numbered text problems and answers to all quiz questions. MINITAB 14 Manual This manual provides the student with how-to information on data and file management, conducting various statistical analyses, and creating presentation-style graphics while following each text chapter. TI-83 Plus and TI-84 Plus Graphing Calculator Manual This friendly, practical manual teaches students to learn about statistics and solve problems by using these calculators while following each text chapter. Excel Manual This workbook, specially designed to accompany the text, provides additional practice in applying the chapter concepts while using Excel.
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Index of Applications CHAPTE R
The Nature of Probability and Statistics Education and Testing Attendance and Grades, 5 Piano Lessons Improve Math Ability, 31 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Statistics and the New Planet, 5 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Beneficial Bacteria, 28 Caffeine and Health, 28 Smoking and Criminal Behavior, 31 The Worst Day for Weight Loss, 11 Psychology and Human Behavior Anger and Snap Judgments, 31 Hostile Children Fight Unemployment, 31 Public Health and Nutrition Are We Improving Our Diet?, 2, 29 Chewing Tobacco, 16 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness ACL Tears in Collegiate Soccer Players, 31 Surveys and Culture American Culture and Drug Abuse, 13 Transportation Safe Travel, 9 World's Busiest Airports, 31
Frequency Distributions and Graphs Buildings and Structures Selling Real Estate, 60 Stories in Tall Buildings, 83
Stories in the World's Tallest Buildings, 46
Successful Space Launches, 86 The Great Lakes, 100
Outpatient Cardiograms, 80 Quality of Health Care, 62
Business, Management, and Work Bank Failures, 96 Career Changes, 96 Job Aptitude Test, 96 Workers Switch Jobs, 85
Food and Dining Cost of Milk, 87 Sales of Coffee, 85 Super Bowl Snack Foods, 73 Worldwide Sales of Fast Foods, 84
Public Health and Nutrition Calories in Salad Dressings, 86 Cereal Calories, 62 Grams per Food Servings, 46 Protein Grams in Fast Food, 62
Demographics and Population Characteristics Boom in Number of Births, 87 Characteristics of the Population 65 and Over, 85 Counties, Divisions, or Parishes for 50 States, 61 Distribution of Blood Types, 38 Homeless People, 70 How People Get Their News, 95 Wealthy People, 37
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting How Much Paper Money Is in Circulation Today?, 81 Presidential Vetoes, 47 State Gasoline Tax, 47
Education and Testing College Spending for First-Year Students, 69 Do Students Need Summer Development?, 61 GRE Scores at Top-Ranked Engineering Schools, 47 Instruction Time, 85 Making the Grade, 62 Math and Reading Achievement Scores, 86 Number of College Faculty, 61 Percentage Completing 4 Years of College, 95 Public Libraries, 96 Teacher Strikes, 100 Entertainment Unclaimed Expired Prizes, 47 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Air Quality, 96 Air Quality Standards, 61 Average Global Temperatures, 85 Carbon Dioxide Concentrations, 85 Cost of Utilities, 61 Number of Hurricanes, 84 Record High Temperatures, 41 Recycled Trash, 98
History Ages of Declaration of Independence Signers, 47 Ages of Presidents at Inauguration, 45, 86 Ages of Vice Presidents at the Time of Their Death, 96 JFK Assassination, 48 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Car Thefts in a Large City, 82 Identity Fraud, 36, 97 Identity Thefts, 99 Murders in Selected Cities, 98 Workplace Homicides, 72 Manufacturing and Product Development Meat Production, 86 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Items Purchased at a Convenience Store, 98 Music Sales, 86 Public Debt, 96 Water Usage, 99 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments BUN Count, 95 How Quick Are Dogs?, 61 How Quick Are Older Dogs?, 62 Leading Cause of Death, 83 Needless Deaths of Children, 99
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Ball Sales, 95 Calories Burned While Exercising, 84 Miles Run per Week, 57 NFL Franchise Values, 95 NFL Payrolls, 47 NFL Salaries, 61 Salaries of College Coaches, 47 Weights of the NBA's Top 50 Players, 46 Technology Cell Phone Usage, 74 Trust in Internet Information, 46 The Sciences Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine, 87 Twenty Days of Plant Growth, 86 Transportation Activities While Driving, 96 Airline Passengers, 47 Colors of Automobiles, 85 MPGs for SUVs, 43 Railroad Crossing Accidents, 61 Safety Record of U.S. Airlines, 85 Top 10 Airlines, 86 Travel and Leisure Museum Visitors, 96, 99 Reasons We Travel, 85 Roller Coaster Mania, 84 CHAPTER
Data Description Buildings and Structures Prices of Homes, 135, 140 Sizes of Malls, 177 Stories in the Tallest Buildings, 138
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Index of Applications
Suspension Bridges, 139 Water-Line Breaks, 114 Business, Management, and Work Average Earnings of Workers, 174 Average Weekly Earnings, 154 Commissions Earned, 120 Costs to Train Employees, 174 Days Off per Year, 106 Employee Salaries, 125 Employee Years of Service, 177 Executive Bonuses, 119 Foreign Workers, 119 Hourly Compensation for Production Workers, 119 Hours Worked, 175 Labor Charges, 174 Missing Work, 139 New Worth of Corporations, 120 Salaries of Personnel, 113 The Noisy Workplace, 166 Top-Paid CEOs, 119 Travel Allowances, 135 Years of Service of Employees, 174 Demographics and Population Characteristics Ages of Accountants, 139 Ages of Consumers, 140 Ages of the Top 50 Wealthiest People, 109 Ages of U.S. Residents, 179 Best Friends of Students, 177 Net Worth of Wealthy People, 173 Percentage of College-Educated Population over 25, 120 Percentage of Foreign-Born People in the U.S., 120 Populations of Selected Cities, 119 Economics and Investment Branches of Large Banks, 112 Investment Earnings, 174 Education and Testing Achievement Test Scores, 154 College and University Debt, 154 College Room and Board Costs, 154 Enrollments for Selected Independent Religiously Controlled 4-Year Colleges, 120 Errors on a Typing Test, 176 Exam Grades, 175 Exam Scores, 177 Expenditures per Pupil for Selected States, 118 Final Grade, 121 Grade Point Average, 115, 118 SAT Scores, 173, 178 Starting Teachers' Salaries, 138 Teacher Salaries, 118, 153 Teacher Strikes, 167
Test Scores, 142, 147, 155, 177 Textbooks in Professors' Offices, 174 Work Hours for College Faculty, 140 Entertainment Earnings of Nonliving Celebrities, 118 FM Radio Stations, 139 Households with Four Television Networks, 174 Top Movie Sites, 175 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Ages of Astronaut Candidates, 138 Earthquake Strengths, 119 Farm Sizes, 140 Garbage Collection, 119 High Temperatures, 118 Hurricane Damage, 155 Inches of Rain, 177 Licensed Nuclear Reactors, 112 Number of Meteorites Found, 163 Number of Tornadoes, 168 Observers in the Frogwatch Program, 118 Precipitation and High Temperatures, 138 Rise in Tides, 173 Shark Attacks, 173 Size of Dams, 167 Size of U.S. States, 138 Solid Waste Production, 140 Tornadoes in 2005, 167 Tornadoes in the United States, 110 Unhealthful Smog Days, 168 Food and Dining Citrus Fruit Consumption, 140 Diet Cola Preference, 121 Specialty Coffee Shops, 120 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Age of Senators, 153 Cigarette Taxes, 137 History Years of Service of Supreme Court Members, 174 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Murders in Cities, 139 Murder Rates, 139 Police Calls in Schools, 137 Manufacturing and Product Development Battery Lives, 139, 173 Comparison of Outdoor Paint, 123 Copier Service Calls, 120 Shipment Times, 177 Word Processor Repairs, 139
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Average Cost of Smoking, 178 Average Cost of Weddings, 178 Brands of Toothpaste Carried, 177 Cost per Load of Laundry Detergents, 138 Delivery Charges, 174 European Auto Sales, 129 Magazines in Bookstores, 174 Magazines Purchased, 111 Newspapers for Sale, 177 Sales of Automobiles, 132 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Asthma Cases, 111 Blood Pressure, 137 Determining Dosages, 153 Hospital Emergency Waiting Times, 139 Hospital Infections, 107 Serum Cholesterol Levels, 140 Systolic Blood Pressure, 146 Psychology and Human Behavior Reaction Times, 139 Trials to Learn a Maze, 140 Public Health and Nutrition Fat Grams, 121 Sodium Content of Cheese, 164 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Baseball Team Batting Averages, 138 Earned Run Average and Number of Games Pitched, 167 Football Playoff Statistics, 138 Innings Pitched, 167 Miles Run Per Week, 107 NFL Salaries, 174 NFL Signing Bonuses, 111 Technology Time Spent Online, 140 Transportation Airplane Speeds, 154 Automobile Fuel Efficiency, 119, 139 Commuter Times, 175 Cost of Car Rentals, 174 Cost of Helicopters, 121 Driver's License Exam Scores, 153 Fuel Capacity, 173 Gas Prices for Rental Cars, 177 How Long Are You Delayed by Road Congestion?, 104, 175 Miles per Gallon, 176 Passenger Vehicle Deaths, 138 Times Spent in Rush-Hour Traffic, 138 Travel and Leisure Airport Parking, 118
Area Boat Registrations, 113 Hotel Rooms, 110 National Park Vehicle Pass Costs, 110 Pages in Women's Fitness Magazines, 133 Vacation Days, 153 Visitors Who Travel to Foreign Countries, 167 CHAPTER
Probability and Counting Rules Buildings and Structures Building a New Home, 207 Business, Management, and Work Distribution of CEO Ages, 198 Research and Development Employees, 201 Working Women and Computer Use, 221 Demographics and Population Characteristics Blood Types and Rh Factors, 222 Distribution of Blood Types, 192 Human Blood Types, 196 Male Color Blindness, 213 Marital Status of Women, 223 Residence of People, 190 War Veterans, 244 Young Adult Residences, 205 Education and Testing College Courses, 222 College Debt, 197 College Degrees Awarded, 204 College Enrollment, 224 Computers in Elementary Schools, 197 Doctoral Assistantships, 223 Education Level and Smoking, 244 Full-Time College Enrollment, 223 Gender of College Students, 196 High School Grades of First-Year College Students, 224 Online Course Selection, 243 Reading to Children, 223 Required First-Year College Courses, 198 Student Financial Aid, 221 Entertainment Cable Television, 221 Craps Game, 197 Family and Children's Computer Games, 223 Movie Releases, 244 Online Electronic Games, 223 Poker Hands, 235 Selecting a Movie, 204
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The Mathematics of Gambling, 240 Video and Computer Games, 220 Yahtzee, 245 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Corn Products, 206 Endangered Species, 205 Plant Selection, 241 Sources of Energy Uses in the United States, 197 Threatened Species of Reptiles, 233 Food and Dining Family Dinner Combinations, 198 Pizzas and Salads, 222 Purchasing a Pizza, 207 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Congressional Committee Memberships, 241 Federal Government Revenue, 197 Large Monetary Bills in Circulation, 197 Senate Partisanship, 241 Territories and Colonies, 245 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Guilty or Innocent?, 220 Prison Populations, 221, 222 University Crime, 214 Manufacturing and Product Development Defective Items, 222 Defective Transistors, 238 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Coffee Shop Selection, 200 Commercials, 224 Customer Purchases, 223 Door-to-Door Sales, 206 Gift Baskets, 222 Magazine Sales, 238 Shopping Mall Promotion, 196 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Chronic Sinusitis, 244 Effectiveness of a Vaccine, 244 Hospital Stays for Maternity Patients, 193 Medical Patients, 206 Medical Tests on Emergency Patients, 206 Medication Effectiveness, 223 Multiple Births, 205 Which Pain Reliever Is Best?, 203 Psychology and Human Behavior Would You Bet Your Life?, 182, 245
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Exercise, 220 Health Club Membership, 244 Leisure Time Exercise, 223 MLS Players, 221 Olympic Medals, 222 Sports Participation, 205 Surveys and Culture Student Survey, 205 Survey on Stress, 212 Survey on Women in the Military, 217 Technology Computer Ownership, 223 DVD Players, 244 Garage Door Openers, 232 Software Selection, 243 Text Messages via Cell Phones, 221 Transportation Automobile Insurance, 221 Automobile Sales, 221 Driving While Intoxicated, 202 Fatal Accidents, 223 Gasoline Mileage for Autos and Trucks, 197 Licensed Drivers in the United States, 205 On-Time Airplane Arrivals, 223 Rural Speed Limits, 197 Seat Belt Use, 221 Types of Vehicles, 224 Travel and Leisure Borrowing Books, 243 Country Club Activities, 222 Tourist Destinations, 204 Travel Survey, 192 CHAPTER
Discrete Probability Distributions Business, Management, and Work Job Elimination, 278 Labor Force Couples, 277 Demographics and Population Characteristics Left-Handed People, 286 Likelihood of Twins, 276 Unmarried Women, 294 Economics and Investment Bond Investment, 265 Education and Testing College Education and Business World Success, 277 Dropping College Courses, 257 High School Dropouts, 277 People Who Have Some College Education, 278 Students Using the Math Lab, 267
Entertainment Chuck-a-Luck, 296 Lottery Numbers, 296 Lottery Prizes, 268 Number of Televisions per Household, 267 On Hold for Talk Radio, 263 Roulette, 268 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Household Wood Burning, 294 Radiation Exposure, 266 Food and Dining Coffee Shop Customers, 283 M&M Color Distribution, 290 Pizza Deliveries, 267 Pizza for Breakfast, 294 Unsanitary Restaurants, 276 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Accuracy Count of Votes, 294 Federal Government Employee E-mail Use, 278 Poverty and the Federal Government, 278 Social Security Recipients, 278 History Rockets and Targets, 289 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Emergency Calls, 293 Firearm Sales, 290 Study of Robberies, 290 U.S. Police Chiefs and the Death Penalty, 294 Manufacturing and Product Development Defective Calculators, 291 Defective Compressor Tanks, 288 Defective Computer Keyboards, 291 Defective DVDs, 267 Defective Electronics, 291 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Cellular Phone Sales, 267 Commercials During Children's TV Programs, 267 Company Mailings, 291 Credit Cards, 293 Internet Purchases, 278 Mail Ordering, 291 Number of Credit Cards, 267 Suit Sales, 267 Telephone Soliciting, 291 Tie Purchases, 293 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Flu Shots, 294 Pooling Blood Samples, 252, 295
Psychology and Human Behavior The Gambler's Fallacy, 269 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Baseball World Series, 255 Surveys and Culture Survey on Answering Machine Ownership, 278 Survey on Bathing Pets, 278 Survey on Concern for Criminals, 277 Survey on Doctor Visits, 272 Survey on Employment, 273 Survey on Fear of Being Home Alone at Night, 274 Survey of High School Seniors, 278 Survey on Internet Awareness, 278 Technology Computer Literacy Test, 294 Internet Access via Cell Phone, 294 The Sciences Mendel's Theory, 290 Transportation Alternate Sources of Fuel, 278 Arrivals at an Airport, 293 Driving to Work Alone, 277 Driving While Intoxicated, 274 Emissions Inspection Failures, 291 Traffic Accidents, 267 Truck Inspection Violations, 290 Travel and Leisure Destination Weddings, 278 Lost Luggage in Airlines, 294 Number of Trips of Five Nights or More, 261 Outdoor Regatta, 293 Watching Fireworks, 278 CHAPTER
The Normal Distribution Buildings and Structures New Home Prices, 326 New Home Sizes, 326 Business, Management, and Work Multiple-Job Holders, 349 Retirement Income, 349 Salaries for Actuaries, 348 Weekly Income of Private Industry Information Workers, 340 Unemployment, 351 Demographics and Population Characteristics Ages of Proofreaders, 340
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Amount of Laundry Washed Each Year, 339 Life Expectancies, 340 Per Capita Income of Delaware Residents, 339 Population of College Cities, 347 Residences of U.S. Citizens, 347 U.S. Population, 349 Economics and Investment Itemized Charitable Contributions, 326 Monthly Mortgage Payments, 325 Education and Testing College Costs, 338 Doctoral Student Salaries, 325 Elementary School Teachers, 347 Enrollment in Personal Finance Course, 349 Exam Scores, 327 Female Americans Who Have Completed 4 Years of College, 346 GMAT Scores, 351 High School Competency Test, 326 Private Four-Year College Enrollment, 349 Professors' Salaries, 325 Reading Improvement Program, 326 Salary of Full-Time Male Professors, 326 SAT Scores, 325, 327, 339 School Enrollment, 346 Smart People, 324 Teachers' Salaries, 325 Teachers' Salaries in Connecticut, 339 Teachers' Salaries in North Dakota, 339 Years to Complete a Graduate Program, 351 Entertainment Admission Charge for Movies, 325 Box Office Revenues, 328 Drive-in Movies, 327 Hours That Children Watch Television, 334 Slot Machines, 349 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Amount of Rain in a City, 351 Annual Precipitation, 339 Average Precipitation, 349 Glass Garbage Generation, 338 Heights of Active Volcanoes, 349 Lake Temperatures, 326 Monthly Newspaper Recycling, 317 Newborn Elephant Weights, 326 Water Use, 339
Food and Dining Bottled Drinking Water, 327 Coffee Consumption, 319 Confectionary Products, 349 Meat Consumption, 336 Waiting to Be Seated, 326 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Cigarette Taxes, 327 Medicare Hospital Insurance, 339 Voter Preference, 346 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Police Academy Acceptance Exams, 327 Police Academy Qualifications, 320 Population in U.S. Jails, 325 Manufacturing and Product Development Breaking Strength of Steel Cable, 340 Portable CD Player Lifetimes, 349 Repair Cost for Microwave Ovens, 351 Wristwatch Lifetimes, 327 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Credit Card Debt, 325 Mail Order Sales, 346 Product Marketing, 327 Summer Spending, 317 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Lengths of Hospital Stays, 326 Normal Ranges for Vital Statistics, 300, 350 Per Capita Spending on Health Care, 348 Serum Cholesterol Levels, 339 Systolic Blood Pressure, 321, 340 Public Health and Nutrition Calories in Fast-Food Sandwiches, 351 Chocolate Bar Calories, 325 Cholesterol Content, 340 Sodium in Frozen Food, 339 Youth Smoking, 346 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Batting Averages, 344 Mountain Climbing Safety, 346 Number of Baseball Games Played, 323 Number of Runs Made, 328 Surveys and Culture Sleep Survey, 351 Technology Cell Phone Lifetimes, 339 Computer Ownership, 351 Cost of iPod Repair, 349
Cost of Personal Computers, 326 Household Computers, 346 Household Online Connection, 351 Monthly Spending for Paging and Messaging Services, 349 Technology Inventories, 322 Telephone Answering Devices, 347
National Accounting Examination, 367 Number of Faculty, 366 Private Schools, 382 Students per Teacher in U.S. Public Schools, 374 Students Who Major in Business, 383
Transportation Ages of Amtrak Passenger Cars, 326 Commute Time to Work, 325 Commuter Train Passengers, 348 Fuel Efficiency for U.S. Light Vehicles, 339 Miles Driven Annually, 325 Passengers on a Bus, 351 Price of Gasoline, 325 Reading While Driving, 343 Used Car Prices, 326 Vehicle Ages, 335
Entertainment Direct Satellite Television, 383 Lengths of Children's Animated Films, 394 Playing Video Games, 366 Television Viewing, 366 Would You Change the Channel?, 356, 395
Travel and Leisure Number of Branches of the 50 Top Libraries, 311 Widowed Bowlers, 343 CHAPTER
Confidence Intervals and Sample Size Buildings and Structures Home Fires Started by Candles, 372 Business, Management, and Work Dog Bites to Postal Workers, 394 Number of Jobs, 366 Work Interruptions, 382 Workers' Distractions, 366 Demographics and Population Characteristics Ages of Insurance Representatives, 396 Unmarried Americans, 383 Widows, 383 Economics and Investment Credit Union Assets, 362 Financial Well-being, 383 Stock Prices, 391 Education and Testing Actuary Exams, 366 Adult Education, 394 Age of College Students, 391 Child Care Programs, 394 Cost of Textbooks, 396 Covering College Costs, 379 Day Care Tuition, 367 Educational Television, 382 Freshmen's GPA, 366 High School Graduates Who Take the SAT, 382 Hours Spent Studying, 396
Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Elements and Isotopes, 394 Depth of a River, 364 Length of Growing Seasons, 367 Number of Farms, 366 Thunderstorm Speeds, 374 Travel to Outer Space, 382 Unhealthy Days in Cities, 375 Food and Dining Cost of Pizzas, 367 Fruit Consumption, 382 Sport Drink Decision, 373 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Regular Voters in America, 382 State Gasoline Taxes, 374 Women Representatives in State Legislature, 374 History Ages of Presidents at Time of Death, 390 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Burglaries, 396 Gun Control, 383 Workplace Homicides, 374 Manufacturing and Product Development Baseball Diameters, 394 Calculator Battery Lifetimes, 391 How Many Kleenexes Should Be in a Box?, 365 Lifetimes of Snowmobiles, 394 Lifetimes of Wristwatches, 390 MPG for Lawn Mowers, 394 Nicotine Content, 389 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Convenience Store Shoppers, 367 Costs for a 30-Second Spot on Cable Television, 375 Credit Card Use by College Students, 385 Days It Takes to Sell an Aveo, 360
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Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Birth Weights of Infants, 367 Contracting Influenza, 381 Cost of Knee Replacement Surgery, 391 Doctor Visit Costs, 396 Emergency Room Accidents, 394, 396 Hospital Noise Levels, 367, 375 Patients Treated in Hospital Emergency Rooms, 396 Waiting Times in Emergency Rooms, 360
Home Prices in Pennsylvania, 423 Monthly Home Rent, 464
Water Consumption, 435 Wind Speed, 420
Business, Management, and Work Copy Machine Use, 423 Hourly Wage, 424 Number of Jobs, 435 Revenue of Large Businesses, 422 Salaries for Actuaries, 464 Sick Days, 424 Union Membership, 464 Weekly Earnings for Leisure and Hospitality Workers, 461 Working at Home, 461
Food and Dining Chewing Gum Use, 467 Peanut Production in Virginia, 423 Soft Drink Consumption, 423
Public Health and Nutrition Carbohydrates in Yogurt, 390 Carbon Monoxide Deaths, 390 Diet Habits, 383 Health Insurance Coverage for Children, 394 Obesity, 383 Skipping Lunch, 396
Demographics and Population Characteristics Ages of Professional Women, 466 Average Family Size, 435 First-Time Marriages, 467 Foreign Languages Spoken in Homes, 443 Heights of 1-Year-Olds, 423 Heights of Models, 467 Home Ownership, 442
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Cost of Ski Lift Tickets, 389 Dance Company Students, 374 Football Player Heart Rates, 375 Surveys and Culture Belief in Haunted Places, 382 Does Success Bring Happiness?, 381 Fighting U.S. Hunger, 383 Grooming Times for Men and Women, 375 Political Survey, 396 Survey on Politics, 383 Technology Digital Camera Prices, 374 Home Computers, 380 Social Networking Sites, 374 Television Set Ownership, 396 Visits to Networking Sites, 374 Transportation Automobile Pollution, 396 Chicago Commuters, 374 Commuting Times in New York, 367 Distance Traveled to Work, 374 Money Spent on Road Repairs, 396 Truck Safety Check, 396 Weights of Minivans, 396 Travel and Leisure Overseas Travel, 383 Religious Books, 379 Vacation Days, 394 Vacations, 382 CHAPTER
Hypothesis Testing Buildings and Structures Heights of Tall Buildings, 434 Home Closing Costs, 466
Economics and Investment Stocks and Mutual Fund Ownership, 442 Education and Testing College Room and Board Costs, 454 Cost of College Tuition, 419 Debt of College Graduates, 464 Doctoral Students' Salaries, 443 Exam Grades, 454 Improvement on the SAT, 400, 465 Nonparental Care, 422 Student Expenditures, 423 Substitute Teachers' Salaries, 430 Teaching Assistants' Stipends, 435 Undergraduate Enrollment, 442 Variation of Test Scores, 448 Entertainment Cost of Making a Movie, 435 Movie Admission Prices, 465 Moviegoers, 422, 442 Television Set Ownership, 443 Television Viewing by Teens, 435 Times of Videos, 465 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Farm Sizes, 424 Heights of Volcanoes, 454 High Temperatures in January, 453 High Temperatures in the United States, 463 Natural Gas Heat, 443 Park Acreages, 434 Pollution By-products, 467 Tornado Deaths, 454 Use of Disposable Cups, 423 Warming and Ice Melt, 422
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Ages of U.S. Senators, 423 Family and Medical Leave Act, 439 Free School Lunches, 464 IRS Audits, 461 Replacing $1 Bills with $1 Coins, 440 Salaries of Government Employees, 423 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Ages of Robbery Victims, 467 Car Thefts, 421 Federal Prison Populations, 464 Speeding Tickets, 424 Stolen Aircraft, 454 Manufacturing and Product Development Breaking Strength of Cable, 424 Manufactured Machine Parts, 454 Nicotine Content of Cigarettes, 450 Soda Bottle Content, 454 Strength of Wrapping Cord, 467 Sugar Production, 457 Weights on Men's Soccer Shoes, 464 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Consumer Protection Agency Complaints, 460 Cost of Men's Athletic Shoes, 415 Credit Card Debt, 422 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Can Sunshine Relieve Pain?, 433 Doctor Visits, 435 Female Physicians, 442 Hospital Infections, 429 How Much Nicotine Is in Those Cigarettes?, 433 Outpatient Surgery, 449 Time Until Indigestion Relief, 464 Public Health and Nutrition After-School Snacks, 442 Alcohol and Tobacco Use by High School Students, 465 Calories in Pancake Syrup, 453 Carbohydrates in Fast Foods, 454 Chocolate Chip Cookie Calories, 435
Eggs and Your Health, 412 High-Potassium Foods, 454 Overweight Children, 442 People Who Are Trying to Avoid Trans Fats, 438 Quitting Smoking, 441 Youth Smoking, 443 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Burning Calories by Playing Tennis, 424 Canoe Trip Times, 461 Exercise and Reading Time Spent by Men, 434 Exercise to Reduce Stress, 442 Football Injuries, 443 Games Played by NBA Scoring Leaders, 465 Joggers' Oxygen Uptake, 432 Walking with a Pedometer, 414 Surveys and Culture Breakfast Survey, 467 Caffeinated Beverage Survey, 467 Survey on Vitamin Usage, 467 Veterinary Expenses of Cat Owners, 434 Technology Cell Phone Bills, 435 Cell Phone Call Lengths, 434 Internet Visits, 435 Portable Radio Ownership, 464 Radio Ownership, 467 Transferring Phone Calls, 454 The Sciences Hog Weights, 458 Plant Leaf Lengths, 465 Seed Germination Times, 467 Whooping Crane Eggs, 464 Transportation Car Inspection Times, 452 Commute Time to Work, 434 Days on Dealers' Lots, 414 Experience of Taxi Drivers, 467 First-Class Airline Passengers, 443 Fuel Consumption, 465 Interstate Speeds, 454 One-Way Airfares, 461 Operating Costs of an Automobile, 423 Stopping Distances, 423 Testing Gas Mileage Claims, 453 Tire Inflation, 465 Transmission Service, 424 Travel Time to Work, 464 Travel and Leisure Borrowing Library Books, 443 Hotel Rooms, 467 Newspaper Reading Times, 461 Pages in Romance Novels, 467 Traveling Overseas, 442
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Testing the Difference Between Two Means, Two Proportions, and Two Variances Buildings and Structures Ages of Homes, 489 Apartment Rental Fees, 527 Heights of Tall Buildings, 521 Heights of World Famous Cathedrals, 526 Home Prices, 480 Sale Prices for Houses, 482 Business, Management, and Work Animal Bites of Postal Workers, 510 Too Long on the Telephone, 487 Demographics and Population Characteristics Ages of Gamblers, 488 Ages of Hospital Patients, 520 County Size in Indiana and Iowa, 521 Family Incomes, 528 Heights of 9-Year-Olds, 480 Male Head of Household, 528 Married People, 510 Per Capita Income, 480 Population and Area, 520 Salaries of Chemists, 528 Senior Workers, 511 Economics and Investment Bank Deposits, 493 Daily Stock Prices, 521 Education and Testing ACT Scores, 480 Ages of College Students, 481 Average Earnings for College Graduates, 482, 525 College Education, 511 Cyber School Enrollment, 488 Elementary School Teachers' Salaries, 521 Exam Scores at Private and Public Schools, 482 Factory Worker Literacy Rates, 528 High School Graduation Rates, 510 Improving Study Habits, 500 Lay Teachers in Religious Schools, 526 Lecture versus Computer-Assisted Instruction, 510 Literacy Scores, 481 Mathematical Skills, 528 Medical School Enrollments, 489 Out-of-State Tuitions, 489 Reducing Errors in Grammar, 501 Retention Test Scores, 500 Teachers' Salaries, 480, 488, 525
Tuition Costs for Medical School, 521 Undergraduate Financial Aid, 510 Women Science Majors, 480 Entertainment Hours Spent Watching Television, 488 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Air Quality, 500 Average Temperatures, 525 Farm Sizes, 485 High and Low Temperatures, 526 Lengths of Major U.S. Rivers, 479 Winter Temperatures, 520 Food and Dining Prices of Low-Calorie Foods, 528 Soft Drinks in School, 525 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Money Spent on Road Repair, 528 Monthly Social Security Benefits, 480 Partisan Support of Salary Increase Bill, 511 Tax-Exempt Properties, 487 Manufacturing and Product Development Automobile Part Production, 526 Battery Voltage, 481 Weights of Running Shoes, 488 Weights of Vacuum Cleaners, 488 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Credit Card Debt, 481 Paint Prices, 526 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Can Video Games Save Lives?, 499 Hospital Stays for Maternity Patients, 489 Is More Expensive Better?, 508 Length of Hospital Stays, 480 Noise Levels in Hospitals, 488, 520, 526 Obstacle Course Times, 501 Only the Timid Die Young, 529 Overweight Dogs, 501 Pulse Rates of Identical Twins, 501 Sleeping Brain, Not at Rest, 529 Vaccination Rates in Nursing Homes, 472, 505, 526 Waiting Time to See a Doctor, 517 Psychology and Human Behavior Bullying, 511 Problem-Solving Ability, 481 Self-Esteem Scores, 481 Smoking and Education, 509
Public Health and Nutrition Calories in Ice Cream, 520 Carbohydrates in Candy, 488, 521 Cholesterol Levels, 496, 527 Heart Rates of Smokers, 516 Hypertension, 511 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness College Sports Offerings, 476 Heights of Basketball Players, 528 Hockey's Highest Scorers, 489 Home Runs, 478 NFL Salaries, 488 PGA Golf Scores, 501 Surveys and Culture Adopted Pets, 526 Desire to Be Rich, 510 Dog Ownership, 510 Sleep Report, 501 Smoking Survey, 511 Survey on Inevitability of War, 511 Technology Communication Times, 525 The Sciences Egg Production, 528 Wolf Pack Pups, 520 Transportation Automatic Transmissions, 519 Commuting Times, 480 Seat Belt Use, 510 Texting While Driving, 507 Travel and Leisure Airline On-Time Arrivals, 511 Airport Passengers, 518 Bestseller Books, 487 Driving for Pleasure, 525 Hotel Room Cost, 475 Jet Ski Accidents, 528 Leisure Time, 510 Museum Attendance, 520 CHAPTER
Correlation and Regression Buildings and Structures Tall Buildings, 550, 559 Business, Management, and Work Typing Speed and Word Processing, 586 Demographics and Population Characteristics Age and Cavities, 588 Age and Net Worth, 560 Age and Wealth, 538 Age, GPA, and Income, 581 Father's and Son's Weights, 560 Education and Testing Absences and Final Grades, 537, 560
Alumni Contributions, 549 Aspects of Students' Academic Behavior, 581 Elementary and Secondary School, 586 Faculty and Students, 550, 559 Home Smart Home, 576 More Math Means More Money, 580 School Districts and Secondary Schools, 549, 559 State Board Scores, 578 Entertainment Commercial Movie Releases, 549, 558 Television Viewers, 560 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Average Temperature and Precipitation, 550, 559 Coal Production, 560 Do Dust Storms Affect Respiratory Health?, 534, 587 Farm Acreage, 560 Forest Fires and Acres Burned, 549, 559 Precipitation and Snow/Sleet, 550, 559 Food and Dining Special Occasion Cakes, 581 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Gas Tax and Fuel Use, 549, 558 State Debt and Per Capita Tax, 549, 559 Manufacturing and Product Development Assembly Line Work, 581 Copy Machine Maintenance Costs, 570 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Product Sales, 588 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Coffee Not Disease Culprit, 548 Emergency Calls and Temperature, 550, 559 Fireworks and Injuries, 559 Hospital Beds, 550, 559 Medical Specialties and Gender, 586 Prescription Drug Prices, 588 Public Health and Nutrition Age, Cholesterol, and Sodium, 581 Fat and Cholesterol, 588 Fat Calories and Fat Grams, 559 Fat Grams and Secondary Schools, 550 Protein and Diastolic Blood Pressure, 586
Page xxvii
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness NHL Assists and Total Points, 550, 559 Touchdowns and QB Ratings, 586 Triples and Home Runs, 549, 559 The Sciences Egg Production, 549, 559 Transportation Age and Driving Accidents, 586 Car Rental Companies, 536 Stopping Distances, 547, 558 Travel and Leisure Passengers and Airline Fares, 585
Other Chi-Square Tests Business, Management, and Work Displaced Workers, 622 Employment of High School Females, 623 Employment Satisfaction, 625 Job Loss Reasons, 624 Mothers Working Outside the Home, 616 Retired Senior Executives Return to Work, 596 Work Force Distribution, 616 Demographics and Population Characteristics Education Level and Health Insurance, 602 Ethnicity and Movie Admissions, 614 Health Insurance Coverage, 623 Population and Age, 615 Women in the Military, 614 Economics and Investment Pension Investments, 622 Education and Testing Ages of Head Start Program Students, 602 Assessment of Mathematics Students, 602 Foreign Language Speaking Dorms, 616 Home-Schooled Student Activities, 601 Student Majors at Colleges, 615 Volunteer Practices of Students, 616 Entertainment Record CDs Sold, 615 Television Viewing, 624 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Tornadoes, 623
Food and Dining Consumption of Takeout Foods, 624 Favorite Ice Cream Flavor, 625 Fruit Soda Flavor Preference, 594 Genetically Modified Food, 601 Grocery Lists, 617 M&M's Color Distribution, 626 Skittles Color Distribution, 600 Types of Pizza Purchased, 625
The Sciences Endangered or Threatened Species, 614
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Composition of State Legislatures, 615 Congressional Representatives, 615 Tax Credit Refunds, 625
Travel and Leisure Recreational Reading and Gender, 615 Thanksgiving Travel, 617
Law and Order: Criminal Justice Firearm Deaths, 597 Gun Sale Denials, 622 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Music Sales, 601 Payment Preference, 602 Pennant Colors Purchased, 625 Weekend Furniture Sales, 615 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Cardiovascular Procedures, 624 Effectiveness of a New Drug, 615 Fathers in the Delivery Room, 616 Hospitals and Infections, 608 Mendel's Peas, 592, 623 Organ Transplantation, 615 Paying for Prescriptions, 602 Risk of Injury, 623 Psychology and Human Behavior Alcohol and Gender, 610 Combating Midday Drowsiness, 601 Does Color Affect Your Appetite?, 618 Money and Happiness, 611 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Choice of Exercise Equipment, 615 Injuries on Monkey Bars, 617 Medal Counts for the Olympics, 615 Youth Physical Fitness, 616 Surveys and Culture Participation in a Market Research Survey, 616 Technology Internet Users, 602 Satellite Dishes in Restricted Areas, 613
Transportation On-Time Performance by Airlines, 601 Tire Labeling, 622 Travel Accident Fatalities, 622 Truck Colors, 602 Ways to Get to Work, 625
Analysis of Variance Buildings and Structures Home Building Times, 657 Lengths of Suspension Bridges, 638 Lengths of Various Types of Bridges, 663 Business, Management, and Work Weekly Unemployment Benefits, 647 Demographics and Population Characteristics Ages of Late-Night TV Talk Show Viewers, 665 Education and Testing Alumni Gift Solicitation, 666 Annual Child Care Costs, 639 Average Debt of College Graduates, 640 Expenditures per Pupil, 638, 647 Review Preparation for Statistics, 664 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Air Pollution, 666 Number of Farms, 639 Number of State Parks, 663 Temperatures in January, 663 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Voters in Presidential Elections, 665 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Eyewitness Testimony, 630, 664 School Incidents Involving Police Calls, 664 Manufacturing and Product Development Durability of Paint, 657 Environmentally Friendly Air Freshener, 657 Types of Outdoor Paint, 657 Weights of Digital Cameras, 646
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Age and Sales, 658 Automobile Sales Techniques, 655 Microwave Oven Prices, 639 Prices of Body Soap, 666 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Diets and Exercise Programs, 666 Effects of Different Types of Diets, 664 Lowering Blood Pressure, 632 Tricking Knee Pain, 644 Psychology and Human Behavior Adult Children of Alcoholics, 667 Colors That Make You Smarter, 636, 645 Public Health and Nutrition Calories in Fast-Food Sandwiches, 639 Fiber Content of Foods, 646 Grams of Fat per Serving of Pizza, 663 Healthy Eating, 638 Iron Content of Foods and Drinks, 663 Sodium Content of Foods, 637 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Basketball Scores for College Teams, 640 Weight Gain of Athletes, 638 Technology Cell Phone Bills, 639 The Sciences Increasing Plant Growth, 656 Transportation Employees at Toll Road Interchanges, 634 Gasoline Consumption, 650 Hybrid Vehicles, 637 CHAPTER
Nonparametric Statistics Buildings and Structures Home Prices, 714 Business, Management, and Work Employee Absences, 708 Increasing Supervisory Skills, 681 Job Offers for Chemical Engineers, 697 Weekly Earnings of Women, 680 Demographics and Population Characteristics Age of Foreign-Born Residents, 677 Ages of City Residents, 712
Page xxviii
Ages of Drug Program Participants, 705 Ages When Married, 680 Family Income, 681 Gender of Train Passengers, 704 Economics and Investment Bank Branches and Deposits, 700 Natural Gas Costs, 680 Education and Testing Cyber School Enrollment, 680, 707 Exam Scores, 681, 713 Expenditures for Pupils, 697 Funding and Enrollment for Head Start Students, 715 Homework Exercises and Exam Scores, 713 Hours Worked by Student Employees, 712 Legal Costs for School Districts, 693 Mathematics Achievement Test Scores, 707 Mathematics Literacy Scores, 697 Medical School Enrollments, 687 Number of Faculty for Proprietary Schools, 681 Student Grade Point Averages, 714 Students' Opinions on Lengthening the School Year, 681 Technology Proficiency Test, 686 Textbook Costs, 714 Entertainment Concert Seating, 708 Daily Lottery Numbers, 708 Motion Picture Releases and Gross Revenue, 707 State Lottery Numbers, 715 Television Viewers, 681, 713 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Clean Air, 679 Deaths Due to Severe Weather, 681
Heights of Waterfalls, 696 Tall Trees, 706 Food and Dining Cola Orders, 708 Lunch Costs, 712 Snow Cone Sales, 675 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Property Assessments, 692 Tolls for Bridge, 715 Unemployment Benefits, 697 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Lengths of Prison Sentences, 686 Motor Vehicle Thefts and Burglaries, 707 Number of Crimes per Week, 698 Shoplifting Incidents, 688 Manufacturing and Product Development Breaking Strengths of Ropes, 712 Fill Rates of Bottles, 672, 713 Lifetime of Batteries, 714 Lifetime of Truck Tires, 712 Lifetimes of Handheld Video Games, 687 Output of Motors, 715 Routine Maintenance and Defective Parts, 682 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Behavior Book Publishing, 707 Grocery Store Repricing, 712 Lawnmower Costs, 697 Printer Costs, 698 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Diet Medication and Weight, 681 Drug Prices, 692, 693, 708, 715 Drug Side Effects, 674 Ear Infections in Swimmers, 677 Effects of a Pill on Appetite, 681 Hospitals and Nursing Homes, 707
Hospital Infections, 694 Medication and Reaction Times, 715 Pain Medication, 692 Speed of Pain Relievers, 687 Weight Loss Through Diet, 692 Public Health and Nutrition Amounts of Caffeine in Beverages, 698 Calories and Cholesterol in Fast-Food Sandwiches, 707 Calories in Cereals, 697 School Lunch, 686 Sodium Content of Fast-Food Sandwiches, 715 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Game Attendance, 680 Hunting Accidents, 687 Olympic Medals, 715 Skiing Conditions, 708 Times to Complete an Obstacle Course, 684 Winning Baseball Games, 687 The Sciences Maximum Speeds of Animals, 698 Weights of Turkeys, 714 Transportation Fuel Efficiency of Automobiles, 712 Gasoline Costs, 707 Stopping Distances of Automobiles, 687 Subway and Commuter Rail Passengers, 707 Travel and Leisure Beach Temperatures for July, 713 CHAPTER
Sampling and Simulation Demographics and Population Characteristics Foreign-Born Residents, 745
Population and Areas of U.S. Cities, 731 Stay-at-Home Parents, 745 Education and Testing Is That Your Final Answer?, 729 Entertainment The Monty Hall Problem, 720, 749 Environmental Sciences, the Earth, and Space Rainfall in U.S. Cities, 732 Record High Temperatures, 732 Should We Be Afraid of Lightning?, 725 Wind Speed of Hurricanes, 746, 747 Wind Speeds, 732 Food and Dining Smoking Bans and Profits, 738 Government, Taxes, Politics, Public Policy, and Voting Composition of State Legislatures, 747 Electoral Votes, 732, 733 Law and Order: Criminal Justice State Governors on Capital Punishment, 723 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Experiments Snoring, 741 Public Health and Nutrition The White or Wheat Bread Debate, 730 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Basketball Foul Shots, 745 Clay Pigeon Shooting, 745 Playing Basketball, 745 Technology Television Set Ownership, 745
blu38582_ch01_001-034.qxd
The Nature of Probability and Statistics
Demonstrate knowledge of statistical terms. Differentiate between the two branches of statistics. Identify types of data. Identify the measurement level for each variable.
Identify the four basic sampling techniques.
Explain the difference between an observational and an experimental study.
Explain how statistics can be used and misused.
Explain the importance of computers and calculators in statistics.
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Variables and Types of Data
Data Collection and Sampling Techniques
Observational and Experimental Studies
Uses and Misuses of Statistics
Computers and Calculators Summary
Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
Are We Improving Our Diet? Statistics Today
It has been determined that diets rich in fruits and vegetables are associated with a lower risk of chronic diseases such as cancer. Nutritionists recommend that Americans consume five or more servings of fruits and vegetables each day. Several researchers from the Division of Nutrition, the National Center for Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, the National Cancer Institute, and the National Institutes of Health decided to use statistical procedures to see how much progress is being made toward this goal. The procedures they used and the results of the study will be explained in this chapter. See Statistics Today—Revisited at the end of this chapter.
Introduction You may be familiar with probability and statistics through radio, television, newspapers, and magazines. For example, you may have read statements like the following found in newspapers.
Unusual Stats
Of people in the United States, 14% said that they feel happiest in June, and 14% said that they feel happiest in December.
• Nearly one in seven U.S. families are struggling with bills from medical expenses even though they have health insurance. (Source: Psychology Today.) • Eating 10 grams of fiber a day reduces the risk of heart attack by 14%. (Source: Archives of Internal Medicine, Reader's Digest.) • Thirty minutes of exercise two or three times each week can raise HDLs by 10% to 15%. (Source: Prevention.) • In 2008, the average credit card debt for college students was $3173. (Source: Newser.com.) • About 15% of men in the United States are left-handed and 9% of women are lefthanded. (Source: Scripps Survey Research Center.) • The median age of people who watch the Tonight Show with Jay Leno is 48.1. (Source: Nielsen Media Research.) Statistics is used in almost all fields of human endeavor. In sports, for example, a statistician may keep records of the number of yards a running back gains during a football
Section 1–1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Every day in the United States about 120 golfers claim that they made a hole-in-one.
A Scottish landowner and president of the Board of Agriculture, Sir John Sinclair introduced the word statistics into the English language in the 1798 publication of his book on a statistical account of Scotland. The word statistics is derived from the Latin word status, which is loosely defined as a statesman.
game, or the number of hits a baseball player gets in a season. In other areas, such as public health, an administrator might be concerned with the number of residents who contract a new strain of flu virus during a certain year. In education, a researcher might want to know if new methods of teaching are better than old ones. These are only a few examples of how statistics can be used in various occupations. Furthermore, statistics is used to analyze the results of surveys and as a tool in scientific research to make decisions based on controlled experiments. Other uses of statistics include operations research, quality control, estimation, and prediction. Statistics is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from data.
Students study statistics for several reasons: 1. Like professional people, you must be able to read and understand the various statistical studies performed in your fields. To have this understanding, you must be knowledgeable about the vocabulary, symbols, concepts, and statistical procedures used in these studies. 2. You may be called on to conduct research in your field, since statistical procedures are basic to research. To accomplish this, you must be able to design experiments; collect, organize, analyze, and summarize data; and possibly make reliable predictions or forecasts for future use. You must also be able to communicate the results of the study in your own words. 3. You can also use the knowledge gained from studying statistics to become better consumers and citizens. For example, you can make intelligent decisions about what products to purchase based on consumer studies, about government spending based on utilization studies, and so on. These reasons can be considered some of the goals for studying statistics. It is the purpose of this chapter to introduce the goals for studying statistics by answering questions such as the following: What are the branches of statistics? What are data? How are samples selected?
1–1 Objective
Demonstrate knowledge of statistical terms.
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics To gain knowledge about seemingly haphazard situations, statisticians collect information for variables, which describe the situation. A variable is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.
Data are the values (measurements or observations) that the variables can assume. Variables whose values are determined by chance are called random variables. Suppose that an insurance company studies its records over the past several years and determines that, on average, 3 out of every 100 automobiles the company insured were involved in accidents during a 1-year period. Although there is no way to predict the specific automobiles that will be involved in an accident (random occurrence), the company can adjust its rates accordingly, since the company knows the general pattern over the long run. (That is, on average, 3% of the insured automobiles will be involved in an accident each year.) A collection of data values forms a data set. Each value in the data set is called a data value or a datum. 1–3
Differentiate between the two branches of statistics.
The origin of descriptive statistics can be traced to data collection methods used in censuses taken by the Babylonians and Egyptians between 4500 and 3000 B.C. In addition, the Roman Emperor Augustus (27 B.C.—A.D. 17) conducted surveys on births and deaths of the citizens of the empire, as well as the number of livestock each owned and the crops each citizen harvested yearly.
Inferential statistics originated in the 1600s, when John Graunt published his book on population growth, Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality. About the same time, another mathematician/ astronomer, Edmund Halley, published the first complete mortality tables. (Insurance companies use mortality tables to determine life insurance rates.)
Data can be used in different ways. The body of knowledge called statistics is sometimes divided into two main areas, depending on how data are used. The two areas are 1. Descriptive statistics 2. Inferential statistics Descriptive statistics consists of the collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of data.
In descriptive statistics the statistician tries to describe a situation. Consider the national census conducted by the U.S. government every 10 years. Results of this census give you the average age, income, and other characteristics of the U.S. population. To obtain this information, the Census Bureau must have some means to collect relevant data. Once data are collected, the bureau must organize and summarize them. Finally, the bureau needs a means of presenting the data in some meaningful form, such as charts, graphs, or tables. The second area of statistics is called inferential statistics. Inferential statistics consists of generalizing from samples to populations, performing estimations and hypothesis tests, determining relationships among variables, and making predictions.
Here, the statistician tries to make inferences from samples to populations. Inferential statistics uses probability, i.e., the chance of an event occurring. You may be familiar with the concepts of probability through various forms of gambling. If you play cards, dice, bingo, or lotteries, you win or lose according to the laws of probability. Probability theory is also used in the insurance industry and other areas. It is important to distinguish between a sample and a population. A population consists of all subjects (human or otherwise) that are being studied.
Most of the time, due to the expense, time, size of population, medical concerns, etc., it is not possible to use the entire population for a statistical study; therefore, researchers use samples. A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population.
If the subjects of a sample are properly selected, most of the time they should possess the same or similar characteristics as the subjects in the population. The techniques used to properly select a sample will be explained in Section 1–3. An area of inferential statistics called hypothesis testing is a decision-making process for evaluating claims about a population, based on information obtained from samples. For example, a researcher may wish to know if a new drug will reduce the number of heart attacks in men over 70 years of age. For this study, two groups of men over 70 would be selected. One group would be given the drug, and the other would be given a placebo (a substance with no medical benefits or harm). Later, the number of heart attacks occurring in each group of men would be counted, a statistical test would be run, and a decision would be made about the effectiveness of the drug. Statisticians also use statistics to determine relationships among variables. For example, relationships were the focus of the most noted study in the 20th century, "Smoking and Health," published by the Surgeon General of the United States in 1964. He stated that after reviewing and evaluating the data, his group found a definite relationship between smoking and lung cancer. He did not say that cigarette smoking actually causes lung cancer, but that there is a relationship between smoking and lung cancer. This conclusion was based on a study done in 1958 by Hammond and Horn. In this study, 187,783 men were observed over a period of 45 months. The death rate from
Speaking of Statistics Statistics and the New Planet In the summer of 2005, astronomers announced the discovery of a new planet in our solar system. Astronomers have dubbed it Xena. They also discovered that it has a moon that is larger than Pluto.1 Xena is about 9 billion miles from the Sun. (Some sources say 10 billion.) Its diameter is about 4200 miles. Its surface temperature has been estimated at 400 F, and it takes 560 years to circle the Sun. How does Xena compare to the other planets? Let's look at the statistics.
Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto1
Diameter (miles)
Distance from the Sun (millions of miles)
Orbital period (days)
Mean temperature ( F)
Number of moons
3,032 7,521 7,926 4,222 88,846 74,897 31,763 30,775 1,485
36 67.2 93 141.6 483.8 890.8 1,784.8 2,793.1 3,647.2
88 224.7 365.2 687 4,331 10,747 30,589 59,800 90,588
333 867 59 85 166 220 320 330 375
0 0 1 2 63 47 27 13 1
Source: NASA. 1 Some astronomers no longer consider Pluto a planet.
With these statistics, we can make some comparisons. For example, Xena is about the size of the planet Mars, but it is over 21 times the size of Pluto. (Compare the volumes.) It takes about twice as long to circle the Sun as Pluto. What other comparisons can you make?
Twenty-nine percent of Americans want their boss's job.
lung cancer in this group of volunteers was 10 times as great for smokers as for nonsmokers. Finally, by studying past and present data and conditions, statisticians try to make predictions based on this information. For example, a car dealer may look at past sales records for a specific month to decide what types of automobiles and how many of each type to order for that month next year.
Applying the Concepts 1–1 Attendance and Grades Read the following on attendance and grades, and answer the questions. A study conducted at Manatee Community College revealed that students who attended class 95 to 100% of the time usually received an A in the class. Students who attended class 1–5
Only one-third of crimes committed are reported to the police.
80 to 90% of the time usually received a B or C in the class. Students who attended class less than 80% of the time usually received a D or an F or eventually withdrew from the class. Based on this information, attendance and grades are related. The more you attend class, the more likely it is you will receive a higher grade. If you improve your attendance, your grades will probably improve. Many factors affect your grade in a course. One factor that you have considerable control over is attendance. You can increase your opportunities for learning by attending class more often. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
What are the variables under study? What are the data in the study? Are descriptive, inferential, or both types of statistics used? What is the population under study? Was a sample collected? If so, from where? From the information given, comment on the relationship between the variables.
See page 33 for the answers.
Identify types of data.
Variables and Types of Data As stated in Section 1–1, statisticians gain information about a particular situation by collecting data for random variables. This section will explore in greater detail the nature of variables and types of data. Variables can be classified as qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed into distinct categories, according to some characteristic or attribute. For example, if subjects are classified according to gender (male or female), then the variable gender is qualitative. Other examples of qualitative variables are religious preference and geographic locations. Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ordered or ranked. For example, the variable age is numerical, and people can be ranked in order according to the value of their ages. Other examples of quantitative variables are heights, weights, and body temperatures. Quantitative variables can be further classified into two groups: discrete and continuous. Discrete variables can be assigned values such as 0, 1, 2, 3 and are said to be countable. Examples of discrete variables are the number of children in a family, the number of students in a classroom, and the number of calls received by a switchboard operator each day for a month. Discrete variables assume values that can be counted.
Continuous variables, by comparison, can assume an infinite number of values in an interval between any two specific values. Temperature, for example, is a continuous variable, since the variable can assume an infinite number of values between any two given temperatures. Continuous variables can assume an infinite number of values between any two specific values. They are obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and decimals.
The classification of variables can be summarized as follows: Data Qualitative
Quantitative Discrete
Section 1–2 Variables and Types of Data
Fifty-two percent of Americans live within 50 miles of a coastal shoreline.
Since continuous data must be measured, answers must be rounded because of the limits of the measuring device. Usually, answers are rounded to the nearest given unit. For example, heights might be rounded to the nearest inch, weights to the nearest ounce, etc. Hence, a recorded height of 73 inches could mean any measure from 72.5 inches up to but not including 73.5 inches. Thus, the boundary of this measure is given as 72.5–73.5 inches. Boundaries are written for convenience as 72.5–73.5 but are understood to mean all values up to but not including 73.5. Actual data values of 73.5 would be rounded to 74 and would be included in a class with boundaries of 73.5 up to but not including 74.5, written as 73.5–74.5. As another example, if a recorded weight is 86 pounds, the exact boundaries are 85.5 up to but not including 86.5, written as 85.5–86.5 pounds. Table 1–1 helps to clarify this concept. The boundaries of a continuous variable are given in one additional decimal place and always end with the digit 5.
Identify the measurement level for each variable.
Recorded Values and Boundaries
Recorded value
Length Temperature Time Mass
15 centimeters (cm) 86 degrees Fahrenheit (ºF) 0.43 second (sec) 1.6 grams (g)
14.5–15.5 cm 85.5–86.5 F 0.425–0.435 sec 1.55–1.65 g
In addition to being classified as qualitative or quantitative, variables can be classified by how they are categorized, counted, or measured. For example, can the data be organized into specific categories, such as area of residence (rural, suburban, or urban)? Can the data values be ranked, such as first place, second place, etc.? Or are the values obtained from measurement, such as heights, IQs, or temperature? This type of classification—i.e., how variables are categorized, counted, or measured—uses measurement scales, and four common types of scales are used: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. The first level of measurement is called the nominal level of measurement. A sample of college instructors classified according to subject taught (e.g., English, history, psychology, or mathematics) is an example of nominal-level measurement. Classifying survey subjects as male or female is another example of nominal-level measurement. No ranking or order can be placed on the data. Classifying residents according to zip codes is also an example of the nominal level of measurement. Even though numbers are assigned as zip codes, there is no meaningful order or ranking. Other examples of nominal-level data are political party (Democratic, Republican, Independent, etc.), religion (Christianity, Judaism, Islam, etc.), and marital status (single, married, divorced, widowed, separated). The nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive (nonoverlapping) categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
The next level of measurement is called the ordinal level. Data measured at this level can be placed into categories, and these categories can be ordered, or ranked. For example, from student evaluations, guest speakers might be ranked as superior, average, or poor. Floats in a homecoming parade might be ranked as first place, second place, etc. Note that precise measurement of differences in the ordinal level of measurement does not exist. For instance, when people are classified according to their build (small, medium, or large), a large variation exists among the individuals in each class. 1–7
Sixty-three percent of us say we would rather hear the bad news first.
When data were first analyzed statistically by Karl Pearson and Francis Galton, almost all were continuous data. In 1899, Pearson began to analyze discrete data. Pearson found that some data, such as eye color, could not be measured, so he termed such data nominal data. Ordinal data were introduced by a German numerologist Frederich Mohs in 1822 when he introduced a hardness scale for minerals. For example, the hardest stone is the diamond, which he assigned a hardness value of 1500. Quartz was assigned a hardness value of 100. This does not mean that a diamond is 15 times harder than quartz. It only means that a diamond is harder than quartz. In 1947, a psychologist named Stanley Smith Stevens made a further division of continuous data into two categories, namely, interval and ratio.
Other examples of ordinal data are letter grades (A, B, C, D, F). The ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist.
The third level of measurement is called the interval level. This level differs from the ordinal level in that precise differences do exist between units. For example, many standardized psychological tests yield values measured on an interval scale. IQ is an example of such a variable. There is a meaningful difference of 1 point between an IQ of 109 and an IQ of 110. Temperature is another example of interval measurement, since there is a meaningful difference of 1 F between each unit, such as 72 and 73 F. One property is lacking in the interval scale: There is no true zero. For example, IQ tests do not measure people who have no intelligence. For temperature, 0 F does not mean no heat at all. The interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero.
The final level of measurement is called the ratio level. Examples of ratio scales are those used to measure height, weight, area, and number of phone calls received. Ratio scales have differences between units (1 inch, 1 pound, etc.) and a true zero. In addition, the ratio scale contains a true ratio between values. For example, if one person can lift 200 pounds and another can lift 100 pounds, then the ratio between them is 2 to 1. Put another way, the first person can lift twice as much as the second person. The ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different members of the population.
There is not complete agreement among statisticians about the classification of data into one of the four categories. For example, some researchers classify IQ data as ratio data rather than interval. Also, data can be altered so that they fit into a different category. For instance, if the incomes of all professors of a college are classified into the three categories of low, average, and high, then a ratio variable becomes an ordinal variable. Table 1–2 gives some examples of each type of data.
Examples of Measurement Scales
Nominal-level data
Ordinal-level data
Interval-level data
Ratio-level data
Zip code Gender (male, female) Eye color (blue, brown, green, hazel) Political affiliation Religious affiliation Major field (mathematics, computers, etc.) Nationality
Grade (A, B, C, D, F) Judging (first place, second place, etc.) Rating scale (poor, good, excellent) Ranking of tennis players
SAT score IQ Temperature
Height Weight Time Salary Age
Section 1–3 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques
Applying the Concepts 1–2 Safe Travel Read the following information about the transportation industry and answer the questions. Transportation Safety The chart shows the number of job-related injuries for each of the transportation industries for 1998. Industry Number of injuries Railroad Intercity bus Subway Trucking Airline
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
What are the variables under study? Categorize each variable as quantitative or qualitative. Categorize each quantitative variable as discrete or continuous. Identify the level of measurement for each variable. The railroad is shown as the safest transportation industry. Does that mean railroads have fewer accidents than the other industries? Explain. 6. What factors other than safety influence a person's choice of transportation? 7. From the information given, comment on the relationship between the variables. See page 33 for the answers.
Data Collection and Sampling Techniques In research, statisticians use data in many different ways. As stated previously, data can be used to describe situations or events. For example, a manufacturer might want to know something about the consumers who will be purchasing his product so he can plan an effective marketing strategy. In another situation, the management of a company might survey its employees to assess their needs in order to negotiate a new contract with the employees' union. Data can be used to determine whether the educational goals of a school district are being met. Finally, trends in various areas, such as the stock market, can be analyzed, enabling prospective buyers to make more intelligent decisions concerning what stocks to purchase. These examples illustrate a few situations where collecting data will help people make better decisions on courses of action. Data can be collected in a variety of ways. One of the most common methods is through the use of surveys. Surveys can be done by using a variety of methods. Three of the most common methods are the telephone survey, the mailed questionnaire, and the personal interview. Telephone surveys have an advantage over personal interview surveys in that they are less costly. Also, people may be more candid in their opinions since there is no faceto-face contact. A major drawback to the telephone survey is that some people in the population will not have phones or will not answer when the calls are made; hence, not all people have a chance of being surveyed. Also, many people now have unlisted numbers and cell phones, so they cannot be surveyed. Finally, even the tone of the voice of the interviewer might influence the response of the person who is being interviewed. Mailed questionnaire surveys can be used to cover a wider geographic area than telephone surveys or personal interviews since mailed questionnaire surveys are less expensive to conduct. Also, respondents can remain anonymous if they desire. Disadvantages 1–9
A pioneer in census taking was PierreSimon de Laplace. In 1780, he developed the Laplace method of estimating the population of a country. The principle behind his method was to take a census of a few selected communities and to determine the ratio of the population to the number of births in these communities. (Good birth records were kept.) This ratio would be used to multiply the number of births in the entire country to estimate the number of citizens in the country.
The first census in the United States was conducted in 1790. Its purpose was to insure proper Congressional representation.
of mailed questionnaire surveys include a low number of responses and inappropriate answers to questions. Another drawback is that some people may have difficulty reading or understanding the questions. Personal interview surveys have the advantage of obtaining in-depth responses to questions from the person being interviewed. One disadvantage is that interviewers must be trained in asking questions and recording responses, which makes the personal interview survey more costly than the other two survey methods. Another disadvantage is that the interviewer may be biased in his or her selection of respondents. Data can also be collected in other ways, such as surveying records or direct observation of situations. As stated in Section 1–1, researchers use samples to collect data and information about a particular variable from a large population. Using samples saves time and money and in some cases enables the researcher to get more detailed information about a particular subject. Samples cannot be selected in haphazard ways because the information obtained might be biased. For example, interviewing people on a street corner during the day would not include responses from people working in offices at that time or from people attending school; hence, not all subjects in a particular population would have a chance of being selected. To obtain samples that are unbiased—i.e., that give each subject in the population an equally likely chance of being selected—statisticians use four basic methods of sampling: random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling.
Random Sampling Random samples are selected by using chance methods or random numbers. One such method is to number each subject in the population. Then place numbered cards in a bowl, mix them thoroughly, and select as many cards as needed. The subjects whose numbers are selected constitute the sample. Since it is difficult to mix the cards 1–10
Speaking of Statistics The Worst Day for Weight Loss Many overweight people have difficulty losing weight. Prevention magazine reported that researchers from Washington University of Medicine studied the diets of 48 adult weight loss participants. They used food diaries, exercise monitors, and weigh-ins. They found that the participants ate an average of 236 more calories on Saturdays than they did on the other weekdays. This would amount to a weight gain of 9 pounds per year. So if you are watching your diet, be careful on Saturdays. Are the statistics reported in this study descriptive or inferential in nature? What type of variables are used here?
thoroughly, there is a chance of obtaining a biased sample. For this reason, statisticians use another method of obtaining numbers. They generate random numbers with a computer or calculator. Before the invention of computers, random numbers were obtained from tables. Some two-digit random numbers are shown in Table 1–3. To select a random sample of, say, 15 subjects out of 85 subjects, it is necessary to number each subject from 01 to 85. Then select a starting number by closing your eyes and placing your finger on a number in the table. (Although this may sound somewhat unusual, it enables us to find a starting number at random.) In this case suppose your finger landed on the number 12 in the second column. (It is the sixth number down from the top.) Then proceed downward until you have selected 15 different numbers between 01 and 85. When you reach the bottom of the column, go to the top of the next column. If you select a number greater than 85 or the number 00 or a duplicate number, just omit it. In our example, we will use the subjects numbered 12, 27, 75, 62, 57, 13, 31, 06, 16, 49, 46, 71, 53, 41, and 02. A more detailed procedure for selecting a random sample using a table of random numbers is given in Chapter 14, using Table D in Appendix C.
Systematic Sampling Researchers obtain systematic samples by numbering each subject of the population and then selecting every kth subject. For example, suppose there were 2000 subjects in the population and a sample of 50 subjects were needed. Since 2000 50 40, then k 40, and every 40th subject would be selected; however, the first subject (numbered between 1 and 40) would be selected at random. Suppose subject 12 were the first subject selected; then the sample would consist of the subjects whose numbers were 12, 52, 92, etc., until 50 subjects were obtained. When using systematic sampling, you must be careful about how the subjects in the population are numbered. If subjects were arranged in a manner 1–11
Table 1–3 79 26 18 19 14 29 01 55 84 62 66 48 94 00 46 77 81 40
such as wife, husband, wife, husband, and every 40th subject were selected, the sample would consist of all husbands. Numbering is not always necessary. For example, a researcher may select every tenth item from an assembly line to test for defects.
Stratified Sampling Researchers obtain stratified samples by dividing the population into groups (called strata) according to some characteristic that is important to the study, then sampling from each group. Samples within the strata should be randomly selected. For example, suppose the president of a two-year college wants to learn how students feel about a certain issue. Furthermore, the president wishes to see if the opinions of the first-year students differ from those of the second-year students. The president will randomly select students from each group to use in the sample.
In 1936, the Literary Digest, on the basis of a biased sample of its subscribers, predicted that Alf Landon would defeat Franklin D. Roosevelt in the upcoming presidential election. Roosevelt won by a landslide. The magazine ceased publication the following year.
Cluster Sampling Researchers also use cluster samples. Here the population is divided into groups called clusters by some means such as geographic area or schools in a large school district, etc. Then the researcher randomly selects some of these clusters and uses all members of the selected clusters as the subjects of the samples. Suppose a researcher wishes to survey apartment dwellers in a large city. If there are 10 apartment buildings in the city, the researcher can select at random 2 buildings from the 10 and interview all the residents of these buildings. Cluster sampling is used when the population is large or when it involves subjects residing in a large geographic area. For example, if one wanted to do a study involving the patients in the hospitals in New York City, it would be very costly and time-consuming to try to obtain a random sample of patients since they would be spread over a large area. Instead, a few hospitals could be selected at random, and the patients in these hospitals would be interviewed in a cluster. The four basic sampling methods are summarized in Table 1–4. Other Sampling Methods In addition to the four basic sampling methods, researchers use other methods to obtain samples. One such method is called a convenience sample. Here a researcher uses
Section 1–4 Observational and Experimental Studies
Table 1–4 Random Systematic Stratified Cluster
Older Americans are less likely to sacrifice happiness for a higherpaying job. According to one survey, 38% of those aged 18–29 said they would choose more money over happiness, while only 3% of those over 65 would.
Summary of Sampling Methods Subjects are selected by random numbers. Subjects are selected by using every kth number after the first subject is randomly selected from 1 through k. Subjects are selected by dividing up the population into groups (strata), and subjects are randomly selected within groups. Subjects are selected by using an intact group that is representative of the population.
subjects that are convenient. For example, the researcher may interview subjects entering a local mall to determine the nature of their visit or perhaps what stores they will be patronizing. This sample is probably not representative of the general customers for several reasons. For one thing, it was probably taken at a specific time of day, so not all customers entering the mall have an equal chance of being selected since they were not there when the survey was being conducted. But convenience samples can be representative of the population. If the researcher investigates the characteristics of the population and determines that the sample is representative, then it can be used. Other sampling techniques, such as sequential sampling, double sampling, and multistage sampling, are explained in Chapter 14, along with a more detailed explanation of the four basic sampling techniques.
Applying the Concepts 1–3 American Culture and Drug Abuse Assume you are a member of the Family Research Council and have become increasingly concerned about the drug use by professional sports players. You set up a plan and conduct a survey on how people believe the American culture (television, movies, magazines, and popular music) influences illegal drug use. Your survey consists of 2250 adults and adolescents from around the country. A consumer group petitions you for more information about your survey. Answer the following questions about your survey. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
What type of survey did you use (phone, mail, or interview)? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the surveying methods you did not use? What type of scores did you use? Why? Did you use a random method for deciding who would be in your sample? Which of the methods (stratified, systematic, cluster, or convenience) did you use? Why was that method more appropriate for this type of data collection? If a convenience sample were obtained consisting of only adolescents, how would the results of the study be affected?
Observational and Experimental Studies There are several different ways to classify statistical studies. This section explains two types of studies: observational studies and experimental studies. In an observational study, the researcher merely observes what is happening or what has happened in the past and tries to draw conclusions based on these observations.
For example, data from the Motorcycle Industry Council (USA TODAY) stated that "Motorcycle owners are getting older and richer." Data were collected on the ages and incomes of motorcycle owners for the years 1980 and 1998 and then compared. The findings showed considerable differences in the ages and incomes of motorcycle owners for the two years. In this study, the researcher merely observed what had happened to the motorcycle owners over a period of time. There was no type of research intervention. In an experimental study, the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the manipulation influences other variables.
The safest day of the week for driving is Tuesday.
For example, a study conducted at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and presented in Psychology Today divided female undergraduate students into two groups and had the students perform as many sit-ups as possible in 90 sec. The first group was told only to "Do your best," while the second group was told to try to increase the actual number of sit-ups done each day by 10%. After four days, the subjects in the group who were given the vague instructions to "Do your best" averaged 43 sit-ups, while the group that was given the more specific instructions to increase the number of sit-ups by 10% averaged 56 sit-ups by the last day's session. The conclusion then was that athletes who were given specific goals performed better than those who were not given specific goals. This study is an example of a statistical experiment since the researchers intervened in the study by manipulating one of the variables, namely, the type of instructions given to each group. In a true experimental study, the subjects should be assigned to groups randomly. Also, the treatments should be assigned to the groups at random. In the sit-up study, the article did not mention whether the subjects were randomly assigned to the groups. Sometimes when random assignment is not possible, researchers use intact groups. These types of studies are done quite often in education where already intact groups are available in the form of existing classrooms. When these groups are used, the study is said to be a quasi-experimental study. The treatments, though, should be assigned at random. Most articles do not state whether random assignment of subjects was used. Statistical studies usually include one or more independent variables and one dependent variable. The independent variable in an experimental study is the one that is being manipulated by the researcher. The independent variable is also called the explanatory variable. The resultant variable is called the dependent variable or the outcome variable.
The outcome variable is the variable that is studied to see if it has changed significantly due to the manipulation of the independent variable. For example, in the sit-up study, the researchers gave the groups two different types of instructions, general and specific. Hence, the independent variable is the type of instruction. The dependent variable, then, is the resultant variable, that is, the number of sit-ups each group was able to perform after four days of exercise. If the differences in the dependent or outcome variable are large and other factors are equal, these differences can be attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable. In this case, specific instructions were shown to increase athletic performance. In the sit-up study, there were two groups. The group that received the special instruction is called the treatment group while the other is called the control group. The treatment group receives a specific treatment (in this case, instructions for improvement) while the control group does not. Both types of statistical studies have advantages and disadvantages. Experimental studies have the advantage that the researcher can decide how to select subjects and how to assign them to specific groups. The researcher can also control or manipulate the 1–14
The number of potholes in the United States is about 56 million.
independent variable. For example, in studies that require the subjects to consume a certain amount of medicine each day, the researcher can determine the precise dosages and, if necessary, vary the dosage for the groups. There are several disadvantages to experimental studies. First, they may occur in unnatural settings, such as laboratories and special classrooms. This can lead to several problems. One such problem is that the results might not apply to the natural setting. The age-old question then is, "This mouthwash may kill 10,000 germs in a test tube, but how many germs will it kill in my mouth?" Another disadvantage with an experimental study is the Hawthorne effect. This effect was discovered in 1924 in a study of workers at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company. In this study, researchers found that the subjects who knew they were participating in an experiment actually changed their behavior in ways that affected the results of the study. Another problem is called confounding of variables. A confounding variable is one that influences the dependent or outcome variable but was not separated from the independent variable.
Of people in the United States, 66% read the Sunday paper.
Researchers try to control most variables in a study, but this is not possible in some studies. For example, subjects who are put on an exercise program might also improve their diet unbeknownst to the researcher and perhaps improve their health in other ways not due to exercise alone. Then diet becomes a confounding variable. Observational studies also have advantages and disadvantages. One advantage of an observational study is that it usually occurs in a natural setting. For example, researchers can observe people's driving patterns on streets and highways in large cities. Another advantage of an observational study is that it can be done in situations where it would be unethical or downright dangerous to conduct an experiment. Using observational studies, researchers can study suicides, rapes, murders, etc. In addition, observational studies can be done using variables that cannot be manipulated by the researcher, such as drug users versus nondrug users and right-handedness versus left-handedness. Observational studies have disadvantages, too. As mentioned previously, since the variables are not controlled by the researcher, a definite cause-and-effect situation cannot be shown since other factors may have had an effect on the results. Observational studies can be expensive and time-consuming. For example, if one wanted to study the habitat of lions in Africa, one would need a lot of time and money, and there would be a certain amount of danger involved. Finally, since the researcher may not be using his or her own measurements, the results could be subject to the inaccuracies of those who collected the data. For example, if the researchers were doing a study of events that occurred in the 1800s, they would have to rely on information and records obtained by others from a previous era. There is no way to ensure the accuracy of these records. When you read the results of statistical studies, decide if the study was observational or experimental. Then see if the conclusion follows logically, based on the nature of these studies. No matter what type of study is conducted, two studies on the same subject sometimes have conflicting conclusions. Why might this occur? An article entitled "Bottom Line: Is It Good for You?" (USA TODAY Weekend ) states that in the 1960s studies suggested that margarine was better for the heart than butter since margarine contains less saturated fat and users had lower cholesterol levels. In a 1980 study, researchers found that butter was better than margarine since margarine contained trans-fatty acids, which are worse for the heart than butter's saturated fat. Then in a 1998 study, researchers found that margarine was better for a person's health. Now, what is to be believed? Should one use butter or margarine? 1–15
The answer here is that you must take a closer look at these studies. Actually, it is not a choice between butter or margarine that counts, but the type of margarine used. In the 1980s, studies showed that solid margarine contains trans-fatty acids, and scientists believe that they are worse for the heart than butter's saturated fat. In the 1998 study, liquid margarine was used. It is very low in trans-fatty acids, and hence it is more healthful than butter because trans-fatty acids have been shown to raise cholesterol. Hence, the conclusion is to use liquid margarine instead of solid margarine or butter. Before decisions based on research studies are made, it is important to get all the facts and examine them in light of the particular situation.
Applying the Concepts 1–4 Just a Pinch Between Your Cheek and Gum As the evidence on the adverse effects of cigarette smoke grew, people tried many different ways to quit smoking. Some people tried chewing tobacco or, as it was called, smokeless tobacco. A small amount of tobacco was placed between the cheek and gum. Certain chemicals from the tobacco were absorbed into the bloodstream and gave the sensation of smoking cigarettes. This prompted studies on the adverse effects of smokeless tobacco. One study in particular used 40 university students as subjects. Twenty were given smokeless tobacco to chew, and twenty given a substance that looked and tasted like smokeless tobacco, but did not contain any of the harmful substances. The students were randomly assigned to one of the groups. The students' blood pressure and heart rate were measured before they started chewing and 20 minutes after they had been chewing. A significant increase in heart rate occurred in the group that chewed the smokeless tobacco. Answer the following questions. 1. 2. 3. 4.
What type of study was this (observational, quasi-experimental, or experimental)? What are the independent and dependent variables? Which was the treatment group? Could the students' blood pressures be affected by knowing that they are part of a study? 5. List some possible confounding variables. 6. Do you think this is a good way to study the effect of smokeless tobacco? See page 33 for the answers.
Uses and Misuses of Statistics As explained previously, statistical techniques can be used to describe data, compare two or more data sets, determine if a relationship exists between variables, test hypotheses, and make estimates about population characteristics. However, there is another aspect of statistics, and that is the misuse of statistical techniques to sell products that don't work properly, to attempt to prove something true that is really not true, or to get our attention by using statistics to evoke fear, shock, and outrage. There are two sayings that have been around for a long time that illustrate this point: "There are three types of lies—lies, damn lies, and statistics." "Figures don't lie, but liars figure."
Section 1–5 Uses and Misuses of Statistics
Just because we read or hear the results of a research study or an opinion poll in the media, this does not mean that these results are reliable or that they can be applied to any and all situations. For example, reporters sometimes leave out critical details such as the size of the sample used or how the research subjects were selected. Without this information, you cannot properly evaluate the research and properly interpret the conclusions of the study or survey. It is the purpose of this section to show some ways that statistics can be misused. You should not infer that all research studies and surveys are suspect, but that there are many factors to consider when making decisions based on the results of research studies and surveys. Here are some ways that statistics can be misrepresented.
Suspect Samples The first thing to consider is the sample that was used in the research study. Sometimes researchers use very small samples to obtain information. Several years ago, advertisements contained such statements as "Three out of four doctors surveyed recommend brand such and such." If only 4 doctors were surveyed, the results could have been obtained by chance alone; however, if 100 doctors were surveyed, the results might be quite different. Not only is it important to have a sample size that is large enough, but also it is necessary to see how the subjects in the sample were selected. Studies using volunteers sometimes have a built-in bias. Volunteers generally do not represent the population at large. Sometimes they are recruited from a particular socioeconomic background, and sometimes unemployed people volunteer for research studies to get a stipend. Studies that require the subjects to spend several days or weeks in an environment other than their home or workplace automatically exclude people who are employed and cannot take time away from work. Sometimes only college students or retirees are used in studies. In the past, many studies have used only men, but have attempted to generalize the results to both men and women. Opinion polls that require a person to phone or mail in a response most often are not representative of the population in general, since only those with strong feelings for or against the issue usually call or respond by mail. Another type of sample that may not be representative is the convenience sample. Educational studies sometimes use students in intact classrooms since it is convenient. Quite often, the students in these classrooms do not represent the student population of the entire school district. When results are interpreted from studies using small samples, convenience samples, or volunteer samples, care should be used in generalizing the results to the entire population.
Ambiguous Averages In Chapter 3, you will learn that there are four commonly used measures that are loosely called averages. They are the mean, median, mode, and midrange. For the same data set, these averages can differ markedly. People who know this can, without lying, select the one measure of average that lends the most evidence to support their position.
Changing the Subject Another type of statistical distortion can occur when different values are used to represent the same data. For example, one political candidate who is running for reelection
might say, "During my administration, expenditures increased a mere 3%." His opponent, who is trying to unseat him, might say, "During my opponent's administration, expenditures have increased a whopping $6,000,000." Here both figures are correct; however, expressing a 3% increase as $6,000,000 makes it sound like a very large increase. Here again, ask yourself, Which measure better represents the data?
Detached Statistics A claim that uses a detached statistic is one in which no comparison is made. For example, you may hear a claim such as "Our brand of crackers has one-third fewer calories." Here, no comparison is made. One-third fewer calories than what? Another example is a claim that uses a detached statistic such as "Brand A aspirin works four times faster." Four times faster than what? When you see statements such as this, always ask yourself, Compared to what?
Implied Connections Many claims attempt to imply connections between variables that may not actually exist. For example, consider the following statement: "Eating fish may help to reduce your cholesterol." Notice the words may help. There is no guarantee that eating fish will definitely help you reduce your cholesterol. "Studies suggest that using our exercise machine will reduce your weight." Here the word suggest is used; and again, there is no guarantee that you will lose weight by using the exercise machine advertised. Another claim might say, "Taking calcium will lower blood pressure in some people." Note the word some is used. You may not be included in the group of "some" people. Be careful when you draw conclusions from claims that use words such as may, in some people, and might help.
Misleading Graphs Statistical graphs give a visual representation of data that enables viewers to analyze and interpret data more easily than by simply looking at numbers. In Chapter 2, you will see how some graphs are used to represent data. However, if graphs are drawn inappropriately, they can misrepresent the data and lead the reader to draw false conclusions. The misuse of graphs is also explained in Chapter 2. Faulty Survey Questions When analyzing the results of a survey using questionnaires, you should be sure that the questions are properly written since the way questions are phrased can often influence the way people answer them. For example, the responses to a question such as "Do you feel that the North Huntingdon School District should build a new football stadium?" might be answered differently than a question such as "Do you favor increasing school taxes so that the North Huntingdon School District can build a new football stadium?" Each question asks something a little different, and the responses could be radically different. When you read and interpret the results obtained from questionnaire surveys, watch out for some of these common mistakes made in the writing of the survey questions. In Chapter 14, you will find some common ways that survey questions could be misinterpreted by those responding and could therefore result in incorrect conclusions.
Section 1–6 Computers and Calculators
To restate the premise of this section, statistics, when used properly, can be beneficial in obtaining much information, but when used improperly, can lead to much misinformation. It is like your automobile. If you use your automobile to get to school or work or to go on a vacation, that's good. But if you use it to run over your neighbor's dog because it barks all night long and tears up your flower garden, that's not so good!
Computers and Calculators In the past, statistical calculations were done with pencil and paper. However, with the advent of calculators, numerical computations became much easier. Computers do all the numerical calculation. All one does is to enter the data into the computer and use the appropriate command; the computer will print the answer or display it on the screen. Now the TI-83 Plus or TI-84 Plus graphing calculator accomplishes the same thing. There are many statistical packages available; this book uses MINITAB and Microsoft Excel. Instructions for using MINITAB, the TI-83 Plus or TI-84 Plus graphing calculator, and Excel have been placed at the end of each relevant section, in subsections entitled Technology Step by Step. You should realize that the computer and calculator merely give numerical answers and save the time and effort of doing calculations by hand. You are still responsible for understanding and interpreting each statistical concept. In addition, you should realize that the results come from the data and do not appear magically on the computer. Doing calculations using the procedure tables will help you reinforce this idea. The author has left it up to instructors to choose how much technology they will incorporate into the course.
General Information MINITAB statistical software provides a wide range of statistical analysis and graphing capabilities.
Take Note In this text you will see captured screen images from computers running MINITAB Release 14. If you are using an earlier or later release of MINITAB, the screens you see on your computer may bear slight visual differences from the screens pictured in this text. But don't be alarmed! All the Step by Step operations described in this text, including the commands, the menu options, and the functionality, will work just fine on your computer.
Start the Program 1. Click the Windows Start Menu, then All Programs. 2. Click the MINITAB folder and then click
, the program icon. The program screen will look similar to the one shown here. You will see the Session Window, the Worksheet Window, and perhaps the Project Manager Window.
3. Click the Project Manager icon on the toolbar to bring the project manager to the front.
For Vista, click the Start button, then "All Programs." Next click "MINITAB Solutions" and then "MINITAB Statistical Software English."
To use the program, data must be entered from the keyboard or from a file.
Entering Data in MINITAB In MINITAB, all the data for one variable are stored in a column. Step by step instructions for entering these data follow. Data 213
1. Click in row 1 of Worksheet 1***. This makes the worksheet the active window and puts the cursor in the first cell. The small data entry arrow in the upper left-hand corner of the worksheet should be pointing down. If it is not, click it to change the direction in which the cursor will move when you press the [Enter] key. 2. Type in each number, pressing [Enter] after each entry, including the last number typed.
3. Optional: Click in the space above row 1 to type in Weight, the column label.
Save a Worksheet File 4. Click on the File Menu. Note: This is not the same as clicking the disk icon
5. Click Save Current Worksheet As . . . 6. In the dialog box you will need to verify three items: a) Save in: Click on or type in the disk drive and directory where you will store your data. For a CD this might be A:. b) File Name: Type in the name of the file, such as MyData. c) Save as Type: The default here is MINITAB. An extension of mtw is added to the name. Click [Save]. The name of the worksheet will change from Worksheet 1*** to MyData.MTW.
Open the Databank File The raw data are shown in Appendix D. There is a row for each person's data and a column for each variable. MINITAB data files comprised of data sets used in this book, including the 1–20
Databank, are available on the accompanying CD-ROM or at the Online Learning Center (www.mhhe.com/bluman). Here is how to get the data from a file into a worksheet. 1. Click File>Open Worksheet. A sequence of menu instructions will be shown this way. Note: This is not the same as clicking the file icon . If the dialog box says Open Project instead of Open Worksheet, click [Cancel] and use the correct menu item. The Open Worksheet dialog box will be displayed. 2. You must check three items in this dialog box. a) The Look In: dialog box should show the directory where the file is located. b) Make sure the Files of Type: shows the correct type, MINITAB [*.mtw]. c) Double-click the file name in the list box Databank.mtw. A dialog box may inform you that a copy of this file is about to be added to the project. Click on the checkbox if you do not want to see this warning again. 3. Click the [OK] button. The data will be copied into a second worksheet. Part of the worksheet is shown here.
a) You may maximize the window and scroll if desired. b) C12-T Marital Status has a T appended to the label to indicate alphanumeric data. MyData.MTW is not erased or overwritten. Multiple worksheets can be available; however, only the active worksheet is available for analysis. 4. To switch between the worksheets, select Window >MyData.MTW. 5. Select File>Exit to quit. To save the project, click [Yes]. 6. Type in the name of the file, Chapter01. The Data Window, the Session Window, and settings are all in one file called a project. Projects have an extension of mpj instead of mtw. Clicking the disk icon
on the menu bar is the same as selecting File>Save Project.
Clicking the file icon
is the same as selecting File>Open Project.
7. Click [Save]. The mpj extension will be added to the name. The computer will return to the Windows desktop. The two worksheets, the Session Window results, and settings are saved in this project file. When a project file is opened, the program will start up right where you left off.
TI-83 Plus or TI-84 Plus
The TI-83 Plus or TI-84 Plus graphing calculator can be used for a variety of statistical graphs and tests.
General Information To turn calculator on: Press ON key. To turn calculator off: Press 2nd [OFF]. To reset defaults only: 1. Press 2nd, then [MEM]. 2. Select 7, then 2, then 2. Optional. To reset settings on calculator and clear memory: (Note: This will clear all settings and programs in the calculator's memory.) Press 2nd, then [MEM]. Then press 7, then 1, then 2. (Also, the contrast may need to be adjusted after this.) 1–21
To adjust contrast (if necessary): Press 2nd. Then press and hold to darken or to lighten contrast. To clear screen: Press CLEAR. (Note: This will return you to the screen you were using.) To display a menu: Press appropriate menu key. Example: STAT. To return to home screen: Press 2nd, then [QUIT]. To move around on the screens: Use the arrow keys. To select items on the menu: Press the corresponding number or move the cursor to the item, using the arrow keys. Then press ENTER. (Note: In some cases, you do not have to press ENTER, and in other cases you may need to press ENTER twice.)
Entering Data To enter single-variable data (if necessary, clear the old list): 1. Press STAT to display the Edit menu. 2. Press ENTER to select 1:Edit. 3. Enter the data in L1 and press ENTER after each value. 4. After all data values are entered, press STAT to get back to the Edit menu or 2nd [QUIT] to end. Example TI1–1
Enter the following data values in L1: 213, 208, 203, 215, 222. To enter multiple-variable data: The TI-83 Plus or TI-84 Plus will take up to six lists designated L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, and L6.
1. To enter more than one set of data values, complete the preceding steps. Then move the cursor to L2 by pressing the key. 2. Repeat the steps in the preceding part.
Editing Data To correct a data value before pressing ENTER, use and retype the value and press ENTER. To correct a data value in a list after pressing ENTER, move cursor to incorrect value in list and type in the correct value. Then press ENTER. To delete a data value in a list: Move cursor to value and press DEL. To insert a data value in a list: 1. Move cursor to position where data value is to be inserted, then press 2nd [INS]. 2. Type data value; then press ENTER. To clear a list: 1. Press STAT, then 4. 2. Enter list to be cleared. Example: To clear L1, press 2nd [L1]. Then press ENTER. (Note: To clear several lists, follow STEP 1, but enter each list to be cleared, separating them with commas. To clear all lists at once, follow STEP 1; then press ENTER.) 1–22
Sorting Data To sort the data in a list: 1. Enter the data in L1. 2. Press STAT 2 to get SortA to sort the list in ascending order. 3. Then press 2nd [L1] ENTER. Output
The calculator will display Done. 4. Press STAT ENTER to display sorted list. (Note: The SortD or 3 sorts the list in descending order.) Example TI1–2
Sort in ascending order the data values entered in Example TI1–1.
Excel Step by Step
General Information Microsoft Excel 2007 has two different ways to solve statistical problems. First, there are built-in functions, such as STDEV and CHITEST, available from the standard toolbar by clicking Formulas, then selecting the Insert Function icon . Another feature of Excel that is useful for calculating multiple statistical measures and performing statistical tests for a set of data is the Data Analysis command found in the Analysis Tool-Pak Add-in. To load the Analysis Tool-Pak: Click the Microsoft Office button
Excel's Analysis ToolPak Add-In
, then select Excel Options.
1. Click Add-Ins, and select Add-ins from the list of options on the left side of the options box. 2. Select the Analysis Tool-Pak, then click the Go button at the bottom of the options box.
3. After loading the Analysis Tool-Pak, the Data Analysis command is available in the Analysis group on the Data tab.
MegaStat Later in this text you will encounter a few Excel Technology Step by Step operations that will require the use of the MegaStat Add-in for Excel. MegaStat can be downloaded from the CD that came with your textbook as well as from the text's Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/bluman. 1. Save the Zip file containing the MegaStat Excel Add-in file (MegaStat.xls) and the associated help file on your computer's hard drive. 2. After opening the Zip file, double-click the MegaStat Add-in file, then Extract the MegaStat program to your computer's hard drive. After extracting the file, you can load the MegaStat Add-in to Excel by double-clicking the MegaStat.xls file. When the Excel program opens to load the Add-in, choose the Enable Macros option. 3. After installation of the add-in, you will be able to access MegaStat by selecting the Add-ins tab on the Excel toolbar. 4. If MegaStat is not listed under Add-ins when you reopen the Excel program, then you can access MegaStat by double-clicking the MegaStat.xls file at any time. Entering Data
1. Select a cell at the top of a column on an Excel worksheet where you want to enter data. When working with data values for a single variable, you will usually want to enter the values into a single column. 2. Type each data value and press [Enter] or [Tab] on your keyboard. You can also add more worksheets to an Excel workbook by clicking the Insert Worksheet icon located at the bottom of an open workbook. Example XL1–1: Opening an existing Excel workbook/worksheet
1. Open the Microsoft Office Excel 2007 program. 1–24
2. Click the Microsoft Click Office button , then click the Open file function. The Open dialog box will be displayed. 3. In the Look in box, click the folder where the Excel workbook file is located. 4. Double-click the file name in the list box. The selected workbook file will be opened in Excel for editing.
The chance that someone will attempt to burglarize your home in any given year is 1 in 20.
• The two major areas of statistics are descriptive and inferential. Descriptive statistics includes the collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of data. Inferential statistics includes making inferences from samples to populations, estimations and hypothesis testing, determining relationships, and making predictions. Inferential statistics is based on probability theory. (1–1) • Data can be classified as qualitative or quantitative. Quantitative data can be either discrete or continuous, depending on the values they can assume. Data can also be measured by various scales. The four basic levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. (1–2) • Since in most cases the populations under study are large, statisticians use subgroups called samples to get the necessary data for their studies. There are four basic methods used to obtain samples: random, systematic, stratified, and cluster. (1–3) • There are two basic types of statistical studies: observational studies and experimental studies. When conducting observational studies, researchers observe what is happening or what has happened and then draw conclusions based on these observations. They do not attempt to manipulate the variables in any way. (1–4) • When conducting an experimental study, researchers manipulate one or more of the independent or explanatory variables and see how this manipulation influences the dependent or outcome variable. (1–4) • Finally, the applications of statistics are many and varied. People encounter LAFF - A - DAY them in everyday life, such as in reading newspapers or magazines, listening to the radio, or watching television. Since statistics is used in almost every field of endeavor, the educated individual should be knowledgeable about the vocabulary, concepts, and procedures of statistics. Also, everyone should be aware that statistics can be misused. (1–5) • Today, computers and calculators are used extensively in statistics to facilitate the computations. (1–6) "We've polled the entire populace, Your Majesty, and we've come up with exactly the results you ordered!" © Dave Whitehead. King Features Syndicate.
*The numbers in parentheses indicate the chapter section where the material is explained.
Important Terms cluster sample 12
experimental study 14
observational study 13
random variable 3
confounding variable 15
explanatory variable 14
continuous variables 6
Hawthorne effect 15
ordinal level of measurement 8
ratio level of measurement 8
control group 14
hypothesis testing 4
outcome variable 14
convenience sample 12
independent variable 14
inferential statistics 4
stratified sample 12
data set 3
qualitative variables 6
systematic sample 11
data value or datum 3
interval level of measurement 8
quantitative variables 6
treatment group 14
dependent variable 14
measurement scales 7
variable 3
descriptive statistics 4
nominal level of measurement 7
quasi-experimental study 14
discrete variables 6
random sample 10
Answers not appearing on the page can be found in the answers appendix.
Review Exercises Note: All odd-numbered problems and even-numbered problems marked with "ans" are included in the answer section at the end of this book. The numbers in parentheses indicate the chapter section where the process to arrive at a solution is explained. 1. Name and define the two areas of statistics. (1–1) 2. What is probability? Name two areas where probability is used. (1–1) Probability deals with events that occur by chance. It is used in gambling and insurance.
3. Suggest some ways statistics can be used in everyday life. (1–1) Answers will vary. 4. Explain the differences between a sample and a population. (1–1) A population is the totality of all subjects possessing certain common characteristics that are being studied.
5. Why are samples used in statistics? (1–1) 6. (ans) In each of these statements, tell whether descriptive or inferential statistics have been used. a. By 2040 at least 3.5 billion people will run short of water (World Future Society). Inferential b. Nine out of ten on-the-job fatalities are men (Source: USA TODAY Weekend ). Descriptive c. Expenditures for the cable industry were $5.66 billion in 1996 (Source: USA TODAY ). Descriptive d. The median household income for people aged 25–34 is $35,888 (Source: USA TODAY ). Descriptive e. Allergy therapy makes bees go away (Source: Prevention). Inferential 1–26
f. Drinking decaffeinated coffee can raise cholesterol levels by 7% (Source: American Heart Association). g. The national average annual medicine expenditure per person is $1052 (Source: The Greensburg Tribune Review). Descriptive h. Experts say that mortgage rates may soon hit bottom (Source: USA TODAY ). (1–1) Inferential 7. Classify each as nominal-level, ordinal-level, intervallevel, or ratio-level measurement. Pages in the 25 best-selling mystery novels. Ratio Rankings of golfers in a tournament. Ordinal Temperatures inside 10 pizza ovens. Interval Weights of selected cell phones. Ratio Salaries of the coaches in the NFL. Ratio Times required to complete a chess game. Ratio Ratings of textbooks (poor, fair, good, excellent). Ordinal h. Number of amps delivered by battery chargers. Ratio i. Ages of childern in a day care center. Ratio j. Categories of magazines in a physician's office (sports, women's, health, men's, news). (1–2) Normal a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
8. Classify each variable as qualitative or quantitative. Marital status of nurses in a hospital. Qualitative Time it takes to run a marathon. Quantitative Weights of lobsters in a tank in a restaurant. Quantitative Colors of automobiles in a shopping center parking lot. Qualitative e. Ounces of ice cream in a large milkshake. Quantitative f. Capacity of the NFL football stadiums. Quantitative g. Ages of people living in a personal care home. (1–2) Quantitative a. b. c. d.
9. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous. a. Number of pizzas sold by Pizza Express each day. Discrete b. Relative humidity levels in operating rooms at local hospitals. Continuous c. Number of bananas in a bunch at several local supermarkets. Discrete d. Lifetimes (in hours) of 15 iPod batteries. Continuous e. Weights of the backpacks of first graders on a school bus. Continuous f. Number of students each day who make appointments with a math tutor at a local college. Discrete g. Blood pressures of runners in a marathon. (1–2) Continuous 10. Give the boundaries of each value. a. b. c. d. e.
36 inches. 35.5–36.5 105.4 miles. 105.35–105.45 72.6 tons. 72.55–72.65 5.27 centimeters. 5.265–5.275 5 ounces. (1–2) 4.5–5.5
11. Name and define the four basic sampling methods. (1–3) Random, systematic, stratified, cluster 12. (ans) Classify each sample as random, systematic, stratified, or cluster. a. In a large school district, all teachers from two buildings are interviewed to determine whether they believe the students have less homework to do now than in previous years. Cluster b. Every seventh customer entering a shopping mall is asked to select her or his favorite store. Systematic c. Nursing supervisors are selected using random numbers to determine annual salaries. Random d. Every 100th hamburger manufactured is checked to determine its fat content. Systematic e. Mail carriers of a large city are divided into four groups according to gender (male or female) and according to whether they walk or ride on their routes. Then 10 are selected from each group and interviewed to determine whether they have been bitten by a dog in the last year. (1–3) Stratified 13. Give three examples each of nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data. (1–2) Answers will vary. 14. For each of these statements, define a population and state how a sample might be obtained. Answers will vary. a. The average cost of an airline meal is $4.55 (Source: Everything Has Its Price, Richard E. Donley, Simon and Schuster). b. More than 1 in 4 United States children have cholesterol levels of 180 milligrams or higher (Source: The American Health Foundation). c. Every 10 minutes, 2 people die in car crashes and 170 are injured (Source: National Safety Council estimates).
d. When older people with mild to moderate hypertension were given mineral salt for 6 months, the average blood pressure reading dropped by 8 points systolic and 3 points diastolic (Source: Prevention). e. The average amount spent per gift for Mom on Mother's Day is $25.95 (Source: The Gallup Organization). (1–3) 15. Select a newspaper or magazine article that involves a statistical study, and write a paper answering these questions. Answers will vary. a. Is this study descriptive or inferential? Explain your answer. b. What are the variables used in the study? In your opinion, what level of measurement was used to obtain the data from the variables? c. Does the article define the population? If so, how is it defined? If not, how could it be defined? d. Does the article state the sample size and how the sample was obtained? If so, determine the size of the sample and explain how it was selected. If not, suggest a way it could have been obtained. e. Explain in your own words what procedure (survey, comparison of groups, etc.) might have been used to determine the study's conclusions. f. Do you agree or disagree with the conclusions? State your reasons. 16. Information from research studies is sometimes taken out of context. Explain why the claims of these studies might be suspect. Answers will vary. a. Based on a recent telephone survey, 72% of those contacted shop online. b. In Greenville County there are 8324 deer. c. Nursing school graduates from Fairview University earn on average $33,456. d. Only 5% of the men surveyed wash the dishes after dinner. e. A recent study shows that high school dropouts spend less time on the Internet than those who graduated; therefore, the Internet raises your IQ. f. Most shark attacks occur in ocean water that is 3 feet deep; therefore, it is safer to swim in deep water. (1–5) 17. Identify each study as being either observational or experimental. a. Subjects were randomly assigned to two groups, and one group was given an herb and the other group a placebo. After 6 months, the numbers of respiratory tract infections each group had were compared. Experimental b. A researcher stood at a busy intersection to see if the color of the automobile that a person drives is related to running red lights. Observational 1–27
c. A researcher finds that people who are more hostile have higher total cholesterol levels than those who are less hostile. Observational d. Subjects are randomly assigned to four groups. Each group is placed on one of four special diets—a low-fat diet, a high-fish diet, a combination of low-fat diet and high-fish diet, and a regular diet. After 6 months, the blood pressures of the groups are compared to see if diet has any effect on blood pressure. (1–4) Experimental 18. Identify the independent variable(s) and the dependent variable for each of the studies in Exercise 17. (1–4) 19. For each of the studies in Exercise 17, suggest possible confounding variables. (1–4)
24. In an ad for moisturizing lotion, the following claim is made: ". . . it's the number 1 dermatologist-recommended brand." What is misleading about this claim? (1–5) There is no mention of how this conclusion was obtained.
25. An ad for an exercise product stated: "Using this product will burn 74% more calories." What is misleading about this statement? (1–5) "74% more calories" than what? No comparison group is stated.
26. "Vitamin E is a proven antioxidant and may help in fighting cancer and heart disease." Is there anything ambiguous about this claim? Explain. (1–5) Since the word may is used, there is no guarantee that the product will help fight cancer.
27. "Just 1 capsule of Brand X can provide 24 hours of acid control." (Actual brand will not be named.) What needs to be more clearly defined in this statement? (1–5) What is meant by "24 hours of acid control"?
20. Beneficial Bacteria According to a pilot study of 20 people conducted at the University of Minnesota, daily doses of a compound called arabinogalactan over a period of 6 months resulted in a significant increase in the beneficial lactobacillus species of bacteria. Why can't it be concluded that the compound is beneficial for the majority of people? (1–5) Only 20 people were used in the study.
21. Comment on the following statement, taken from a magazine advertisement: "In a recent clinical study, Brand ABC (actual brand will not be named) was proved to be 1950% better than creatine!" (1–5) The only time claims can be proved is when the entire population is used.
22. In an ad for women, the following statement was made: "For every 100 women, 91 have taken the road less traveled." Comment on this statement. (1–5) 23. In many ads for weight loss products, under the product claims and in small print, the following statement is made: "These results are not typical." What does this say about the product being advertised? (1–5)
28. ". . . Male children born to women who smoke during pregnancy run a risk of violent and criminal behavior that lasts well into adulthood." Can we infer that smoking during pregnancy is responsible for criminal behavior in people? (1–5) No. There are many other factors that contribute to criminal behavior.
29. Caffeine and Health In the 1980s, a study linked coffee to a higher risk of heart disease and pancreatic cancer. In the early 1990s, studies showed that drinking coffee posed minimal health threats. However, in 1994, a study showed that pregnant women who drank 3 or more cups of tea daily may be at risk for spontaneous abortion. In 1998, a study claimed that women who drank more than a half-cup of caffeinated tea every day may actually increase their fertility. In 1998, a study showed that over a lifetime, a few extra cups of coffee a day can raise blood pressure, heart rate, and stress (Source: "Bottom Line: Is It Good for You? Or Bad?" by Monika Guttman, USA TODAY Weekend ). Suggest some reasons why these studies appear to be conflicting. (1–5) Possible answer: It could be the amount of caffeine in the coffee or tea. It could have been the brewing method.
Extending the Concepts 30. Find an article that describes a statistical study, and identify the study as observational or experimental. Answers will vary.
31. For the article that you used in Exercise 30, identify the independent variable(s) and dependent variable for the study. Answers will vary.
32. For the article that you selected in Exercise 30, suggest some confounding variables that may have an effect on the results of the study. Answers will vary.
Chapter Quiz
Statistics Today
Are We Improving Our Diet?—Revisited Researchers selected a sample of 23,699 adults in the United States, using phone numbers selected at random, and conducted a telephone survey. All respondents were asked six questions: 1. How often do you drink juices such as orange, grapefruit, or tomato? 2. Not counting juice, how often do you eat fruit? 3. How often do you eat green salad? 4. How often do you eat potatoes (not including french fries, fried potatoes, or potato chips)? 5. How often do you eat carrots? 6. Not counting carrots, potatoes, or salad, how many servings of vegetables do you usually eat? Researchers found that men consumed fewer servings of fruits and vegetables per day (3.3) than women (3.7). Only 20% of the population consumed the recommended 5 or more daily servings. In addition, they found that youths and less-educated people consumed an even lower amount than the average. Based on this study, they recommend that greater educational efforts be undertaken to improve fruit and vegetable consumption by Americans and to provide environmental and institutional support to encourage increased consumption. Source: Mary K. Serdula, M.D., et al., "Fruit and Vegetable Intake Among Adults in 16 States: Results of a Brief Telephone Survey," American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 2. Copyright by the American Public Health Association.
Chapter Quiz Determine whether each statement is true or false. If the statement is false, explain why. 1. Probability is used as a basis for inferential statistics. True 2. The heights of the mountains in the state of Alaska are an example of a variable. True 3. The lowest level of measurement is the nominal level. True 4. When the population of college professors is divided into groups according to their rank (instructor, assistant professor, etc.) and then several are selected from each group to make up a sample, the sample is called a cluster sample. False 5. The variable temperature is an example of a quantitative variable. True 6. The height of basketball players is considered a continuous variable. True 7. The boundary of a value such as 6 inches would be 5.9–6.1 inches. False
Select the best answer. 8. The number of ads on a one-hour television show is what type of data? a. b. c. d.
Nominal Qualitative Discrete Continuous
9. What are the boundaries of 25.6 ounces? a. b. c. d.
25–26 ounces 25.55–25.65 ounces 25.5–25.7 ounces 20–39 ounces
10. A researcher divided subjects into two groups according to gender and then selected members from each group for her sample. What sampling method was the researcher using? a. b. c. d.
Cluster Random Systematic Stratified
11. Data that can be classified according to color are measured on what scale? a. b. c. d.
21. In a research study, participants should be assigned to groups using methods, if possible. Random
Nominal Ratio Ordinal Interval
22. For each statement, decide whether descriptive or inferential statistics is used. a. The average life expectancy in New Zealand is 78.49 years (Source: World Factbook). Descriptive b. A diet high in fruits and vegetables will lower blood pressure (Source: Institute of Medicine). Inferential c. The total amount of estimated losses for Hurricane Katrina was $125 billion (Source: The World Almanac and Book of Facts). Descriptive d. Researchers stated that the shape of a person's ears is relative to the person's aggression (Source: American Journal of Human Biology). Inferential e. In 2013, the number of high school graduates will be 3.2 million students (Source: National Center for Education). Inferential
12. A study that involves no researcher intervention is called a. b. c. d.
An experimental study. A noninvolvement study. An observational study. A quasi-experimental study.
13. A variable that interferes with other variables in the study is called a. b. c. d.
A confounding variable. An explanatory variable. An outcome variable. An interfering variable.
23. Classify each as nominal level, ordinal level, interval level, or ratio level of measurement.
Use the best answer to complete these statements. 14. Two major branches of statistics are
Descriptive, inferential
15. Two uses of probability are Gambling, insurance
24. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous.
16. The group of all subjects under study is called a(n) . Population 17. A group of subjects selected from the group of all subjects under study is called a(n) . Sample 18. Three reasons why samples are used in statistics are a. b. c. . a. Saves time
b. Saves money
c. Use when population is infinite
19. The four basic sampling methods are a. b. c. a. Random
a. Ages of people working in a large factory Continuous b. Number of cups of coffee served at a restaurant Discrete c. The amount of drug injections into a guinea pig Continuous d. The time it takes a student to drive to school Continuous e. The number of gallons of milk sold each day at a grocery store Discrete 25. Give the boundaries of each.
b. Systematic c. Cluster d. Stratified
20. A study that uses intact groups when it is not possible to randomly assign participants to the groups is called a(n) study. Quasi-experimental
a. Rating of movies as G, PG, and R Nominal b. Number of candy bars sold on a fund drive Ratio c. Classification of automobiles as subcompact, compact, standard, and luxury Ordinal d. Temperatures of hair dryers Interval e. Weights of suitcases on a commercial airliner Ratio
32 minutes 31.5–32.5 minutes 0.48 millimeter 0.475–0.485 millimeter 6.2 inches 6.15–6.25 inches 19 pounds 18.5–19.5 pounds 12.1 quarts 12.05–12.15 quarts
Critical Thinking Challenges
Critical Thinking Challenges 1. World's Busiest Airports A study of the world's busiest airports was conducted by Airports Council International. Describe three variables that one could use to determine which airports are the busiest. What units would one use to measure these variables? Are these variables categorical, discrete, or continuous? 2. Smoking and Criminal Behavior The results of a study published in Archives of General Psychiatry stated that male children born to women who smoke during pregnancy run a risk of violent and criminal behavior that lasts into adulthood. The results of this study were challenged by some people in the media. Give several reasons why the results of this study would be challenged. 3. Piano Lessons Improve Math Ability The results of a study published in Neurological Research stated that second-graders who took piano lessons and played a computer math game more readily grasped math problems in fractions and proportions than a similar group who took an English class and played the same math game. What type of inferential study was this? Give several reasons why the piano lessons could improve a student's math ability. 4. ACL Tears in Collegiate Soccer Players A study of 2958 collegiate soccer players showed that in 46 anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears, 36 were in women. Calculate the percentages of tears for each gender.
a. Can it be concluded that female athletes tear their knees more often than male athletes? b. Comment on how this study's conclusion might have been reached. 5. Anger and Snap Judgments Read the article entitled "Anger Can Cause Snap Judgments" and answer the following questions. Is the study experimental or observational? What is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable? Do you think the sample sizes are large enough to merit the conclusion? e. Based on the results of the study, what changes would you recommend to persons to help them reduce their anger? a. b. c. d.
6. Hostile Children Fight Unemployment Read the article entitled "Hostile Children Fight Unemployment" and answer the following questions. Is the study experimental or observational? What is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable? Suggest some confounding variables that may have influenced the results of the study. e. Identify the three groups of subjects used in the study. a. b. c. d.
ANGER CAN CAUSE SNAP JUDGMENTS can A nger unbiased
make a normally person act with prejudice, according to a forthcoming study in the journal Psychological Science. Assistant psychology professors David DeSteno at Northeastern University in Boston and Nilanjana Dasgupta at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, randomly divided 81 study participants into two groups and assigned them a writing task designed to induce angry, sad or neutral feelings. In a subsequent test to uncover nonconscious associations,
angry subjects were quicker to connect negatively charged words—like war, death and vomit—with members of the opposite group—even though the groupings were completely arbitrary. "These automatic responses guide our behavior when we're not paying attention," says DeSteno, and they can lead to discriminatory acts when there is pressure to make a quick decision. "If you're aware that your emotions might be coloring these gut reactions," he says, "you should take time to consider that possibility and adjust your actions accordingly." —Eric Strand
Source: Reprinted with permission from Psychology Today, Copyright © (2004) Sussex Publishers, Inc.
Hostile Children Fight Unemployment children A ggressive destined for later
may be long-term unemployment. In a study that began in 1968, researchers at the University of Jyvaskyla in Finland examined about 300 participants at ages 8, 14, 27, and 36. They looked for aggressive behaviors like hurting other children, kicking objects when angry, or attacking others without reason. Their results, published recently in the International Journal of Behavioral Development, suggest that children with low self-control of emotion —especially aggression—were significantly more prone to long-term unemployment. Children with behavioral inhibitions—such as passive and anxious behaviors—were also indirectly linked to unemployment
as they lacked the preliminary initiative needed for school success. And while unemployment rates were high in Finland during the last data collection, jobless participants who were aggressive as children were less likely to have a job two years later than their nonaggressive counterparts. Ongoing unemployment can have serious psychological consequences, including depression, anxiety and stress. But lead researcher Lea Pulkkinen, Ph.D., a Jyvaskyla psychology professor, does have encouraging news for parents: Aggressive children with good social skills and child-centered parents were significantly less likely to be unemployed for more than two years as adults. —Tanya Zimbardo
Data Projects 1. Business and Finance Investigate the types of data that are collected regarding stock and bonds, for example, price, earnings ratios, and bond ratings. Find as many types of data as possible. For each, identify the level of measure as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. For any quantitative data, also note if they are discrete or continuous.
4. Health and Wellness Think about the types of data that can be collected about your health and wellness, things such as blood type, cholesterol level, smoking status, and BMI. Find as many data items as you can. For each, identify the level of measure as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. For any quantitative data, also note if they are discrete or continuous.
2. Sports and Leisure Select a professional sport. Investigate the types of data that are collected about that sport, for example, in baseball, the level of play (A, AA, AAA, Major League), batting average, and home-run hits. For each, identify the level of measure as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. For any quantitative data, also note if they are discrete or continuous.
5. Politics and Economics Every 10 years since 1790, the federal government has conducted a census of U.S. residents. Investigate the types of data that were collected in the 2010 census. For each, identify the level of measure as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. For any quantitative data, also note if they are discrete or continuous. Use the library or a genealogy website to find a census form from 1860. What types of data were collected? How do the types of data differ?
3. Technology Music organization programs on computers and music players maintain information about a song, such as the writer, song length, genre, and your personal rating. Investigate the types of data collected about a song. For each, identify the level of measure as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. For any quantitative data, also note if they are discrete or continuous.
6. Your Class Your school probably has a database that contains information about each student, such as age, county of residence, credits earned, and ethnicity. Investigate the types of student data that your college collects and reports. For each, identify the level of measure as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. For any quantitative data, also note if they are discrete or continuous.
Answers to Applying the Concepts
Answers to Applying the Concepts Section 1–1 Attendance and Grades 1. The variables are grades and attendance. 2. The data consist of specific grades and attendance numbers. 3. These are descriptive statistics; however, if an inference were made to all students, then that would be inferential statistics. 4. The population under study is students at Manatee Community College (MCC). 5. While not specified, we probably have data from a sample of MCC students. 6. Based on the data, it appears that, in general, the better your attendance, the higher your grade. Section 1–2 Safe Travel 1. The variables are industry and number of job-related injuries. 2. The type of industry is a qualitative variable, while the number of job-related injuries is quantitative. 3. The number of job-related injuries is discrete. 4. Type of industry is nominal, and the number of jobrelated injuries is ratio. 5. The railroads do show fewer job-related injuries; however, there may be other things to consider. For example, railroads employ fewer people than the other transportation industries in the study. 6. A person's choice of transportation might also be affected by convenience issues, cost, service, etc. 7. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that the railroads have the fewest job-related injuries, while the airline industry has the most job-related injuries (more than twice those of the railroad industry). The numbers of job-related injuries in the subway and trucking industries are fairly comparable. Section 1–3 American Culture and Drug Abuse Answers will vary, so this is one possible answer. 1. I used a telephone survey. The advantage to my survey method is that this was a relatively inexpensive survey method (although more expensive than using the mail) that could get a fairly sizable response. The disadvantage to my survey method is that I have not included anyone without a telephone. (Note: My survey used a random dialing method to include unlisted numbers and cell phone exchanges.) 2. A mail survey also would have been fairly inexpensive, but my response rate may have been much lower than
what I got with my telephone survey. Interviewing would have allowed me to use follow-up questions and to clarify any questions of the respondents at the time of the interview. However, interviewing is very labor- and cost-intensive. 3. I used ordinal data on a scale of 1 to 5. The scores were 1 strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 neutral, 4 agree, 5 strongly agree. 4. The random method that I used was a random dialing method. 5. To include people from each state, I used a stratified random sample, collecting data randomly from each of the area codes and telephone exchanges available. 6. This method allowed me to make sure that I had representation from each area of the United States. 7. Convenience samples may not be representative of the population, and a convenience sample of adolescents would probably differ greatly from the general population with regard to the influence of American culture on illegal drug use. Section 1–4 Just a Pinch Between Your Cheek and Gum 1. This was an experiment, since the researchers imposed a treatment on each of the two groups involved in the study. 2. The independent variable is whether the participant chewed tobacco or not. The dependent variables are the students' blood pressures and heart rates. 3. The treatment group is the tobacco group—the other group was used as a control. 4. A student's blood pressure might not be affected by knowing that he or she was part of a study. However, if the student's blood pressure were affected by this knowledge, all the students (in both groups) would be affected similarly. This might be an example of the placebo effect. 5. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that confounding variables might include the way that the students chewed the tobacco, whether or not the students smoked (although this would hopefully have been evened out with the randomization), and that all the participants were university students. 6. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that the study design was fine, but that it cannot be generalized beyond the population of university students (or people around that age).
Frequency Distributions and Graphs
(Inset) Copyright 2005 Nexus Energy Software Inc. All Rights Reserved. Used with Permission.
Organize data using a frequency distribution.
Organizing Data
Represent data in frequency distributions graphically using histograms, frequency polygons, and ogives.
2–2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives
Represent data using bar graphs, Pareto charts, time series graphs, and pie graphs.
2–3 Other Types of Graphs
Draw and interpret a stem and leaf plot.
Chapter 2 Frequency Distributions and Graphs
How Your Identity Can Be Stolen Identity fraud is a big business today. The total amount of the fraud in 2006 was $56.6 billion. The average amount of the fraud for a victim is $6383, and the average time to correct the problem is 40 hours. The ways in which a person's identity can be stolen are presented in the following table: Lost or stolen wallet, checkbook, or credit card Friends, acquaintances Corrupt business employees Computer viruses and hackers Stolen mail or fraudulent change of address Online purchases or transactions Other methods
38% 15 15 9 8 4 11
Source: Javelin Strategy & Research; Council of Better Business Bureau, Inc.
Looking at the numbers presented in a table does not have the same impact as presenting numbers in a well-drawn chart or graph. The article did not include any graphs. This chapter will show you how to construct appropriate graphs to represent data and help you to get your point across to your audience. See Statistics Today—Revisited at the end of the chapter for some suggestions on how to represent the data graphically.
Introduction When conducting a statistical study, the researcher must gather data for the particular variable under study. For example, if a researcher wishes to study the number of people who were bitten by poisonous snakes in a specific geographic area over the past several years, he or she has to gather the data from various doctors, hospitals, or health departments. To describe situations, draw conclusions, or make inferences about events, the researcher must organize the data in some meaningful way. The most convenient method of organizing data is to construct a frequency distribution. After organizing the data, the researcher must present them so they can be understood by those who will benefit from reading the study. The most useful method of presenting the data is by constructing statistical charts and graphs. There are many different types of charts and graphs, and each one has a specific purpose. 2–2
Section 2–1 Organizing Data
This chapter explains how to organize data by constructing frequency distributions and how to present the data by constructing charts and graphs. The charts and graphs illustrated here are histograms, frequency polygons, ogives, pie graphs, Pareto charts, and time series graphs. A graph that combines the characteristics of a frequency distribution and a histogram, called a stem and leaf plot, is also explained.
Organizing Data Wealthy People Suppose a researcher wished to do a study on the ages of the top 50 wealthiest people in the world. The researcher first would have to get the data on the ages of the people. In this case, these ages are listed in Forbes Magazine. When the data are in original form, they are called raw data and are listed next. 49 74 54 65 48 78 52 85 60 61
Since little information can be obtained from looking at raw data, the researcher organizes the data into what is called a frequency distribution. A frequency distribution consists of classes and their corresponding frequencies. Each raw data value is placed into a quantitative or qualitative category called a class. The frequency of a class then is the number of data values contained in a specific class. A frequency distribution is shown for the preceding data set. Class limits
Frequency 3 3 4 10 10 5 10 5 Total 50
Of Americans 50 years old and over, 23% think their greatest achievements are still ahead of them.
Now some general observations can be made from looking at the frequency distribution. For example, it can be stated that the majority of the wealthy people in the study are over 55 years old. A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and frequencies.
The classes in this distribution are 35–41, 42–48, etc. These values are called class limits. The data values 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 can be tallied in the first class; 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48 in the second class; and so on. 2–3
Two types of frequency distributions that are most often used are the categorical frequency distribution and the grouped frequency distribution. The procedures for constructing these distributions are shown now.
Categorical Frequency Distributions The categorical frequency distribution is used for data that can be placed in specific categories, such as nominal- or ordinal-level data. For example, data such as political affiliation, religious affiliation, or major field of study would use categorical frequency distributions. Example 2–1
Distribution of Blood Types Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test to determine their blood type. The data set is A O B A AB
B O B O A
B B O O O
AB AB A O B
O B O AB A
Construct a frequency distribution for the data. Solution
Since the data are categorical, discrete classes can be used. There are four blood types: A, B, O, and AB. These types will be used as the classes for the distribution. The procedure for constructing a frequency distribution for categorical data is given next. Step 1
Make a table as shown. A Class
B Tally
C Frequency
D Percent
A B O AB Step 2
Tally the data and place the results in column B.
Count the tallies and place the results in column C.
Find the percentage of values in each class by using the formula f % 100% n
where f frequency of the class and n total number of values. For example, in the class of type A blood, the percentage is %
5 100% 20% 25
Percentages are not normally part of a frequency distribution, but they can be added since they are used in certain types of graphs such as pie graphs. Also, the decimal equivalent of a percent is called a relative frequency. Step 5
Find the totals for columns C (frequency) and D (percent). The completed table is shown.
A B O AB
For the sample, more people have type O blood than any other type.
Grouped Frequency Distributions When the range of the data is large, the data must be grouped into classes that are more than one unit in width, in what is called a grouped frequency distribution. For example, a distribution of the number of hours that boat batteries lasted is the following.
Six percent of Americans say they find life dull.
Class limits
Class boundaries
23.5–30.5 30.5–37.5 37.5–44.5 44.5–51.5 51.5–58.5 58.5–65.5
The procedure for constructing the preceding frequency distribution is given in Example 2–2; however, several things should be noted. In this distribution, the values 24 and 30 of the first class are called class limits. The lower class limit is 24; it represents the smallest data value that can be included in the class. The upper class limit is 30; it represents the largest data value that can be included in the class. The numbers in the second column are called class boundaries. These numbers are used to separate the classes so that there are no gaps in the frequency distribution. The gaps are due to the limits; for example, there is a gap between 30 and 31. Students sometimes have difficulty finding class boundaries when given the class limits. The basic rule of thumb is that the class limits should have the same decimal place value as the data, but the class boundaries should have one additional place value and end in a 5. For example, if the values in the data set are whole numbers, such as 24, 32, and 18, the limits for a class might be 31–37, and the boundaries are 30.5–37.5. Find the boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from 31 (the lower class limit) and adding 0.5 to 37 (the upper class limit). Lower limit 0.5 31 0.5 30.5 lower boundary Upper limit 0.5 37 0.5 37.5 upper boundary
One out of every hundred people in the United States is color-blind.
If the data are in tenths, such as 6.2, 7.8, and 12.6, the limits for a class hypothetically might be 7.8–8.8, and the boundaries for that class would be 7.75–8.85. Find these values by subtracting 0.05 from 7.8 and adding 0.05 to 8.8. Finally, the class width for a class in a frequency distribution is found by subtracting the lower (or upper) class limit of one class from the lower (or upper) class limit of the next class. For example, the class width in the preceding distribution on the duration of boat batteries is 7, found from 31 24 7. 2–5
The class width can also be found by subtracting the lower boundary from the upper boundary for any given class. In this case, 30.5 23.5 7. Note: Do not subtract the limits of a single class. It will result in an incorrect answer. The researcher must decide how many classes to use and the width of each class. To construct a frequency distribution, follow these rules: 1. There should be between 5 and 20 classes. Although there is no hard-and-fast rule for the number of classes contained in a frequency distribution, it is of the utmost importance to have enough classes to present a clear description of the collected data. 2. It is preferable but not absolutely necessary that the class width be an odd number. This ensures that the midpoint of each class has the same place value as the data. The class midpoint Xm is obtained by adding the lower and upper boundaries and dividing by 2, or adding the lower and upper limits and dividing by 2: Xm
lower boundary upper boundary 2
lower limit upper limit 2
For example, the midpoint of the first class in the example with boat batteries is 24 30 27 2
The midpoint is the numeric location of the center of the class. Midpoints are necessary for graphing (see Section 2–2). If the class width is an even number, the midpoint is in tenths. For example, if the class width is 6 and the boundaries are 5.5 and 11.5, the midpoint is 5.5 11.5 17 8.5 2 2
Rule 2 is only a suggestion, and it is not rigorously followed, especially when a computer is used to group data. 3. The classes must be mutually exclusive. Mutually exclusive classes have nonoverlapping class limits so that data cannot be placed into two classes. Many times, frequency distributions such as Age 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50
are found in the literature or in surveys. If a person is 40 years old, into which class should she or he be placed? A better way to construct a frequency distribution is to use classes such as Age 10–20 21–31 32–42 43–53
4. The classes must be continuous. Even if there are no values in a class, the class must be included in the frequency distribution. There should be no gaps in a 2–6
frequency distribution. The only exception occurs when the class with a zero frequency is the first or last class. A class with a zero frequency at either end can be omitted without affecting the distribution. 5. The classes must be exhaustive. There should be enough classes to accommodate all the data. 6. The classes must be equal in width. This avoids a distorted view of the data. One exception occurs when a distribution has a class that is open-ended. That is, the class has no specific beginning value or no specific ending value. A frequency distribution with an open-ended class is called an open-ended distribution. Here are two examples of distributions with open-ended classes. Age
10–20 21–31 32–42 43–53 54 and above
Below 110 110–114 115–119 120–124 125–129
The frequency distribution for age is open-ended for the last class, which means that anybody who is 54 years or older will be tallied in the last class. The distribution for minutes is open-ended for the first class, meaning that any minute values below 110 will be tallied in that class. Example 2–2 shows the procedure for constructing a grouped frequency distribution, i.e., when the classes contain more than one data value.
Record High Temperatures These data represent the record high temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit ( F) for each of the 50 states. Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data using 7 classes. 112 110 107 116 120
Source: The World Almanac and Book of Facts.
America's most popular beverages are soft drinks. It is estimated that, on average, each person drinks about 52 gallons of soft drinks per year, compared to 22 gallons of beer.
The procedure for constructing a grouped frequency distribution for numerical data follows. Step 1
Determine the classes. Find the highest value and lowest value: H 134 and L 100. Find the range: R highest value lowest value H L, so R 134 100 34 Select the number of classes desired (usually between 5 and 20). In this case, 7 is arbitrarily chosen. Find the class width by dividing the range by the number of classes. 34 R 4.9 Width number of classes 7 2–7
Round the answer up to the nearest whole number if there is a remainder: 4.9 5. (Rounding up is different from rounding off. A number is rounded up if there is any decimal remainder when dividing. For example, 85 6 14.167 and is rounded up to 15. Also, 53 4 13.25 and is rounded up to 14. Also, after dividing, if there is no remainder, you will need to add an extra class to accommodate all the data.) Select a starting point for the lowest class limit. This can be the smallest data value or any convenient number less than the smallest data value. In this case, 100 is used. Add the width to the lowest score taken as the starting point to get the lower limit of the next class. Keep adding until there are 7 classes, as shown, 100, 105, 110, etc.
Florence Nightingale, a nurse in the Crimean War in 1854, used statistics to persuade government officials to improve hospital care of soldiers in order to reduce the death rate from unsanitary conditions in the military hospitals that cared for the wounded soldiers.
Subtract one unit from the lower limit of the second class to get the upper limit of the first class. Then add the width to each upper limit to get all the upper limits. 105 1 104 The first class is 100–104, the second class is 105–109, etc. Find the class boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from each lower class limit and adding 0.5 to each upper class limit: 99.5–104.5, 104.5–109.5, etc. Step 2
Tally the data.
Find the numerical frequencies from the tallies. The completed frequency distribution is Class limits
100–104 105–109 110–114 115–119 120–124 125–129 130–134
99.5–104.5 104.5–109.5 109.5–114.5 114.5–119.5 119.5–124.5 124.5–129.5 129.5–134.5
Frequency 2 8 18 13 7 1 1 n f 50
The frequency distribution shows that the class 109.5–114.5 contains the largest number of temperatures (18) followed by the class 114.5–119.5 with 13 temperatures. Hence, most of the temperatures (31) fall between 109.5 and 119.5 F. Sometimes it is necessary to use a cumulative frequency distribution. A cumulative frequency distribution is a distribution that shows the number of data values less than or equal to a specific value (usually an upper boundary). The values are found by adding the frequencies of the classes less than or equal to the upper class boundary of a specific class. This gives an ascending cumulative frequency. In this example, the cumulative frequency for the first class is 0 2 2; for the second class it is 0 2 8 10; for the third class it is 0 2 8 18 28. Naturally, a shorter way to do this would be to just add the cumulative frequency of the class below to the frequency of the given class. For 2–8
example, the cumulative frequency for the number of data values less than 114.5 can be found by adding 10 18 28. The cumulative frequency distribution for the data in this example is as follows: Cumulative frequency Less than 99.5 Less than 104.5 Less than 109.5 Less than 114.5 Less than 119.5 Less than 124.5 Less than 129.5 Less than 134.5
Cumulative frequencies are used to show how many data values are accumulated up to and including a specific class. In Example 2–2, 28 of the total record high temperatures are less than or equal to 114 F. Forty-eight of the total record high temperatures are less than or equal to 124 F. After the raw data have been organized into a frequency distribution, it will be analyzed by looking for peaks and extreme values. The peaks show which class or classes have the most data values compared to the other classes. Extreme values, called outliers, show large or small data values that are relative to other data values. When the range of the data values is relatively small, a frequency distribution can be constructed using single data values for each class. This type of distribution is called an ungrouped frequency distribution and is shown next.
MPGs for SUVs The data shown here represent the number of miles per gallon (mpg) that 30 selected four-wheel-drive sports utility vehicles obtained in city driving. Construct a frequency distribution, and analyze the distribution. 12 16 15 12 19
Source: Model Year Fuel Economy Guide. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Solution Step 1
Determine the classes. Since the range of the data set is small (19 12 7), classes consisting of a single data value can be used. They are 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. Note: If the data are continuous, class boundaries can be used. Subtract 0.5 from each class value to get the lower class boundary, and add 0.5 to each class value to get the upper class boundary.
Find the numerical frequencies from the tallies, and find the cumulative frequencies. 2–9
The completed ungrouped frequency distribution is Class limits
11.5–12.5 12.5–13.5 13.5–14.5 14.5–15.5 15.5–16.5 16.5–17.5 17.5–18.5 18.5–19.5
In this case, almost one-half (14) of the vehicles get 15 or 16 miles per gallon. The cumulative frequencies are Cumulative frequency Less than 11.5 Less than 12.5 Less than 13.5 Less than 14.5 Less than 15.5 Less than 16.5 Less than 17.5 Less than 18.5 Less than 19.5
The steps for constructing a grouped frequency distribution are summarized in the following Procedure Table.
Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution Step 1
Determine the classes. Find the highest and lowest values. Find the range. Select the number of classes desired. Find the width by dividing the range by the number of classes and rounding up. Select a starting point (usually the lowest value or any convenient number less than the lowest value); add the width to get the lower limits. Find the upper class limits. Find the boundaries. Tally the data. Find the numerical frequencies from the tallies, and find the cumulative frequencies.
Male dogs bite children more often than female dogs do; however, female cats bite children more often than male cats do.
When you are constructing a frequency distribution, the guidelines presented in this section should be followed. However, you can construct several different but correct frequency distributions for the same data by using a different class width, a different number of classes, or a different starting point. Furthermore, the method shown here for constructing a frequency distribution is not unique, and there are other ways of constructing one. Slight variations exist, especially in computer packages. But regardless of what methods are used, classes should be mutually exclusive, continuous, exhaustive, and of equal width. In summary, the different types of frequency distributions were shown in this section. The first type, shown in Example 2–1, is used when the data are categorical (nominal), such as blood type or political affiliation. This type is called a categorical frequency distribution. The second type of distribution is used when the range is large and classes several units in width are needed. This type is called a grouped frequency distribution and is shown in Example 2–2. Another type of distribution is used for numerical data and when the range of data is small, as shown in Example 2–3. Since each class is only one unit, this distribution is called an ungrouped frequency distribution. All the different types of distributions are used in statistics and are helpful when one is organizing and presenting data. The reasons for constructing a frequency distribution are as follows: 1. To organize the data in a meaningful, intelligible way. 2. To enable the reader to determine the nature or shape of the distribution. 3. To facilitate computational procedures for measures of average and spread (shown in Sections 3–1 and 3–2). 4. To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs for the presentation of data (shown in Section 2–2). 5. To enable the reader to make comparisons among different data sets. The factors used to analyze a frequency distribution are essentially the same as those used to analyze histograms and frequency polygons, which are shown in Section 2–2.
Applying the Concepts 2–1 Ages of Presidents at Inauguration The data represent the ages of our Presidents at the time they were first inaugurated. 57 51 54 56 56
Were the data obtained from a population or a sample? Explain your answer. What was the age of the oldest President? What was the age of the youngest President? Construct a frequency distribution for the data. (Use your own judgment as to the number of classes and class size.) 5. Are there any peaks in the distribution?
6. ldentify any possible outliers. 7. Write a brief summary of the nature of the data as shown in the frequency distribution. See page 101 for the answers.
Exercises 2–1 1. List five reasons for organizing data into a frequency distribution.
6. What are open-ended frequency distributions? Why are they necessary?
2. Name the three types of frequency distributions, and explain when each should be used. Categorical, ungrouped,
7. Trust in Internet Information A survey was taken on how much trust people place in the information they read on the Internet. Construct a categorical frequency distribution for the data. A trust in everything they read, M trust in most of what they read, H trust in about one-half of what they read, S trust in a small portion of what they read. (Based on information from the UCLA Internet Report.)
3. Find the class boundaries, midpoints, and widths for each class. a. b. c. d. e.
32–38 31.5–38.5, 35, 7 86–104 85.5–104.5, 95, 19 895–905 894.5–905.5, 900, 11 12.3–13.5 12.25–13.55, 12.9, 1.3 3.18–4.96 3.175–4.965, 4.07, 1.79
4. How many classes should frequency distributions have? Why should the class width be an odd number? 5. Shown here are four frequency distributions. Each is incorrectly constructed. State the reason why. a. Class 27–32 33–38 39–44 45–49 50–55 b. Class 5–9 9–13 13–17 17–20 20–24 c. Class 123–127 128–132 138–142 143–147 d. Class 9–13 14–19 20–25 26–28 29–32 2–12
Frequency 1 0 6 4 2
Class width is not uniform.
Class limits overlap, and class width is not uniform.
Frequency 3 7 2 19
A class has been omitted.
M S M A
M M M M
M M H M
A M M M
H M M H
M A M M
S M H M
H A H M
8. Grams per Food Serving The data shown are the number of grams per serving of 30 selected brands of cakes. Construct a frequency distribution using 5 classes. 32 46 48 25 32
Source: The Complete Food Counts.
9. Weights of the NBA's Top 50 Players Listed are the weights of the NBA's top 50 players. Construct a grouped frequency distribution and a cumulative frequency distribution with 8 classes. Analyze the results in terms of peaks, extreme values, etc. 240 165 250 215 260
Source: www.msn.foxsports.com
10. Stories in the World's Tallest Buildings The number of stories in each of the world's 30 tallest buildings follows. Construct a grouped frequency distribution and a cumulative frequency distribution with 7 classes.
28.5 2 0.8 1.7
11. GRE Scores at Top-Ranked Engineering Schools The average quantitative GRE scores for the top 30 graduate schools of engineering are listed. Construct a grouped frequency distribution and a cumulative frequency distribution with 5 classes. 767 770 761 760 771 768 776 771 756 770 763 760 747 766 754 771 771 778 766 762 780 750 746 764 769 759 757 753 758 746 Source: U.S. News & World Report, Best Graduate Schools.
12. Airline Passengers The number of passengers (in thousands) for the leading U.S. passenger airlines in 2004 is indicated below. Use the data to construct a grouped frequency distribution and a cumulative frequency distribution with a reasonable number of classes, and comment on the shape of the distribution. 91,570 40,551 13,170 7,041 5,427
86,755 21,119 12,632 6,954
13. Ages of Declaration of Independence Signers The ages of the signers of the Declaration of Independence are shown. (Age is approximate since only the birth year appeared in the source, and one has been omitted since his birth year is unknown.) Construct a grouped frequency distribution and a cumulative frequency distribution for the data using 7 classes. (The data in this exercise will be used in Exercise 23 in Section 3–1.) 41 44 44 35 35
Source: The Universal Almanac.
14. Unclaimed Expired Prizes The number of unclaimed expired prizes (in millions of dollars) for lottery tickets bought in a sample of states as shown. Construct a frequency distribution for the data using 5 classes. (The data in this exercise will be used for Exercise 22 in Section 3–1.)
51.7 1.2 11.6 1.3
15. Presidential Vetoes The number of total vetoes exercised by the past 20 Presidents is listed below. Use the data to construct a grouped frequency distribution and a cumulative frequency distribution with 5 classes. What is challenging about this set of data? 44 42
16. Salaries of College Coaches The data are the salaries (in hundred thousands of dollars) of a sample of 30 colleges and university coaches in the United States. Construct a frequency distribution for the data using 8 classes. (The data in this exercise will be used for Exercise 11 in Section 2–2.) 164 210 550 478 857 450
17. NFL Payrolls The data show the NFL team payrolls (in millions of dollars) for a specific year. Construct a frequency distribution for the payroll using 7 classes. (The data in this exercise will be used in Exercise 17 in Section 3–2.) 99 102 77 97 94 84 94 102
105 93 91 100 109 92 104 99
106 109 103 107 100 98 98 100
102 106 118 103 98 110 123 107
Source: NFL.
18. State Gasoline Tax The state gas tax in cents per gallon for 25 states is given below. Construct a grouped frequency distribution and a cumulative frequency distribution with 5 classes. 7.5 21.5 22 23 14.5
16 19 20.7 18.5 25.9
23.5 20 17 25.3 18
Extending the Concepts 19. JFK Assassination A researcher conducted a survey asking people if they believed more than one person was involved in the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
The results were as follows: 73% said yes, 19% said no, and 9% had no opinion. Is there anything suspicious about the results?
Make a Categorical Frequency Table (Qualitative or Discrete Data) 1. Type in all the blood types from Example 2–1 down C1 of the worksheet. A B B AB O O O B AB B B B O A O A O O O AB AB A O B A 2. Click above row 1 and name the column BloodType. 3. Select Stat >Tables>Tally Individual Values. The cursor should be blinking in the Variables dialog box. If not, click inside the dialog box. 4. Double-click C1 in the Variables list. 5. Check the boxes for the statistics: Counts, Percents, and Cumulative percents. 6. Click [OK]. The results will be displayed in the Session Window as shown. Tally for Discrete Variables: BloodType BloodType A AB B O N=
Count 5 4 7 9 25
Percent 20.00 16.00 28.00 36.00
CumPct 20.00 36.00 64.00 100.00
Make a Grouped Frequency Distribution (Quantitative Variable) 1. Select File>New>New Worksheet. A new worksheet will be added to the project. 2. Type the data used in Example 2–2 into C1. Name the column TEMPERATURES. 3. Use the instructions in the textbook to determine the class limits. In the next step you will create a new column of data, converting the numeric variable to text categories that can be tallied. 4. Select Data>Code>Numeric to Text. a) The cursor should be blinking in Code data from columns. If not, click inside the box, then double-click C1 Temperatures in the list. Only quantitative variables will be shown in this list. b) Click in the Into columns: then type the name of the new column, TempCodes. c) Press [Tab] to move to the next dialog box. d) Type in the first interval 100:104. Use a colon to indicate the interval from 100 to 104 with no spaces before or after the colon. e) Press [Tab] to move to the New: column, and type the text category 100–104. f) Continue to tab to each dialog box, typing the interval and then the category until the last category has been entered. 2–14
The dialog box should look like the one shown.
5. Click [OK]. In the worksheet, a new column of data will be created in the first empty column, C2. This new variable will contain the category for each value in C1. The column C2-T contains alphanumeric data. 6. Click Stat >Tables>Tally Individual Values, then double-click TempCodes in the Variables list. a) Check the boxes for the desired statistics, such as Counts, Percents, and Cumulative percents. b) Click [OK]. The table will be displayed in the Session Window. Eighteen states have high temperatures between 110 and 114 F. Eighty-two percent of the states have record high temperatures less than or equal to 119 F. Tally for Discrete Variables: TempCodes TempCodes
CumPct
100–104 105–109 110–114 115–119 120–124 125–129 130–134 N
4.00 16.00 36.00 26.00 14.00 2.00 2.00
4.00 20.00 56.00 82.00 96.00 98.00 100.00
7. Click File>Save Project As . . . , and type the name of the project file, Ch2-2. This will save the two worksheets and the Session Window.
Categorical Frequency Table (Qualitative or Discrete Data) 1. In an open workbook select cell A1 and type in all the blood types from Example 2–1 down column A. 2. Type in the variable name Blood Type in cell B1. 3. Select cell B2 and type in the four different blood types down the column. 4. Type in the name Count in cell C1. 5. Select cell C2. From the toolbar, select the Formulas tab on the toolbar. 6. Select the Insert Function icon dialog box.
, then select the Statistical category in the Insert Function
7. Select the Countif function from the function name list. 2–15
8. In the dialog box, type A1:A25 in the Range box. Type in the blood type "A" in quotes in the Criteria box. The count or frequency of the number of data corresponding to the blood type should appear below the input. Repeat for the remaining blood types. 9. After all the data have been counted, select cell C6 in the worksheet. 10. From the toolbar select Formulas, then AutoSum and type in C2:C5 to insert the total frequency into cell C6.
After entering data or a heading into a worksheet, you can change the width of a column to fit the input. To automatically change the width of a column to fit the data: 1. Select the column or columns that you want to change. 2. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, select Format. 3. Under Cell Size, click Autofit Column Width.
Making a Grouped Frequency Distribution (Quantitative Data) 1. Press [Ctrl]-N for a new workbook. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Enter the raw data from Example 2–2 in column A, one number per cell. Enter the upper class boundaries in column B. From the toolbar select the Data tab, then click Data Analysis. In the Analysis Tools, select Histogram and click [OK]. In the Histogram dialog box, type A1:A50 in the Input Range box and type B1:B7 in the Bin Range box. 7. Select New Worksheet Ply, and check the Cumulative Percentage option. Click [OK]. 8. You can change the label for the column containing the upper class boundaries and expand the width of the columns automatically after relabeling: Select the Home tab from the toolbar. Highlight the columns that you want to change. Select Format, then AutoFit Column Width.
Note: By leaving the Chart Output unchecked, a new worksheet will display the table only. 2–16
Section 2–2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives
Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives After you have organized the data into a frequency distribution, you can present them in graphical form. The purpose of graphs in statistics is to convey the data to the viewers in pictorial form. It is easier for most people to comprehend the meaning of data presented graphically than data presented numerically in tables or frequency distributions. This is especially true if the users have little or no statistical knowledge. Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to analyze it. Graphs are also useful in getting the audience's attention in a publication or a speaking presentation. They can be used to discuss an issue, reinforce a critical point, or summarize a data set. They can also be used to discover a trend or pattern in a situation over a period of time. The three most commonly used graphs in research are 1. The histogram. 2. The frequency polygon. 3. The cumulative frequency graph, or ogive (pronounced o-jive).
An example of each type of graph is shown in Figure 2–1. The data for each graph are the distribution of the miles that 20 randomly selected runners ran during a given week.
Karl Pearson introduced the histogram in 1891. He used it to show time concepts of various reigns of Prime Ministers.
The Histogram
Record High Temperatures Construct a histogram to represent the data shown for the record high temperatures for each of the 50 states (see Example 2–2).
The histogram is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars (unless the frequency of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the frequencies of the classes.
2 8 18 13 7 1 1
Draw and label the x and y axes. The x axis is always the horizontal axis, and the y axis is always the vertical axis. 2–17
Histogram for Runners' Miles
Figure 2–1 Examples of Commonly Used Graphs Frequency
5 4 3 2 1 x 5.5
20.5 25.5 Class boundaries
(a) Histogram Frequency Polygon for Runners' Miles
5 4 3 2 1 x 8
23 28 Class midpoints
(b) Frequency polygon Ogive for Runners' Miles
y 20 18 Cumulative frequency
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 x 5.5
(c) Cumulative frequency graph
Histogram for Example 2–4
Graphs originated when ancient astronomers drew the position of the stars in the heavens. Roman surveyors also used coordinates to locate landmarks on their maps. The development of statistical graphs can be traced to William Playfair (1748–1819), an engineer and drafter who used graphs to present economic data pictorially.
15 Frequency
Record High Temperatures
12 9 6 3 x
0 99.5°
114.5° 119.5° Temperature (°F)
Represent the frequency on the y axis and the class boundaries on the x axis.
Using the frequencies as the heights, draw vertical bars for each class. See Figure 2–2.
As the histogram shows, the class with the greatest number of data values (18) is 109.5–114.5, followed by 13 for 114.5–119.5. The graph also has one peak with the data clustering around it.
The Frequency Polygon Another way to represent the same data set is by using a frequency polygon. The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect points plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the heights of the points.
Example 2–5 shows the procedure for constructing a frequency polygon.
Record High Temperatures Using the frequency distribution given in Example 2–4, construct a frequency polygon. Solution Step 1
Find the midpoints of each class. Recall that midpoints are found by adding the upper and lower boundaries and dividing by 2: 99.5 104.5 102 2
104.5 109.5 107 2
and so on. The midpoints are Class boundaries
2 8 18 13 7 1 1 2–19
Figure 2–3 Frequency Polygon for Example 2–5
15 12 9 6 3 x
0 102°
112° 117° 122° Temperature (°F)
Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the midpoint of each class, and then use a suitable scale on the y axis for the frequencies.
Using the midpoints for the x values and the frequencies as the y values, plot the points.
Connect adjacent points with line segments. Draw a line back to the x axis at the beginning and end of the graph, at the same distance that the previous and next midpoints would be located, as shown in Figure 2–3.
The frequency polygon and the histogram are two different ways to represent the same data set. The choice of which one to use is left to the discretion of the researcher.
The Ogive The third type of graph that can be used represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes. This type of graph is called the cumulative frequency graph, or ogive. The cumulative frequency is the sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper boundary of a class in the distribution. The ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution.
Example 2–6 shows the procedure for constructing an ogive.
Record High Temperatures Construct an ogive for the frequency distribution described in Example 2–4. Solution Step 1
Find the cumulative frequency for each class. Cumulative frequency Less than 99.5 Less than 104.5 Less than 109.5 Less than 114.5 Less than 119.5 Less than 124.5 Less than 129.5 Less than 134.5
Plotting the Cumulative Frequency for Example 2–6
Cumulative frequency
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
x 99.5°
Ogive for Example 2–6
Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the class boundaries. Use an appropriate scale for the y axis to represent the cumulative frequencies. (Depending on the numbers in the cumulative frequency columns, scales such as 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , or 5, 10, 15, 20, . . . , or 1000, 2000, 3000, . . . can be used. Do not label the y axis with the numbers in the cumulative frequency column.) In this example, a scale of 0, 5, 10, 15, . . . will be used.
Plot the cumulative frequency at each upper class boundary, as shown in Figure 2–4. Upper boundaries are used since the cumulative frequencies represent the number of data values accumulated up to the upper boundary of each class.
Starting with the first upper class boundary, 104.5, connect adjacent points with line segments, as shown in Figure 2–5. Then extend the graph to the first lower class boundary, 99.5, on the x axis.
Cumulative frequency graphs are used to visually represent how many values are below a certain upper class boundary. For example, to find out how many record high temperatures are less than 114.5 F, locate 114.5 F on the x axis, draw a vertical line up until it intersects the graph, and then draw a horizontal line at that point to the y axis. The y axis value is 28, as shown in Figure 2–6. 2–21
Finding a Specific Cumulative Frequency
50 45 40 35 30 28 25 20 15 10 5 0
The steps for drawing these three types of graphs are shown in the following Procedure Table.
Twenty-two percent of Americans sleep 6 hours a day or fewer.
Constructing Statistical Graphs Step 1
Draw and label the x and y axes.
Choose a suitable scale for the frequencies or cumulative frequencies, and label it on the y axis.
Represent the class boundaries for the histogram or ogive, or the midpoint for the frequency polygon, on the x axis.
Plot the points and then draw the bars or lines.
Relative Frequency Graphs The histogram, the frequency polygon, and the ogive shown previously were constructed by using frequencies in terms of the raw data. These distributions can be converted to distributions using proportions instead of raw data as frequencies. These types of graphs are called relative frequency graphs. Graphs of relative frequencies instead of frequencies are used when the proportion of data values that fall into a given class is more important than the actual number of data values that fall into that class. For example, if you wanted to compare the age distribution of adults in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with the age distribution of adults of Erie, Pennsylvania, you would use relative frequency distributions. The reason is that since the population of Philadelphia is 1,478,002 and the population of Erie is 105,270, the bars using the actual data values for Philadelphia would be much taller than those for the same classes for Erie. To convert a frequency into a proportion or relative frequency, divide the frequency for each class by the total of the frequencies. The sum of the relative frequencies will always be 1. These graphs are similar to the ones that use raw data as frequencies, but the values on the y axis are in terms of proportions. Example 2–7 shows the three types of relative frequency graphs. 2–22
Miles Run per Week Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive using relative frequencies for the distribution (shown here) of the miles that 20 randomly selected runners ran during a given week. Class boundaries Frequency 5.5–10.5 10.5–15.5 15.5–20.5 20.5–25.5 25.5–30.5 30.5–35.5 35.5–40.5
Convert each frequency to a proportion or relative frequency by dividing the frequency for each class by the total number of observations. For class 5.5–10.5, the relative frequency is 201 0.05; for class 10.5–15.5, the relative frequency is 202 0.10; for class 15.5–20.5, the relative frequency is 203 0.15; and so on. Place these values in the column labeled Relative frequency.
5.5–10.5 10.5–15.5 15.5–20.5 20.5–25.5 25.5–30.5 30.5–35.5 35.5–40.5
Relative frequency
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 1.00 Find the cumulative relative frequencies. To do this, add the frequency in each class to the total frequency of the preceding class. In this case, 0 0.05 0.05, 0.05 0.10 0.15, 0.15 0.15 0.30, 0.30 0.25 0.55, etc. Place these values in the column labeled Cumulative relative frequency. An alternative method would be to find the cumulative frequencies and then convert each one to a relative frequency.
Less than 5.5 Less than 10.5 Less than 15.5 Less than 20.5 Less than 25.5 Less than 30.5 Less than 35.5 Less than 40.5
Cumulative relative frequency
0.00 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.55 0.75 0.90 1.00 2–23
Draw each graph as shown in Figure 2–7. For the histogram and ogive, use the class boundaries along the x axis. For the frequency polygon, use the midpoints on the x axis. The scale on the y axis uses proportions. Histogram for Runners' Miles
Figure 2–7 0.25
Graphs for Example 2–7
0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 x
20.5 25.5 Miles
0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 x
0 5.5 (c) Ogive
Distribution Shapes When one is describing data, it is important to be able to recognize the shapes of the distribution values. In later chapters you will see that the shape of a distribution also determines the appropriate statistical methods used to analyze the data. A distribution can have many shapes, and one method of analyzing a distribution is to draw a histogram or frequency polygon for the distribution. Several of the most common shapes are shown in Figure 2–8: the bell-shaped or mound-shaped, the uniformshaped, the J-shaped, the reverse J-shaped, the positively or right-skewed shape, the negatively or left-skewed shape, the bimodal-shaped, and the U-shaped. Distributions are most often not perfectly shaped, so it is not necessary to have an exact shape but rather to identify an overall pattern. A bell-shaped distribution shown in Figure 2–8(a) has a single peak and tapers off at either end. It is approximately symmetric; i.e., it is roughly the same on both sides of a line running through the center.
Distribution Shapes
x (a) Bell-shaped
x (b) Uniform
x (c) J-shaped
x (d) Reverse J-shaped
x (e) Right-skewed
x (f) Left-skewed
x (g) Bimodal
x (h) U-shaped
A uniform distribution is basically flat or rectangular. See Figure 2–8(b). A J-shaped distribution is shown in Figure 2–8(c), and it has a few data values on the left side and increases as one moves to the right. A reverse J-shaped distribution is the opposite of the J-shaped distribution. See Figure 2–8(d). When the peak of a distribution is to the left and the data values taper off to the right, a distribution is said to be positively or right-skewed. See Figure 2–8(e). When the data values are clustered to the right and taper off to the left, a distribution is said to be negatively or left-skewed. See Figure 2–8(f). Skewness will be explained in detail in Chapter 3. Distributions with one peak, such as those shown in Figure 2–8(a), (e), and (f), are said to be unimodal. (The highest peak of a distribution indicates where the mode of the data values is. The mode is the data value that occurs more often than any other data value. Modes are explained in Chapter 3.) When a distribution has two peaks of the same height, it is said to be bimodal. See Figure 2–8(g). Finally, the graph shown in Figure 2–8(h) is a U-shaped distribution. Distributions can have other shapes in addition to the ones shown here; however, these are some of the more common ones that you will encounter in analyzing data. When you are analyzing histograms and frequency polygons, look at the shape of the curve. For example, does it have one peak or two peaks? Is it relatively flat, or is it U-shaped? Are the data values spread out on the graph, or are they clustered around the center? Are there data values in the extreme ends? These may be outliers. (See Section 3–3 for an explanation of outliers.) Are there any gaps in the histogram, or does the frequency polygon touch the x axis somewhere other than at the ends? Finally, are the data clustered at one end or the other, indicating a skewed distribution? For example, the histogram for the record high temperatures shown in Figure 2–2 shows a single peaked distribution, with the class 109.5–114.5 containing the largest number of temperatures. The distribution has no gaps, and there are fewer temperatures in the highest class than in the lowest class.
Applying the Concepts 2–2 Selling Real Estate Assume you are a realtor in Bradenton, Florida. You have recently obtained a listing of the selling prices of the homes that have sold in that area in the last 6 months. You wish to organize those data so you will be able to provide potential buyers with useful information. Use the following data to create a histogram, frequency polygon, and cumulative frequency polygon. 142,000 73,800 123,000 179,000 159,400 114,000 231,000
99,600 119,500 205,000 147,000 144,400 93,000 177,600
162,000 67,900 110,000 321,550 163,000 123,000 83,400
89,000 156,300 156,300 87,900 96,000 187,000 77,000
93,000 104,500 104,000 88,400 81,000 96,000 132,300
1. What questions could be answered more easily by looking at the histogram rather than the listing of home prices? 2. What different questions could be answered more easily by looking at the frequency polygon rather than the listing of home prices? 3. What different questions could be answered more easily by looking at the cumulative frequency polygon rather than the listing of home prices? 4. Are there any extremely large or extremely small data values compared to the other data values? 5. Which graph displays these extremes the best? 6. Is the distribution skewed? See page 101 for the answers. 2–26
Exercises 2–2 1. Do Students Need Summer Development? For 108 randomly selected college applicants, the following frequency distribution for entrance exam scores was obtained. Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive for the data. (The data for this exercise will be used for Exercise 13 in this section.) Class limits
90–98 6 99–107 22 108–116 43 117–125 28 126–134 9 Applicants who score above 107 need not enroll in a summer developmental program. In this group, how many students do not have to enroll in the developmental program? 2. Number of College Faculty The number of faculty listed for a variety of private colleges that offer only bachelor's degrees is listed below. Use these data to construct a frequency distribution with 7 classes, a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive. Discuss the shape of this distribution. What proportion of schools have 180 or more faculty? 165 70 176 221
67 159 16 23 10 21 5 46 72 23
Source: World Almanac and Book of Facts.
4. NFL Salaries The salaries (in millions of dollars) for 31 NFL teams for a specific season are given in this frequency distribution. Class limits Frequency 39.9–42.8 42.9–45.8 45.9–48.8 48.9–51.8 51.9–54.8 54.9–57.8 Source: NFL.com
2 2 5 5 12 5
1–43 44–86 87–129 130–172 173–215 216–258 259–301 302–344
Source: Federal Railroad Administration.
6. Costs of Utilities The frequency distribution represents the cost (in cents) for the utilities of states that supply much of their own power. Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive for the data. Is the distribution skewed? Frequency
6–8 9–11 12–14 15–17 18–20 21–23 24–26
3. Counties, Divisions, or Parishes for 50 States The number of counties, divisions, or parishes for each of the 50 states is given below. Use the data to construct a grouped frequency distribution with 6 classes, a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive. Analyze the distribution. (The data in this exercise will be used for Exercise 24 in Section 2–2.) 15 75 58 64 92 99 105 120 82 114 56 93 53 88 77 36 29 14 95 39
5. Railroad Crossing Accidents The data show the number of railroad crossing accidents for the 50 states of the United States for a specific year. Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive for the data. Comment on the skewness of the distribution. (The data in this exercise will be used for Exercise 14 in this section.)
67 27 102 44 83 87 62 100 95 254
Construct a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive for the data; and comment on the shape of the distribution.
5 14 33 66 3
7. Air Quality Standards The number of days that selected U.S. metropolitan areas failed to meet acceptable air quality standards is shown below for 1998 and 2003. Construct a grouped frequency distribution with 7 classes and a histogram for each set of data, and compare your results. 1998
43 76 51 14 0 10 20 0 5 17 67 25 38 0 56 8 0 9 14 5 37 14 95 20 23 12 33 0 3 45
10 11 14 20 15 6 17 0 5 19 127 4 31 5 88 1 1 16 14 19 20 9 138 22 13 10 20 20 20 12
Source: World Almanac.
8. How Quick Are Dogs? In a study of reaction times of dogs to a specific stimulus, an animal trainer obtained the following data, given in seconds. Construct a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive for the data; analyze the results. (The histogram in this exercise 2–27
will be used for Exercise 18 in this section, Exercise 16 in Section 3–1, and Exercise 26 in Section 3–2.) Class limits
15. Cereal Calories The number of calories per serving for selected ready-to-eat cereals is listed here. Construct a frequency distribution using 7 classes. Draw a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive for the data, using relative frequencies. Describe the shape of the histogram.
9. Quality of Health Care The scores of health care quality as calculated by a professional risk management company are listed for selected states. Use the data to construct a frequency distribution with 6 classes, a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive. 118.2 114.6 113.1 111.9 110.0 108.8 108.3 107.7 107.0 106.7 105.3 103.7 103.2 102.8 101.6 99.8 98.1 96.6 95.7 93.6 92.5 91.0 90.0 87.1 83.1 Source: New York Times Almanac.
10. Making the Grade The frequency distributions shown indicate the percentages of public school students in fourth-grade reading and mathematics who performed at or above the required proficiency levels for the 50 states in the United States. Draw histograms for each, and decide if there is any difference in the performance of the students in the subjects. Class
Reading frequency
Math frequency
7 6 14 19 3 1
Source: National Center for Educational Statistics.
11. Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive for the data in Exercise 16 in Section 2–1 and analyze the results. 12. For the data in Exercise 18 in Section 2–1, construct a histogram for the state gasoline taxes. 13. For the data in Exercise 1 in this section, construct a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive, using relative frequencies. What proportion of the applicants needs to enroll in the summer development program?
14. For the data in Exercise 5 in this section, construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive using relative frequencies. What proportion of the railroad crossing accidents are less than 87?
140 80 100 100 90 210 120 200 130 80 120 90 110 225 190
Source: The Doctor's Pocket Calorie, Fat, and Carbohydrate Counter.
16. Protein Grams in Fast Food The amount of protein (in grams) for a variety of fast-food sandwiches is reported here. Construct a frequency distribution using 6 classes. Draw a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive for the data, using relative frequencies. Describe the shape of the histogram. 23 25 27 40
17. For the data for year 2003 in Exercise 7 in this section, construct a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive, using relative frequencies. 18. How Quick Are Older Dogs? The animal trainer in Exercise 8 in this section selected another group of dogs who were much older than the first group and measured their reaction times to the same stimulus. Construct a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive for the data. Class limits
1 3 4 16 14 4
Analyze the results and compare the histogram for this group with the one obtained in Exercise 8 in this section. Are there any differences in the histograms? (The data in this exercise will be used for Exercise 16 in Section 3–1 and Exercise 26 in Section 3–2.)
Extending the Concepts 19. Using the histogram shown here, do the following.
a. Construct a frequency distribution; include class limits, class frequencies, midpoints, and cumulative frequencies. b. Construct a frequency polygon. c. Construct an ogive.
y 7 Frequency
20. Using the results from Exercise 19, answer these questions.
27.5 30.5 33.5 36.5 Class boundaries
a. b. c. d.
How many values are in the class 27.5–30.5? 0 How many values fall between 24.5 and 36.5? 14 How many values are below 33.5? 10 How many values are above 30.5? 16
Construct a Histogram 1. Enter the data from Example 2–2, the high temperatures for the 50 states. 2. Select Graph>Histogram. 3. Select [Simple], then click [OK]. 4. Click C1 TEMPERATURES in the Graph variables dialog box. 5. Click [Labels]. There are two tabs, Title/Footnote and Data Labels. a) Click in the box for Title, and type in Your Name and Course Section. b) Click [OK]. The Histogram dialog box is still open. 6. Click [OK]. A new graph window containing the histogram will open.
7. Click the File menu to print or save the graph.
8. Click File>Exit. 9. Save the project as Ch2-3.mpj.
TI-83 Plus or TI-84 Plus Step by Step
Constructing a Histogram To display the graphs on the screen, enter the appropriate values in the calculator, using the WINDOW menu. The default values are Xmin 10, Xmax 10, Ymin 10, and Ymax 10. The Xscl changes the distance between the tick marks on the x axis and can be used to change the class width for the histogram. To change the values in the WINDOW: 1. Press WINDOW. 2. Move the cursor to the value that needs to be changed. Then type in the desired value and
press ENTER. 3. Continue until all values are appropriate. 4. Press [2nd] [QUIT] to leave the WINDOW menu.
To plot the histogram from raw data: Input
1. Enter the data in L1. 2. Make sure WINDOW values are appropriate for the histogram. 3. Press [2nd] [STAT PLOT] ENTER. 4. Press ENTER to turn the plot on, if necessary. 5. Move cursor to the Histogram symbol and press ENTER, if necessary. 6. Make sure Xlist is L1.
7. Make sure Freq is 1. 8. Press GRAPH to display the histogram. 9. To obtain the number of data values in each class, press the TRACE key, followed by or keys. Example TI2–1
Plot a histogram for the following data from Examples 2–2 and 2–4. 112 110 107 116 120
Press TRACE and use the arrow keys to determine the number of values in each group. To graph a histogram from grouped data: 1. Enter the midpoints into L1. 2. Enter the frequencies into L2. 3. Make sure WINDOW values are appropriate for the histogram. 4. Press [2nd] [STAT PLOT] ENTER. 5. Press ENTER to turn the plot on, if necessary. 6. Move cursor to the histogram symbol, and press ENTER, if necessary. 7. Make sure Xlist is L1. 8. Make sure Freq is L2. 9. Press GRAPH to display the histogram. 2–30
Example TI2–2
Plot a histogram for the data from Examples 2–4 and 2–5. Class boundaries
To graph a frequency polygon from grouped data, follow the same steps as for the histogram except change the graph type from histogram (third graph) to a line graph (second graph). Output
To graph an ogive from grouped data, modify the procedure for the histogram as follows: 1. Enter the upper class boundaries into L1. 2. Enter the cumulative frequencies into L2. 3. Change the graph type from histogram (third graph) to line (second graph). 4. Change the Ymax from the WINDOW menu to the sample size.
Constructing a Histogram 1. Press [Ctrl]-N for a new workbook. 2. Enter the data from Example 2–2 in column A, one number per cell. 3. Enter the upper boundaries into column B. 4. From the toolbar, select the Data tab, then select Data Analysis. 5. In Data Analysis, select Histogram and click [OK]. 6. In the Histogram dialog box, type A1:A50 in the Input Range box and type B1:B7 in the Bin Range box.
7. Select New Worksheet Ply and Chart Output. Click [OK].
Editing the Histogram To move the vertical bars of the histogram closer together: 1. Right-click one of the bars of the histogram, and select Format Data Series. 2. Move the Gap Width bar to the left to narrow the distance between bars. To change the label for the horizontal axis: 1. Left-click the mouse over any region of the histogram. 2. Select the Chart Tools tab from the toolbar. 3. Select the Layout tab, Axis Titles and Primary Horizontal Axis Title.
Once the Axis Title text box is selected, you can type in the name of the variable represented on the horizontal axis.
Constructing a Frequency Polygon 1. Press [Ctrl]-N for a new workbook. 2. Enter the midpoints of the data from Example 2–2 into column A. Enter the frequencies into column B.
3. Highlight the Frequencies (including the label) from column B. 4. Select the Insert tab from the toolbar and the Line Chart option. 5. Select the 2-D line chart type.
We will need to edit the graph so that the midpoints are on the horizontal axis and the frequencies are on the vertical axis. 1. Right-click the mouse on any region of the graph. 2. Select the Select Data option. 2–33
3. Select Edit from the Horizontal Axis Labels and highlight the midpoints from column A, then click [OK]. 4. Click [OK] on the Select Data Source box.
Inserting Labels on the Axes 1. Click the mouse on any region of the graph. 2. Select Chart Tools and then Layout on the toolbar. 3. Select Axis Titles to open the horizontal and vertical axis text boxes. Then manually type in labels for the axes.
Changing the Title 1. Select Chart Tools, Layout from the toolbar. 2. Select Chart Title. 3. Choose one of the options from the Chart Title menu and edit.
Constructing an Ogive To create an ogive, you can use the upper class boundaries (horizontal axis) and cumulative frequencies (vertical axis) from the frequency distribution. 1. Type the upper class boundaries and cumulative frequencies into adjacent columns of an Excel worksheet. 2. Highlight the cumulative frequencies (including the label) and select the Insert tab from the toolbar. 3. Select Line Chart, then the 2-D Line option. As with the frequency polygon, you can insert labels on the axes and a chart title for the ogive.
Other Types of Graphs In addition to the histogram, the frequency polygon, and the ogive, several other types of graphs are often used in statistics. They are the bar graph, Pareto chart, time series graph, and pie graph. Figure 2–9 shows an example of each type of graph.
Section 2–3 Other Types of Graphs
How People Get to Work
Other Types of Graphs Used in Statistics
5 Walk
x Auto
Trolley Train
People (a) Bar graph
(b) Pareto chart Temperature over a 9-Hour Period
Marital Status of Employees at Brown's Department Store
Married 50%
50° Widowed 5%
Divorced 27%
40° x
(c) Time series graph
Single 18%
9 (d) Pie graph
Bar Graphs When the data are qualitative or categorical, bar graphs can be used to represent the data. A bar graph can be drawn using either horizontal or vertical bars. A bar graph represents the data by using vertical or horizontal bars whose heights or lengths represent the frequencies of the data.
College Spending for First-Year Students The table shows the average money spent by first-year college students. Draw a horizontal and vertical bar graph for the data. Electronics Dorm decor Clothing Shoes
$728 344 141 72
Source: The National Retail Federation.
1. Draw and label the x and y axes. For the horizontal bar graph place the frequency scale on the x axis, and for the vertical bar graph place the frequency scale on the y axis. 2. Draw the bars corresponding to the frequencies. See Figure 2–10.
Figure 2–10
First-Year College Student Spending
Average Amount Spent
Bar Graphs for Example 2–8
$0 $100 $200 $300 $400 $500 $600 $700 $800
x Shoes
The graphs show that first-year college students spend the most on electronic equipment including computers.
Pareto Charts When the variable displayed on the horizontal axis is qualitative or categorical, a Pareto chart can also be used to represent the data.
A Pareto chart is used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical variable, and the frequencies are displayed by the heights of vertical bars, which are arranged in order from highest to lowest.
Homeless People The data shown here consist of the number of homeless people for a sample of selected cities. Construct and analyze a Pareto chart for the data. City Atlanta Baltimore Chicago St. Louis Washington
Number 6832 2904 6680 1485 5518
Source: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.
Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923) was an Italian scholar who developed theories in economics, statistics, and the social sciences. His contributions to statistics include the development of a mathematical function used in economics. This function has many statistical applications and is called the Pareto distribution. In addition, he researched income distribution, and his findings became known as Pareto's law.
Arrange the data from the largest to smallest according to frequency. City
Atlanta Chicago Washington Baltimore St. Louis
Draw the bars corresponding to the frequencies. See Figure 2–11.
The graph shows that the number of homeless people is about the same for Atlanta and Chicago and a lot less for Baltimore and St. Louis.
Suggestions for Drawing Pareto Charts 1. Make the bars the same width. 2. Arrange the data from largest to smallest according to frequency. 3. Make the units that are used for the frequency equal in size.
When you analyze a Pareto chart, make comparisons by looking at the heights of the bars.
The Time Series Graph When data are collected over a period of time, they can be represented by a time series graph.
Number of Homeless People for Large Cities y
Figure 2–11 Pareto Chart for Example 2–9
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 x ui s
e or
Lo St .
Ba lt
to n
go ca
Ch i
W as
0 At lan
Homeless people
A time series graph represents data that occur over a specific period of time.
Example 2–10 shows the procedure for constructing a time series graph.
Example 2–10
Workplace Homicides The number of homicides that occurred in the workplace for the years 2003 to 2008 is shown. Draw and analyze a time series graph for the data. Year
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Time series graphs are over 1000 years old. The first ones were used to chart the movements of the planets and the sun.
Label the x axis for years and the y axis for the number.
Plot each point according to the table.
Draw line segments connecting adjacent points. Do not try to fit a smooth curve through the data points. See Figure 2–12.
There was a slight decrease in the years '04, '05, and '06, compared to '03, and again an increase in '07. The largest decrease occurred in '08.
Workplace Homicides
Time Series Graph for Example 2–10
650 600 550 500 x
2005 2006 Year
When you analyze a time series graph, look for a trend or pattern that occurs over the time period. For example, is the line ascending (indicating an increase over time) or descending (indicating a decrease over time)? Another thing to look for is the slope, or steepness, of the line. A line that is steep over a specific time period indicates a rapid increase or decrease over that period. 2–38
Elderly in the U.S. Labor Force
Two Time Series Graphs for Comparison
Source: Bureau of Census, U.S. Department of Commerce.
Two or more data sets can be compared on the same graph called a compound time series graph if two or more lines are used, as shown in Figure 2–13. This graph shows the percentage of elderly males and females in the United States labor force from 1960 to 2008. It shows that the percent of elderly men decreased significantly from 1960 to 1990 and then increased slightly after that. For the elderly females, the percent decreased slightly from 1960 to 1980 and then increased from 1980 to 2008.
The Pie Graph Pie graphs are used extensively in statistics. The purpose of the pie graph is to show the relationship of the parts to the whole by visually comparing the sizes of the sections. Percentages or proportions can be used. The variable is nominal or categorical. A pie graph is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges according to the percentage of frequencies in each category of the distribution.
Example 2–11 shows the procedure for constructing a pie graph.
Super Bowl Snack Foods This frequency distribution shows the number of pounds of each snack food eaten during the Super Bowl. Construct a pie graph for the data. Snack
Pounds (frequency)
Potato chips Tortilla chips Pretzels Popcorn Snack nuts
11.2 million 8.2 million 4.3 million 3.8 million 2.5 million Total n 30.0 million
Source: USA TODAY Weekend.
Speaking of Statistics
Cell Phone Subscribers y
Cell Phone Usage The graph shows the estimated number (in millions) of cell phone subscribers since 2000. How do you think the growth will affect our way of living? For example, emergencies can be handled faster since people are using their cell phones to call 911.
Subscribers (in millions)
100 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Year Source: The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2010.
Since there are 360 in a circle, the frequency for each class must be converted into a proportional part of the circle. This conversion is done by using the formula Degrees
f 360 n
where f frequency for each class and n sum of the frequencies. Hence, the following conversions are obtained. The degrees should sum to 360 .* 11.2 Potato chips 360 134 30 8.2 Tortilla chips 360 98 30 4.3 360 52 Pretzels 30 3.8 Popcorn 360 46 30 2.5 Snack nuts 360 30 30 Total Step 2
Each frequency must also be converted to a percentage. Recall from Example 2–1 that this conversion is done by using the formula f % 100 n Hence, the following percentages are obtained. The percentages should sum to 100%.† 11.2 Potato chips 100 37.3% 30 8.2 Tortilla chips 100 27.3% 30
*Note: The degrees column does not always sum to 360 due to rounding. † Note: The percent column does not always sum to 100% due to rounding.
Pretzels Popcorn Snack nuts
4.3 100 14.3% 30 3.8 100 12.7% 30 2.5 100 8.3% 30
Total Step 3
Next, using a protractor and a compass, draw the graph using the appropriate degree measures found in step 1, and label each section with the name and percentages, as shown in Figure 2–14. Super Bowl Snacks
Figure 2–14 Pie Graph for Example 2–11
Popcorn 12.7%
Snack nuts 8.3%
Pretzels 14.3% Potato chips 37.3%
Tortilla chips 27.3%
Construct a pie graph showing the blood types of the army inductees described in Example 2–1. The frequency distribution is repeated here. Class
Find the number of degrees for each class, using the formula Degrees
For each class, then, the following results are obtained. A B
5 360 72 25 7 360 100.8 25 2–41
O AB
9 360 129.6 25 4 360 57.6 25
Find the percentages. (This was already done in Example 2–1.)
Using a protractor, graph each section and write its name and corresponding percentage, as shown in Figure 2–15.
Blood Types for Army Inductees
Pie Graph for Example 2–12 Type AB 16%
Type O 36%
Type A 20%
Type B 28%
The graph in Figure 2–15 shows that in this case the most common blood type is type O. To analyze the nature of the data shown in the pie graph, look at the size of the sections in the pie graph. For example, are any sections relatively large compared to the rest? Figure 2–15 shows that among the inductees, type O blood is more prevalent than any other type. People who have type AB blood are in the minority. More than twice as many people have type O blood as type AB.
Misleading Graphs Graphs give a visual representation that enables readers to analyze and interpret data more easily than they could simply by looking at numbers. However, inappropriately drawn graphs can misrepresent the data and lead the reader to false conclusions. For example, a car manufacturer's ad stated that 98% of the vehicles it had sold in the past 10 years were still on the road. The ad then showed a graph similar to the one in Figure 2–16. The graph shows the percentage of the manufacturer's automobiles still on the road and the percentage of its competitors' automobiles still on the road. Is there a large difference? Not necessarily. Notice the scale on the vertical axis in Figure 2–16. It has been cut off (or truncated) and starts at 95%. When the graph is redrawn using a scale that goes from 0 to 100%, as in Figure 2–17, there is hardly a noticeable difference in the percentages. Thus, changing the units at the starting point on the y axis can convey a very different visual representation of the data. 2–42
Vehicles on the Road
Figure 2–16 Graph of Automaker's Claim Using a Scale from 95 to 100%
Percent of cars on road
Manufacturer's automobiles
Graph in Figure 2–16 Redrawn Using a Scale from 0 to 100%
Competitor II's automobiles
Competitor I's automobiles
It is not wrong to truncate an axis of the graph; many times it is necessary to do so. However, the reader should be aware of this fact and interpret the graph accordingly. Do not be misled if an inappropriate impression is given. 2–43
Let us consider another example. The projected required fuel economy in miles per gallon for General Motors vehicles is shown. In this case, an increase from 21.9 to 23.2 miles per gallon is projected. Year
Source: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
When you examine the graph shown in Figure 2–18(a) using a scale of 0 to 25 miles per gallon, the graph shows a slight increase. However, when the scale is changed to 21
Projected Miles per Gallon
Figure 2–18 y
Year (a) Projected Miles per Gallon y
to 24 miles per gallon, the graph shows a much larger increase even though the data remain the same. See Figure 2–18(b). Again, by changing the units or starting point on the y axis, one can change the visual representation. Another misleading graphing technique sometimes used involves exaggerating a one-dimensional increase by showing it in two dimensions. For example, the average cost of a 30-second Super Bowl commercial has increased from $42,000 in 1967 to $3 million in 2010 (Source: USA TODAY ). The increase shown by the graph in Figure 2–19(a) represents the change by a comparison of the heights of the two bars in one dimension. The same data are shown twodimensionally with circles in Figure 2–19(b). Notice that the difference seems much larger because the eye is comparing the areas of the circles rather than the lengths of the diameters. Note that it is not wrong to use the graphing techniques of truncating the scales or representing data by two-dimensional pictures. But when these techniques are used, the reader should be cautious of the conclusion drawn on the basis of the graphs.
Cost of 30-Second Super Bowl Commercial
y 3.0 Cost (in millions of dollars)
3.0 Cost (in millions of dollars)
Comparison of Costs for a 30-Second Super Bowl Commercial
Year (a) Graph using bars
(b) Graph using circles
Another way to misrepresent data on a graph is by omitting labels or units on the axes of the graph. The graph shown in Figure 2–20 compares the cost of living, economic growth, population growth, etc., of four main geographic areas in the United States. However, since there are no numbers on the y axis, very little information can be gained from this graph, except a crude ranking of each factor. There is no way to decide the actual magnitude of the differences.
Figure 2–20 A Graph with No Units on the y Axis
E S Cost of living
N E Economic growth
E Population growth
S Crime rate
Finally, all graphs should contain a source for the information presented. The inclusion of a source for the data will enable you to check the reliability of the organization presenting the data. A summary of the types of graphs and their uses is shown in Figure 2–21.
Figure 2–21 Summary of Graphs and Uses of Each
(a) Histogram; frequency polygon; ogive Used when the data are contained in a grouped frequency distribution.
(b) Pareto chart Used to show frequencies for nominal or qualitative variables.
(c) Time series graph Used to show a pattern or trend that occurs over a period of time.
(d) Pie graph Used to show the relationship between the parts and the whole. (Most often uses percentages.)
Stem and Leaf Plots The stem and leaf plot is a method of organizing data and is a combination of sorting and graphing. It has the advantage over a grouped frequency distribution of retaining the actual data while showing them in graphical form. Objective
A stem and leaf plot is a data plot that uses part of the data value as the stem and part of the data value as the leaf to form groups or classes.
Example 2–13 shows the procedure for constructing a stem and leaf plot.
At an outpatient testing center, the number of cardiograms performed each day for 20 days is shown. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data. 25 14 36 32
Speaking of Statistics How Much Paper Money Is in Circulation Today? The Federal Reserve estimated that during a recent year, there were 22 billion bills in circulation. About 35% of them were $1 bills, 3% were $2 bills, 8% were $5 bills, 7% were $10 bills, 23% were $20 bills, 5% were $50 bills, and 19% were $100 bills. It costs about 3¢ to print each $1 bill. The average life of a $1 bill is 22 months, a $10 bill 3 years, a $20 bill 4 years, a $50 bill 9 years, and a $100 bill 9 years. What type of graph would you use to represent the average lifetimes of the bills?
Arrange the data in order: 02, 13, 14, 20, 23, 25, 31, 32, 32, 32, 32, 33, 36, 43, 44, 44, 45, 51, 52, 57 Note: Arranging the data in order is not essential and can be cumbersome when the data set is large; however, it is helpful in constructing a stem and leaf plot. The leaves in the final stem and leaf plot should be arranged in order.
Separate the data according to the first digit, as shown. 02 13, 14 43, 44, 44, 45
Step 3 Figure 2–22 Stem and Leaf Plot for Example 2–13 0
20, 23, 25 51, 52, 57
A display can be made by using the leading digit as the stem and the trailing digit as the leaf. For example, for the value 32, the leading digit, 3, is the stem and the trailing digit, 2, is the leaf. For the value 14, the 1 is the stem and the 4 is the leaf. Now a plot can be constructed as shown in Figure 2–22. Leading digit (stem)
Trailing digit (leaf)
2 34 035 1222236 3445 127
Figure 2–22 shows that the distribution peaks in the center and that there are no gaps in the data. For 7 of the 20 days, the number of patients receiving cardiograms was between 31 and 36. The plot also shows that the testing center treated from a minimum of 2 patients to a maximum of 57 patients in any one day. If there are no data values in a class, you should write the stem number and leave the leaf row blank. Do not put a zero in the leaf row.
An insurance company researcher conducted a survey on the number of car thefts in a large city for a period of 30 days last summer. The raw data are shown. Construct a stem and leaf plot by using classes 50–54, 55–59, 60–64, 65–69, 70–74, and 75–79.
Arrange the data in order. 50, 51, 51, 52, 53, 53, 55, 55, 56, 57, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63, 65, 65, 66, 66, 67, 68, 69, 69, 72, 73, 75, 75, 77, 78, 79
50, 51, 51, 52, 53, 53 55, 55, 56, 57, 57, 58, 59 62, 63 65, 65, 66, 66, 67, 68, 69, 69 72, 73 75, 75, 77, 78, 79
Stem and Leaf Plot for Example 2–14 5
The average number of pencils and index cards David Letterman tosses over his shoulder during one show is 4.
Separate the data according to the classes.
Plot the data as shown here. Leading digit (stem)
011233 5567789 23 55667899 23 55789
The graph for this plot is shown in Figure 2–23. When the data values are in the hundreds, such as 325, the stem is 32 and the leaf is 5. For example, the stem and leaf plot for the data values 325, 327, 330, 332, 335, 341, 345, and 347 looks like this. 32 33 34
When you analyze a stem and leaf plot, look for peaks and gaps in the distribution. See if the distribution is symmetric or skewed. Check the variability of the data by looking at the spread.
Related distributions can be compared by using a back-to-back stem and leaf plot. The back-to-back stem and leaf plot uses the same digits for the stems of both distributions, but the digits that are used for the leaves are arranged in order out from the stems on both sides. Example 2–15 shows a back-to-back stem and leaf plot.
The number of stories in two selected samples of tall buildings in Atlanta and Philadelphia is shown. Construct a back-to-back stem and leaf plot, and compare the distributions. Atlanta 55 63 60 50 52 26
Philadelphia 36 34 32 28 32
Arrange the data for both data sets in order.
Construct a stem and leaf plot using the same digits as stems. Place the digits for the leaves for Atlanta on the left side of the stem and the digits for the leaves for Philadelphia on the right side, as shown. See Figure 2–24. Atlanta
986 8644222221 74400 532200 30 0
Back-to-Back Stem and Leaf Plot for Example 2–15
Philadelphia 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 000022346668899 0000 0348 1
Compare the distributions. The buildings in Atlanta have a large variation in the number of stories per building. Although both distributions are peaked in the 30- to 39-story class, Philadelphia has more buildings in this class. Atlanta has more buildings that have 40 or more stories than Philadelphia does.
Stem and leaf plots are part of the techniques called exploratory data analysis. More information on this topic is presented in Chapter 3.
Applying the Concepts 2–3 Leading Cause of Death The following shows approximations of the leading causes of death among men ages 25–44 years. The rates are per 100,000 men. Answer the following questions about the graph. 2–49
Leading Causes of Death for Men 25–44 Years y
70 60 Accidents
Heart disease Cancer
Strokes 0 1984
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
What are the variables in the graph? Are the variables qualitative or quantitative? Are the variables discrete or continuous? What type of graph was used to display the data? Could a Pareto chart be used to display the data? Could a pie chart be used to display the data? List some typical uses for the Pareto chart. List some typical uses for the time series chart.
Exercises 2–3 1. Number of Hurricanes Construct a vertical bar chart for the total number of hurricanes by month from 1851 to 2008. May June July August September October November
18 79 101 344 459 280 61
Source: National Hurricane Center.
2. Worldwide Sales of Fast Foods The worldwide sales (in billions of dollars) for several fast-food franchises for a specific year are shown. Construct a horizontal bar graph and a Pareto chart for the data. Wendy's KFC Pizza Hut Burger King Subway Source: Franchise Times.
$ 8.7 14.2 9.3 12.7 10.0
3. Calories Burned While Exercising Construct a Pareto chart for the following data on exercise. Calories burned per minute Walking, 2 mph Bicycling, 5.5 mph Golfing Tennis playing Skiing, 3 mph Running, 7 mph
2.8 3.2 5.0 7.1 9.0 14.5
Source: Physiology of Exercise.
4. Roller Coaster Mania The World Roller Coaster Census Report lists the following number of roller coasters on each continent. Represent the data graphically, using a Pareto chart and a horizontal bar graph. Africa Asia Australia Europe North America South America Source: www.rcdb.com
17 315 22 413 643 45
5. Instruction Time The average weekly instruction time in schools for 5 selected countries is shown. Construct a vertical bar graph and a Pareto chart for the data. Thailand China France United States Brazil
30.5 hours 26.9 hours 24.8 hours 22.2 hours 19 hours
10. Reasons We Travel The following data are based on a survey from American Travel Survey on why people travel. Construct a pie graph for the data and analyze the results. Purpose
Personal business Visit friends or relatives Work-related Leisure
Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
Source: USA TODAY.
6. Sales of Coffee The data show the total retail sales (in billions of dollars) of coffee for 6 years. Over the years, are the sales increasing or decreasing? Year
Source: Specialty Coffee Association of America.
7. Safety Record of U.S. Airlines The safety record of U.S. airlines for 10 years is shown. Construct a time series graph for the data. Year
Major Accidents
Never married 3.9% Less than ninth grade Married 57.2 Completed grades 9–12 Widowed 30.8 but no diploma Divorced 8.1 H.S. graduate Some college/ associates degree Bachelor's/advanced degree
White Silver Black Red Blue Gray Other
Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
9. Carbon Dioxide Concentrations The following data for the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (in ppm2) are shown. Draw a time series graph and comment on the trend. Year
Source: U.S. Department of Energy.
Educational attainment 13.9% 13.0 36.0 18.4 18.7
12. Colors of Automobiles The popular vehicle car colors are shown. Construct a pie graph for the data.
8. Average Global Temperatures The average global temperatures for the following years are shown. Draw a time series graph and comment on the trend. 2006
Source: National Transportation Safety Board.
11. Characteristics of the Population 65 and Over Two characteristics of the population aged 65 and over are shown below for 2004. Illustrate each characteristic with a pie graph.
19% 18 16 13 12 12 10
Source: Dupont Automotive Color Popularity Report.
13. Workers Switch Jobs In a recent survey, 3 in 10 people indicated that they are likely to leave their jobs when the economy improves. Of those surveyed, 34% indicated that they would make a career change, 29% want a new job in the same industry, 21% are going to start a business, and 16% are going to retire. Make a pie chart and a Pareto chart for the data. Which chart do you think better represents the data? Source: National Survey Institute.
14. State which graph (Pareto chart, time series graph, or pie graph) would most appropriately represent the given situation. a. The number of students enrolled at a local college for each year during the last 5 years. 2–51
b. The budget for the student activities department at a certain college for a specific year. c. The means of transportation the students use to get to school. d. The percentage of votes each of the four candidates received in the last election. e. The record temperatures of a city for the last 30 years. f. The frequency of each type of crime committed in a city during the year.
shown in this table. Construct a back-to-back stem and leaf plot for the data, and compare the distributions. Variety 1 20 41 59 50 23
16. Calories in Salad Dressings A listing of calories per one ounce of selected salad dressings (not fat-free) is given below. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data. 130 170 115 120
18. Math and Reading Achievement Scores The math and reading achievement scores from the National Assessment of Educational Progress for selected states are listed below. Construct a back-toback stem and leaf plot with the data and compare the distributions.
15. Presidents' Ages at Inauguration The age at inauguration for each U.S. President is shown. Construct a stem and leaf plot and analyze the data. 57 61 57 57 58 57 61
Variety 2
17. Twenty Days of Plant Growth The growth (in centimeters) of two varieties of plant after 20 days is
19. The sales of recorded music in 2004 by genre are listed below. Represent the data with an appropriate graph. Answers will vary.
Rock Country Rap/hip-hop R&B/urban Pop Religious Children's
Jazz Classical Oldies Soundtracks New age Other
Extending the Concepts 20. Successful Space Launches The number of successful space launches by the United States and Japan for the years 1993–1997 is shown here. Construct a compound time series graph for the data. What comparison can be made regarding the launches? Year United States Japan
21. Meat Production Meat production for veal and lamb for the years 1960–2000 is shown here. (Data are in millions of pounds.) Construct a compound time series graph for the data. What comparison can be made regarding meat production? 2–52
Year Veal Lamb
22. Top 10 Airlines During a recent year the top 10 airlines with the most aircraft are listed. Represent these data with an appropriate graph. American United Delta Northwest U.S. Airways
Source: Top 10 of Everything.
Continental Southwest British Airways American Eagle Lufthansa (Ger.)
23. Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine The top prize-winning countries for Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine are listed here. Represent the data with an appropriate graph. United States United Kingdom Germany Sweden France Switzerland
Denmark Austria Belgium Italy Australia
24. Cost of Milk The graph shows the increase in the price of a quart of milk. Why might the increase appear to be larger than it really is? 5 4 4 3 3
Cost of Milk
y $2.00
$0.50 x Fall 1988
25. Boom in Number of Births The graph shows the projected boom (in millions) in the number of births. Cite several reasons why the graph might be misleading. y
Projected Boom in the Number of Births (in millions)
Number of births
3.5 Source: Cartoon by Bradford Veley, Marquette, Michigan. Used with permission.
Construct a Pie Chart 1. Enter the summary data for snack foods and frequencies from Example 2–11 into C1 and C2.
2. Name them Snack and f. 3. Select Graph>Pie Chart. a) Click the option for Chart summarized data. b) Press [Tab] to move to Categorical variable, then double-click C1 to select it. c) Press [Tab] to move to Summary variables, and select the column with the frequencies f.
4. Click the [Labels] tab, then Titles/Footnotes. a) Type in the title: Super Bowl Snacks. b) Click the Slice Labels tab, then the options for Category name and Frequency. c) Click the option to Draw a line from label to slice. d) Click [OK] twice to create the chart.
Construct a Bar Chart The procedure for constructing a bar chart is similar to that for the pie chart. 1. Select Graph>Bar Chart. a) Click on the drop-down list in Bars Represent: then select values from a table. b) Click on the Simple chart, then click [OK]. The dialog box will be similar to the Pie Chart Dialog Box. 2. Select the frequency column C2 f for Graph variables: and Snack for the Categorical variable.
3. Click on [Labels], then type the title in the Titles/Footnote tab: 1998 Super Bowl Snacks. 4. Click the tab for Data Labels, then click the option to Use labels from column: and select C1 Snacks. 5. Click [OK] twice.
Construct a Pareto Chart Pareto charts are a quality control tool. They are similar to a bar chart with no gaps between the bars, and the bars are arranged by frequency. 1. Select Stat >Quality Tools>Pareto. 2. Click the option to Chart defects table. 3. Click in the box for the Labels in: and select Snack. 4. Click on the frequencies column C2 f.
5. Click on [Options]. a) Check the box for Cumulative percents. b) Type in the title, 1998 Super Bowl Snacks. 6. Click [OK] twice. The chart is completed.
Construct a Time Series Plot The data used are for the number of vehicles that used the Pennsylvania Turnpike. Year
1. Add a blank worksheet to the project by selecting File>New>New Worksheet. 2. To enter the dates from 1999 to 2003 in C1, select Calc>Make Patterned Data>Simple Set of Numbers. a) Type Year in the text box for Store patterned data in. b) From first value: should be 1999. c) To Last value: should be 2003. d) In steps of should be 1 (for every other year). The last two boxes should be 1, the default value. e) Click [OK]. The sequence from 1999 to 2003 will be entered in C1 whose label will be Year. 3. Type Vehicles (in millions) for the label row above row 1 in C2. 2–55
4. Type 156.2 for the first number, then press [Enter]. Never enter the commas for large numbers! 5. Continue entering the value in each row of C2.
6. To make the graph, select Graph>Time series plot, then Simple, and press [OK]. a) For Series select Vehicles (in millions), then click [Time/scale]. b) Click the Stamp option and select Year for the Stamp column. c) Click the Gridlines tab and select all three boxes, Y major, Y minor, and X major. d) Click [OK] twice. A new window will open that contains the graph. e) To change the title, double-click the title in the graph window. A dialog box will open, allowing you to edit the text.
Construct a Stem and Leaf Plot 1. Type in the data for Example 2–14. Label the column CarThefts. 2. Select STAT>EDA>Stem-and-Leaf. This is the same as Graph>Stem-and-Leaf. 3. Double-click on C1 CarThefts in the column list. 4. Click in the Increment text box, and enter the class width of 5. 5. Click [OK]. This character graph will be displayed in the session window. Stem-and-Leaf Display: CarThefts Stem-and-leaf of CarThefts N = 30 Leaf Unit = 1.0 6 13 15 15 7 5
To graph a time series, follow the procedure for a frequency polygon from Section 2–2, using the following data for the number of outdoor drive-in theaters Year
Constructing a Pie Chart
To make a pie chart: 1. Enter the blood types from Example 2–12 into column A of a new worksheet. 2. Enter the frequencies corresponding to each blood type in column B. 3. Highlight the data in columns A and B and select Insert from the toolbar, then select the Pie chart type.
4. Click on any region of the chart. Then select Design from the Chart Tools tab on the toolbar. 5. Select Formulas from the chart Layouts tab on the toolbar. 6. To change the title of the chart, click on the current title of the chart. 7. When the text box containing the title is highlighted, click the mouse in the text box and change the title. 2–57
Constructing a Pareto Chart To make a Pareto chart: 1. Enter the snack food categories from Example 2–11 into column A of a new worksheet. 2. Enter the corresponding frequencies in column B. The data should be entered in descending order according to frequency. 3. Highlight the data from columns A and B and select the Insert tab from the toolbar. 4. Select the Column Chart type. 5. To change the title of the chart, click on the current title of the chart. 6. When the text box containing the title is highlighted, click the mouse in the text box and change the title.
Constructing a Time Series Chart Example
Vehicles*
*Vehicles (in millions) that used the Pennsylvania Turnpike. Source: Tribune Review.
To make a time series chart: 1. Enter the years 1999 through 2003 from the example in column A of a new worksheet. 2. Enter the corresponding frequencies in column B. 3. Highlight the data from column B and select the Insert tab from the toolbar. 4. Select the Line chart type.
5. Right-click the mouse on any region of the graph. 6. Select the Select Data option. 7. Select Edit from the Horizontal Axis Labels and highlight the years from column A, then click [OK]. 8. Click [OK] on the Select Data Source box. 9. Create a title for your chart, such as Number of Vehicles Using the Pennsylvania Turnpike Between 1999 and 2003. Right-click the mouse on any region of the chart. Select the Chart Tools tab from the toolbar, then Layout. 10. Select Chart Title and highlight the current title to change the title. 11. Select Axis Titles to change the horizontal and vertical axis labels. 2–59
Summary • When data are collected, the values are called raw data. Since very little knowledge can be obtained from raw data, they must be organized in some meaningful way. A frequency distribution using classes is the common method that is used. (2–1) • Once a frequency distribution is constructed, graphs can be drawn to give a visual representation of the data. The most commonly used graphs in statistics are the histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive. (2–2) • Other graphs such as the bar graph, Pareto chart, time series graph, and pie graph can also be used. Some of these graphs are frequently seen in newspapers, magazines, and various statistical reports. (2–3) • Finally, a stem and leaf plot uses part of the data values as stems and part of the data values as leaves. This graph has the advantage of a frequency distribution and a histogram. (2–3)
Important Terms bar graph 69
cumulative frequency distribution 42
lower class limit 39
stem and leaf plot 80
ogive 54
time series graph 72
open-ended distribution 41
frequency distribution 37
Pareto chart 70
ungrouped frequency distribution 43
class boundaries 39
frequency polygon 53
pie graph 73
upper class limit 39
class midpoint 40
raw data 37
class width 39
grouped frequency distribution 39
cumulative frequency 54
histogram 51
categorical frequency distribution 38
relative frequency graph 56
Important Formulas Formula for the percentage of values in each class: %
Formula for the class midpoint:
where f frequency of class n total number of values Formula for the range:
Formula for the degrees for each section of a pie graph:
R highest value lowest value
Formula for the class width:
Class width upper boundary lower boundary
Review Exercises 1. How People Get Their News The Brunswick Research Organization surveyed 50 randomly selected individuals and asked them the primary way they received the daily news. Their choices were via newspaper (N), television (T), radio (R), or Internet (I). Construct a categorical frequency distribution for the data and interpret the results. The data in this exercise will be used for Exercise 2 in this section. (2–1) N I I R T
N N R R I
T R T I N
T R T N T
T I T T T
I N T R I
R N N T R
R I R I N
I T R I R
T N I T T
2. Construct a pie graph for the data in Exercise 1, and analyze the results. (2–3) 3. Ball Sales A sporting goods store kept a record of sales of five items for one randomly selected hour during a recent sale. Construct a frequency distribution for the data (B baseballs, G golf balls, T tennis balls, S soccer balls, F footballs). (The data for this exercise will be used for Exercise 4 in this section.) (2–1) F G F F
B G T S
B F T S
B S T G
G G S S
T T T B
4. Draw a pie graph for the data in Exercise 3 showing the sales of each item, and analyze the results. (2–3) 5. BUN Count The blood urea nitrogen (BUN) count of 20 randomly selected patients is given here in
milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl). Construct an ungrouped frequency distribution for the data. (The data for this exercise will be used for Exercise 6.) (2–1) 17 12 13 14 16
6. Construct a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive for the data in Exercise 5 in this section, and analyze the results. (2–2) 7. The percentage (rounded to the nearest whole percent) of persons from each state completing 4 years or more of college is listed below. Organize the data into a grouped frequency distribution with 5 classes. (2–1) Percentage of persons completing 4 years of college 23 26 30 34 26
8. Using the data in Exercise 7, construct a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive. (2–2) 9. NFL Franchise Values The data shown (in millions of dollars) are the values of the 30 National Football League franchises. Construct a frequency distribution for the data using 8 classes. (The data for 2–61
this exercise will be used for Exercises 10 and 12 in this section.) (2–1) 170 200 186 211
Source: Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
10. Construct a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive for the data in Exercise 9 in this section, and analyze the results. (2–2) 11. Ages of the Vice Presidents at the Time of Their Death The ages of the Vice Presidents of the United States at the time of their death are listed below. Use the data to construct a frequency distribution, histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive, using relative frequencies. Use 6 classes. (2–1, 2–2) 90 72 66 76
12. Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive by using relative frequencies for the data in Exercise 9 in this section. (2–2) 13. Activities While Driving A survey of 1200 drivers showed the percentage of respondents who did the following while driving. Construct a horizontal bar graph and a Pareto chart for the data. (2–3) Drink beverage Talk on cell phone Eat a meal Experience road rage Smoke
80% 73 41 23 21
14. Air Quality The following data show the number of days the air quality for Atlanta, Georgia, was below the accepted standards. Draw a time series graph for the data. (2–3) Year
Source: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.
16. Public Debt The following data show the public debt in billions of dollars for recent years. Draw a time series graph for the data. (2–3) 2–62
6783.2 7379.1 7932.7 8507.0 9007.7 10,025.0 11,956.6
17. Gold Production in Colombia The following data show the amount of gold production in thousands of troy ounces for Colombia for recent years. Draw a time series graph and comment on the trend. (2–3) Year
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior.
18. Spending of College Freshmen The average amounts spent by college freshmen for school items are shown. Construct a pie graph for the data. (2–3) Electronics/computers Dorm items Clothing Shoes
Source: National Retail Federation.
19. Career Changes A survey asked if people would like to spend the rest of their careers with their present employers. The results are shown. Construct a pie graph for the data and analyze the results. (2–3) Answer
Yes No Undecided
21. Public Libraries The numbers of public libraries in operation for selected states are listed below. Organize the data with a stem and leaf plot. (2–3) 210 144
15. Bank Failures The following data show the number of bank failures for recent years. Draw a time series graph and comment on the trend. (2–3) 4
Source: U.S. Department of the Treasury.
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
20. Museum Visitors The number of visitors to the Railroad Museum during 24 randomly selected hours is shown here. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data. (2–3)
Source: Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company.
22. Job Aptitude Test A special aptitude test is given to job applicants. The data shown here represent the scores of 30 applicants. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data and summarize the results. (2–3) 204 256 251 237 218 260
How Your Identity Can Be Stolen—Revisited Data presented in numerical form do not convey an easy-to-interpret conclusion; however, when data are presented in graphical form, readers can see the visual impact of the numbers. In the case of identity fraud, the reader can see that most of the identity frauds are due to lost or stolen wallets, checkbooks, or credit cards, and very few identity frauds are caused by online purchases or transactions. Identity Fraud
Online purchases or transactions 4%
Other methods 11%
Stolen mail or fraudulent change of address 8% Computer viruses and hackers 9% Corrupt business employees 15%
Lost or stolen wallet, checkbook, or credit card 38%
Friends, acquaintances 15%
Data Analysis A Data Bank is found in Appendix D, or on the World Wide Web by following links from www.mhhe.com/math/stat/bluman 1. From the Data Bank located in Appendix D, choose one of the following variables: age, weight, cholesterol level, systolic pressure, IQ, or sodium level. Select at least 30 values. For these values, construct a grouped frequency distribution. Draw a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive for the distribution. Describe briefly the shape of the distribution. 2. From the Data Bank, choose one of the following variables: educational level, smoking status, or exercise. Select at least 20 values. Construct an ungrouped frequency distribution for the data. For the distribution, draw a Pareto chart and describe briefly the nature of the chart. 3. From the Data Bank, select at least 30 subjects and construct a categorical distribution for their marital status. Draw a pie graph and describe briefly the findings.
5. Using the data from Data Set XI in Appendix D, construct a frequency distribution and draw a frequency polygon. Describe briefly the shape of the distribution for the number of pages in statistics books. 6. Using the data from Data Set IX in Appendix D, divide the United States into four regions, as follows: Northeast CT ME MA NH NJ NY PA RI VT Midwest
IL IN IA KS MI MN MS NE ND OH SD WI
AL AR DE DC FL GA KY LA MD NC OK SC TN TX VA WV
AK AZ CA CO HI ID MT NV NM OR UT WA WY
Find the total population for each region, and draw a Pareto chart and a pie graph for the data. Analyze the results. Explain which chart might be a better representation for the data. 7. Using the data from Data Set I in Appendix D, make a stem and leaf plot for the record low temperatures in the United States. Describe the nature of the plot.
4. Using the data from Data Set IV in Appendix D, construct a frequency distribution and draw a histogram. Describe briefly the shape of the distribution of the tallest buildings in New York City. 2–63
Chapter Quiz Determine whether each statement is true or false. If the statement is false, explain why. 1. In the construction of a frequency distribution, it is a good idea to have overlapping class limits, such as 10–20, 20–30, 30–40. False
15. Data collected over a period of time can be graphed using a(n) graph. Time series
2. Histograms can be drawn by using vertical or horizontal bars. False 3. It is not important to keep the width of each class the same in a frequency distribution. False 4. Frequency distributions can aid the researcher in drawing charts and graphs. True 5. The type of graph used to represent data is determined by the type of data collected and by the researcher's purpose. True 6. In construction of a frequency polygon, the class limits are used for the x axis. False 7. Data collected over a period of time can be graphed by using a pie graph. False Select the best answer. Histogram Frequency polygon Cumulative frequency graph Pareto chart 8–9 8.5–8.9 8.55–8.85 8.65–8.75
Histogram Pie graph Pareto chart Ogive
11. Except for rounding errors, relative frequencies should add up to what sum? a. b. c. d.
13. In a frequency distribution, the number of classes should be between and . 5, 20
H C C
C M C
H C H
M A A
H M H
C C M
19. Construct a pie graph for the data in Exercise 18.
22. Murders in Selected Cities For a recent year, the number of murders in 25 selected cities is shown. Construct a frequency distribution using 9 classes, and analyze the nature of the data in terms of shape, extreme values, etc. (The information in this exercise will be used for Exercise 23 in this section.) 248 270 366 149 109
348 71 73 68 598
74 226 241 73 278
Source: Pittsburgh Tribune Review.
Complete these statements with the best answers. 12. The three types of frequency distributions are , and . Categorical, ungrouped, grouped
18. Housing Arrangements A questionnaire on housing arrangements showed this information obtained from 25 respondents. Construct a frequency distribution for the data (H house, A apartment, M mobile home, C condominium).
21. Construct a histogram, a frequency polygon, and an ogive for the data in Exercise 20.
10. What graph should be used to show the relationship between the parts and the whole? a. b. c. d.
17. On a Pareto chart, the frequencies should be represented on the axis. Vertical or y
9. What are the boundaries for 8.6–8.8? a. b. c. d.
16. A statistical device used in exploratory data analysis that is a combination of a frequency distribution and a histogram is called a(n) . Stem and leaf plot
20. Items Purchased at a Convenience Store When 30 randomly selected customers left a convenience store, each was asked the number of items he or she purchased. Construct an ungrouped frequency distribution for the data.
8. What is another name for the ogive? a. b. c. d.
14. Data such as blood types (A, B, AB, O) can be organized into a(n) frequency distribution. Categorical
23. Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive for the data in Exercise 22. Analyze the histogram. 24. Recycled Trash Construct a Pareto chart and a horizontal bar graph for the number of tons (in millions)
of trash recycled per year by Americans based on an Environmental Protection Agency study. Type Paper Iron/steel Aluminum Yard waste Glass Plastics
Amount 320.0 292.0 276.0 242.4 196.0 41.6
26. Needless Deaths of Children The New England Journal of Medicine predicted the number of needless deaths due to childhood obesity. Draw a time series graph for the data. Year
27. Museum Visitors The number of visitors to the Historic Museum for 25 randomly selected hours is shown. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data.
25. Identity Thefts The results of a survey of 84 people whose identities were stolen using various methods are shown. Draw a pie chart for the information. Lost or stolen wallet, checkbook, or credit card Retail purchases or telephone transactions Stolen mail Computer viruses or hackers Phishing Other
15 9 8 4 10 84
Source: Javelin Strategy and Research.
Critical Thinking Challenges 1. Water Usage The graph shows the average number of gallons of water a person uses for various activities.
Can you see anything misleading about the way the graph is drawn?
Average Amount of Water Used y 25
23 gal 20 gal
6 gal 5 2 gal x
Washing dishes
and summary statements, write a report analyzing the data.
2. The Great Lakes Shown are various statistics about the Great Lakes. Using appropriate graphs (your choice) Length (miles) Breadth (miles) Depth (feet) Volume (cubic miles) Area (square miles) Shoreline (U.S., miles)
350 160 1,330 2,900 31,700 863
307 118 923 1,180 22,300 1,400
206 183 750 850 23,000 580
241 57 210 116 9,910 431
3. Teacher Strikes In Pennsylvania there were more teacher strikes in 2004 than there were in all other states combined. Because of the disruptions, state legislators want to pass a bill outlawing teacher strikes and submitting contract disputes to binding arbitration. The graph shows the number of teacher strikes in Pennsylvania for the school years 1992 to 2004. Use the graph to answer these questions.
c. In what year was the average duration of the strikes the longest? What was it? d. In what year was the average duration of the strikes the shortest? What was it? e. In what year was the number of teacher strikes the same as the average duration of the strikes? f. Find the difference in the number of strikes for the school years 1992–1993 and 2004–2005. g. Do you think teacher strikes should be outlawed? Justify your conclusions.
a. In what year did the largest number of strikes occur? How many were there? b. In what year did the smallest number of teacher strikes occur? How many were there?
Teacher Strikes in Pennsylvania y Strikes
Avg. No. of Days
5 x 0 92– 93– 94– 95– 96– 97– 98– 99– 00– 01– 02– 03– 04– 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 School year Source: Pennsylvania School Boards Associations.
Data Projects Where appropriate, use MINITAB, the TI-83 Plus, the TI-84 Plus, Excel, or a computer program of your choice to complete the following exercises. 1. Business and Finance Consider the 30 stocks listed as the Dow Jones Industrials. For each, find their earnings per share. Randomly select 30 stocks traded on the NASDAQ. For each, find their earnings per share. Create a frequency table with 5 categories for each data 2–66
set. Sketch a histogram for each. How do the two data sets compare? 2. Sports and Leisure Use systematic sampling to create a sample of 25 National League and 25 American League baseball players from the most recently completed season. Find the number of home runs for each player. Create a frequency table with 5 categories for each data set. Sketch a histogram for each. How do the two leagues compare?
3. Technology Randomly select 50 songs from your music player or music organization program. Find the length (in seconds) for each song. Use these data to create a frequency table with 6 categories. Sketch a frequency polygon for the frequency table. Is the shape of the distribution of times uniform, skewed, or bellshaped? Also note the genre of each song. Create a Pareto chart showing the frequencies of the various categories. Finally, note the year each song was released. Create a pie chart organized by decade to show the percentage of songs from various time periods. 4. Health and Wellness Use information from the Red Cross to create a pie chart depicting the percentages of Americans with various blood types. Also find information about blood donations and the percentage
of each type donated. How do the charts compare? Why is the collection of type O blood so important? 5. Politics and Economics Consider the U.S. Electoral College System. For each of the 50 states, determine the number of delegates received. Create a frequency table with 8 classes. Is this distribution uniform, skewed, or bell-shaped? 6. Your Class Have each person in class take his or her pulse and determine the heart rate (beats in one minute). Use the data to create a frequency table with 6 classes. Then have everyone in the class do 25 jumping jacks and immediately take the pulse again after the activity. Create a frequency table for those data as well. Compare the two results. Are they similarly distributed? How does the range of scores compare?
Answers to Applying the Concepts Section 2–1 Ages of Presidents at Inauguration
2. A frequency polygon shows increases or decreases in the number of home prices around values.
1. The data were obtained from the population of all Presidents at the time this text was written.
3. A cumulative frequency polygon shows the number of homes sold at or below a given price.
2. The oldest inauguration age was 69 years old.
4. The house that sold for $321,550 is an extreme value in this data set.
3. The youngest inauguration age was 42 years old. 4. Answers will vary. One possible answer is Age at inauguration
2 7 8 16 5 4 2
5. Answers will vary. For the frequency distribution given in Question 4, there is a peak for the 54–57 bin. 6. Answers will vary. This frequency distribution shows no outliers. However, if we had split our frequency into 14 bins instead of 7, then the ages 42, 43, 68, and 69 might appear as outliers. 7. Answers will vary. The data appear to be unimodal and fairly symmetric, centering on 55 years of age. Section 2–2 Selling Real Estate 1. A histogram of the data gives price ranges and the counts of homes in each price range. We can also talk about how the data are distributed by looking at a histogram.
5. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that the histogram displays the outlier well since there is a gap in the prices of the homes sold. 6. The distribution of the data is skewed to the right. Section 2–3 Leading Cause of Death 1. The variables in the graph are the year, cause of death, and rate of death per 100,000 men. 2. The cause of death is qualitative, while the year and death rates are quantitative. 3. Year is a discrete variable, and death rate is continuous. Since cause of death is qualitative, it is neither discrete nor continuous. 4. A line graph was used to display the data. 5. No, a Pareto chart could not be used to display the data, since we can only have one quantitative variable and one categorical variable in a Pareto chart. 6. We cannot use a pie chart for the same reasons as given for the Pareto chart. 7. A Pareto chart is typically used to show a categorical variable listed from the highest-frequency category to the category with the lowest frequency. 8. A time series chart is used to see trends in the data. It can also be used for forecasting and predicting. 2–67
Summarize data, using measures of central tendency, such as the mean, median, mode, and midrange.
Describe data, using measures of variation, such as the range, variance, and standard deviation.
Identify the position of a data value in a data set, using various measures of position, such as percentiles, deciles, and quartiles.
Measures of Central Tendency
3–2 Measures of Variation Measures of Position
3–4 Exploratory Data Analysis Summary
Use the techniques of exploratory data analysis, including boxplots and five-number summaries, to discover various aspects of data.
Chapter 3 Data Description
How Long Are You Delayed by Road Congestion? No matter where you live, at one time or another, you have been stuck in traffic. To see whether there are more traffic delays in some cities than in others, statisticians make comparisons using descriptive statistics. A statistical study by the Texas Transportation Institute found that a driver is delayed by road congestion an average of 36 hours per year. To see how selected cities compare to this average, see Statistics Today—Revisited at the end of the chapter. This chapter will show you how to obtain and interpret descriptive statistics such as measures of average, measures of variation, and measures of position.
Introduction Chapter 2 showed how you can gain useful information from raw data by organizing them into a frequency distribution and then presenting the data by using various graphs. This chapter shows the statistical methods that can be used to summarize data. The most familiar of these methods is the finding of averages. For example, you may read that the average speed of a car crossing midtown Manhattan during the day is 5.3 miles per hour or that the average number of minutes an American father of a 4-year-old spends alone with his child each day is 42.1 In the book American Averages by Mike Feinsilber and William B. Meed, the authors state: "Average" when you stop to think of it is a funny concept. Although it describes all of us it describes none of us. . . . While none of us wants to be the average American, we all want to know about him or her.
nteresting Fact
The authors go on to give examples of averages: The average American man is five feet, nine inches tall; the average woman is five feet, 3.6 inches. The average American is sick in bed seven days a year missing five days of work. On the average day, 24 million people receive animal bites. By his or her 70th birthday, the average American will have eaten 14 steers, 1050 chickens, 3.5 lambs, and 25.2 hogs.2
A person has on average 1460 dreams in 1 year.
"Harper's Index," Harper's magazine.
Mike Feinsilber and William B. Meed, American Averages (New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell).
Section 3–1 Measures of Central Tendency
In these examples, the word average is ambiguous, since several different methods can be used to obtain an average. Loosely stated, the average means the center of the distribution or the most typical case. Measures of average are also called measures of central tendency and include the mean, median, mode, and midrange. Knowing the average of a data set is not enough to describe the data set entirely. Even though a shoe store owner knows that the average size of a man's shoe is size 10, she would not be in business very long if she ordered only size 10 shoes. As this example shows, in addition to knowing the average, you must know how the data values are dispersed. That is, do the data values cluster around the mean, or are they spread more evenly throughout the distribution? The measures that determine the spread of the data values are called measures of variation, or measures of dispersion. These measures include the range, variance, and standard deviation. Finally, another set of measures is necessary to describe data. These measures are called measures of position. They tell where a specific data value falls within the data set or its relative position in comparison with other data values. The most common position measures are percentiles, deciles, and quartiles. These measures are used extensively in psychology and education. Sometimes they are referred to as norms. The measures of central tendency, variation, and position explained in this chapter are part of what is called traditional statistics. Section 3–4 shows the techniques of what is called exploratory data analysis. These techniques include the boxplot and the five-number summary. They can be used to explore data to see what they show (as opposed to the traditional techniques, which are used to confirm conjectures about the data).
Measures of Central Tendency Chapter 1 stated that statisticians use samples taken from populations; however, when populations are small, it is not necessary to use samples since the entire population can be used to gain information. For example, suppose an insurance manager wanted to know the average weekly sales of all the company's representatives. If the company employed a large number of salespeople, say, nationwide, he would have to use a sample and make 3–3
In 1796, Adolphe Quetelet investigated the characteristics (heights, weights, etc.) of French conscripts to determine the "average man." Florence Nightingale was so influenced by Quetelet's work that she began collecting and analyzing medical records in the military hospitals during the Crimean War. Based on her work, hospitals began keeping accurate records on their patients.
an inference to the entire sales force. But if the company had only a few salespeople, say, only 87 agents, he would be able to use all representatives' sales for a randomly chosen week and thus use the entire population. Measures found by using all the data values in the population are called parameters. Measures obtained by using the data values from samples are called statistics; hence, the average of the sales from a sample of representatives is a statistic, and the average of sales obtained from the entire population is a parameter. A statistic is a characteristic or measure obtained by using the data values from a sample. A parameter is a characteristic or measure obtained by using all the data values from a specific population.
These concepts as well as the symbols used to represent them will be explained in detail in this chapter. General Rounding Rule In statistics the basic rounding rule is that when computations are done in the calculation, rounding should not be done until the final answer is calculated. When rounding is done in the intermediate steps, it tends to increase the difference between that answer and the exact one. But in the textbook and solutions manual, it is not practical to show long decimals in the intermediate calculations; hence, the values in the examples are carried out to enough places (usually three or four) to obtain the same answer that a calculator would give after rounding on the last step.
The Mean The mean, also known as the arithmetic average, is found by adding the values of the data and dividing by the total number of values. For example, the mean of 3, 2, 6, 5, and 4 is found by adding 3 2 6 5 4 20 and dividing by 5; hence, the mean of the data is 20 5 4. The values of the data are represented by X's. In this data set, X1 3, X2 2, X3 6, X4 5, and X5 4. To show a sum of the total X values, the symbol (the capital Greek letter sigma) is used, and X means to find the sum of the X values in the data set. The summation notation is explained in Appendix A. The mean is the sum of the values, divided by the total number of values. The symbol X represents the sample mean. X X2 X 3 • • • Xn X X 1 n n where n represents the total number of values in the sample. For a population, the Greek letter m (mu) is used for the mean. X X 2 X 3 • • • XN X m 1 N N where N represents the total number of values in the population.
In statistics, Greek letters are used to denote parameters, and Roman letters are used to denote statistics. Assume that the data are obtained from samples unless otherwise specified.
Days Off per Year The data represent the number of days off per year for a sample of individuals selected from nine different countries. Find the mean. 20, 26, 40, 36, 23, 42, 35, 24, 30 Source: World Tourism Organization.
X 20 26 40 36 23 42 35 24 30 276 30.7 days n 9 9 Hence, the mean of the number of days off is 30.7 days. X
Hospital Infections The data show the number of patients in a sample of six hospitals who acquired an infection while hospitalized. Find the mean. 110 76 29 38 105 31 Source: Pennsylvania Health Care Cost Containment Council.
X 110 76 29 38 105 31 389 64.8 n 6 6
The mean of the number of hospital infections for the six hospitals is 64.8. The mean, in most cases, is not an actual data value. Rounding Rule for the Mean The mean should be rounded to one more decimal place than occurs in the raw data. For example, if the raw data are given in whole numbers, the mean should be rounded to the nearest tenth. If the data are given in tenths, the mean should be rounded to the nearest hundredth, and so on. The procedure for finding the mean for grouped data uses the midpoints of the classes. This procedure is shown next.
Miles Run per Week Using the frequency distribution for Example 2–7, find the mean. The data represent the number of miles run during one week for a sample of 20 runners. Solution
The procedure for finding the mean for grouped data is given here. Step 1
Make a table as shown. A Class 5.5–10.5 10.5–15.5 15.5–20.5 20.5–25.5 25.5–30.5 30.5–35.5 35.5–40.5
The average time it takes a person to find a new job is 5.9 months.
B Frequency f
C Midpoint Xm
D f Xm
1 2 3 5 4 3 2 n 20
Find the midpoints of each class and enter them in column C. Xm
5.5 10.5 8 2
etc. 3–5
A person looks, on average, at about 14 homes before he or she buys one.
For each class, multiply the frequency by the midpoint, as shown, and place the product in column D. 1 8 8 2 13 26 etc. The completed table is shown here. A B C Class Frequency f Midpoint Xm
8 26 54 115 112 99 76
n 20 Find the sum of column D. Divide the sum by n to get the mean. f • Xm 490 24.5 miles X n 20
f • Xm 490
The procedure for finding the mean for grouped data assumes that the mean of all the raw data values in each class is equal to the midpoint of the class. In reality, this is not true, since the average of the raw data values in each class usually will not be exactly equal to the midpoint. However, using this procedure will give an acceptable approximation of the mean, since some values fall above the midpoint and other values fall below the midpoint for each class, and the midpoint represents an estimate of all values in the class. The steps for finding the mean for grouped data are summarized in the next Procedure Table.
Finding the Mean for Grouped Data Step 1
Find the midpoints of each class and place them in column C.
Multiply the frequency by the midpoint for each class, and place the product in column D.
Find the sum of column D.
Divide the sum obtained in column D by the sum of the frequencies obtained in column B.
The formula for the mean is
[Note: The symbols f • Xm mean to find the sum of the product of the frequency ( f ) and the midpoint (Xm) for each class.]
Speaking of Statistics Ages of the Top 50 Wealthiest People The histogram shows the ages of the top 50 wealthiest individuals according to Forbes Magazine for a recent year. The mean age is 66.04 years. The median age is 68 years. Explain why these two statistics are not enough to adequately describe the data.
Ages of the Top 50 Wealthiest Persons
y 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
The concept of median was used by Gauss at the beginning of the 19th century and introduced as a statistical concept by Francis Galton around 1874. The mode was first used by Karl Pearson in 1894.
64.5 Age (years)
The Median An article recently reported that the median income for college professors was $43,250. This measure of central tendency means that one-half of all the professors surveyed earned more than $43,250, and one-half earned less than $43,250. The median is the halfway point in a data set. Before you can find this point, the data must be arranged in order. When the data set is ordered, it is called a data array. The median either will be a specific value in the data set or will fall between two values, as shown in Examples 3–4 through 3–8. The median is the midpoint of the data array. The symbol for the median is MD.
Steps in computing the median of a data array Step 1
Arrange the data in order.
Select the middle point. 3–7
Hotel Rooms The number of rooms in the seven hotels in downtown Pittsburgh is 713, 300, 618, 595, 311, 401, and 292. Find the median. Source: Interstate Hotels Corporation.
292, 300, 311, 401, 595, 618, 713 Select the middle value.
292, 300, 311, 401, 595, 618, 713 ↑ Median Hence, the median is 401 rooms.
National Park Vehicle Pass Costs Find the median for the daily vehicle pass charge for five U.S. National Parks. The costs are $25, $15, $15, $20, and $15. Source: National Park Service.
$15 ↑ Median
The median cost is $15. Examples 3–4 and 3–5 each had an odd number of values in the data set; hence, the median was an actual data value. When there are an even number of values in the data set, the median will fall between two given values, as illustrated in Examples 3–6, 3–7, and 3–8.
Tornadoes in the United States The number of tornadoes that have occurred in the United States over an 8-year period follows. Find the median. 684, 764, 656, 702, 856, 1133, 1132, 1303 Source: The Universal Almanac.
656, 684, 702, 764, 856, 1132, 1133, 1303 ↑ Median Since the middle point falls halfway between 764 and 856, find the median MD by adding the two values and dividing by 2. 764 856 1620 MD 810 2 2 The median number of tornadoes is 810.
Asthma Cases The number of children with asthma during a specific year in seven local districts is shown. Find the median. 253, 125, 328, 417, 201, 70, 90 Source: Pennsylvania Department of Health.
70, 90, 125, 201, 253, 328, 417 ↑ Median Since the number 201 is at the center of the distribution, the median is 201.
Magazines Purchased Six customers purchased these numbers of magazines: 1, 7, 3, 2, 3, 4. Find the median. Solution
1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 7 ↑ Median
Hence, the median number of magazines purchased is 3.
The Mode The third measure of average is called the mode. The mode is the value that occurs most often in the data set. It is sometimes said to be the most typical case. The value that occurs most often in a data set is called the mode.
A data set that has only one value that occurs with the greatest frequency is said to be unimodal. If a data set has two values that occur with the same greatest frequency, both values are considered to be the mode and the data set is said to be bimodal. If a data set has more than two values that occur with the same greatest frequency, each value is used as the mode, and the data set is said to be multimodal. When no data value occurs more than once, the data set is said to have no mode. A data set can have more than one mode or no mode at all. These situations will be shown in some of the examples that follow.
NFL Signing Bonuses Find the mode of the signing bonuses of eight NFL players for a specific year. The bonuses in millions of dollars are 18.0, 14.0, 34.5, 10, 11.3, 10, 12.4, 10 Source: USA TODAY.
It is helpful to arrange the data in order although it is not necessary. 10, 10, 10, 11.3, 12.4, 14.0, 18.0, 34.5 Since $10 million occurred 3 times—a frequency larger than any other number—the mode is $10 million.
Branches of Large Banks Find the mode for the number of branches that six banks have. 401, 344, 209, 201, 227, 353 Source: SNL Financial.
Since each value occurs only once, there is no mode. Note: Do not say that the mode is zero. That would be incorrect, because in some data, such as temperature, zero can be an actual value.
Licensed Nuclear Reactors The data show the number of licensed nuclear reactors in the United States for a recent 15-year period. Find the mode. Source: The World Almanac and Book of Facts.
Since the values 104 and 109 both occur 5 times, the modes are 104 and 109. The data set is said to be bimodal. The mode for grouped data is the modal class. The modal class is the class with the largest frequency.
Miles Run per Week Find the modal class for the frequency distribution of miles that 20 runners ran in one week, used in Example 2–7. Class 5.5–10.5 10.5–15.5 15.5–20.5 20.5–25.5 25.5–30.5 30.5–35.5 35.5–40.5
Frequency 1 2 3 5 ← Modal class 4 3 2
The modal class is 20.5–25.5, since it has the largest frequency. Sometimes the midpoint of the class is used rather than the boundaries; hence, the mode could also be given as 23 miles per week. The mode is the only measure of central tendency that can be used in finding the most typical case when the data are nominal or categorical.
Area Boat Registrations The data show the number of boats registered for six counties in southwestern Pennsylvania. Find the mode. Westmoreland 11,008 Butler 9,002 Washington 6,843 Beaver 6,367 Fayette 4,208 Armstrong 3,782 Source: Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission.
Since the category with the highest frequency is Westmoreland, the most typical case is Westmoreland. Hence the mode is 11,008. An extremely high or extremely low data value in a data set can have a striking effect on the mean of the data set. These extreme values are called outliers. This is one reason why when analyzing a frequency distribution, you should be aware of any of these values. For the data set shown in Example 3–14, the mean, median, and mode can be quite different because of extreme values. A method for identifying outliers is given in Section 3–3.
Salaries of Personnel A small company consists of the owner, the manager, the salesperson, and two technicians, all of whose annual salaries are listed here. (Assume that this is the entire population.) Staff
Owner Manager Salesperson Technician Technician
$50,000 20,000 12,000 9,000 9,000
Find the mean, median, and mode. Solution
X 50,000 20,000 12,000 9000 9000 $20,000 N 5 Hence, the mean is $20,000, the median is $12,000, and the mode is $9,000. m
In Example 3–14, the mean is much higher than the median or the mode. This is so because the extremely high salary of the owner tends to raise the value of the mean. In this and similar situations, the median should be used as the measure of central tendency.
The Midrange The midrange is a rough estimate of the middle. It is found by adding the lowest and highest values in the data set and dividing by 2. It is a very rough estimate of the average and can be affected by one extremely high or low value. The midrange is defined as the sum of the lowest and highest values in the data set, divided by 2. The symbol MR is used for the midrange. MR
lowest value highest value 2
Water-Line Breaks In the last two winter seasons, the city of Brownsville, Minnesota, reported these numbers of water-line breaks per month. Find the midrange. 2, 3, 6, 8, 4, 1 Solution
Hence, the midrange is 4.5.
If the data set contains one extremely large value or one extremely small value, a higher or lower midrange value will result and may not be a typical description of the middle.
NFL Signing Bonuses Find the midrange of data for the NFL signing bonuses in Example 3–9. The bonuses in millions of dollars are 18.0, 14.0, 34.5, 10, 11.3, 10, 12.4, 10 Solution
The smallest bonus is $10 million and the largest bonus is $34.5 million. MR
10 34.5 44.5 $22.25 million 2 2
Notice that this amount is larger than seven of the eight amounts and is not typical of the average of the bonuses. The reason is that there is one very high bonus, namely, $34.5 million.
In statistics, several measures can be used for an average. The most common measures are the mean, median, mode, and midrange. Each has its own specific purpose and use. Exercises 39 through 41 show examples of other averages, such as the harmonic mean, the geometric mean, and the quadratic mean. Their applications are limited to specific areas, as shown in the exercises.
The Weighted Mean Sometimes, you must find the mean of a data set in which not all values are equally represented. Consider the case of finding the average cost of a gallon of gasoline for three taxis. Suppose the drivers buy gasoline at three different service stations at a cost of $3.22, $3.53, and $3.63 per gallon. You might try to find the average by using the formula X X n 3.22 3.53 3.63 10.38 $3.46 3 3 But not all drivers purchased the same number of gallons. Hence, to find the true average cost per gallon, you must take into consideration the number of gallons each driver purchased. The type of mean that considers an additional factor is called the weighted mean, and it is used when the values are not all equally represented.
The average American drives about 10,000 miles a year.
Find the weighted mean of a variable X by multiplying each value by its corresponding weight and dividing the sum of the products by the sum of the weights. X
w 1X 1 w 2 X 2 • • • wn Xn wX w 1 w 2 • • • wn w
where w1, w2, . . . , wn are the weights and X1, X2, . . . , Xn are the values.
Example 3–17 shows how the weighted mean is used to compute a grade point average. Since courses vary in their credit value, the number of credits must be used as weights.
Grade Point Average A student received an A in English Composition I (3 credits), a C in Introduction to Psychology (3 credits), a B in Biology I (4 credits), and a D in Physical Education (2 credits). Assuming A 4 grade points, B 3 grade points, C 2 grade points, D 1 grade point, and F 0 grade points, find the student's grade point average. Solution
Course English Composition I Introduction to Psychology Biology I Physical Education X
Credits (w)
Grade (X)
A (4 points) C (2 points) B (3 points) D (1 point)
wX 3 • 4 3 • 2 4 • 3 2 • 1 32 2.7 w 3 3 4 2 12
The grade point average is 2.7.
Table 3–1 summarizes the measures of central tendency.
Of people in the United States, 45% live within 15 minutes of their best friend.
Summary of Measures of Central Tendency
Mean Median Mode Midrange
Sum of values, divided by total number of values Middle point in data set that has been ordered Most frequent data value Lowest value plus highest value, divided by 2
m, X MD None MR
Researchers and statisticians must know which measure of central tendency is being used and when to use each measure of central tendency. The properties and uses of the four measures of central tendency are summarized next.
Properties and Uses of Central Tendency The Mean 1. The mean is found by using all the values of the data. 2. The mean varies less than the median or mode when samples are taken from the same population and all three measures are computed for these samples. 3. The mean is used in computing other statistics, such as the variance. 4. The mean for the data set is unique and not necessarily one of the data values. 5. The mean cannot be computed for the data in a frequency distribution that has an open-ended class. 6. The mean is affected by extremely high or low values, called outliers, and may not be the appropriate average to use in these situations. The Median 1. The median is used to find the center or middle value of a data set. 2. The median is used when it is necessary to find out whether the data values fall into the upper half or lower half of the distribution. 3. The median is used for an open-ended distribution. 4. The median is affected less than the mean by extremely high or extremely low values. The Mode 1. The mode is used when the most typical case is desired. 2. The mode is the easiest average to compute. 3. The mode can be used when the data are nominal or categorical, such as religious preference, gender, or political affiliation. 4. The mode is not always unique. A data set can have more than one mode, or the mode may not exist for a data set. The Midrange 1. The midrange is easy to compute. 2. The midrange gives the midpoint. 3. The midrange is affected by extremely high or low values in a data set.
Figure 3–1 Types of Distributions
x Mode Median Mean (a) Positively skewed or right-skewed y
x Mean Median Mode (b) Symmetric
Mean Median Mode
(c) Negatively skewed or left-skewed
Distribution Shapes Frequency distributions can assume many shapes. The three most important shapes are positively skewed, symmetric, and negatively skewed. Figure 3–1 shows histograms of each. In a positively skewed or right-skewed distribution, the majority of the data values fall to the left of the mean and cluster at the lower end of the distribution; the "tail" is to the right. Also, the mean is to the right of the median, and the mode is to the left of the median. For example, if an instructor gave an examination and most of the students did poorly, their scores would tend to cluster on the left side of the distribution. A few high scores would constitute the tail of the distribution, which would be on the right side. Another example of a positively skewed distribution is the incomes of the population of the United States. Most of the incomes cluster about the low end of the distribution; those with high incomes are in the minority and are in the tail at the right of the distribution. In a symmetric distribution, the data values are evenly distributed on both sides of the mean. In addition, when the distribution is unimodal, the mean, median, and mode are the same and are at the center of the distribution. Examples of symmetric distributions are IQ scores and heights of adult males. When the majority of the data values fall to the right of the mean and cluster at the upper end of the distribution, with the tail to the left, the distribution is said to be negatively skewed or left-skewed. Also, the mean is to the left of the median, and the mode is to the right of the median. As an example, a negatively skewed distribution results if the majority of students score very high on an instructor's examination. These scores will tend to cluster to the right of the distribution. When a distribution is extremely skewed, the value of the mean will be pulled toward the tail, but the majority of the data values will be greater than the mean or less than the mean (depending on which way the data are skewed); hence, the median rather than the mean is a more appropriate measure of central tendency. An extremely skewed distribution can also affect other statistics. A measure of skewness for a distribution is discussed in Exercise 48 in Section 3–2. 3–15
Applying the Concepts 3–1 Teacher Salaries The following data represent salaries (in dollars) from a school district in Greenwood, South Carolina. 10,000 18,000
1. First, assume you work for the school board in Greenwood and do not wish to raise taxes to increase salaries. Compute the mean, median, and mode, and decide which one would best support your position to not raise salaries. 2. Second, assume you work for the teachers' union and want a raise for the teachers. Use the best measure of central tendency to support your position. 3. Explain how outliers can be used to support one or the other position. 4. If the salaries represented every teacher in the school district, would the averages be parameters or statistics? 5. Which measure of central tendency can be misleading when a data set contains outliers? 6. When you are comparing the measures of central tendency, does the distribution display any skewness? Explain. See page 180 for the answers.
Exercises 3–1 For Exercises 1 through 9, find (a) the mean, (b) the median, (c) the mode, and (d) the midrange. 1. Grade Point Averages The average undergraduate grade point average (GPA) for the 25 top-ranked medical schools is listed below. a. 3.724 b. 3.73 c. 3.74 and 3.70
d. 3.715
Source: www.nwf.org/frogwatch
Source: U.S. News & World Report Best Graduate Schools.
2. Airport Parking The number of short-term parking spaces at 15 airports is shown. a. 3174.6 b. 1479
c. No mode
d. 5012.5
6,300 10,460 7,552 8,109
3. High Temperatures The reported high temperatures (in degrees Fahrenheit) for selected world cities on an October day are shown below. Which measure of central tendency do you think best describes these data? 62 72 66 79 83 61 62 85 72 64 74 71 42 38 91 66 77 90 74 63 64 68 42 b. 68 c. 42, 62, 64, 66, 72, 74
5. Expenditures per Pupil for Selected States The expenditures per pupil for selected states are listed below. Based on these data, what do you think of the claim that the average expenditure per pupil in the United States exceeds $10,000? a. 9422.2 b. 8988 c. 7552, 12,568, 8632
Source: www.accuweather.com a. 68.1
4. Observers in the Frogwatch Program The number of observers in the Frogwatch USA program (a wildlife conservation program dedicated to helping conserve frogs and toads) for the top 10 states with the most observers is 484, 483, 422, 396, 378, 352, 338, 331, 318, and 302. The top 10 states with the most active watchers list these numbers of visits: 634, 464, 406, 267, 219, 194, 191, 150, 130, and 114. Compare the measures of central tendency for these two groups of data.
d. 64.5
d. 9434. Claim seems a little high.
9,344 12,568 11,057
6. Earnings of Nonliving Celebrities Forbes magazine prints an annual Top-Earning Nonliving Celebrities list (based on royalties and estate earnings). Find the measures of central tendency for these data and comment on the skewness. Figures represent millions of dollars. a. 19 b. 10 c. 7 d. 28.5 (Isn't it cool that Albert Einstein is on this list?)
Kurt Cobain Elvis Presley Charles M. Schulz John Lennon Albert Einstein Andy Warhol Theodore Geisel (Dr. Seuss)
Ray Charles 10 Marilyn Monroe 8 Johnny Cash 8 J.R.R. Tolkien 7 George Harrison 7 Bob Marley 7
Source: articles.moneycentral.msn.com
7. Earthquake Strengths Twelve major earthquakes had Richter magnitudes shown here. 7.0, 6.2, 7.7, 8.0, 6.4, 6.2, 7.2, 5.4, 6.4, 6.5, 7.2, 5.4 Which would you consider the best measure of average? Source: The Universal Almanac.
a. 6.63
b. 6.45
18.0 24.3 16.5 19.7 20.0 17.2 25.2 24.0 17.2 18.2
c. 5.4, 6.2, 6.4, 7.2
d. 6.7; answers will vary
Source: USA TODAY. 24.42; 23.45; 16.9, 17.2, 18, 19.1, 24, 25.2, 31.7; 32.1. It appears that the mean and median are good measures of the average.
9. Garbage Collection The amount of garbage in millions of tons collected over a 16-year period is shown. a. 46.78 b. 47.65 c. None d. 44.05 29.7 48 58.4 37.9
Source: Environmental Protection Agency.
10. Foreign Workers The number of foreign workers' certificates for the New England states and the northwestern states is shown. Find the mean, median, and mode for both areas and compare the results. New England States
Northwest States
6768 3196 1112 819 1019 1795
1870 622 620 23 172 112
Source: Department of Labor.
11. Populations of Selected Cities Populations for towns and cities of 5000 or more (based on the 2004 figures) in the 15XXX zip code area are listed here for two different years. Find the mean, median, mode, and midrange for each set of data. What do your findings suggest? 2004 11,270 8,220 5,463 8,739 6,199 10,309 9,964 14,340
8,825 5,132 8,174 5,282 5,307 14,925 14,849 5,707
1990 7,439 8,395 5,044 7,869 10,493 8,397 5,094 6,672
13,374 9,278 6,113 9,229 10,687 11,221 10,823 14,292
9,200 4,768 9,656 21,923 5,319 15,174 15,864 5,748
8. Top-Paid CEOs The data shown are the total compensation (in millions of dollars) for the 50 top-paid CEOs for a recent year. Compare the averages, and state which one you think is the best measure. 17.5 17.3 23.7 37.6 19.3 25.0 19.1 41.7 16.9 22.9
For Exercises 12 through 21, find the (a) mean and (b) modal class. 12. Executive Bonuses A random sample of bonuses (in millions of dollars) paid by large companies to their executives is shown. These data will be used for Exercise 18 in Section 3–2. a. 5 b. 3.5–6.5 Class boundaries
0.5–3.5 3.5–6.5 6.5–9.5 9.5–12.5 12.5–15.5
13. Hourly Compensation for Production Workers The hourly compensation costs (in U.S. dollars) for production workers in selected countries are represented below. Class
2.48–7.48 7 7.49–12.49 3 12.50–17.50 1 17.51–22.51 7 a. 17.68 b. 2.48–7.48 and 22.52–27.52 5 27.53–32.53 5 17.51–22.51. Group mean is less. Compare the mean of these grouped data to the U.S. mean of $21.97. Source: New York Times Almanac.
14. Automobile Fuel Efficiency Thirty automobiles were tested for fuel efficiency (in miles per gallon). This frequency distribution was obtained. (The data in this exercise will be used in Exercise 20 in Section 3–2.) a. 19.7
b. 17.5–22.5
7.5–12.5 12.5–17.5 17.5–22.5 22.5–27.5 27.5–32.5
3 5 15 5 2 3–17
15. Percentage of Foreign-Born People The percentage of foreign-born population for each of the 50 states is represented below. Do you think the mean is the best average for this set of data? Explain. a. 6.5 b. 0.8–4.4. Probably not—data are "top heavy."
0.8–4.4 4.5–8.1 8.2–11.8 11.9–15.5 15.6–19.2 19.3–22.9 23.0–26.6
16. Find the mean and modal class for each set of data in Exercises 8 and 18 in Section 2–2. Is the average about the same for both sets of data? 17. Percentage of College-Educated Population over 25 Below are the percentages of the population over 25 years of age who have completed 4 years of college or more for the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Find the mean and modal class. a. 26.7 b. 24.2–28.6 Percentage
15.2–19.6 19.7–24.1 24.2–28.6 28.7–33.1 33.2–37.6 37.7–42.1 42.2–46.6
3 15 19 6 7 0 1
21. Copier Service Calls This frequency distribution represents the data obtained from a sample of 75 copying machine service technicians. The values represent the days between service calls for various copying machines. a. 23.7 b. 21.5–24.5 Class boundaries
22. Use the data from Exercise 14 in Section 2–1 and find the mean and modal class. a. 14.6 b. 0–10 23. Find the mean and modal class for the data in Exercise 13 in Section 2–1. 44.8; 40.5–47.5 24. Use the data from Exercise 3 in Section 2–2 and find the mean and modal class. a. 64.4 b. 3–45 and 46–88
18. Net Worth of Corporations These data represent the net worth (in millions of dollars) of 45 national corporations. a. 42.9 b. 32–42 Class limits
2 8 15 7 10 3
25. Enrollments for Selected Independent Religiously Controlled 4-Year Colleges Listed below are the enrollments for selected independent religiously controlled 4-year colleges that offer bachelor's degrees only. Construct a grouped frequency distribution with six classes and find the mean and modal class. a. 1804.6
19. Specialty Coffee Shops A random sample of 30 states shows the number of specialty coffee shops for a specific company. a. 34.1 b. 0.5–19.5 Class boundaries
20. Commissions Earned This frequency distribution represents the commission earned (in dollars) by 100 salespeople employed at several branches of a large chain store. a. 180.3 b. 177–185
26. Find the weighted mean price of three models of automobiles sold. The number and price of each model sold are shown in this list. $9866.67 Model
$10,000 12,000 8,000
27. Fat Grams Using the weighted mean, find the average number of grams of fat per ounce of meat or fish that a person would consume over a 5-day period if he ate these: Meat or fish
Fat (g/oz)
3 oz fried shrimp 3 oz veal cutlet (broiled) 2 oz roast beef (lean) 2.5 oz fried chicken drumstick 4 oz tuna (canned in oil)
28. Diet Cola Preference A recent survey of a new diet cola reported the following percentages of people who liked the taste. Find the weighted mean of the percentages. 35.4% Area
% Favored
Number surveyed
29. Costs of Helicopters The costs of three models of helicopters are shown here. Find the weighted mean of the costs of the models. $545,666.67 Model Sunscraper Skycoaster High-flyer
Number sold
$427,000 365,000 725,000
30. Final Grade An instructor grades exams, 20%; term paper, 30%; final exam, 50%. A student had grades of 83, 72, and 90, respectively, for exams, term paper, and final exam. Find the student's final average. Use the weighted mean. 83.2 31. Final Grade Another instructor gives four 1-hour exams and one final exam, which counts as two 1-hour exams. Find a student's grade if she received 62, 83, 97, and 90 on the 1-hour exams and 82 on the final exam. 82.7
32. For these situations, state which measure of central tendency—mean, median, or mode—should be used. a. b. c. d. e. f.
The most typical case is desired. Mode The distribution is open-ended. Median There is an extreme value in the data set. Median The data are categorical. Mode Further statistical computations will be needed. Mean The values are to be divided into two approximately equal groups, one group containing the larger values and one containing the smaller values. Median
33. Describe which measure of central tendency—mean, median, or mode—was probably used in each situation. a. One-half of the factory workers make more than $5.37 per hour, and one-half make less than $5.37 per hour. Median b. The average number of children per family in the Plaza Heights Complex is 1.8. Mean c. Most people prefer red convertibles over any other color. Mode d. The average person cuts the lawn once a week. Mode e. The most common fear today is fear of speaking in public. Mode f. The average age of college professors is 42.3 years. Mean
34. What types of symbols are used to represent sample statistics? Give an example. What types of symbols are used to represent population parameters? Give an example. Roman letters, X ; Greek letters, m
35. A local fast-food company claims that the average salary of its employees is $13.23 per hour. An employee states that most employees make minimum wage. If both are being truthful, how could both be correct?
Both could be true since one may be using the mean for the average salary and the other may be using the mode for the average.
Extending the Concepts 36. If the mean of five values is 64, find the sum of the values. 320 37. If the mean of five values is 8.2 and four of the values are 6, 10, 7, and 12, find the fifth value. 6 38. Find the mean of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50. a. Add 10 to each value and find the mean. 40 b. Subtract 10 from each value and find the mean. 20 c. Multiply each value by 10 and find the mean. 300
d. Divide each value by 10 and find the mean. 3 e. Make a general statement about each situation.
The results will be the same as if you add, subtract, multiply, and divide the mean by 10.
39. The harmonic mean (HM) is defined as the number of values divided by the sum of the reciprocals of each value. The formula is n HM 1 X 3–1 9
For example, the harmonic mean of 1, 4, 5, and 2 is 4 HM 2.05 1 1 1 4 1 5 1 2 This mean is useful for finding the average speed. Suppose a person drove 100 miles at 40 miles per hour and returned driving 50 miles per hour. The average miles per hour is not 45 miles per hour, which is found by adding 40 and 50 and dividing by 2. The average is found as shown. Since Time distance rate then 100 Time 1 2.5 hours to make the trip 40 100 Time 2 2 hours to return 50 Hence, the total time is 4.5 hours, and the total miles driven are 200. Now, the average speed is Rate
distance 200 44.44 miles per hour time 4.5
This value can also be found by using the harmonic mean formula HM
2 44.44 1 40 1 50
Using the harmonic mean, find each of these. a. A salesperson drives 300 miles round trip at 30 miles per hour going to Chicago and 45 miles per hour returning home. Find the average miles per hour. 36 mph b. A bus driver drives the 50 miles to West Chester at 40 miles per hour and returns driving 25 miles per hour. Find the average miles per hour. 30.77 mph c. A carpenter buys $500 worth of nails at $50 per pound and $500 worth of nails at $10 per pound. Find the average cost of 1 pound of nails. $16.67 40. The geometric mean (GM) is defined as the nth root of the product of n values. The formula is n X1 X2 X3 L Xn GM
The geometric mean of 4 and 16 is GM 4 16 64 8 The geometric mean of 1, 3, and 9 is 3
GM 1 3 9 27 3 The geometric mean is useful in finding the average of percentages, ratios, indexes, or growth rates. For example, if a person receives a 20% raise after 1 year of service and a 10% raise after the second year of service, the average percentage raise per year is not 15 but 14.89%, as shown. GM 1.2 1.1 1.1489 3–20
or GM 120 110 114.89%
His salary is 120% at the end of the first year and 110% at the end of the second year. This is equivalent to an average of 14.89%, since 114.89% 100% 14.89%. This answer can also be shown by assuming that the person makes $10,000 to start and receives two raises of 20 and 10%. Raise 1 10,000 20% $2000 Raise 2 12,000 10% $1200 His total salary raise is $3200. This total is equivalent to $10,000 • 14.89% $1489.00 $11,489 • 14.89% 1710.71 $3199.71 $3200 Find the geometric mean of each of these. a. The growth rates of the Living Life Insurance Corporation for the past 3 years were 35, 24, and 18%. 25.5% b. A person received these percentage raises in salary over a 4-year period: 8, 6, 4, and 5%. 5.7% c. A stock increased each year for 5 years at these percentages: 10, 8, 12, 9, and 3%. 8.4% d. The price increases, in percentages, for the cost of food in a specific geographic region for the past 3 years were 1, 3, and 5.5%. 3.2% 41. A useful mean in the physical sciences (such as voltage) is the quadratic mean (QM), which is found by taking the square root of the average of the squares of each value. The formula is QM
X 2 n
The quadratic mean of 3, 5, 6, and 10 is
3 2 5 2 6 2 10 2 4 42.5 6.52
Find the quadratic mean of 8, 6, 3, 5, and 4. 5.48 42. An approximate median can be found for data that have been grouped into a frequency distribution. First it is necessary to find the median class. This is the class that contains the median value. That is the n 2 data value. Then it is assumed that the data values are evenly distributed throughout the median class. The formula is MD
n 2 cf w Lm f
n sum of frequencies cf cumulative frequency of class immediately preceding the median class w width of median class f frequency of median class Lm lower boundary of median class Using this formula, find the median for data in the frequency distribution of Exercise 15. 4.31
Section 3–2 Measures of Variation
Finding Measures of Central Tendency
Example XL3–1
Find the mean, mode, and median of the data from Example 3–11. The data represent the population of licensed nuclear reactors in the United States for a recent 15-year period. 104 107 109
1. On an Excel worksheet enter the numbers in cells A2–A16. Enter a label for the variable in cell A1. On the same worksheet as the data: 2. Compute the mean of the data: key in =AVERAGE(A2:A16) in a blank cell. 3. Compute the mode of the data: key in =MODE(A2:A16) in a blank cell. 4. Compute the median of the data: key in =MEDIAN(A2:A16) in a blank cell. These and other statistical functions can also be accessed without typing them into the worksheet directly. 1. Select the Formulas tab from the toolbar and select the Insert Function Icon
2. Select the Statistical category for statistical functions. 3. Scroll to find the appropriate function and click [OK].
Measures of Variation In statistics, to describe the data set accurately, statisticians must know more than the measures of central tendency. Consider Example 3–18.
Example 3–18 Objective
Comparison of Outdoor Paint A testing lab wishes to test two experimental brands of outdoor paint to see how long each will last before fading. The testing lab makes 6 gallons of each paint to test. Since different chemical agents are added to each group and only six cans are involved, these two groups constitute two small populations. The results (in months) are shown. Find the mean of each group.
Brand A
Brand B
The mean for brand A is m
X 210 35 months N 6
The mean for brand B is m
Since the means are equal in Example 3–18, you might conclude that both brands of paint last equally well. However, when the data sets are examined graphically, a somewhat different conclusion might be drawn. See Figure 3–2. As Figure 3–2 shows, even though the means are the same for both brands, the spread, or variation, is quite different. Figure 3–2 shows that brand B performs more consistently; it is less variable. For the spread or variability of a data set, three measures are commonly used: range, variance, and standard deviation. Each measure will be discussed in this section.
Range The range is the simplest of the three measures and is defined now. The range is the highest value minus the lowest value. The symbol R is used for the range. R highest value lowest value Variation of paint (in months)
Figure 3–2 Examining Data Sets Graphically
(a) Brand A
Variation of paint (in months)
20 (b) Brand B
Comparison of Outdoor Paint Find the ranges for the paints in Example 3–18. Solution
For brand A, the range is R 60 10 50 months For brand B, the range is R 45 25 20 months Make sure the range is given as a single number. The range for brand A shows that 50 months separate the largest data value from the smallest data value. For brand B, 20 months separate the largest data value from the smallest data value, which is less than one-half of brand A's range. One extremely high or one extremely low data value can affect the range markedly, as shown in Example 3–20.
Employee Salaries The salaries for the staff of the XYZ Manufacturing Co. are shown here. Find the range. Staff Owner Manager Sales representative Workers
Salary $100,000 40,000 30,000 25,000 15,000 18,000
The range is R $100,000 $15,000 $85,000. Since the owner's salary is included in the data for Example 3–20, the range is a large number. To have a more meaningful statistic to measure the variability, statisticians use measures called the variance and standard deviation.
Population Variance and Standard Deviation Before the variance and standard deviation are defined formally, the computational procedure will be shown, since the definition is derived from the procedure. Rounding Rule for the Standard Deviation The rounding rule for the standard deviation is the same as that for the mean. The final answer should be rounded to one more decimal place than that of the original data.
Comparison of Outdoor Paint Find the variance and standard deviation for the data set for brand A paint in Example 3–18. 10, 60, 50, 30, 40, 20 3–23
Find the mean for the data. m
X 10 60 50 30 40 20 210 35 N 6 6
Subtract the mean from each data value. 10 35 25 60 35 25
Square each result. ( 25)2 625 ( 25)2 625
50 35 15 30 35 5 ( 15)2 225 ( 5)2 25
( 5)2 25 ( 15)2 225
Find the sum of the squares. 625 625 225 25 25 225 1750
Divide the sum by N to get the variance. Variance 1750 6 291.7
Take the square root of the variance to get the standard deviation. Hence, the standard deviation equals 291.7, or 17.1. It is helpful to make a table. A Values X 10 60 50 30 40 20
B X M
C (X M)2
625 625 225 25 25 225 1750
Column A contains the raw data X. Column B contains the differences X m obtained in step 2. Column C contains the squares of the differences obtained in step 3.
Karl Pearson in 1892 and 1893 introduced the statistical concepts of the range and standard deviation.
The preceding computational procedure reveals several things. First, the square root of the variance gives the standard deviation; and vice versa, squaring the standard deviation gives the variance. Second, the variance is actually the average of the square of the distance that each value is from the mean. Therefore, if the values are near the mean, the variance will be small. In contrast, if the values are far from the mean, the variance will be large. You might wonder why the squared distances are used instead of the actual distances. One reason is that the sum of the distances will always be zero. To verify this result for a specific case, add the values in column B of the table in Example 3–21. When each value is squared, the negative signs are eliminated. Finally, why is it necessary to take the square root? The reason is that since the distances were squared, the units of the resultant numbers are the squares of the units of the original raw data. Finding the square root of the variance puts the standard deviation in the same units as the raw data. When you are finding the square root, always use its positive value, since the variance and standard deviation of a data set can never be negative.
The variance is the average of the squares of the distance each value is from the mean. The symbol for the population variance is s2 (s is the Greek lowercase letter sigma). The formula for the population variance is s2
X m 2 N
where X individual value m population mean N population size The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. The symbol for the population standard deviation is s. The corresponding formula for the population standard deviation is s s 2
Comparison of Outdoor Paint Find the variance and standard deviation for brand B paint data in Example 3–18. The months were 35, 45, 30, 35, 40, 25 Solution
Find the mean. X 35 45 30 35 40 25 210 m 35 N 6 6 Subtract the mean from each value, and place the result in column B of the table.
Square each result and place the squares in column C of the table.
Each person receives on average 598 pieces of mail per year.
A X
0 10 5 0 5 10
0 100 25 0 25 100
Find the sum of the squares in column C. (X m)2 0 100 25 0 25 100 250
Divide the sum by N to get the variance. s2
X m 2 250 41.7 N 6
Take the square root to get the standard deviation. s
X m 2 41.7 6.5 N
Hence, the standard deviation is 6.5.
Since the standard deviation of brand A is 17.1 (see Example 3–21) and the standard deviation of brand B is 6.5, the data are more variable for brand A. In summary, when the means are equal, the larger the variance or standard deviation is, the more variable the data are.
Sample Variance and Standard Deviation When computing the variance for a sample, one might expect the following expression to be used: X X 2 n where X is the sample mean and n is the sample size. This formula is not usually used, however, since in most cases the purpose of calculating the statistic is to estimate the corresponding parameter. For example, the sample mean X is used to estimate the population mean m. The expression X X 2 n does not give the best estimate of the population variance because when the population is large and the sample is small (usually less than 30), the variance computed by this formula usually underestimates the population variance. Therefore, instead of dividing by n, find the variance of the sample by dividing by n 1, giving a slightly larger value and an unbiased estimate of the population variance. The formula for the sample variance, denoted by s 2, is s2
where X sample mean n sample size
To find the standard deviation of a sample, you must take the square root of the sample variance, which was found by using the preceding formula. Formula for the Sample Standard Deviation The standard deviation of a sample (denoted by s) is s s 2
where X individual value X sample mean n sample size
Shortcut formulas for computing the variance and standard deviation are presented next and will be used in the remainder of the chapter and in the exercises. These formulas are mathematically equivalent to the preceding formulas and do not involve using the mean. They save time when repeated subtracting and squaring occur in the original formulas. They are also more accurate when the mean has been rounded. 3–26
Shortcut or Computational Formulas for s2 and s The shortcut formulas for computing the variance and standard deviation for data obtained from samples are as follows. Variance s2
n X 2 X 2 n n 1
Standard deviation s
Examples 3–23 and 3–24 explain how to use the shortcut formulas.
European Auto Sales Find the sample variance and standard deviation for the amount of European auto sales for a sample of 6 years shown. The data are in millions of dollars. 11.2, 11.9, 12.0, 12.8, 13.4, 14.3 Source: USA TODAY.
Find the sum of the values. X 11.2 11.9 12.0 12.8 13.4 14.3 75.6
Square each value and find the sum. X 2 11.22 11.92 12.02 12.82 13.42 14.32 958.94
Substitute in the formulas and solve. s2
6 958.94 75.62 6 6 1 5753.64 5715.36 6 5 38.28 30 1.276
The variance is 1.28 rounded. s 1.28 1.13 Hence, the sample standard deviation is 1.13. Note that X 2 is not the same as ( X )2. The notation X 2 means to square the values first, then sum; ( X )2 means to sum the values first, then square the sum.
Variance and Standard Deviation for Grouped Data The procedure for finding the variance and standard deviation for grouped data is similar to that for finding the mean for grouped data, and it uses the midpoints of each class. 3–27
Miles Run per Week Find the variance and the standard deviation for the frequency distribution of the data in Example 2–7. The data represent the number of miles that 20 runners ran during one week. Class
Make a table as shown, and find the midpoint of each class. A
At birth men outnumber women by 2%. By age 25, the number of men living is about equal to the number of women living. By age 65, there are 14% more women living than men.
f X 2m
Find the sums of columns B, D, and E. The sum of column B is n, the sum of column D is f Xm, and the sum of column E is f X m2 . The completed table is shown.
A Class 5.5–10.5 10.5–15.5 15.5–20.5 20.5–25.5 25.5–30.5 30.5–35.5 35.5–40.5
B Frequency 1 2 3 5 4 3 2 n 20
f Xm
Multiply the frequency by the square of the midpoint, and place the products in column E. 1 82 64
Multiply the frequency by the midpoint for each class, and place the products in column D. 1 8 8
C Midpoint
E f X 2m
64 338 972 2,645 3,136 3,267 2,888
f • Xm2 13,310
Substitute in the formula and solve for s2 to get the variance. n f • Xm2 f • Xm 2 n n 1 20 13,310 4902 20 20 1 266,200 240,100 20 19 26,100 380 68.7
Take the square root to get the standard deviation. s 68.7 8.3
Be sure to use the number found in the sum of column B (i.e., the sum of the frequencies) for n. Do not use the number of classes. The steps for finding the variance and standard deviation for grouped data are summarized in this Procedure Table.
Finding the Sample Variance and Standard Deviation for Grouped Data Step 1
Make a table as shown, and find the midpoint of each class. A Class
E f X m2
Multiply the frequency by the midpoint for each class, and place the products in column D.
Multiply the frequency by the square of the midpoint, and place the products in column E.
Find the sums of columns B, D, and E. (The sum of column B is n. The sum of column D is f Xm. The sum of column E is f X m2 .)
Substitute in the formula and solve to get the variance.
The average number of times that a man cries in a month is 1.4.
B Frequency
n f • Xm2 f • Xm 2 n n 1
Take the square root to get the standard deviation.
The three measures of variation are summarized in Table 3–2.
Summary of Measures of Variation
Range Variance
Distance between highest value and lowest value Average of the squares of the distance that each value is from the mean Square root of the variance
Symbol(s) R s 2, s 2 s, s
Uses of the Variance and Standard Deviation 1. As previously stated, variances and standard deviations can be used to determine the spread of the data. If the variance or standard deviation is large, the data are more dispersed. This information is useful in comparing two (or more) data sets to determine which is more (most) variable. 2. The measures of variance and standard deviation are used to determine the consistency of a variable. For example, in the manufacture of fittings, such as nuts and bolts, the variation in the diameters must be small, or the parts will not fit together. 3. The variance and standard deviation are used to determine the number of data values that fall within a specified interval in a distribution. For example, Chebyshev's theorem (explained later) shows that, for any distribution, at least 75% of the data values will fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean. 4. Finally, the variance and standard deviation are used quite often in inferential statistics. These uses will be shown in later chapters of this textbook.
Karl Pearson devised the coefficient of variation to compare the deviations of two different groups such as the heights of men and women.
Coefficient of Variation Whenever two samples have the same units of measure, the variance and standard deviation for each can be compared directly. For example, suppose an automobile dealer wanted to compare the standard deviation of miles driven for the cars she received as trade-ins on new cars. She found that for a specific year, the standard deviation for Buicks was 422 miles and the standard deviation for Cadillacs was 350 miles. She could say that the variation in mileage was greater in the Buicks. But what if a manager wanted to compare the standard deviations of two different variables, such as the number of sales per salesperson over a 3-month period and the commissions made by these salespeople? A statistic that allows you to compare standard deviations when the units are different, as in this example, is called the coefficient of variation. The coefficient of variation, denoted by CVar, is the standard deviation divided by the mean. The result is expressed as a percentage. For samples, s CVar 100 X
For populations, s CVar 100 m
Sales of Automobiles The mean of the number of sales of cars over a 3-month period is 87, and the standard deviation is 5. The mean of the commissions is $5225, and the standard deviation is $773. Compare the variations of the two. Solution
The coefficients of variation are s 5 100 5.7% sales X 87 773 100 14.8% commissions CVar 5225 Since the coefficient of variation is larger for commissions, the commissions are more variable than the sales. CVar
Pages in Women's Fitness Magazines The mean for the number of pages of a sample of women's fitness magazines is 132, with a variance of 23; the mean for the number of advertisements of a sample of women's fitness magazines is 182, with a variance of 62. Compare the variations. Solution
The coefficients of variation are 23 CVar 100 3.6% 132 62 CVar 100 4.3% 182
pages advertisements
The number of advertisements is more variable than the number of pages since the coefficient of variation is larger for advertisements.
Range Rule of Thumb The range can be used to approximate the standard deviation. The approximation is called the range rule of thumb. The Range Rule of Thumb A rough estimate of the standard deviation is s
In other words, if the range is divided by 4, an approximate value for the standard deviation is obtained. For example, the standard deviation for the data set 5, 8, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 13 is 2.7, and the range is 13 5 8. The range rule of thumb is s 2. The range rule of thumb in this case underestimates the standard deviation somewhat; however, it is in the ballpark. A note of caution should be mentioned here. The range rule of thumb is only an approximation and should be used when the distribution of data values is unimodal and roughly symmetric. The range rule of thumb can be used to estimate the largest and smallest data values of a data set. The smallest data value will be approximately 2 standard deviations below the mean, and the largest data value will be approximately 2 standard deviations above the mean of the data set. The mean for the previous data set is 9.3; hence, Smallest data value X 2s 9.3 2 2.8 3.7 Largest data value X 2s 9.3 2 2.8 14.9 Notice that the smallest data value was 5, and the largest data value was 13. Again, these are rough approximations. For many data sets, almost all data values will fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean. Better approximations can be obtained by using Chebyshev's theorem and the empirical rule. These are explained next. 3–31
Chebyshev's Theorem As stated previously, the variance and standard deviation of a variable can be used to determine the spread, or dispersion, of a variable. That is, the larger the variance or standard deviation, the more the data values are dispersed. For example, if two variables measured in the same units have the same mean, say, 70, and the first variable has a standard deviation of 1.5 while the second variable has a standard deviation of 10, then the data for the second variable will be more spread out than the data for the first variable. Chebyshev's theorem, developed by the Russian mathematician Chebyshev (1821–1894), specifies the proportions of the spread in terms of the standard deviation. Chebyshev's theorem The proportion of values from a data set that will fall within k standard deviations of the mean will be at least 1 1 k2, where k is a number greater than 1 (k is not necessarily an integer).
This theorem states that at least three-fourths, or 75%, of the data values will fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean of the data set. This result is found by substituting k 2 in the expression. 1
1 k2
1 1 3 1 75% 22 4 4
For the example in which variable 1 has a mean of 70 and a standard deviation of 1.5, at least three-fourths, or 75%, of the data values fall between 67 and 73. These values are found by adding 2 standard deviations to the mean and subtracting 2 standard deviations from the mean, as shown: 70 2(1.5) 70 3 73 and 70 2(1.5) 70 3 67 For variable 2, at least three-fourths, or 75%, of the data values fall between 50 and 90. Again, these values are found by adding and subtracting, respectively, 2 standard deviations to and from the mean. 70 2(10) 70 20 90 and 70 2(10) 70 20 50 Furthermore, the theorem states that at least eight-ninths, or 88.89%, of the data values will fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean. This result is found by letting k 3 and substituting in the expression. 1
1 1 8 1 88.89% 32 9 9
For variable 1, at least eight-ninths, or 88.89%, of the data values fall between 65.5 and 74.5, since 70 3(1.5) 70 4.5 74.5 and 70 3(1.5) 70 4.5 65.5 For variable 2, at least eight-ninths, or 88.89%, of the data values fall between 40 and 100. 3–32
At least 88.89%
Figure 3–3 Chebyshev's Theorem
At least 75%
X – 3s
X + 2s
This theorem can be applied to any distribution regardless of its shape (see Figure 3–3). Examples 3–27 and 3–28 illustrate the application of Chebyshev's theorem.
Prices of Homes The mean price of houses in a certain neighborhood is $50,000, and the standard deviation is $10,000. Find the price range for which at least 75% of the houses will sell. Solution
Chebyshev's theorem states that three-fourths, or 75%, of the data values will fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean. Thus, $50,000 2($10,000) $50,000 $20,000 $70,000 and $50,000 2($10,000) $50,000 $20,000 $30,000 Hence, at least 75% of all homes sold in the area will have a price range from $30,000 to $70,000. Chebyshev's theorem can be used to find the minimum percentage of data values that will fall between any two given values. The procedure is shown in Example 3–28.
Travel Allowances A survey of local companies found that the mean amount of travel allowance for executives was $0.25 per mile. The standard deviation was $0.02. Using Chebyshev's theorem, find the minimum percentage of the data values that will fall between $0.20 and $0.30. 3–33
Subtract the mean from the larger value. $0.30 $0.25 $0.05
Divide the difference by the standard deviation to get k. k
Use Chebyshev's theorem to find the percentage. 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 0.16 0.84 k2 2.5 2 6.25
Hence, at least 84% of the data values will fall between $0.20 and $0.30.
The Empirical (Normal) Rule Chebyshev's theorem applies to any distribution regardless of its shape. However, when a distribution is bell-shaped (or what is called normal), the following statements, which make up the empirical rule, are true. Approximately 68% of the data values will fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean. Approximately 95% of the data values will fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean. Approximately 99.7% of the data values will fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean. For example, suppose that the scores on a national achievement exam have a mean of 480 and a standard deviation of 90. If these scores are normally distributed, then approximately 68% will fall between 390 and 570 (480 90 570 and 480 90 390). Approximately 95% of the scores will fall between 300 and 660 (480 2 90 660 and 480 2 90 300). Approximately 99.7% will fall between 210 and 750 (480 3 90 750 and 480 3 90 210). See Figure 3–4. (The empirical rule is explained in greater detail in Chapter 6.)
Figure 3–4 The Empirical Rule
Applying the Concepts 3–2 Blood Pressure The table lists means and standard deviations. The mean is the number before the plus/minus, and the standard deviation is the number after the plus/minus. The results are from a study attempting to find the average blood pressure of older adults. Use the results to answer the questions. Normotensive Men (n 1200) Age Blood pressure (mm Hg) Systolic Diastolic
55 10 123 9 78 7
Women (n 1400)
Men (n 1100)
1. Apply Chebyshev's theorem to the systolic blood pressure of normotensive men. At least how many of the men in the study fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean? 2. At least how many of those men in the study fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean? Assume that blood pressure is normally distributed among older adults. Answer the following questions, using the empirical rule instead of Chebyshev's theorem. 3. Give ranges for the diastolic blood pressure (normotensive and hypertensive) of older women. 4. Do the normotensive, male, systolic blood pressure ranges overlap with the hypertensive, male, systolic blood pressure ranges? See page 180 for the answers.
Exercises 3–2 1. What is the relationship between the variance and the standard deviation? The square root of the variance is the standard deviation.
2. Why might the range not be the best estimate of variability? One extremely high or one extremely low data value will influence the range.
3. What are the symbols used to represent the population variance and standard deviation? s2; s 4. What are the symbols used to represent the sample variance and standard deviation? s2; s 5. Why is the unbiased estimator of variance used? 6. The three data sets have the same mean and range, but is the variation the same? Prove your answer by computing the standard deviation. Assume the data were obtained from samples. a. 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 b. 5, 6, 7, 11, 15, 16, 17 c. 5, 5, 5, 11, 17, 17, 17 No, a has the smallest variation; c has the biggest variation.
For Exercises 7–17, find the range, variance, and standard deviation unless the question asks for something different. Assume the data represent samples, and use the shortcut formula for the unbiased estimator to compute the variance and standard deviation. 7. Police Calls in Schools The number of incidents in which police were needed for a sample of 10 schools in Allegheny County is 7, 37, 3, 8, 48, 11, 6, 0, 10, 3. Are the data consistent or do they vary? Explain your answer. 48; 254.7; 15.9 (rounded to 16) The data vary widely. Source: U.S. Department of Education.
8. Cigarette Taxes The increases (in cents) in cigarette taxes for 17 states in a 6-month period are 60, 20, 40, 40, 45, 12, 34, 51, 30, 70, 42, 31, 69, 32, 8, 18, 50 Use the range rule of thumb to estimate the standard deviation. Compare the estimate to the actual standard deviation. 62; 332.4; 18.2; using the range rule of thumb, s 15.5. This is close to the actual standard deviation of 18.2.
Source: Federation of Tax Administrators.
9. Precipitation and High Temperatures The normal daily high temperatures (in degrees Fahrenheit) in January for 10 selected cities are as follows. 50, 37, 29, 54, 30, 61, 47, 38, 34, 61 The normal monthly precipitation (in inches) for these same 10 cities is listed here. 4.8, 2.6, 1.5, 1.8, 1.8, 3.3, 5.1, 1.1, 1.8, 2.5 Source: New York Times Almanac.
10. Size of U.S. States The total surface area (in square miles) for each of six selected Eastern states is listed here. 28,995 PA 37,534 FL 31,361 NY 27,087 VA 20,966 ME 37,741 GA The total surface area for each of six selected Western states is listed (in square miles). 72,964 AZ 70,763 NV 101,510 CA 62,161 OR 66,625 CO 54,339 UT Which set is more variable? Source: New York Times Almanac.
11. Stories in the Tallest Buildings The number of stories in the 13 tallest buildings for two different cities is listed below. Which set of data is more variable? Houston: 75, 71, 64, 56, 53, 55, 47, 55, 52, 50, 50, 50, 47 Pittsburgh: 64, 54, 40, 32, 46, 44, 42, 41, 40, 40, 34, 32, 30 Source: World Almanac.
12. Starting Teachers' Salaries Starting teachers' salaries (in equivalent U.S. dollars) for upper secondary education in selected countries are listed below. Which set of data is more variable? (The U.S. average starting salary at this time was $29,641.) Sweden Germany Spain Finland Denmark Netherlands Scotland
Asia $48,704 41,441 32,679 32,136 30,384 29,326 27,789
Korea Japan India Malaysia Philippines Thailand
$26,852 23,493 18,247 13,647 9,857 5,862
13. The average age of U.S. astronaut candidates in the past has been 34, but candidates have ranged in age from 26 to 46. Use the range rule of thumb to estimate the standard deviation of the applicants' ages. Source: www.nasa.gov s R/4 so s 5 years.
14. Times Spent in Rush-Hour Traffic A sample of 12 drivers shows the time that they spent (in minutes) stopped in rush-hour traffic on a specific snowy day last winter. a. 22 b. 35.5 c. 5.96 3–36
15. Football Playoff Statistics The number of yards gained in NFL playoff games by rookie quarterbacks is shown. a. 160 b. 1984.5 c. 44.5 193 157 135
Which set is more variable?
16. Passenger Vehicle Deaths The number of people killed in each state from passenger vehicle crashes for a specific year is shown. a. 2721 b. 355,427.6 c. 596.2 778 1067 218 193 730 305 69 155 414 214
309 826 492 262 1185 123 451 450 981 130
1110 76 65 452 2707 948 951 2080 2786 396
324 205 186 875 1279 343 104 565 82 620
705 152 712 82 390 602 985 875 793 797
17. Find the range, variance, and standard deviation for the data in Exercise 17 of Section 2–1. a. 46 b. 77.48 c. 8.8 For Exercises 18 through 27, find the variance and standard deviation. 18. Baseball Team Batting Averages Team batting averages for major league baseball in 2005 are represented below. Find the variance and standard deviation for each league. Compare the results. NL 0.252–0.256 0.257–0.261 0.262–0.266 0.267–0.271 0.272–0.276
AL 4 6 1 4 1
0.256–0.261 0.262–0.267 0.268–0.273 0.274–0.279 0.280–0.285
Source: World Almanac. NL: s2 0.00004, s 0.0066
AL: s2 0.0000476, s 0.0069
19. Cost per Load of Laundry Detergents The costs per load (in cents) of 35 laundry detergents tested by a consumer organization are shown here. 133.6; 11.6 Class limits
20. Automotive Fuel Efficiency Thirty automobiles were tested for fuel efficiency (in miles per gallon). This frequency distribution was obtained. 25.7; 5.1
25. Battery Lives Eighty randomly selected batteries were tested to determine their lifetimes (in hours). The following frequency distribution was obtained.
62.5–73.5 73.5–84.5 84.5–95.5 95.5–106.5 106.5–117.5 117.5–128.5
21. Murders in Cities The data show the number of murders in 25 selected cities. 27,941.46; 167.2 Class limits
34–96 97–159 160–222 223–285 286–348 349–411 412–474 475–537 538–600
lifetimes of the batteries is quite large.
27. Word Processor Repairs This frequency distribution represents the data obtained from a sample of word processor repairers. The values are the days between service calls on 80 machines. 11.7; 3.4
0.847; 0.920
23. FM Radio Stations A random sample of 30 states shows the number of low-power FM radio stations for each state. Class limits
1–9 10–18 19–27 28–36 37–45 46–54
5 7 10 3 3 2
Source: Federal Communications Commission. 167.2; 12.93
24. Murder Rates The data represent the murder rate per 100,000 individuals in a sample of selected cities in the United States. 134.3; 11.6 Frequency
5–11 12–18 19–25 26–32 33–39 40–46
Source: FBI and U.S. Census Bureau.
Can it be concluded that the lifetimes of these brands of batteries are consistent? 211.2; 14.5; no, the variability of the 26. Find the variance and standard deviation for the two distributions in Exercises 8 and 18 in Section 2–2. Compare the variation of the data sets. Decide if one data set is more variable than the other.
22. Reaction Times In a study of reaction times to a specific stimulus, a psychologist recorded these data (in seconds).
5 9 32 20 12 2
28. Missing Work The average number of days construction workers miss per year is 11. The standard deviation is 2.3. The average number of days factory workers miss per year is 8 with a standard deviation of 1.8. Which class is more variable in terms of days missed? 29. Suspension Bridges The lengths (in feet) of the main span of the longest suspension bridges in the United States and the rest of the world are shown below. Which set of data is more variable? United States: 4205, 4200, 3800, 3500, 3478, 2800, 2800, 2310 World: 6570, 5538, 5328, 4888, 4626, 4544, 4518, 3970 Source: World Almanac.
30. Hospital Emergency Waiting Times The mean of the waiting times in an emergency room is 80.2 minutes with a standard deviation of 10.5 minutes for people who are admitted for additional treatment. The mean waiting time for patients who are discharged after receiving treatment is 120.6 minutes with a standard deviation of 18.3 minutes. Which times are more variable? 31. Ages of Accountants The average age of the accountants at Three Rivers Corp. is 26 years, with a standard deviation of 6 years; the average salary of the accountants is $31,000, with a standard deviation of $4000. Compare the variations of age and income. 23.1%; 12.9%; age is more variable. 3–37
32. Using Chebyshev's theorem, solve these problems for a distribution with a mean of 80 and a standard deviation of 10. a. At least what percentage of values will fall between 60 and 100? 75% b. At least what percentage of values will fall between 65 and 95? 56% 33. The mean of a distribution is 20 and the standard deviation is 2. Use Chebyshev's theorem. a. At least what percentage of the values will fall between 10 and 30? 96% b. At least what percentage of the values will fall between 12 and 28? 93.75% 34. In a distribution of 160 values with a mean of 72, at least 120 fall within the interval 67–77. Approximately what percentage of values should fall in the interval 62–82? Use Chebyshev's theorem. At least 93.75% 35. Calories The average number of calories in a regularsize bagel is 240. If the standard deviation is 38 calories, find the range in which at least 75% of the data will lie. Use Chebyshev's theorem. Between 164 and 316 calories 36. Time Spent Online Americans spend an average of 3 hours per day online. If the standard deviation is 32 minutes, find the range in which at least 88.89% of the data will lie. Use Chebyshev's theorem. Source: www.cs.cmu.edu Between 84 and 276 minutes
37. Solid Waste Production The average college student produces 640 pounds of solid waste each year. If the standard deviation is approximately 85 pounds, within what weight limits will at least 88.89% of all students' garbage lie? Between 385 and 895 pounds Source: Environmental Sustainability Committee, www.esc.mtu.edu
38. Sale Price of Homes The average sale price of new one-family houses in the United States for 2003 was $246,300. Find the range of values in which at least 75% of the sale prices will lie if the standard deviation is $48,500. Between $149,300 and $343,300 Source: New York Times Almanac.
39. Trials to Learn a Maze The average of the number of trials it took a sample of mice to learn to traverse a maze was 12. The standard deviation was 3. Using Chebyshev's theorem, find the minimum percentage of data values that will fall in the range of 4–20 trials. 86% 40. Farm Sizes The average farm in the United States in 2004 contained 443 acres. The standard deviation is 42 acres. Use Chebyshev's theorem to find the minimum percentage of data values that will fall in the range of 338–548 acres. At least 84% Source: World Almanac.
41. Citrus Fruit Consumption The average U.S. yearly per capita consumption of citrus fruit is 26.8 pounds. Suppose that the distribution of fruit amounts consumed is bell-shaped with a standard deviation equal to 4.2 pounds. What percentage of Americans would you expect to consume more than 31 pounds of citrus fruit per year? 16% Source: USDA/Economic Research Service.
42. Work Hours for College Faculty The average full-time faculty member in a post-secondary degree-granting institution works an average of 53 hours per week. a. If we assume the standard deviation is 2.8 hours, what percentage of faculty members work more than 58.6 hours a week? No more than 12.5% b. If we assume a bell-shaped distribution, what percentage of faculty members work more than 58.6 hours a week? 2.5% Source: National Center for Education Statistics.
Extending the Concepts 43. Serum Cholesterol Levels For this data set, find the mean and standard deviation of the variable. The data represent the serum cholesterol levels of 30 individuals. Count the number of data values that fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean. Compare this with the number obtained from Chebyshev's theorem. Comment on the answer. 211 240 255 219 204 200 212 193 187 205 256 203 210 221 249 231 212 236 204 187 201 247 206 187 200 237 227 221 192 196 All the data values fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
44. Ages of Consumers For this data set, find the mean and standard deviation of the variable. The data represent the ages of 30 customers who ordered a product advertised on television. Count the number of data values that fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean. Compare this with the number obtained from Chebyshev's theorem. Comment on the answer. 93.3%; All but two data values fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
45. Using Chebyshev's theorem, complete the table to find the minimum percentage of data values that fall within k standard deviations of the mean. k 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 56 75 84 88.89 92 Percent 46. Use this data set: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 a. Find the standard deviation. 15.81 b. Add 5 to each value, and then find the standard deviation. 15.81 c. Subtract 5 from each value and find the standard deviation. 15.81 d. Multiply each value by 5 and find the standard deviation. 79.06 e. Divide each value by 5 and find the standard deviation. 3.16 f. Generalize the results of parts b through e. g. Compare these results with those in Exercise 38 of Exercises 3–1.
Find the mean deviation for these data. 5, 9, 10, 11, 11, 12, 15, 18, 20, 22 4.36 48. A measure to determine the skewness of a distribution is called the Pearson coefficient of skewness (PC). The formula is PC
3 X MD s
The values of the coefficient usually range from 3 to 3. When the distribution is symmetric, the coefficient is zero; when the distribution is positively skewed, it is positive; and when the distribution is negatively skewed, it is negative. Using the formula, find the coefficient of skewness for each distribution, and describe the shape of the distribution. a. Mean 10, median 8, standard deviation 3. b. Mean 42, median 45, standard deviation 4. c. Mean 18.6, median 18.6, standard deviation 1.5. d. Mean 98, median 97.6, standard deviation 4.
47. The mean deviation is found by using this formula: Mean deviation
49. All values of a data set must be within s n 1 of the mean. If a person collected 25 data values that had a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 3 and you saw that one data value was 67, what would you conclude?
where X value X mean n number of values
Finding Measures of Variation
Find the variance, standard deviation, and range of the data from Example 3–23. The data represent the amount (in millions of dollars) of European auto sales for a sample of 6 years. 11.2 1. 2. 3. 4.
On an Excel worksheet enter the data in cells A2–A7. Enter a label for the variable in cell A1. For the sample variance, enter =VAR(A2:A7). For the sample standard deviation, enter =STDEV(A2:A7). For the range, compute the difference between the maximum and the minimum values by entering =MAX(A2:A7) MIN(A2:A7).
These and other statistical functions can also be accessed without typing them into the worksheet directly. 1. Select the Formulas tab from the toolbar and select the Insert Function Icon 2. Select the Statistical category for statistical functions. 3. Scroll to find the appropriate function and click [OK].
3–3 Objective 3 Identify the position of a data value in a data set, using various measures of position, such as percentiles, deciles, and quartiles.
Measures of Position In addition to measures of central tendency and measures of variation, there are measures of position or location. These measures include standard scores, percentiles, deciles, and quartiles. They are used to locate the relative position of a data value in the data set. For example, if a value is located at the 80th percentile, it means that 80% of the values fall below it in the distribution and 20% of the values fall above it. The median is the value that corresponds to the 50th percentile, since one-half of the values fall below it and onehalf of the values fall above it. This section discusses these measures of position.
Standard Scores There is an old saying, "You can't compare apples and oranges." But with the use of statistics, it can be done to some extent. Suppose that a student scored 90 on a music test and 45 on an English exam. Direct comparison of raw scores is impossible, since the exams might not be equivalent in terms of number of questions, value of each question, and so on. However, a comparison of a relative standard similar to both can be made. This comparison uses the mean and standard deviation and is called a standard score or z score. (We also use z scores in later chapters.) A standard score or z score tells how many standard deviations a data value is above or below the mean for a specific distribution of values. If a standard score is zero, then the data value is the same as the mean. A z score or standard score for a value is obtained by subtracting the mean from the value and dividing the result by the standard deviation. The symbol for a standard score is z. The formula is value mean z standard deviation For samples, the formula is X X s For populations, the formula is z
X m s
The z score represents the number of standard deviations that a data value falls above or below the mean.
For the purpose of this section, it will be assumed that when we find z scores, the data were obtained from samples.
The average number of faces that a person learns to recognize and remember during his or her lifetime is 10,000.
Test Scores A student scored 65 on a calculus test that had a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10; she scored 30 on a history test with a mean of 25 and a standard deviation of 5. Compare her relative positions on the two tests. Solution
First, find the z scores. For calculus the z score is z
X X 65 50 1.5 s 10
Section 3–3 Measures of Position
For history the z score is z
30 25 1.0 5
Since the z score for calculus is larger, her relative position in the calculus class is higher than her relative position in the history class. Note that if the z score is positive, the score is above the mean. If the z score is 0, the score is the same as the mean. And if the z score is negative, the score is below the mean.
Test Scores Find the z score for each test, and state which is higher. Test A Test B
X 38 X 94
X 40 X 100
s 5 s 10
For test A, z
X X 38 40 0.4 s 5
For test B, z
94 100 0.6 10
The score for test A is relatively higher than the score for test B.
When all data for a variable are transformed into z scores, the resulting distribution will have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. A z score, then, is actually the number of standard deviations each value is from the mean for a specific distribution. In Example 3–29, the calculus score of 65 was actually 1.5 standard deviations above the mean of 50. This will be explained in greater detail in Chapter 6.
Percentiles Percentiles are position measures used in educational and health-related fields to indicate the position of an individual in a group. Percentiles divide the data set into 100 equal groups.
In many situations, the graphs and tables showing the percentiles for various measures such as test scores, heights, or weights have already been completed. Table 3–3 shows the percentile ranks for scaled scores on the Test of English as a Foreign Language. If a student had a scaled score of 58 for section 1 (listening and comprehension), that student would have a percentile rank of 81. Hence, that student did better than 81% of the students who took section 1 of the exam. 3–41
The highest recorded temperature on earth was 136 F in Libya in 1922. The lowest recorded temperature on earth was 129 F in Antarctica in 1983.
Scaled score 68 66 64 62 60 →58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 Mean S.D.
Percentile Ranks and Scaled Scores on the Test of English as a Foreign Language*
Section 1: Listening comprehension 99 98 96 92 87 81 73 64 54 42 32 22 14 9 5 3 2 1
Section 2: Structure and written expression 98 96 94 90 84 76 68 58 48 38 29 21 15 10 7 4 3 2 1 1 52.2 7.9
Section 3: Vocabulary and reading comprehension
Total scaled score
98 96 93 88 81 72 61 50 40 30 23 16 11 8 5 3 2 1 1
99 97 94 89 82 73 62 50 39 29 20 13 9 5 3 1 1
Mean S.D.
*Based on the total group of 1,178,193 examinees tested from July 1989 through June 1991. Source: Reprinted by permission of Educational Testing Service, the copyright owner. However, the test question and any other testing information are provided in their entirety by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. No endorsement of this publication by Educational Testing Service should be inferred.
Figure 3–5 shows percentiles in graphical form of weights of girls from ages 2 to 18. To find the percentile rank of an 11-year-old who weighs 82 pounds, start at the 82-pound weight on the left axis and move horizontally to the right. Find 11 on the horizontal axis and move up vertically. The two lines meet at the 50th percentile curved line; hence, an 11-year-old girl who weighs 82 pounds is in the 50th percentile for her age group. If the lines do not meet exactly on one of the curved percentile lines, then the percentile rank must be approximated. Percentiles are also used to compare an individual's test score with the national norm. For example, tests such as the National Educational Development Test (NEDT) are taken by students in ninth or tenth grade. A student's scores are compared with those of other students locally and nationally by using percentile ranks. A similar test for elementary school students is called the California Achievement Test. Percentiles are not the same as percentages. That is, if a student gets 72 correct answers out of a possible 100, she obtains a percentage score of 72. There is no indication of her position with respect to the rest of the class. She could have scored the highest, the lowest, or somewhere in between. On the other hand, if a raw score of 72 corresponds to the 64th percentile, then she did better than 64% of the students in her class. 3–42
Figure 3–5 190
Weights of Girls by Age and Percentile Rankings
95th 180
Source: Distributed by Mead Johnson Nutritional Division. Reprinted with permission.
170 90th
70 150 75th
25th 50
110 10th 100
9 10 11 Age (years)
Percentiles are symbolized by P1, P2, P3, . . . , P99 and divide the distribution into 100 groups. Smallest data value
P1 1%
P98 1%
Largest data value
Percentile graphs can be constructed as shown in Example 3–31. Percentile graphs use the same values as the cumulative relative frequency graphs described in Section 2–2, except that the proportions have been converted to percents. 3–43
Systolic Blood Pressure The frequency distribution for the systolic blood pressure readings (in millimeters of mercury, mm Hg) of 200 randomly selected college students is shown here. Construct a percentile graph. A B C D Class Cumulative Cumulative boundaries Frequency frequency percent 89.5–104.5 104.5–119.5 119.5–134.5 134.5–149.5 149.5–164.5 164.5–179.5
24 62 72 26 12 4 200
Find the cumulative frequencies and place them in column C.
Find the cumulative percentages and place them in column D. To do this step, use the formula cumulative frequency Cumulative % 100 n For the first class, Cumulative %
24 100 12% 200
The completed table is shown here. A Class boundaries 89.5–104.5 104.5–119.5 119.5–134.5 134.5–149.5 149.5–164.5 164.5–179.5
C Cumulative frequency
D Cumulative percent
200 Step 3
Graph the data, using class boundaries for the x axis and the percentages for the y axis, as shown in Figure 3–6.
Once a percentile graph has been constructed, one can find the approximate corresponding percentile ranks for given blood pressure values and find approximate blood pressure values for given percentile ranks. For example, to find the percentile rank of a blood pressure reading of 130, find 130 on the x axis of Figure 3–6, and draw a vertical line to the graph. Then move horizontally to the value on the y axis. Note that a blood pressure of 130 corresponds to approximately the 70th percentile. If the value that corresponds to the 40th percentile is desired, start on the y axis at 40 and draw a horizontal line to the graph. Then draw a vertical line to the x axis and read 3–44
Percentile Graph for Example 3–31
90 Cumulative percentages
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 x 89.5
134.5 149.5 Class boundaries
the value. In Figure 3–6, the 40th percentile corresponds to a value of approximately 118. Thus, if a person has a blood pressure of 118, he or she is at the 40th percentile. Finding values and the corresponding percentile ranks by using a graph yields only approximate answers. Several mathematical methods exist for computing percentiles for data. These methods can be used to find the approximate percentile rank of a data value or to find a data value corresponding to a given percentile. When the data set is large (100 or more), these methods yield better results. Examples 3–32 through 3–35 show these methods. Percentile Formula The percentile corresponding to a given value X is computed by using the following formula: Percentile
of values below X 0.5 100 total number of values
Test Scores A teacher gives a 20-point test to 10 students. The scores are shown here. Find the percentile rank of a score of 12. 18, 15, 12, 6, 8, 2, 3, 5, 20, 10 Solution
Arrange the data in order from lowest to highest. 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20 Then substitute into the formula. number of values below X 0.5 100 Percentile total number of values Since there are six values below a score of 12, the solution is 6 0.5 Percentile 100 65th percentile 10 Thus, a student whose score was 12 did better than 65% of the class. 3–45
Note: One assumes that a score of 12 in Example 3–32, for instance, means theoretically any value between 11.5 and 12.5.
Test Scores Using the data in Example 3–32, find the percentile rank for a score of 6. Solution
There are three values below 6. Thus Percentile
3 0.5 100 35th percentile 10
A student who scored 6 did better than 35% of the class. Examples 3–34 and 3–35 show a procedure for finding a value corresponding to a given percentile.
Test Scores Using the scores in Example 3–32, find the value corresponding to the 25th percentile. Solution
Arrange the data in order from lowest to highest.
2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20 Compute
n•p 100
where n total number of values p percentile Thus, c Step 3
10 • 25 2.5 100
If c is not a whole number, round it up to the next whole number; in this case, c 3. (If c is a whole number, see Example 3–35.) Start at the lowest value and count over to the third value, which is 5. Hence, the value 5 corresponds to the 25th percentile.
Using the data set in Example 3–32, find the value that corresponds to the 60th percentile. Solution Step 1
Arrange the data in order from smallest to largest. 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20
Substitute in the formula. c
n • p 10 • 60 6 100 100
If c is a whole number, use the value halfway between the c and c 1 values when counting up from the lowest value—in this case, the 6th and 7th values. 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20 ↑ ↑ 6th value 7th value The value halfway between 10 and 12 is 11. Find it by adding the two values and dividing by 2. 10 12 11 2
Hence, 11 corresponds to the 60th percentile. Anyone scoring 11 would have done better than 60% of the class. The steps for finding a value corresponding to a given percentile are summarized in this Procedure Table.
Finding a Data Value Corresponding to a Given Percentile Step 1
Substitute into the formula c
where n total number of values p percentile Step 3A If c is not a whole number, round up to the next whole number. Starting at the
lowest value, count over to the number that corresponds to the rounded-up value. Step 3B If c is a whole number, use the value halfway between the cth and (c 1)st values
when counting up from the lowest value.
Quartiles and Deciles Quartiles divide the distribution into four groups, separated by Q1, Q2, Q3. Note that Q1 is the same as the 25th percentile; Q2 is the same as the 50th percentile, or the median; Q3 corresponds to the 75th percentile, as shown: Smallest data value
MD Q2
Q1 25%
Quartiles can be computed by using the formula given for computing percentiles on page 147. For Q1 use p 25. For Q2 use p 50. For Q3 use p 75. However, an easier method for finding quartiles is found in this Procedure Table.
Finding Data Values Corresponding to Q1, Q2, and Q3 Step 1
Find the median of the data values. This is the value for Q2.
Find the median of the data values that fall below Q2. This is the value for Q1.
Find the median of the data values that fall above Q2. This is the value for Q3.
Example 3–36 shows how to find the values of Q1, Q2, and Q3.
Find Q1, Q2, and Q3 for the data set 15, 13, 6, 5, 12, 50, 22, 18. Solution Step 1
Arrange the data in order. 5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50
Find the median (Q2). 5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50 ↑ MD MD
Find the median of the data values less than 14. 5, 6, 12, 13 ↑ Q1 6 12 9 2 So Q1 is 9. Q1
Find the median of the data values greater than 14. 15, 18, 22, 50 ↑ Q3 Q3
Here Q3 is 20. Hence, Q1 9, Q2 14, and Q3 20.
Of the alcoholic beverages consumed in the United States, 85% is beer.
In addition to dividing the data set into four groups, quartiles can be used as a rough measurement of variability. The interquartile range (IQR) is defined as the difference between Q1 and Q3 and is the range of the middle 50% of the data. The interquartile range is used to identify outliers, and it is also used as a measure of variability in exploratory data analysis, as shown in Section 3–4. Deciles divide the distribution into 10 groups, as shown. They are denoted by D1, D2, etc. Smallest data value
D1 10%
Note that D1 corresponds to P10; D2 corresponds to P20; etc. Deciles can be found by using the formulas given for percentiles. Taken altogether then, these are the relationships among percentiles, deciles, and quartiles. Deciles are denoted by D1, D2, D3, . . . , D9, and they correspond to P10, P20, P30, . . . , P90. Quartiles are denoted by Q1, Q2, Q3 and they correspond to P25, P50, P75. The median is the same as P50 or Q2 or D5. The position measures are summarized in Table 3–4.
Summary of Position Measures
Standard score or z score Percentile
Number of standard deviations that a data value is above or below the mean Position in hundredths that a data value holds in the distribution Position in tenths that a data value holds in the distribution Position in fourths that a data value holds in the distribution
Decile Quartile
Symbol(s) z Pn Dn Qn
Outliers A data set should be checked for extremely high or extremely low values. These values are called outliers. An outlier is an extremely high or an extremely low data value when compared with the rest of the data values.
An outlier can strongly affect the mean and standard deviation of a variable. For example, suppose a researcher mistakenly recorded an extremely high data value. This value would then make the mean and standard deviation of the variable much larger than they really were. Outliers can have an effect on other statistics as well. There are several ways to check a data set for outliers. One method is shown in this Procedure Table. 3–49
Procedure for Identifying Outliers Step 1
Arrange the data in order and find Q1 and Q3.
Find the interquartile range: IQR Q3 Q1.
Multiply the IQR by 1.5.
Subtract the value obtained in step 3 from Q1 and add the value to Q3.
Check the data set for any data value that is smaller than Q1 1.5(IQR) or larger than Q3 1.5(IQR).
This procedure is shown in Example 3–37.
Check the following data set for outliers. 5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50 Solution
The data value 50 is extremely suspect. These are the steps in checking for an outlier. Step 1
Find Q1 and Q3. This was done in Example 3–36; Q1 is 9 and Q3 is 20.
Find the interquartile range (IQR), which is Q3 Q1. IQR Q3 Q1 20 9 11
Multiply this value by 1.5. 1.5(11) 16.5
Subtract the value obtained in step 3 from Q1, and add the value obtained in step 3 to Q3. 9 16.5 7.5
Check the data set for any data values that fall outside the interval from 7.5 to 36.5. The value 50 is outside this interval; hence, it can be considered an outlier.
There are several reasons why outliers may occur. First, the data value may have resulted from a measurement or observational error. Perhaps the researcher measured the variable incorrectly. Second, the data value may have resulted from a recording error. That is, it may have been written or typed incorrectly. Third, the data value may have been obtained from a subject that is not in the defined population. For example, suppose test scores were obtained from a seventh-grade class, but a student in that class was actually in the sixth grade and had special permission to attend the class. This student might have scored extremely low on that particular exam on that day. Fourth, the data value might be a legitimate value that occurred by chance (although the probability is extremely small). 3–50
There are no hard-and-fast rules on what to do with outliers, nor is there complete agreement among statisticians on ways to identify them. Obviously, if they occurred as a result of an error, an attempt should be made to correct the error or else the data value should be omitted entirely. When they occur naturally by chance, the statistician must make a decision about whether to include them in the data set. When a distribution is normal or bell-shaped, data values that are beyond 3 standard deviations of the mean can be considered suspected outliers.
Applying the Concepts 3–3 Determining Dosages In an attempt to determine necessary dosages of a new drug (HDL) used to control sepsis, assume you administer varying amounts of HDL to 40 mice. You create four groups and label them low dosage, moderate dosage, large dosage, and very large dosage. The dosages also vary within each group. After the mice are injected with the HDL and the sepsis bacteria, the time until the onset of sepsis is recorded. Your job as a statistician is to effectively communicate the results of the study. 1. Which measures of position could be used to help describe the data results? 2. If 40% of the mice in the top quartile survived after the injection, how many mice would that be? 3. What information can be given from using percentiles? 4. What information can be given from using quartiles? 5. What information can be given from using standard scores? See page 180 for the answers.
Exercises 3–3 1. What is a z score? A z score tells how many standard deviations the data value is above or below the mean.
2. Define percentile rank. A percentile rank indicates the percentage of data values that fall below the specific rank.
3. What is the difference between a percentage and a percentile? A percentile is a relative measurement of position; a percentage is an absolute measure of the part to the total.
4. Define quartile. A quartile is a relative measure of position obtained by dividing the data set into quarters.
5. What is the relationship between quartiles and percentiles? Q1 P25; Q2 P50; Q3 P75 6. What is a decile? A decile is a relative measure of position
Canada Italy United States
26 days 0.40 42 days 1.47 13 days 1.91
Source: www.infoplease.com
10. Age of Senators The average age of Senators in the 108th Congress was 59.5 years. If the standard deviation was 11.5 years, find the z scores corresponding to the oldest and youngest Senators: Robert C. Byrd (D, WV), 86, and John Sununu Sununu: z 1.70 (R, NH), 40. Byrd: z 2.30 Source: CRS Report for Congress.
obtained by dividing the data set into tenths.
7. How are deciles related to percentiles? D1 P10; D2 P20; D3 P30; etc.
8. To which percentile, quartile, and decile does the median correspond? P50; Q2; D5 9. Vacation Days If the average number of vacation days for a selection of various countries has a mean of 29.4 days and a standard deviation of 8.6, find the z scores for the average number of vacation days in each of these countries.
11. Driver's License Exam Scores The average score on a state CDL license exam is 76 with a standard deviation of 5. Find the corresponding z score for each raw score. a. 79 0.6 b. 70 1.2 c. 88 2.4
d. 65 2.2 e. 77 0.2
12. Teacher's Salary The average teacher's salary in a particular state is $54,166. If the standard deviation is 3–51
$10,200, find the salaries corresponding to the following z scores. a. 2 $74,566 b. 1 $43,966 c. 0 $54,166
d. 2.5 $79,666 e. 1.6 $37,846
13. Which has a better relative position: a score of 75 on a statistics test with a mean of 60 and a standard deviation of 10 or a score of 36 on an accounting test with a mean of 30 and a variance of 16? Neither; z 1.5 for each 14. College and University Debt A student graduated from a 4-year college with an outstanding loan of $9650 where the average debt is $8455 with a standard deviation of $1865. Another student graduated from a university with an outstanding loan of $12,360 where the average of the outstanding loans was $10,326 with a standard deviation of $2143. Which student had a higher debt in relationship to his or her peers? 0.64; 0.95. The student from the university has a higher relative debt.
15. Which score indicates the highest relative position?
a. A score of 3.2 on a test with X 4.6 and s 1.5 0.93 b. A score of 630 on a test with X 800 and s 200 0.85 c. A score of 43 on a test with X 50 and s 5 1.4; score in part b is highest
16. College Room and Board Costs Room and board costs for selected schools are summarized in this distribution. Find the approximate cost of room and board corresponding to each of the following percentiles. Costs (in dollars)
3000.5–4000.5 4000.5–5000.5 5000.5–6000.5 6000.5–7000.5 7000.5–8000.5 8000.5–9000.5 9000.5–10,000.5
5 6 18 24 19 8 5
30th percentile 50th percentile 75th percentile 90th percentile
$5806 $6563 $7566 $8563
17. Using the data in Exercise 16, find the approximate percentile rank of each of the following costs. a. b. c. d.
24th 67th 48th 88th
18. Achievement Test Scores (ans) The data shown represent the scores on a national achievement test for a group of 10th-grade students. Find the approximate 3–52
percentile ranks of these scores by constructing a percentile graph. d. 280 76 e. 300 94
a. 220 6 b. 245 24 c. 276 68 Score
196.5–217.5 217.5–238.5 238.5–259.5 259.5–280.5 280.5–301.5 301.5–322.5
19. For the data in Exercise 18, find the approximate scores that correspond to these percentiles. d. 65th 274 e. 80th 284
a. 15th 234 b. 29th 251 c. 43rd 263
20. Airplane Speeds (ans) The airborne speeds in miles per hour of 21 planes are shown. Find the approximate values that correspond to the given percentiles by constructing a percentile graph. Class
366–386 387–407 408–428 429–449 450–470 471–491 492–512 513–533
a. 9th 375 b. 20th 389 c. 45th 433
d. 60th 477 e. 75th 504
21. Using the data in Exercise 20, find the approximate percentile ranks of the following miles per hour (mph). a. 380 mph 13th b. 425 mph 40th c. 455 mph 54th
d. 505 mph 76th e. 525 mph 92nd
22. Average Weekly Earnings The average weekly earnings in dollars for various industries are listed below. Find the percentile rank of each value. 804
94th; 72nd; 61st; 17th; 83rd; 50th; 39th; 28th; 6th Source: New York Times Almanac.
23. For the data from Exercise 22, what value corresponds to the 40th percentile? 597
24. Test Scores Find the percentile rank for each test score in the data set. 7th; 21st; 36th; 50th; 64th; 79th; 93rd 12, 28, 35, 42, 47, 49, 50 25. In Exercise 24, what value corresponds to the 60th percentile? 47 26. Hurricane Damage Find the percentile rank for each value in the data set. The data represent the values in billions of dollars of the damage of 10 hurricanes. 5th; 15th; 25th; 35th; 45th; 55th; 65th; 75th; 85th; 95th
1.1, 1.7, 1.9, 2.1, 2.2, 2.5, 3.3, 6.2, 6.8, 20.3 Source: Insurance Services Office.
27. What value in Exercise 26 corresponds to the 40th percentile? 2.1 28. Test Scores Find the percentile rank for each test score in the data set. 8th; 25th; 42nd; 58th; 75th; 92nd
30. Using the procedure shown in Example 3–37, check each data set for outliers. a. b. c. d. e. f.
16, 18, 22, 19, 3, 21, 17, 20 3 24, 32, 54, 31, 16, 18, 19, 14, 17, 20 54 321, 343, 350, 327, 200 None 88, 72, 97, 84, 86, 85, 100 None 145, 119, 122, 118, 125, 116 145 14, 16, 27, 18, 13, 19, 36, 15, 20 None
31. Another measure of average is called the midquartile; it is the numerical value halfway between Q1 and Q3, and the formula is Midquartile
Q1 Q3 2
Using this formula and other formulas, find Q1, Q2, Q3, the midquartile, and the interquartile range for each data set. a. 5, 12, 16, 25, 32, 38 12; 20.5; 32; 22; 20 b. 53, 62, 78, 94, 96, 99, 103 62; 94; 99; 80.5; 37
5, 12, 15, 16, 20, 21 29. What test score in Exercise 28 corresponds to the 33rd percentile? 12
Calculate Descriptive Statistics from Data
Example MT3–1
1. Enter the data from Example 3–23 into C1 of MINITAB. Name the column AutoSales. 2. Select Stat >Basic Statistics>Display Descriptive Statistics. 3. The cursor will be blinking in the Variables text box. Double-click C1 AutoSales. 4. Click [Statistics] to view the statistics that can be calculated with this command. a) Check the boxes for Mean, Standard deviation, Variance, Coefficient of variation, Median, Minimum, Maximum, and N nonmissing.
b) Remove the checks from other options. 3–53
5. Click [OK] twice. The results will be displayed in the session window as shown. Descriptive Statistics: AutoSales
Variable AutoSales
Mean 12.6
Median 12.4
StDev 1.12960
Variance 1.276
CoefVar 8.96509
Minimum 11.2
Maximum 14.3
Session window results are in text format. A high-resolution graphical window displays the descriptive statistics, a histogram, and a boxplot. 6. Select Stat >Basic Statistics>Graphical Summary. 7. Double-click C1 AutoSales. 8. Click [OK].
The graphical summary will be displayed in a separate window as shown.
Calculate Descriptive Statistics from a Frequency Distribution Multiple menu selections must be used to calculate the statistics from a table. We will use data given in Example 3–24.
Enter Midpoints and Frequencies 1. Select File>New >New Worksheet to open an empty worksheet. 2. To enter the midpoints into C1, select Calc >Make Patterned Data >Simple Set of Numbers. a) Type X to name the column. b) Type in 8 for the First value, 38 for the Last value, and 5 for Steps. c) Click [OK]. 3. Enter the frequencies in C2. Name the column f.
Calculate Columns for f X and f X2 4. Select Calc >Calculator. a) Type in fX for the variable and f*X in the Expression dialog box. Click [OK]. b) Select Edit>Edit Last Dialog and type in fX2 for the variable and f*X**2 for the expression. c) Click [OK]. There are now four columns in the worksheet.
Calculate the Column Sums 5. Select Calc >Column Statistics. This command stores results in constants, not columns. Click [OK] after each step. a) Click the option for Sum; then select C2 f for the Input column, and type n for Store result in. b) Select Edit>Edit Last Dialog; then select C3 fX for the column and type sumX for storage. c) Edit the last dialog box again. This time select C4 fX2 for the column, then type sumX2 for storage. To verify the results, navigate to the Project Manager window, then the constants folder of the worksheet. The sums are 20, 490, and 13,310.
Calculate the Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation 6. Select Calc >Calculator. a) Type Mean for the variable, then click in the box for the Expression and type sumX/n. Click [OK]. If you double-click the constants instead of typing them, single quotes will surround the names. The quotes are not required unless the column name has spaces. b) Click the EditLast Dialog icon and type Variance for the variable. c) In the expression box type in (sumX2-sumX**2/n)/(n-1)
d) Edit the last dialog box and type S for the variable. In the expression box, drag the mouse over the previous expression to highlight it. e) Click the button in the keypad for parentheses. Type SQRT at the beginning of the line, upper- or lowercase will work. The expression should be SQRT((sumX2-sumX**2/n)/(n-1)). f) Click [OK].
Display Results g) Select Data>Display Data, then highlight all columns and constants in the list. h) Click [Select] then [OK]. The session window will display all our work! Create the histogram with instructions from Chapter 2.
n 20.0000 sumX 490.000 sumX2 13310.0 Row 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X 8 13 18 23 28 33 38
f 1 2 3 5 4 3 2
fX 8 26 54 115 112 99 76
fX2 64 338 972 2645 3136 3267 2888
Variance 68.6842
S 8.28759
Calculating Descriptive Statistics To calculate various descriptive statistics: 1. Enter data into L1. 2. Press STAT to get the menu. 3. Press to move cursor to CALC; then press 1 for 1-Var Stats. 4. Press 2nd [L1], then ENTER. The calculator will display x sample mean x sum of the data values x 2 sum of the squares of the data values Sx sample standard deviation sx population standard deviation n number of data values minX smallest data value Q1 lower quartile Med median Q3 upper quartile maxX largest data value Example TI3–1
Find the various descriptive statistics for the auto sales data from Example 3–23: 11.2, 11.9, 12.0, 12.8, 13.4, 14.3 Output
Following the steps just shown, we obtain these results, as shown on the screen: The mean is 12.6. The sum of x is 75.6. The sum of x 2 is 958.94. The sample standard deviation Sx is 1.1296017. The population standard deviation sx is 1.031180553. The sample size n is 6. The smallest data value is 11.2. Q1 is 11.9. The median is 12.4. Q3 is 13.4. The largest data value is 14.3. To calculate the mean and standard deviation from grouped data: 1. Enter the midpoints into L1. 2. Enter the frequencies into L2. 3. Press STAT to get the menu. 4. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to CALC; then press 1 for 1-Var Stats. 5. Press 2nd [L1], 2nd [L2], then ENTER. Example TI3–2
Calculate the mean and standard deviation for the data given in Examples 3–3 and 3–24. Class
The sample mean is 24.5, and the sample standard deviation is 8.287593772. To graph a percentile graph, follow the procedure for an ogive but use the cumulative percent in L2, 100 for Ymax, and the data from Example 3–31.
Measures of Position
Find the z scores for each value of the data from Example 3–23. The data represent the amount (in millions of dollars) of European auto sales for a sample of 6 years. 11.2
1. On an Excel worksheet enter the data in cells A2–A7. Enter a label for the variable in cell A1. 2. Label cell B1 as z score. 3. Select cell B2. 4. Select the Formulas tab from the toolbar and Insert Function
5. Select the Statistical category for statistical functions and scroll in the function list to STANDARDIZE and click [OK]. In the STANDARDIZE dialog box: 6. Type A2 for the X value. 7. Type average(A2:A7) for the Mean. 8. Type stdev(A2:A7) for the Standard_dev. Then click [OK]. 9. Repeat the procedure above for each data value in column A.
Find the percentile rank for each value of the data from Example 3–23. The data represent the amount (in millions of dollars) of European auto sales for a sample of 6 years. 11.2
5. Select the Statistical category for statistical functions and scroll in the function list to PERCENTRANK and click [OK]. In the PERCENTRANK dialog box: 6. Type A2:A7 for the Array.
7. Type A2 for the X value, then click [OK]. 8. Repeat the procedure above for each data value in column A. The PERCENTRANK function returns the percentile rank as a decimal. To convert this to a percentage, multiply the function output by 100. Make sure to select a new column before multiplying the percentile rank by 100.
Descriptive Statistics in Excel Example XL3–5
Excel Analysis Tool-Pak Add-in Data Analysis includes an item called Descriptive Statistics that reports many useful measures for a set of data. 1. Enter the data set shown in cells A1 to A9 of a new worksheet. 12
See the Excel Step by Step in Chapter 1 for the instructions on loading the Analysis Tool-Pak Add-in. 2. Select the Data tab on the toolbar and select Data Analysis. 3. In the Analysis Tools dialog box, scroll to Descriptive Statistics, then click [OK]. 4. Type A1:A9 in the Input Range box and check the Grouped by Columns option. 5. Select the Output Range option and type in cell C1. 6. Check the Summary statistics option and click [OK].
Below is the summary output for this data set.
Use the techniques of exploratory data analysis, including boxplots and fivenumber summaries, to discover various aspects of data.
Exploratory Data Analysis In traditional statistics, data are organized by using a frequency distribution. From this distribution various graphs such as the histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive can be constructed to determine the shape or nature of the distribution. In addition, various statistics such as the mean and standard deviation can be computed to summarize the data. The purpose of traditional analysis is to confirm various conjectures about the nature of the data. For example, from a carefully designed study, a researcher might want to know if the proportion of Americans who are exercising today has increased from 10 years ago. This study would contain various assumptions about the population, various definitions such as of exercise, and so on. In exploratory data analysis (EDA), data can be organized using a stem and leaf plot. (See Chapter 2.) The measure of central tendency used in EDA is the median. The measure of variation used in EDA is the interquartile range Q3 Q1. In EDA the data are represented graphically using a boxplot (sometimes called a box-and-whisker plot). The purpose of exploratory data analysis is to examine data to find out what information can be discovered about the data such as the center and the spread. Exploratory data analysis was developed by John Tukey and presented in his book Exploratory Data Analysis (Addison-Wesley, 1977).
The Five-Number Summary and Boxplots A boxplot can be used to graphically represent the data set. These plots involve five specific values: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The lowest value of the data set (i.e., minimum) Q1 The median Q3 The highest value of the data set (i.e., maximum)
These values are called a five-number summary of the data set. A boxplot is a graph of a data set obtained by drawing a horizontal line from the minimum data value to Q1, drawing a horizontal line from Q3 to the maximum data value, and drawing a box whose vertical sides pass through Q1 and Q3 with a vertical line inside the box passing through the median or Q2.
Section 3–4 Exploratory Data Analysis
Procedure for constructing a boxplot 1. Find the five-number summary for the data values, that is, the maximum and minimum data values, Q1 and Q3, and the median. 2. Draw a horizontal axis with a scale such that it includes the maximum and minimum data values. 3. Draw a box whose vertical sides go through Q1 and Q3, and draw a vertical line though the median. 4. Draw a line from the minimum data value to the left side of the box and a line from the maximum data value to the right side of the box.
Number of Meteorites Found The number of meteorites found in 10 states of the United States is 89, 47, 164, 296, 30, 215, 138, 78, 48, 39. Construct a boxplot for the data. Source: Natural History Museum.
Arrange the data in order: 30, 39, 47, 48, 78, 89, 138, 164, 215, 296
Find the median. 30, 39, 47, 48, 78, 89, 138, 164, 215, 296 ↑ Median 78 89 83.5 Median 2
Find Q1. 30, 39, 47, 48, 78 ↑ Q1
Find Q3. 89, 138, 164, 215, 296 ↑ Q3
Draw a scale for the data on the x axis.
Locate the lowest value, Q1, median, Q3, and the highest value on the scale.
Draw a box around Q1 and Q3, draw a vertical line through the median, and connect the upper value and the lower value to the box. See Figure 3–7. 47
Figure 3–7 Boxplot for Example 3–38
The distribution is somewhat positively skewed.
Information Obtained from a Boxplot 1. a. If the median is near the center of the box, the distribution is approximately symmetric. b. If the median falls to the left of the center of the box, the distribution is positively skewed. c. If the median falls to the right of the center, the distribution is negatively skewed. 2. a. If the lines are about the same length, the distribution is approximately symmetric. b. If the right line is larger than the left line, the distribution is positively skewed. c. If the left line is larger than the right line, the distribution is negatively skewed.
The boxplot in Figure 3–7 indicates that the distribution is slightly positively skewed. If the boxplots for two or more data sets are graphed on the same axis, the distributions can be compared. To compare the averages, use the location of the medians. To compare the variability, use the interquartile range, i.e., the length of the boxes. Example 3–39 shows this procedure.
Sodium Content of Cheese A dietitian is interested in comparing the sodium content of real cheese with the sodium content of a cheese substitute. The data for two random samples are shown. Compare the distributions, using boxplots. Real cheese 310 220
Cheese substitute
Source: The Complete Book of Food Counts.
Find Q1, MD, and Q3 for the real cheese data. 40
↑ Q1
↑ MD
45 90 67.5 2 240 310 Q3 275 2
250 ↑ Q1
Find Q1, MD, and Q3 for the cheese substitute data. 130
↑ Q3 MD
Draw the boxplots for each distribution on the same graph. See Figure 3–8.
Compare the plots. It is quite apparent that the distribution for the cheese substitute data has a higher median than the median for the distribution for the real cheese data. The variation or spread for the distribution of the real cheese data is larger than the variation for the distribution of the cheese substitute data.
Real cheese
Boxplots for Example 3–39
Cheese substitute 215
A modified boxplot can be drawn and used to check for outliers. See Exercise 18 in Extending the Concepts in this section. In exploratory data analysis, hinges are used instead of quartiles to construct boxplots. When the data set consists of an even number of values, hinges are the same as quartiles. Hinges for a data set with an odd number of values differ somewhat from quartiles. However, since most calculators and computer programs use quartiles, they will be used in this textbook. Another important point to remember is that the summary statistics (median and interquartile range) used in exploratory data analysis are said to be resistant statistics. A resistant statistic is relatively less affected by outliers than a nonresistant statistic. The mean and standard deviation are nonresistant statistics. Sometimes when a distribution is skewed or contains outliers, the median and interquartile range may more accurately summarize the data than the mean and standard deviation, since the mean and standard deviation are more affected in this case. Table 3–5 shows the correspondence between the traditional and the exploratory data analysis approach.
Traditional versus EDA Techniques Traditional
Frequency distribution Histogram Mean Standard deviation
Stem and leaf plot Boxplot Median Interquartile range
Applying the Concepts 3–4 The Noisy Workplace Assume you work for OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) and have complaints about noise levels from some of the workers at a state power plant. You charge the power plant with taking decibel readings at six different areas of the plant at different times of the day and week. The results of the data collection are listed. Use boxplots to initially explore the data and make recommendations about which plant areas workers must be provided with protective ear wear. The safe hearing level is approximately 120 decibels. Area 1
30 12 35 65 24 59 68 57 100 61 32 45 92 56 44
100 59 78 97 84 64 53 59 89 88 94 66 57 62 64
59 63 81 110 65 112 132 145 163 120 84 99 105 68 75
67 80 99 49 67 56 80 125 100 93 56 45 80 34 21
Exercises 3–4 4. 147, 243, 156, 632, 543, 303
For Exercises 1–6, identify the five-number summary and find the interquartile range.
147, 156, 273, 543, 632; 387
5. 14.6, 19.8, 16.3, 15.5, 18.2
1. 8, 12, 32, 6, 27, 19, 54 6, 8, 19, 32, 54; 24
14.6, 15.05, 16.3, 19, 19.8; 3.95
6. 9.7, 4.6, 2.2, 3.7, 6.2, 9.4, 3.8 2.2, 3.7, 4.6, 9.4, 9.7; 5.7
2. 19, 16, 48, 22, 7 7, 11.5, 19, 35, 48; 23.5
For Exercises 7–10, use each boxplot to identify the maximum value, minimum value, median, first quartile, third quartile, and interquartile range.
3. 362, 589, 437, 316, 192, 188 188, 192, 339, 437, 589; 245
11, 3, 8, 5, 9, 4
325, 200, 275, 225, 300, 75
6000, 2000, 4000, 3000, 5000; 2000
11. Earned Run Average—Number of Games Pitched Construct a boxplot for the following data and comment on the shape of the distribution representing the number of games pitched by major league baseball's earned run average (ERA) leaders for the past few years. 30 30
12. Innings Pitched Construct a boxplot for the following data which represent the number of innings pitched by the ERA leaders for the past few years. Comment on the shape of the distribution. 192 228 186 199 238 217 213 234 264 187 214 115 238 246 Source: World Almanac.
13. Teacher Strikes The number of teacher strikes over a 13-year period in Pennsylvania is shown. Construct a boxplot for the data. Is the distribution symmetric? 20 7 9 15
Source: Pennsylvania School Boards Association.
14. Visitors Who Travel to Foreign Countries Construct a boxplot for the number (in millions) of visitors who traveled to a foreign country each year for a random selection of years. Comment on the skewness of the distribution. 4.3 0.4
15. Tornadoes in 2005 Construct a boxplot and comment on its skewness for the number of tornadoes recorded each month in 2005. 33 10 62 132 123 316 138 123 133 18 150 26 Source: Storm Prediction Center.
16. Size of Dams These data represent the volumes in cubic yards of the largest dams in the United States and in South America. Construct a boxplot of the data for each region and compare the distributions. United States
311,539 274,026 105,944 102,014 56,242 46,563
17. Number of Tornadoes A four-month record for the number of tornadoes in 2003–2005 is given here. April May June July
a. Which month had the highest mean number of tornadoes for this 3-year period? May: 391.7 b. Which year has the highest mean number of tornadoes for this 4-month period? 2003: 289.8 c. Construct three boxplots and compare the distributions. Source: NWS, Storm Prediction Center.
Extending the Concepts (that is, Q3 Q1). Mild outliers are values between 1.5(IQR) and 3(IQR). Extreme outliers are data values beyond 3(IQR).
18. Unhealthful Smog Days A modified boxplot can be drawn by placing a box around Q1 and Q3 and then extending the whiskers to the largest and/or smallest values within 1.5 times the interquartile range
Extreme outliers
Mild outliers
1.5(IQR)
IQR
For the data shown here, draw a modified boxplot and identify any mild or extreme outliers. The data represent the number of unhealthful smog days for a specific year for the highest 10 locations.
Source: U.S. Public Interest Research Group and Clean Air Network.
Construct a Boxplot 1. Type in the data 33, 38, 43, 30, 29, 40, 51, 27, 42, 23, 31. Label the column Clients. 2. Select Stat >EDA>Boxplot. 3. Double-click Clients to select it for the Y variable. 4. Click on [Labels]. a) In the Title 1: of the Title/Footnotes folder, type Number of Clients. b) Press the [Tab] key and type Your Name in the text box for Subtitle 1:.
5. Click [OK] twice. The graph will be displayed in a graph window.
The number of car thefts in a large city over a 30-day period is shown. 52 58 75 79 57 65
1. Enter the data for this example. Label the column CARS-THEFT. 2. Select Stat>EDA>Boxplot. 3. Double-click CARS-THEFT to select it for the Y variable. 4. Click on the drop-down arrow for Annotation. 5. Click on Title, then enter an appropriate title such as Car Thefts for Large City, U.S.A. 6. Click [OK] twice. A high-resolution graph will be displayed in a graph window.
Boxplot Dialog Box and Boxplot
Constructing a Boxplot To draw a boxplot: 1. Enter data into L1. 2. Change values in WINDOW menu, if necessary. (Note: Make Xmin somewhat smaller than the smallest data value and Xmax somewhat larger than the largest data value.) Change Ymin to 0 and Ymax to 1. 3. Press [2nd] [STAT PLOT], then 1 for Plot 1. 4. Press ENTER to turn Plot 1 on. 5. Move cursor to Boxplot symbol (fifth graph) on the Type: line, then press ENTER. 6. Make sure Xlist is L1. 7. Make sure Freq is 1. 8. Press GRAPH to display the boxplot. 9. Press TRACE followed by or to obtain the values from the five-number summary on the boxplot. To display two boxplots on the same display, follow the above steps and use the 2: Plot 2 and L2 symbols. Example TI3–3
Construct a boxplot for the data values: 33, 38, 43, 30, 29, 40, 51, 27, 42, 23, 31 Input
Using the TRACE key along with the and keys, we obtain the five-number summary. The minimum value is 23; Q1 is 29; the median is 33; Q3 is 42; the maximum value is 51. Output
Constructing a Stem and Leaf Plot and a Boxplot
Excel does not have procedures to produce stem and leaf plots or boxplots. However, you may construct these plots by using the MegaStat Add-in available on your CD or from the Online 3–68
Learning Center. If you have not installed this add-in, refer to the instructions in the Excel Step by Step section of Chapter 1. To obtain a boxplot and stem and leaf plot: 1. Enter the data values 33, 38, 43, 30, 29, 40, 51, 27, 42, 23, 31 into column A of a new Excel worksheet. 2. Select the Add-Ins tab, then MegaStat from the toolbar. 3. Select Descriptive Statistics from the MegaStat menu. 4. Enter the cell range A1:A11 in the Input range. 5. Check both Boxplot and Stem and Leaf Plot. Note: You may leave the other output options unchecked for this example. Click [OK].
The stem and leaf plot and the boxplot are shown below.
Summary • This chapter explains the basic ways to summarize data. These include measures of central tendency. They are the mean, median, mode, and midrange. The weighted mean can also be used. (3–1) • To summarize the variation of data, statisticians use measures of variation or dispersion. The three most common measures of variation are the range, variance, and standard deviation. The coefficient of variation can be used to compare the variation of two data sets. The data values are distributed according to Chebyshev's theorem on the empirical rule. (3–2) • There are several measures of the position of data values in the set. There are standard scores, percentiles, quartiles, and deciles. Sometimes a data set contains an extremely high or extremely low data value, called an outlier. (3–3) • Other methods can be used to describe a data set. These methods are the five-number summary and boxplots. These methods are called exploratory data analysis. (3–4) The techniques explained in Chapter 2 and this chapter are the basic techniques used in descriptive statistics. 3–69
Important Terms bimodal 111
interquartile range (IQR) 151
parameter 106
symmetric distribution 117
boxplot 162
mean 106
percentile 143
Chebyshev's theorem 134
median 109
unimodal 111
midrange 114
positively skewed or rightskewed distribution 117
data array 109
modal class 112
quartile 149
weighted mean 115
decile 151
mode 111
range 124
empirical rule 136
multimodal 111
range rule of thumb 133
z score or standard score 142
exploratory data analysis (EDA) 162
negatively skewed or leftskewed distribution 117
resistant statistic 165
five-number summary 162
outlier 151
statistic 106
variance 127
standard deviation 127
Important Formulas Formula for the mean for individual data: X
X n
Formula for the mean for grouped data: X
Formula for the standard deviation for population data: S
Formula for the standard deviation for sample data (shortcut formula): s
Formula for the weighted mean: X
wX w
Formula for the midrange: MR
Formula for the range: R highest value lowest value Formula for the variance for population data: S2
Formula for the variance for sample data (shortcut formula for the unbiased estimator): n X 2 X 2 s2 n n 1 Formula for the variance for grouped data: s2
Formula for the standard deviation for grouped data: s
Formula for the coefficient of variation: CVar
s 100 X
S 100 M
Expression for Chebyshev's theorem: The proportion of values from a data set that will fall within k standard deviations of the mean will be at least 1
where k is a number greater than 1. Formula for the z score (standard score): z
Formula for finding a value corresponding to a given percentile:
Formula for the cumulative percentage: cumulative frequency Cumulative % 100 n
Formula for the percentile rank of a value X:
number of values below X 0.5 total number of values
Formula for interquartile range: IQR Q3 Q1
Review Exercises 1. Net Worth of Wealthy People The net worth (in billions of dollars) of a sample of the richest people in the United States is shown. Find the mean, median, mode, midrange, variance, and standard deviation for the data. (3–1) (3–2) 59 19
2. Shark Attacks The number of shark attacks and deaths over a recent 5-year period is shown. Find the mean, median, mode, midrange, variance, and standard deviation for the data. Which data set is more variable? (3–1) (3–2) Attacks
3. Battery Lives Twelve batteries were tested to see how many hours they would last. The frequency distribution is shown here. Frequency
Find each of these. (3–1) (3–2) a. Mean 7.3 b. Modal class 7–9
Source: Forbes Magazine.
c. Variance 10.0 d. Standard deviation 3.2
4. SAT Scores The mean SAT math scores for selected states are represented below. Find the mean class, modal class, variance, and standard deviation, and comment on the shape of the data. (3–1) (3–2)
5. Rise in Tides Shown here is a frequency distribution for the rise in tides at 30 selected locations in the United States. Rise in tides (inches)
12.5–27.5 27.5–42.5 42.5–57.5 57.5–72.5 72.5–87.5 87.5–102.5
Find each of these. (3–1) (3–2) c. Variance 566.1 a. Mean 55.5 b. Modal class 57.5–72.5 d. Standard deviation 23.8 6. Fuel Capacity The fuel capacity in gallons of 50 randomly selected cars is shown here. Class
Find each of these. (3–1) (3–2) a. Mean 18.5 b. Modal class 19–21
7. Households with Four Television Networks A survey showed the number of viewers and number of households of four television networks. Find the average number of viewers, using the weighted mean. (3–1) 1.43 viewers Households
Viewers (in millions)
Source: Nielsen Media Research.
8. Investment Earnings An investor calculated these percentages of each of three stock investments with payoffs as shown. Find the average payoff. Use the weighted mean. (3–1) $4700.00 Stock
$10,000 3,000 1,000
9. Years of Service of Employees In an advertisement, a transmission service center stated that the average years of service of its employees were 13. The distribution is shown here. Using the weighted mean, calculate the correct average. (3–1) 6 Number of employees
10. Textbooks in Professors' Offices If the average number of textbooks in professors' offices is 16, the standard deviation is 5, and the average age of the professors is 43, with a standard deviation of 8, which data set is more variable? (3–2) 31.25%; 18.6%; the number of books is more variable
11. Magazines in Bookstores A survey of bookstores showed that the average number of magazines carried is 56, with a standard deviation of 12. The same survey showed that the average length of time each store had been in business was 6 years, with a standard deviation of 2.5 years. Which is more variable, the number of magazines or the number of years? (3–2) Magazine variance: 0.214; year variance: 0.417; years are more variable
12. Years of Service of Supreme Court Members The number of years served by selected past members of the U.S. Supreme Court is listed below. Find the percentile rank for each value. Which value corresponds to the 40th percentile? Construct a boxplot for the data and comment on their shape. (3–3) (3–4) 19, 15, 16, 24, 17, 4, 3, 31, 23, 5, 33 Source: World Almanac.
13. NFL Salaries The salaries (in millions of dollars) for 29 NFL teams for the 1999–2000 season are given in this frequency distribution. (3–3) Class limits
Source: www.NFL.com
a. Construct a percentile graph. b. Find the values that correspond to the 35th, 65th, and 85th percentiles. 50, 53, 55 c. Find the percentile of values 44, 48, and 54. 10th; 26th; 78th
14. Check each data set for outliers. (3–3) a. b. c. d.
506, 511, 517, 514, 400, 521 400 3, 7, 9, 6, 8, 10, 14, 16, 20, 12 None 14, 18, 27, 26, 19, 13, 5, 25 None 112, 157, 192, 116, 153, 129, 131 None
15. Cost of Car Rentals A survey of car rental agencies shows that the average cost of a car rental is $0.32 per mile. The standard deviation is $0.03. Using Chebyshev's theorem, find the range in which at least 75% of the data values will fall. (3–2) $0.26–$0.38 16. Average Earnings of Workers The average earnings of year-round full-time workers 25–34 years old with a bachelor's degree or higher were $58,500 in 2003. If the standard deviation is $11,200, what can you say about the percentage of these workers who earn (3–2) a. Between $47,300 and $69,700? Nothing because k 1 b. More than $80,900? At most 1⁄4 or 25% c. How likely is it that someone earns more than $100,000? At most 7.3% Source: New York Times Almanac.
17. Labor Charges The average labor charge for automobile mechanics is $54 per hour. The standard deviation is $4. Find the minimum percentage of data values that will fall within the range of $48 to $60. Use Chebyshev's theorem. (3–2) 56% 18. Costs to Train Employees For a certain type of job, it costs a company an average of $231 to train an employee to perform the task. The standard deviation is $5. Find the minimum percentage of data values that will fall in the range of $219 to $243. Use Chebyshev's theorem. (3–2) 83% 19. Delivery Charges The average delivery charge for a refrigerator is $32. The standard deviation is $4. Find the minimum percentage of data values that will fall in the range of $20 to $44. Use Chebyshev's theorem. (3–2) 88.89%
20. Exam Grades Which of these exam grades has a better relative position? (3–3) a. A grade of 82 on a test with X 85 and s 6 0.5 b. A grade of 56 on a test with X 60 and s 5 0.8 The test in part a is better.
21. Top Movie Sites The number of sites at which the top nine movies (based on the daily gross earnings) opened in a particular week is indicated below. 3017 3687 2525 2516 2820 2579 3211 3044 2330 Construct a boxplot for the data. The 10th movie on the list opened at only 909 theaters. Add this number to the above set of data and comment on the changes that occur. (3–4)
22. Hours Worked The data shown here represent the number of hours that 12 part-time employees at a toy store worked during the weeks before and after Christmas. Construct two boxplots and compare the distributions. (3–4) Before After
23. Commuter Times The mean of the times it takes a commuter to get to work in Baltimore is 29.7 minutes. If the standard deviation is 6 minutes, within what limits would you expect approximately 68% of the times to fall? Assume the distribution is approximately bellshaped. (3–3) 23.7–35.7
Source: www.showbizdata.com The range is much larger.
How Long Are You Delayed by Road Congestion?—Revisited The average number of hours per year that a driver is delayed by road congestion is listed here. Los Angeles Atlanta Seattle Houston Dallas Washington Austin Denver St. Louis Orlando U.S. average
Source: Texas Transportation Institute.
By making comparisons using averages, you can see that drivers in these 10 cities are delayed by road congestion more than the national average.
Data Analysis A Data Bank is found in Appendix D, or on the World Wide Web by following links from www.mhhe.com/math/stat/bluman/ 1. From the Data Bank, choose one of the following variables: age, weight, cholesterol level, systolic pressure, IQ, or sodium level. Select at least 30 values, and find the mean, median, mode, and midrange. State which measurement of central tendency best describes the average and why. 2. Find the range, variance, and standard deviation for the data selected in Exercise 1.
4. Randomly select 10 values from the number of suspensions in the local school districts in southwestern Pennsylvania in Data Set V in Appendix D. Find the mean, median, mode, range, variance, and standard deviation of the number of suspensions by using the Pearson coefficient of skewness. 5. Using the data from Data Set VII in Appendix D, find the mean, median, mode, range, variance, and standard deviation of the acreage owned by the municipalities. Comment on the skewness of the data, using the Pearson coefficient of skewness.
3. From the Data Bank, choose 10 values from any variable, construct a boxplot, and interpret the results. 3–73
Chapter Quiz Determine whether each statement is true or false. If the statement is false, explain why. 1. When the mean is computed for individual data, all values in the data set are used. True 2. The mean cannot be found for grouped data when there is an open class. True 3. A single, extremely large value can affect the median more than the mean. False 4. One-half of all the data values will fall above the mode, and one-half will fall below the mode. False 5. In a data set, the mode will always be unique. False 6. The range and midrange are both measures of variation. False
c. A coefficient of variation d. A z score 15. When a distribution is bell-shaped, approximately what percentage of data values will fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean? a. b. c. d.
50% 68% 95% 99.7%
Complete these statements with the best answer. 16. A measure obtained from sample data is called a(n) . Statistic
7. One disadvantage of the median is that it is not unique. False
17. Generally, Greek letters are used to represent , and Roman letters are used to represent . Parameters, statistics
8. The mode and midrange are both measures of variation. False
18. The positive square root of the variance is called the . Standard deviation
9. If a person's score on an exam corresponds to the 75th percentile, then that person obtained 75 correct answers out of 100 questions. False
19. The symbol for the population standard deviation is . s
Select the best answer. 10. What is the value of the mode when all values in the data set are different? a. b. c. d.
0 1 There is no mode. It cannot be determined unless the data values are given.
11. When data are categorized as, for example, places of residence (rural, suburban, urban), the most appropriate measure of central tendency is the a. Mean c. Mode b. Median d. Midrange 12. P50 corresponds to a and b a. Q2 b. D5 c. IQR d. Midrange 13. Which is not part of the five-number summary? a. Q1 and Q3 b. The mean c. The median d. The smallest and the largest data values 14. A statistic that tells the number of standard deviations a data value is above or below the mean is called a. A quartile b. A percentile 3–74
20. When the sum of the lowest data value and the highest data value is divided by 2, the measure is called . Midrange 21. If the mode is to the left of the median and the mean is to the right of the median, then the distribution is skewed. Positively 22. An extremely high or extremely low data value is called a(n) . Outlier 23. Miles per Gallon The number of highway miles per gallon of the 10 worst vehicles is shown. 12
Source: Pittsburgh Post Gazette.
Find each of these. a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
Mean 15.3 Median 15.5 Mode 15, 16, and 17 Midrange 15 Range 6 Variance 3.57 Standard deviation 1.9
24. Errors on a Typing Test The distribution of the number of errors that 10 students made on a typing test is shown. Errors
0–2 3–5 6–8 9–11 12–14
Find each of these. a. Mean 6.4 b. Modal class 6–8
25. Inches of Rain Shown here is a frequency distribution for the number of inches of rain received in 1 year in 25 selected cities in the United States. Number of inches
5.5–20.5 20.5–35.5 35.5–50.5 50.5–65.5 65.5–80.5 80.5–95.5
Find each of these. a. Mean 51.4 b. Modal class 35.5–50.5 c. Variance 451.5 d. Standard deviation 21.2 26. Shipment Times A survey of 36 selected recording companies showed these numbers of days that it took to receive a shipment from the day it was ordered. Days Frequency 1–3 4–6 7–9 10–12 13–15 16–18
29. Newspapers for Sale The average number of newspapers for sale in an airport newsstand is 12, and the standard deviation is 4. The average age of the pilots is 37 years, with a standard deviation of 6 years. Which data set is more variable? 0.33; 0.162; newspapers 30. Brands of Toothpaste Carried A survey of grocery stores showed that the average number of brands of toothpaste carried was 16, with a standard deviation of 5. The same survey showed the average length of time each store was in business was 7 years, with a standard deviation of 1.6 years. Which is more variable, the number of brands or the number of years? 0.3125; 0.229; brands 31. Test Scores A student scored 76 on a general science test where the class mean and standard deviation were 82 and 8, respectively; he also scored 53 on a psychology test where the class mean and standard deviation were 58 and 3, respectively. In which class was his relative position higher? 0.75; 1.67; science 32. Which score has the highest relative position? a. X 12 b. X 170 c. X 180
X 10 X 120 X 60
s 4 0.5 s 32 1.6 s 8 15, c is highest
33. Sizes of Malls The number of square feet (in millions) of eight of the largest malls in southwestern Pennsylvania is shown. 1 0.9 1.3 0.8 1.4 0.77 0.7 1.2 Source: International Council of Shopping Centers.
a. Find the percentile for each value. b. What value corresponds to the 40th percentile? c. Construct a boxplot and comment on the nature of the distribution.
Find each of these. a. Mean 8.2 b. Modal class 7–9 c. Variance 21.6 d. Standard deviation 4.6 27. Best Friends of Students In a survey of third-grade students, this distribution was obtained for the number of "best friends" each had. 1.6 Number of students
Number of best friends
Find the average number of best friends for the class. Use the weighted mean. 28. Employee Years of Service In an advertisement, a retail store stated that its employees averaged 9 years of service. The distribution is shown here. 4.5 Number of employees
8 2 2 6 3 10 Using the weighted mean, calculate the correct average.
34. Exam Scores On a philosophy comprehensive exam, this distribution was obtained from 25 students. Score
40.5–45.5 45.5–50.5 50.5–55.5 55.5–60.5 60.5–65.5
a. Construct a percentile graph. b. Find the values that correspond to the 22nd, 78th, and 99th percentiles. 47; 55; 64 c. Find the percentiles of the values 52, 43, and 64. 56th, 6th, 99th percentiles 35. Gas Prices for Rental Cars The first column of these data represents the prebuy gas price of a rental car, and the second column represents the price charged if the car is returned without refilling the gas tank for a selected car rental company. Draw two boxplots for the data and compare the distributions. (Note: The data were collected several years ago.) 3–75
Prebuy cost
No prebuy cost
$1.55 1.54 1.62 1.65 1.72 1.63 1.65 1.72 1.45 1.52
36. SAT Scores The average national SAT score is 1019. If we assume a bell-shaped distribution and a standard deviation equal to 110, what percentage of scores will you expect to fall above 1129? Above 799? 16%, 97.5% Source: New York Times Almanac, 2002.
Critical Thinking Challenges cost of a wedding. What type of average—mean, median, mode, or midrange—might have been used for each category?
1. Average Cost of Weddings Averages give us information to help us to see where we stand and enable us to make comparisons. Here is a study on the average
OTHER PEOPLE'S MONEY Question: What is the hottest wedding month? Answer: It's a tie. September now ranks as high as June in U.S. nuptials. The average attendence is 186 guests. And what kind of tabs are people running up for these affairs? Well, the next time a bride is throwing a bouquet, single women might want to . . . duck! $7246 4042 1263 790 775 745 374 198 3441
Reception Rings Photos/videography Bridal gown Flowers Music Invitations Mother of the bride's dress Other (veil, limo, fees, etc.) Average cost of a wedding
Stats: Bride's 2000 State of the Union Report Source: Reprinted with permission from the September 2001 Reader's Digest. Copyright © 2001 by The Reader's Digest Assn., Inc.
2. Average Cost of Smoking This article states that the average yearly cost of smoking a pack of cigarettes a day is $1190. Find the average cost of a pack of 3–76
cigarettes in your area, and compute the cost per day for 1 year. Compare your answer with the one in the article.
Burning Through the Cash Everyone knows the health-related reasons to quit smoking, so hereís an economic ar gument: A pack a day adds up to $1190 a year on average; it's more in states that have higher taxes on tobacco. To calculate what you or a loved one spends, visit ashline.org/ASH/quit/contemplation/index.html and try out their smoker's calculator. You'll be stunned.
1 Source: Reprinted with permission from the April 2002 Reader's Digest. Copyright © 2002 by The Reader's Digest Assn., Inc.
3. Ages of U.S. Residents The table shows the median ages of residents for the 10 oldest states and the 10 youngest
states of the United States including Washington, D.C. Explain why the median is used instead of the mean.
10 Oldest Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
State West Virginia Florida Maine Pennsylvania Vermont Montana Connecticut New Hampshire New Jersey Rhode Island
10 Youngest Median age
State Utah Texas Alaska Idaho California Georgia Mississippi Louisiana Arizona Colorado
Median age 27.1 32.3 32.4 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.8 34.0 34.2 34.3
Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
Data Projects Where appropriate, use MINITAB, the TI-83 Plus, the TI-84 Plus, or a computer program of your choice to complete the following exercises. 1. Business and Finance Use the data collected in data project 1 of Chapter 2 regarding earnings per share. Determine the mean, mode, median, and midrange for the two data sets. Is one measure of center more appropriate than the other for these data? Do the measures of center appear similar? What does this say about the symmetry of the distribution? 2. Sports and Leisure Use the data collected in data project 2 of Chapter 2 regarding home runs. Determine the mean, mode, median, and midrange for the two data sets. Is one measure of center more appropriate than the
other for these data? Do the measures of center appear similar? What does this say about the symmetry of the distribution? 3. Technology Use the data collected in data project 3 of Chapter 2. Determine the mean for the frequency table created in that project. Find the actual mean length of all 50 songs. How does the grouped mean compare to the actual mean? 4. Health and Wellness Use the data collected in data project 6 of Chapter 2 regarding heart rates. Determine the mean and standard deviation for each set of data. Do the means seem very different from one another? Do the standard deviations appear very different from one another? 3–77
5. Politics and Economics Use the data collected in data project 5 of Chapter 2 regarding delegates. Use the formulas for population mean and standard deviation to compute the parameters for all 50 states. What is the z score associated with California? Delaware? Ohio? Which states are more than 2 standard deviations from the mean?
6. Your Class Use your class as a sample. Determine the mean, median, and standard deviation for the age of students in your class. What z score would a 40-year-old have? Would it be unusual to have an age of 40? Determine the skew of the data, using the Pearson coefficient of skewness. (See Exercise 48, page 141.)
Answers to Applying the Concepts Section 3–1 Teacher Salaries 1. The sample mean is $22,921.67, the sample median is $16,500, and the sample mode is $11,000. If you work for the school board and do not want to raise salaries, you could say that the average teacher salary is $22,921.67. 2. If you work for the teachers' union and want a raise for the teachers, either the sample median of $16,500 or the sample mode of $11,000 would be a good measure of center to report. 3. The outlier is $107,000. With the outlier removed, the sample mean is $15,278.18, the sample median is $16,400, and the sample mode is still $11,000. The mean is greatly affected by the outlier and allows the school board to report an average teacher salary that is not representative of a "typical" teacher salary. 4. If the salaries represented every teacher in the school district, the averages would be parameters, since we have data from the entire population.
Section 3–3 Determining Dosages 1. The quartiles could be used to describe the data results. 2. Since there are 10 mice in the upper quartile, this would mean that 4 of them survived. 3. The percentiles would give us the position of a single mouse with respect to all other mice. 4. The quartiles divide the data into four groups of equal size. 5. Standard scores would give us the position of a single mouse with respect to the mean time until the onset of sepsis. Section 3–4 The Noisy Workplace
5. The mean can be misleading in the presence of outliers, since it is greatly affected by these extreme values. 6. Since the mean is greater than both the median and the mode, the distribution is skewed to the right (positively skewed). Section 3–2 Blood Pressure 1. Chebyshev's theorem does not work for scores within 1 standard deviation of the mean. 2. At least 75% (900) of the normotensive men will fall in the interval 105–141 mm Hg. 3. About 95% (1330) of the normotensive women have diastolic blood pressures between 62 and 90 mm Hg. About 95% (1235) of the hypertensive women have diastolic blood pressures between 68 and 108 mm Hg. 4. About 95% (1140) of the normotensive men have systolic blood pressures between 105 and 141 mm Hg. About 95% (1045) of the hypertensive men have systolic blood pressures between 119 and 187 mm Hg. These two ranges do overlap.
From this boxplot, we see that about 25% of the readings in area 5 are above the safe hearing level of 120 decibels. Those workers in area 5 should definitely have protective ear wear. One of the readings in area 6 is above the safe hearing level. It might be a good idea to provide protective ear wear to those workers in area 6 as well. Areas 1–4 appear to be "safe" with respect to hearing level, with area 4 being the safest.
Probability and Counting Rules
Determine sample spaces and find the probability of an event, using classical probability or empirical probability.
Find the probability of compound events, using the addition rules.
Find the probability of compound events, using the multiplication rules.
Find the conditional probability of an event. Find the total number of outcomes in a sequence of events, using the fundamental counting rule.
Find the number of ways that r objects can be selected from n objects, using the permutation rule.
Find the number of ways that r objects can be selected from n objects without regard to order, using the combination rule.
Find the probability of an event, using the counting rules.
Sample Spaces and Probability
4–2 The Addition Rules for Probability 4–3 The Multiplication Rules and Conditional Probability 4–4 Counting Rules 4–5 Probability and Counting Rules Summary
Would You Bet Your Life? Humans not only bet money when they gamble, but also bet their lives by engaging in unhealthy activities such as smoking, drinking, using drugs, and exceeding the speed limit when driving. Many people don't care about the risks involved in these activities since they do not understand the concepts of probability. On the other hand, people may fear activities that involve little risk to health or life because these activities have been sensationalized by the press and media. In his book Probabilities in Everyday Life (Ivy Books, p. 191), John D. McGervey states When people have been asked to estimate the frequency of death from various causes, the most overestimated categories are those involving pregnancy, tornadoes, floods, fire, and homicide. The most underestimated categories include deaths from diseases such as diabetes, strokes, tuberculosis, asthma, and stomach cancer (although cancer in general is overestimated).
The question then is, Would you feel safer if you flew across the United States on a commercial airline or if you drove? How much greater is the risk of one way to travel over the other? See Statistics Today—Revisited at the end of the chapter for the answer. In this chapter, you will learn about probability—its meaning, how it is computed, and how to evaluate it in terms of the likelihood of an event actually happening.
Introduction A cynical person once said, "The only two sure things are death and taxes." This philosophy no doubt arose because so much in people's lives is affected by chance. From the time you awake until you go to bed, you make decisions regarding the possible events that are governed at least in part by chance. For example, should you carry an umbrella to work today? Will your car battery last until spring? Should you accept that new job? Probability as a general concept can be defined as the chance of an event occurring. Many people are familiar with probability from observing or playing games of chance, such as card games, slot machines, or lotteries. In addition to being used in games of chance, probability theory is used in the fields of insurance, investments, and weather forecasting and in various other areas. Finally, as stated in Chapter 1, probability is the basis 4–2
Section 4–1 Sample Spaces and Probability
of inferential statistics. For example, predictions are based on probability, and hypotheses are tested by using probability. The basic concepts of probability are explained in this chapter. These concepts include probability experiments, sample spaces, the addition and multiplication rules, and the probabilities of complementary events. Also in this chapter, you will learn the rule for counting, the differences between permutations and combinations, and how to figure out how many different combinations for specific situations exist. Finally, Section 4–5 explains how the counting rules and the probability rules can be used together to solve a wide variety of problems.
Sample Spaces and Probability The theory of probability grew out of the study of various games of chance using coins, dice, and cards. Since these devices lend themselves well to the application of concepts of probability, they will be used in this chapter as examples. This section begins by explaining some basic concepts of probability. Then the types of probability and probability rules are discussed.
Basic Concepts Processes such as flipping a coin, rolling a die, or drawing a card from a deck are called probability experiments. Objective
A probability experiment is a chance process that leads to well-defined results called outcomes. An outcome is the result of a single trial of a probability experiment.
A trial means flipping a coin once, rolling one die once, or the like. When a coin is tossed, there are two possible outcomes: head or tail. (Note: We exclude the possibility of a coin landing on its edge.) In the roll of a single die, there are six possible outcomes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. In any experiment, the set of all possible outcomes is called the sample space. A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment.
Some sample spaces for various probability experiments are shown here. Experiment
Sample space
Toss one coin Roll a die Answer a true/false question Toss two coins
Head, tail 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 True, false Head-head, tail-tail, head-tail, tail-head
It is important to realize that when two coins are tossed, there are four possible outcomes, as shown in the fourth experiment above. Both coins could fall heads up. Both coins could fall tails up. Coin 1 could fall heads up and coin 2 tails up. Or coin 1 could fall tails up and coin 2 heads up. Heads and tails will be abbreviated as H and T throughout this chapter.
Rolling Dice Find the sample space for rolling two dice. 4–3
Since each die can land in six different ways, and two dice are rolled, the sample space can be presented by a rectangular array, as shown in Figure 4–1. The sample space is the list of pairs of numbers in the chart. Die 2
Figure 4–1 Sample Space for Rolling Two Dice (Example 4–1)
Die 1
Drawing Cards Find the sample space for drawing one card from an ordinary deck of cards. Solution
Since there are 4 suits (hearts, clubs, diamonds, and spades) and 13 cards for each suit (ace through king), there are 52 outcomes in the sample space. See Figure 4–2. Figure 4–2 Sample Space for Drawing a Card (Example 4–2)
Gender of Children Find the sample space for the gender of the children if a family has three children. Use B for boy and G for girl. Solution
There are two genders, male and female, and each child could be either gender. Hence, there are eight possibilities, as shown here. BBB
In Examples 4–1 through 4–3, the sample spaces were found by observation and reasoning; however, another way to find all possible outcomes of a probability experiment is to use a tree diagram. 4–4
A tree diagram is a device consisting of line segments emanating from a starting point and also from the outcome point. It is used to determine all possible outcomes of a probability experiment.
Gender of Children Use a tree diagram to find the sample space for the gender of three children in a family, as in Example 4–3. Solution
Since there are two possibilities (boy or girl) for the first child, draw two branches from a starting point and label one B and the other G. Then if the first child is a boy, there are two possibilities for the second child (boy or girl), so draw two branches from B and label one B and the other G. Do the same if the first child is a girl. Follow the same procedure for the third child. The completed tree diagram is shown in Figure 4–3. To find the outcomes for the sample space, trace through all the possible branches, beginning at the starting point for each one. Figure 4–3 Second child
Tree Diagram for Example 4–4
The famous Italian astronomer Galileo (1564–1642) found that a sum of 10 occurs more often than any other sum when three dice are tossed. Previously, it was thought that a sum of 9 occurred more often than any other sum.
B First child
Third child
A mathematician named Jerome Cardan (1501–1576) used his talents in mathematics and probability theory to make his living as a gambler. He is thought to be the first person to formulate the definition of classical probability.
An outcome was defined previously as the result of a single trial of a probability experiment. In many problems, one must find the probability of two or more outcomes. For this reason, it is necessary to distinguish between an outcome and an event. An event consists of a set of outcomes of a probability experiment.
An event can be one outcome or more than one outcome. For example, if a die is rolled and a 6 shows, this result is called an outcome, since it is a result of a single trial. An event with one outcome is called a simple event. The event of getting an odd number 4–5
During the mid-1600s, a professional gambler named Chevalier de Méré made a considerable amount of money on a gambling game. He would bet unsuspecting patrons that in four rolls of a die, he could get at least one 6. He was so successful at the game that some people refused to play. He decided that a new game was necessary to continue his winnings. By reasoning, he figured he could roll at least one double 6 in 24 rolls of two dice, but his reasoning was incorrect and he lost systematically. Unable to figure out why, he contacted a mathematician named Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) to find out why. Pascal became interested and began studying probability theory. He corresponded with a French government official, Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665), whose hobby was mathematics. Together the two formulated the beginnings of probability theory.
when a die is rolled is called a compound event, since it consists of three outcomes or three simple events. In general, a compound event consists of two or more outcomes or simple events. There are three basic interpretations of probability: 1. Classical probability 2. Empirical or relative frequency probability 3. Subjective probability
Classical Probability Classical probability uses sample spaces to determine the numerical probability that an event will happen. You do not actually have to perform the experiment to determine that probability. Classical probability is so named because it was the first type of probability studied formally by mathematicians in the 17th and 18th centuries. Classical probability assumes that all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely to occur. For example, when a single die is rolled, each outcome has the same probability of occurring. Since there are six outcomes, each outcome has a probability of 61. When a card is selected from an ordinary deck of 52 cards, you assume that the deck has been shuffled, and each card has the same probability of being selected. In this case, it is 521 . Equally likely events are events that have the same probability of occurring.
Formula for Classical Probability The probability of any event E is Number of outcomes in E Total number of outcomes in the sample space This probability is denoted by P E
n E n S
This probability is called classical probability, and it uses the sample space S.
Probabilities can be expressed as fractions, decimals, or—where appropriate— percentages. If you ask, "What is the probability of getting a head when a coin is tossed?" typical responses can be any of the following three. "One-half." "Point five." "Fifty percent."1 These answers are all equivalent. In most cases, the answers to examples and exercises given in this chapter are expressed as fractions or decimals, but percentages are used where appropriate. 1 Strictly speaking, a percent is not a probability. However, in everyday language, probabilities are often expressed as percents (i.e., there is a 60% chance of rain tomorrow). For this reason, some probabilities will be expressed as percents throughout this book.
Rounding Rule for Probabilities Probabilities should be expressed as reduced fractions or rounded to two or three decimal places. When the probability of an event is an extremely small decimal, it is permissible to round the decimal to the first nonzero digit after the point. For example, 0.0000587 would be 0.00006. When obtaining probabilities from one of the tables in Appendix C, use the number of decimal places given in the table. If decimals are converted to percentages to express probabilities, move the decimal point two places to the right and add a percent sign.
Drawing Cards Find the probability of getting a black 10 when drawing a card from a deck. Solution
There are 52 cards in a deck, and there are two black 10s—the 10 of spades and the 10 of clubs. Hence the probability of getting a black 10 is P(black 10) 522 261 .
Gender of Children If a family has three children, find the probability that two of the three children are girls. Solution
The sample space for the gender of the children for a family that has three children has eight outcomes, that is, BBB, BBG, BGB, GBB, GGG, GGB, GBG, and BGG. (See Examples 4–3 and 4–4.) Since there are three ways to have two girls, namely, GGB, GBG, and BGG, P(two girls) 38.
In probability theory, it is important to understand the meaning of the words and and or. For example, if you were asked to find the probability of getting a queen and a heart when you were drawing a single card from a deck, you would be looking for the queen of hearts. Here the word and means "at the same time." The word or has two meanings. For example, if you were asked to find the probability of selecting a queen or a heart when one card is selected from a deck, you would be looking for one of the 4 queens or one of the 13 hearts. In this case, the queen of hearts would be included in both cases and counted twice. So there would be 4 13 1 16 possibilities. On the other hand, if you were asked to find the probability of getting a queen or a king, you would be looking for one of the 4 queens or one of the 4 kings. In this case, there would be 4 4 8 possibilities. In the first case, both events can occur at the same time; we say that this is an example of the inclusive or. In the second case, both events cannot occur at the same time, and we say that this is an example of the exclusive or.
Drawing Cards A card is drawn from an ordinary deck. Find these probabilities.
Ancient Greeks and Romans made crude dice from animal bones, various stones, minerals, and ivory. When the dice were tested mathematically, some were found to be quite accurate.
Of getting a jack Of getting the 6 of clubs (i.e., a 6 and a club) Of getting a 3 or a diamond Of getting a 3 or a 6 4–7
a. Refer to the sample space in Figure 4–2. There are 4 jacks so there are 4 outcomes in event E and 52 possible outcomes in the sample space. Hence, P(jack) 524 131 b. Since there is only one 6 of clubs in event E, the probability of getting a 6 of clubs is P(6 of clubs) 521 c. There are four 3s and 13 diamonds, but the 3 of diamonds is counted twice in this listing. Hence, there are 16 possibilities of drawing a 3 or a diamond, so 16 P(3 or diamond) 52 134
This is an example of the inclusive or. d. Since there are four 3s and four 6s, P(3 or 6) 528 132 This is an example of the exclusive or. There are four basic probability rules. These rules are helpful in solving probability problems, in understanding the nature of probability, and in deciding if your answers to the problems are correct.
Paintings in tombs excavated in Egypt show that the Egyptians played games of chance. One game called Hounds and Jackals played in 1800 B.C. is similar to the present-day game of Snakes and Ladders.
Probability Rule 1 The probability of any event E is a number (either a fraction or decimal) between and including 0 and 1. This is denoted by 0 P(E) 1.
Rule 1 states that probabilities cannot be negative or greater than 1. Probability Rule 2 If an event E cannot occur (i.e., the event contains no members in the sample space), its probability is 0.
Rolling a Die When a single die is rolled, find the probability of getting a 9. Solution
Since the sample space is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, it is impossible to get a 9. Hence, the probability is P(9) 06 0.
Probability Rule 3 If an event E is certain, then the probability of E is 1.
In other words, if P(E) 1, then the event E is certain to occur. This rule is illustrated in Example 4–9.
Rolling a Die When a single die is rolled, what is the probability of getting a number less than 7? Solution
Since all outcomes—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6—are less than 7, the probability is P(number less than 7) 66 1 The event of getting a number less than 7 is certain. In other words, probability values range from 0 to 1. When the probability of an event is close to 0, its occurrence is highly unlikely. When the probability of an event is near 0.5, there is about a 50-50 chance that the event will occur; and when the probability of an event is close to 1, the event is highly likely to occur. Probability Rule 4 The sum of the probabilities of all the outcomes in the sample space is 1.
For example, in the roll of a fair die, each outcome in the sample space has a probability of 16. Hence, the sum of the probabilities of the outcomes is as shown. Outcome
Probability Sum
Complementary Events Another important concept in probability theory is that of complementary events. When a die is rolled, for instance, the sample space consists of the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The event E of getting odd numbers consists of the outcomes 1, 3, and 5. The event of not getting an odd number is called the complement of event E, and it consists of the outcomes 2, 4, and 6. The complement of an event E is the set of outcomes in the sample space that are not included in the outcomes of event E. The complement of E is denoted by E (read "E bar").
Example 4–10 further illustrates the concept of complementary events.
Finding Complements Find the complement of each event. a. Rolling a die and getting a 4 b. Selecting a letter of the alphabet and getting a vowel 4–9
c. Selecting a month and getting a month that begins with a J d. Selecting a day of the week and getting a weekday Solution
a. Getting a 1, 2, 3, 5, or 6 b. Getting a consonant (assume y is a consonant) c. Getting February, March, April, May, August, September, October, November, or December d. Getting Saturday or Sunday The outcomes of an event and the outcomes of the complement make up the entire sample space. For example, if two coins are tossed, the sample space is HH, HT, TH, and TT. The complement of "getting all heads" is not "getting all tails," since the event "all heads" is HH, and the complement of HH is HT, TH, and TT. Hence, the complement of the event "all heads" is the event "getting at least one tail." Since the event and its complement make up the entire sample space, it follows that the sum of the probability of the event and the probability of its complement will equal 1. That is, P(E ) P(E ) 1. For example, let E all heads, or HH, and let E at least one tail, or HT, TH, TT. Then P(E) 14 and P(E ) 34; hence, P(E) P(E ) 14 34 1. The rule for complementary events can be stated algebraically in three ways. Rule for Complementary Events P(E ) 1 P(E)
P(E) 1 P(E )
P(E) P(E ) 1
Stated in words, the rule is: If the probability of an event or the probability of its complement is known, then the other can be found by subtracting the probability from 1. This rule is important in probability theory because at times the best solution to a problem is to find the probability of the complement of an event and then subtract from 1 to get the probability of the event itself.
Residence of People If the probability that a person lives in an industrialized country of the world is 15 , find the probability that a person does not live in an industrialized country. Source: Harper's Index.
P(not living in an industrialized country) 1 P(living in an industrialized country) 1 51 45 Probabilities can be represented pictorially by Venn diagrams. Figure 4–4(a) shows the probability of a simple event E. The area inside the circle represents the probability of event E, that is, P(E). The area inside the rectangle represents the probability of all the events in the sample space P(S). 4–10
Figure 4–4 Venn Diagram for the Probability and Complement
P(E )
P (S) = 1
(a) Simple probability
(b) P(E ) = 1 – P(E )
The Venn diagram that represents the probability of the complement of an event P(E ) is shown in Figure 4–4(b). In this case, P(E ) 1 P(E), which is the area inside the rectangle but outside the circle representing P(E). Recall that P(S) 1 and P(E) 1 P(E ). The reasoning is that P(E) is represented by the area of the circle and P(E ) is the probability of the events that are outside the circle.
Empirical Probability The difference between classical and empirical probability is that classical probability assumes that certain outcomes are equally likely (such as the outcomes when a die is rolled), while empirical probability relies on actual experience to determine the likelihood of outcomes. In empirical probability, one might actually roll a given die 6000 times, observe the various frequencies, and use these frequencies to determine the probability of an outcome. Suppose, for example, that a researcher for the American Automobile Association (AAA) asked 50 people who plan to travel over the Thanksgiving holiday how they will get to their destination. The results can be categorized in a frequency distribution as shown. Method
Drive Fly Train or bus
Now probabilities can be computed for various categories. For example, the probability of selecting a person who is driving is 41 50 , since 41 out of the 50 people said that they were driving.
Formula for Empirical Probability Given a frequency distribution, the probability of an event being in a given class is P E
frequency for the class f total frequencies in the distribution n
This probability is called empirical probability and is based on observation.
Travel Survey In the travel survey just described, find the probability that a person will travel by airplane over the Thanksgiving holiday. Solution
f 6 3 P E n 50 25 Note: These figures are based on an AAA survey.
Distribution of Blood Types In a sample of 50 people, 21 had type O blood, 22 had type A blood, 5 had type B blood, and 2 had type AB blood. Set up a frequency distribution and find the following probabilities. a. b. c. d.
A person has type O blood. A person has type A or type B blood. A person has neither type A nor type O blood. A person does not have type AB blood.
Source: The American Red Cross.
A B AB O
22 5 2 21 Total 50
f 21 a. P O n 50 5 27 22 50 50 50 (Add the frequencies of the two classes.)
b. P A or B
2 7 5 50 50 50 (Neither A nor O means that a person has either type B or type AB blood.)
c. P neither A nor O
48 24 2 50 50 25 (Find the probability of not AB by subtracting the probability of type AB from 1.)
d. P not AB 1 P AB 1
Hospital Stays for Maternity Patients Hospital records indicated that knee replacement patients stayed in the hospital for the number of days shown in the distribution. Number of days stayed
15 32 56 19 5 127
Find these probabilities. a. A patient stayed exactly 5 days. b. A patient stayed less than 6 days.
c. A patient stayed at most 4 days. d. A patient stayed at least 5 days.
a. P 5
15 32 56 103 127 127 127 127 (Less than 6 days means 3, 4, or 5 days.) 15 32 47 c. P at most 4 days 127 127 127 (At most 4 days means 3 or 4 days.) 56 19 5 80 d. P at least 5 days 127 127 127 127 (At least 5 days means 5, 6, or 7 days.) b. P fewer than 6 days
Empirical probabilities can also be found by using a relative frequency distribution, as shown in Section 2–2. For example, the relative frequency distribution of the travel survey shown previously is Method Drive Fly Train or bus
These frequencies are the same as the relative frequencies explained in Chapter 2.
Law of Large Numbers When a coin is tossed one time, it is common knowledge that the probability of getting a head is 12. But what happens when the coin is tossed 50 times? Will it come up heads
25 times? Not all the time. You should expect about 25 heads if the coin is fair. But due to chance variation, 25 heads will not occur most of the time. If the empirical probability of getting a head is computed by using a small number of trials, it is usually not exactly 21. However, as the number of trials increases, the empirical probability of getting a head will approach the theoretical probability of 12, if in fact the coin is fair (i.e., balanced). This phenomenon is an example of the law of large numbers. You should be careful to not think that the number of heads and number of tails tend to "even out." As the number of trials increases, the proportion of heads to the total number of trials will approach 12. This law holds for any type of gambling game—tossing dice, playing roulette, and so on. It should be pointed out that the probabilities that the proportions steadily approach may or may not agree with those theorized in the classical model. If not, it can have important implications, such as "the die is not fair." Pit bosses in Las Vegas watch for empirical trends that do not agree with classical theories, and they will sometimes take a set of dice out of play if observed frequencies are too far out of line with classical expected frequencies.
Subjective Probability The third type of probability is called subjective probability. Subjective probability uses a probability value based on an educated guess or estimate, employing opinions and inexact information. In subjective probability, a person or group makes an educated guess at the chance that an event will occur. This guess is based on the person's experience and evaluation of a solution. For example, a sportswriter may say that there is a 70% probability that the Pirates will win the pennant next year. A physician might say that, on the basis of her diagnosis, there is a 30% chance the patient will need an operation. A seismologist might say there is an 80% probability that an earthquake will occur in a certain area. These are only a few examples of how subjective probability is used in everyday life. All three types of probability (classical, empirical, and subjective) are used to solve a variety of problems in business, engineering, and other fields. Probability and Risk Taking An area in which people fail to understand probability is risk taking. Actually, people fear situations or events that have a relatively small probability of happening rather than those events that have a greater likelihood of occurring. For example, many people think that the crime rate is increasing every year. However, in his book entitled How Risk Affects Your Everyday Life, author James Walsh states: "Despite widespread concern about the number of crimes committed in the United States, FBI and Justice Department statistics show that the national crime rate has remained fairly level for 20 years. It even dropped slightly in the early 1990s." He further states, "Today most media coverage of risk to health and well-being focuses on shock and outrage." Shock and outrage make good stories and can scare us about the wrong dangers. For example, the author states that if a person is 20% overweight, the loss of life expectancy is 900 days (about 3 years), but loss of life expectancy from exposure to radiation emitted by nuclear power plants is 0.02 day. As you can see, being overweight is much more of a threat than being exposed to radioactive emission. Many people gamble daily with their lives, for example, by using tobacco, drinking and driving, and riding motorcycles. When people are asked to estimate the probabilities or frequencies of death from various causes, they tend to overestimate causes such as accidents, fires, and floods and to underestimate the probabilities of death from diseases (other than cancer), strokes, etc. For example, most people think that their chances of dying of a heart attack are 1 in 20, when in fact they are almost 1 in 3; the chances of 4–14
dying by pesticide poisoning are 1 in 200,000 (True Odds by James Walsh). The reason people think this way is that the news media sensationalize deaths resulting from catastrophic events and rarely mention deaths from disease. When you are dealing with life-threatening catastrophes such as hurricanes, floods, automobile accidents, or texting while driving, it is important to get the facts. That is, get the actual numbers from accredited statistical agencies or reliable statistical studies, and then compute the probabilities and make decisions based on your knowledge of probability and statistics. In summary, then, when you make a decision or plan a course of action based on probability, make sure that you understand the true probability of the event occurring. Also, find out how the information was obtained (i.e., from a reliable source). Weigh the cost of the action and decide if it is worth it. Finally, look for other alternatives or courses of action with less risk involved.
Applying the Concepts 4–1 Tossing a Coin Assume you are at a carnival and decide to play one of the games. You spot a table where a person is flipping a coin, and since you have an understanding of basic probability, you believe that the odds of winning are in your favor. When you get to the table, you find out that all you have to do is to guess which side of the coin will be facing up after it is tossed. You are assured that the coin is fair, meaning that each of the two sides has an equally likely chance of occurring. You think back about what you learned in your statistics class about probability before you decide what to bet on. Answer the following questions about the coin-tossing game. 1. What is the sample space? 2. What are the possible outcomes? 3. What does the classical approach to probability say about computing probabilities for this type of problem? You decide to bet on heads, believing that it has a 50% chance of coming up. A friend of yours, who had been playing the game for awhile before you got there, tells you that heads has come up the last 9 times in a row. You remember the law of large numbers. 4. What is the law of large numbers, and does it change your thoughts about what will occur on the next toss? 5. What does the empirical approach to probability say about this problem, and could you use it to solve this problem? 6. Can subjective probabilities be used to help solve this problem? Explain. 7. Assume you could win $1 million if you could guess what the results of the next toss will be. What would you bet on? Why? See page 249 for the answers.
Exercises 4–1 1. What is a probability experiment? A probability experiment
4. What are equally likely events? Equally likely events have
2. Define sample space. The set of all possible outcomes of a
5. What is the range of the values of the probability of an event? The range of values is 0 to 1 inclusive.
is a chance process that leads to well-defined outcomes.
probability experiment is called a sample space.
3. What is the difference between an outcome and an event? An outcome is the result of a single trial of a probability experiment, but an event can consist of more than one outcome.
the same probability of occurring.
6. When an event is certain to occur, what is its probability? 1 4–15
13. Rolling Two Dice If two dice are rolled one time, find the probability of getting these results. a. b. c. d. e.
A sum of 9 91 A sum of 7 or 11 92 Doubles 16 13 A sum less than 9 18 A sum greater than or equal to 10
16. Selecting a State Choose one of the 50 states at random. a. What is the probability that it begins with M? 254 b. What is the probability that it doesn't begin with a vowel? 19 25 17. Human Blood Types Human blood is grouped into four types. The percentages of Americans with each type are listed below. O 43% A 40% B 12% AB 5% Choose one American at random. Find the probability that this person a. Has type O blood 0.43 b. Has type A or B 0.52 c. Does not have type O or A 0.17 Source: www.infoplease.com
14. (ans) Drawing a Card If one card is drawn from a deck, find the probability of getting these results. 4–16
Getting a 2 61 Getting a number greater than 6 0 Getting an odd number 12 Getting a 4 or an odd number 23 Getting a number less than 7 1 Getting a number greater than or equal to 3 32 Getting a number greater than 2 and an even number
a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
12. (ans) Rolling a Die If a die is rolled one time, find these probabilities.
a. The customer wins $10. 0.1 b. The customer wins money. 0.2 c. The customer wins a coupon. 0.8
a. The probability that a person will watch the 6 o'clock evening news is 0.15. Empirical b. The probability of winning at a Chuck-a-Luck game is 365 . Classical c. The probability that a bus will be in an accident on a specific run is about 6%. Empirical d. The probability of getting a royal flush when five 1 cards are selected at random is 649,740 . Classical e. The probability that a student will get a C or better in a statistics course is about 70%. Empirical f. The probability that a new fast-food restaurant will be a success in Chicago is 35%. Empirical g. The probability that interest rates will rise in the next 6 months is 0.50. Subjective
11. Classify each statement as an example of classical probability, empirical probability, or subjective probability.
15. Shopping Mall Promotion A shopping mall has set up a promotion as follows. With any mall purchase of $50 or more, the customer gets to spin the wheel shown here. If a number 1 comes up, the customer wins $10. If the number 2 comes up, the customer wins $5; and if the number 3 or 4 comes up, the customer wins a discount coupon. Find the following probabilities.
g. 1 h. 125% i. 24%
d. 1.65 e. 0.44 f. 0
a. 23 b. 0.63 c. 35
10. A probability experiment is conducted. Which of these cannot be considered a probability outcome?
probability that it won't rain is 80%, you could leave your umbrella at home and be fairly safe.
9. If the probability that it will rain tomorrow is 0.20, what is the probability that it won't rain tomorrow? Would you recommend taking an umbrella? 0.80 Since the
A queen 131 A club 14 A queen of clubs 521 A 3 or an 8 132 A 6 or a spade 134 A 6 and a spade 521 A black king 261 A red card and a 7 261 A diamond or a heart A black card 12
8. What is the sum of the probabilities of all the outcomes in a sample space? 1
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.
7. If an event cannot happen, what value is assigned to its probability? 0
18. Gender of College Students In 2004, 57.2% of all enrolled college students were female. Choose one enrolled student at random. What is the probability that the student was male? 0.428 Source: www.nces.ed.gov
19. Prime Numbers A prime number is a number that is evenly divisible only by 1 and itself. The prime numbers less than 100 are listed below. 2 37 83
25. College Debt The following information shows the amount of debt students who graduated from college incur. 31 79
20. Rural Speed Limits Rural speed limits for all 50 states are indicated below. 60 mph
1 (HI)
Choose one state at random. Find the probability that its speed limit is a. 60 or 70 miles per hour 0.38 b. Greater than 65 miles per hour 0.62 c. 70 miles per hour or less 0.74 21. Gender of Children A couple has three children. Find each probability.
It is less than $5001 27% It is more than $20,000 33% It is between $1 and $20,000 67% It is more than $50,000 14%
26. Gasoline Mileage for Autos and Trucks Of the top 10 cars and trucks based on gas mileage, 4 are Hondas, 3 are Toyotas, and 3 are Volkswagens. Choose one at random. Find the probability that it is a. Japanese 0.7 b. Japanese or German 1 c. Not foreign 0 27. Large Monetary Bills in Circulation There are 1,765,000 five thousand dollar bills in circulation and 3,460,000 ten thousand dollar bills in circulation. Choose one bill at random (wouldn't that be nice!). What is the probability that it is a ten thousand dollar bill? 0.662 Source: World Almanac.
22. Craps Game In the game of craps using two dice, a person wins on the first roll if a 7 or an 11 is rolled. Find the probability of winning on the first roll. 29 23. Craps Game In a game of craps, a player loses on the roll if a 2, 3, or 12 is tossed on the first roll. Find the probability of losing on the first roll. 19 24. Computers in Elementary Schools Elementary and secondary schools were classified by the number of computers they had. Choose one of these schools at random. Computers
Choose one school at random. Find the probability that it has
Source: www.autobytel.com
a. 50 or fewer computers 0.295 b. More than 100 computers 0.419 c. No more than 20 computers 0.093
$5001 to $20,000
a. The number is even 0.04 b. The sum of the number's digits is even 0.52 c. The number is greater than 50 0.4
All boys 18 All girls or all boys 41 Exactly two boys or two girls 34 At least one child of each gender
$1 to $5000
If a person who graduates has some debt, find the probability that
Choose one of these numbers at random. Find the probability that
28. Sources of Energy Uses in the United States A breakdown of the sources of energy used in the United States is shown below. Choose one energy source at random. Find the probability that it is a. Not oil 0.61 b. Natural gas or oil 0.63 c. Nuclear 0.08 Oil 39% Nuclear 8%
Natural gas 24% Hydropower 3%
Coal 23% Other 3%
29. Rolling Dice Roll two dice and multiply the numbers. a. Write out the sample space. b. What is the probability that the product is a multiple of 6? 125 c. What is the probability that the product is less than 10? 17 36 30. Federal Government Revenue The source of federal government revenue for a specific year is 50% from individual income taxes 32% from social insurance payroll taxes 4–17
10% from corporate income taxes 3% from excise taxes 5% other If a revenue source is selected at random, what is the probability that it comes from individual or corporate income taxes? 0.6 Source: New York Times Almanac.
31. Selecting a Bill A box contains a $1 bill, a $5 bill, a $10 bill, and a $20 bill. A bill is selected at random, and it is not replaced; then a second bill is selected at random. Draw a tree diagram and determine the sample space. 32. Tossing Coins Draw a tree diagram and determine the sample space for tossing four coins. 33. Selecting Numbered Balls Four balls numbered 1 through 4 are placed in a box. A ball is selected at random, and its number is noted; then it is replaced. A second ball is selected at random, and its number
is noted. Draw a tree diagram and determine the sample space. 34. Family Dinner Combinations A family special at a neighborhood restaurant offers dinner for four for $39.99. There are 3 appetizers available, 4 entrees, and 3 desserts from which to choose. The special includes one of each. Represent the possible dinner combinations with a tree diagram. 35. Required First-Year College Courses First-year students at a particular college must take one English class, one class in mathematics, a first-year seminar, and an elective. There are 2 English classes to choose from, 3 mathematics classes, 5 electives, and everyone takes the same first-year seminar. Represent the possible schedules, using a tree diagram. 36. Tossing a Coin and Rolling a Die A coin is tossed; if it falls heads up, it is tossed again. If it falls tails up, a die is rolled. Draw a tree diagram and determine the outcomes.
Extending the Concepts 37. Distribution of CEO Ages The distribution of ages of CEOs is as follows: Age
21–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 61–70 71–up
Source: Information based on USA TODAY Snapshot.
If a CEO is selected at random, find the probability that his or her age is a. b. c. d.
Between 31 and 40 0.08 Under 31 0.01 Over 30 and under 51 0.35 Under 31 or over 60 0.36
38. Tossing a Coin A person flipped a coin 100 times and obtained 73 heads. Can the person conclude that the coin was unbalanced? Probably 39. Medical Treatment A medical doctor stated that with a certain treatment, a patient has a 50% chance of recovering without surgery. That is, "Either he will get well or he won't get well." Comment on this statement. The statement is probably not based on empirical probability, and is probably not true.
40. Wheel Spinner The wheel spinner shown here is spun twice. Find the sample space, and then determine the probability of the following events.
a. An odd number on the first spin and an even number on the second spin (Note: 0 is considered even.) 256 b. A sum greater than 4 52 c. Even numbers on both spins 259 12 d. A sum that is odd 25 e. The same number on both spins 51 41. Tossing Coins Toss three coins 128 times and record the number of heads (0, 1, 2, or 3); then record your results with the theoretical probabilities. Compute the empirical probabilities of each. Answers will vary. 42. Tossing Coins Toss two coins 100 times and record the number of heads (0, 1, 2). Compute the probabilities of each outcome, and compare these probabilities with the theoretical results. Approximately 41, 21, and 14, respectively
Section 4–2 The Addition Rules for Probability
43. Odds Odds are used in gambling games to make them fair. For example, if you rolled a die and won every time you rolled a 6, then you would win on average once every 6 times. So that the game is fair, the odds of 5 to 1 are given. This means that if you bet $1 and won, you could win $5. On average, you would win $5 once in 6 rolls and lose $1 on the other 5 rolls—hence the term fair game. In most gambling games, the odds given are not fair. For example, if the odds of winning are really 20 to 1, the house might offer 15 to 1 in order to make a profit. Odds can be expressed as a fraction or as a ratio, such as 51 , 5:1, or 5 to 1. Odds are computed in favor of the event or against the event. The formulas for odds are Odds in favor
P E 1 P E
Odds against
In the die example, 1
Odds in favor of a 6 65 6 5
Odds against a 6 61 6
1 or 1:5 5 5 or 5:1 1
Find the odds in favor of and against each event. a. Rolling a die and getting a 2 1:5, 5:1 b. Rolling a die and getting an even number 1:1, 1:1 c. Drawing a card from a deck and getting a spade 1:3, 3:1 d. Drawing a card and getting a red card 1:1, 1:1 e. Drawing a card and getting a queen 1:12, 12:1 f. Tossing two coins and getting two tails 1:3, 3:1 g. Tossing two coins and getting one tail 1:1, 1:1
The Addition Rules for Probability Many problems involve finding the probability of two or more events. For example, at a large political gathering, you might wish to know, for a person selected at random, the probability that the person is a female or is a Republican. In this case, there are three possibilities to consider: 1. The person is a female. 2. The person is a Republican. 3. The person is both a female and a Republican. Consider another example. At the same gathering there are Republicans, Democrats, and Independents. If a person is selected at random, what is the probability that the person is a Democrat or an Independent? In this case, there are only two possibilities:
The first book on probability, The Book of Chance and Games, was written by Jerome Cardan (1501–1576). Cardan was an astrologer, philosopher, physician, mathematician, and gambler. This book contained techniques on how to cheat and how to catch others at cheating.
1. The person is a Democrat. 2. The person is an Independent. The difference between the two examples is that in the first case, the person selected can be a female and a Republican at the same time. In the second case, the person selected cannot be both a Democrat and an Independent at the same time. In the second case, the two events are said to be mutually exclusive; in the first case, they are not mutually exclusive. Two events are mutually exclusive events if they cannot occur at the same time (i.e., they have no outcomes in common).
In another situation, the events of getting a 4 and getting a 6 when a single card is drawn from a deck are mutually exclusive events, since a single card cannot be both a 4 and a 6. On the other hand, the events of getting a 4 and getting a heart on a single draw are not mutually exclusive, since you can select the 4 of hearts when drawing a single card from an ordinary deck. 4–19
Rolling a Die Determine which events are mutually exclusive and which are not, when a single die is rolled. a. b. c. d.
Getting an odd number and getting an even number Getting a 3 and getting an odd number Getting an odd number and getting a number less than 4 Getting a number greater than 4 and getting a number less than 4
a. The events are mutually exclusive, since the first event can be 1, 3, or 5 and the second event can be 2, 4, or 6. b. The events are not mutually exclusive, since the first event is a 3 and the second can be 1, 3, or 5. Hence, 3 is contained in both events. c. The events are not mutually exclusive, since the first event can be 1, 3, or 5 and the second can be 1, 2, or 3. Hence, 1 and 3 are contained in both events. d. The events are mutually exclusive, since the first event can be 5 or 6 and the second event can be 1, 2, or 3.
Drawing a Card Determine which events are mutually exclusive and which are not when a single card is drawn from a deck. a. b. c. d.
Getting a 7 and getting a jack Getting a club and getting a king Getting a face card and getting an ace Getting a face card and getting a spade
Only the events in parts a and c are mutually exclusive. The probability of two or more events can be determined by the addition rules. The first addition rule is used when the events are mutually exclusive. Addition Rule 1 When two events A and B are mutually exclusive, the probability that A or B will occur is P(A or B) P(A) P(B)
Coffee Shop Selection A city has 9 coffee shops: 3 Starbuck's, 2 Caribou Coffees, and 4 Crazy Mocho Coffees. If a person selects one shop at random to buy a cup of coffee, find the probability that it is either a Starbuck's or Crazy Mocho Coffees.
Since there are 3 Starbuck's and 4 Crazy Mochos, and a total of 9 coffee shops, P(Starbuck's or Crazy Mocho) P(Starbuck's) P(Crazy Mocho) 93 49 79. The events are mutually exclusive.
Research and Development Employees The corporate research and development centers for three local companies have the following number of employees: U.S. Steel Alcoa Bayer Material Science
If a research employee is selected at random, find the probability that the employee is employed by U.S. Steel or Alcoa. Source: Pittsburgh Tribune Review.
P(U.S. Steel or Alcoa) P(U.S. Steel) P(Alcoa)
110 750 860 86 1110 1110 1110 111
Selecting a Day of the Week A day of the week is selected at random. Find the probability that it is a weekend day. Solution
P(Saturday or Sunday) P(Saturday) P(Sunday) 17 17 27 When two events are not mutually exclusive, we must subtract one of the two probabilities of the outcomes that are common to both events, since they have been counted twice. This technique is illustrated in Example 4–20.
Drawing a Card A single card is drawn at random from an ordinary deck of cards. Find the probability that it is either an ace or a black card. Solution
Since there are 4 aces and 26 black cards (13 spades and 13 clubs), 2 of the aces are black cards, namely, the ace of spades and the ace of clubs. Hence the probabilities of the two outcomes must be subtracted since they have been counted twice. 2 28 7 P(ace or black card) P(ace) P(black card) P(black aces) 524 26 52 52 52 13
When events are not mutually exclusive, addition rule 2 can be used to find the probability of the events.
Card Shuffling
How many times does a deck of cards need to be shuffled so that the cards are in random order? Actually, this question is not easy to answer since there are many variables. First several different methods are used to shuffle a deck of cards. Some of the methods are the riffle method, the overhand method, the Corgi method, and the Faro method. Another factor that needs to be considered is what is meant by the cards being in a random order. There are several statistical tests that can be used to determine if a deck of cards is randomized after several shuffles, but these tests give somewhat different results. Two mathematicians, Persi Diaconis and Dave Bayer, concluded that a deck of cards starts to become random after 5 good shuffles and is completely random after 7 shuffles. However, a later study done by Trefthen concluded that only 6 shuffles are necessary. The difference was based on what is considered a randomized deck of cards.
Addition Rule 2 If A and B are not mutually exclusive, then P(A or B) P(A) P(B) P(A and B)
Note: This rule can also be used when the events are mutually exclusive, since P(A and B) will always equal 0. However, it is important to make a distinction between the two situations.
Selecting a Medical Staff Person
In a hospital unit there are 8 nurses and 5 physicians; 7 nurses and 3 physicians are females. If a staff person is selected, find the probability that the subject is a nurse or a male. Solution
The sample space is shown here. Staff
Nurses Physicians
The probability is P(nurse or male) P(nurse) P(male) P(male nurse) 138 133 131 10 13
On New Year's Eve, the probability of a person driving while intoxicated is 0.32, the probability of a person having a driving accident is 0.09, and the probability of a person having a driving accident while intoxicated is 0.06. What is the probability of a person driving while intoxicated or having a driving accident? Solution
P(intoxicated or accident) P(intoxicated) P(accident) P(intoxicated and accident) 0.32 0.09 0.06 0.35 In summary, then, when the two events are mutually exclusive, use addition rule 1. When the events are not mutually exclusive, use addition rule 2. The probability rules can be extended to three or more events. For three mutually exclusive events A, B, and C, P(A or B or C ) P(A) P(B) P(C)
Figure 4–5 P (A and B )
Venn Diagrams for the Addition Rules
P(A )
P(B )
P(S ) = 1
P (B )
(a) Mutually exclusive events P(A or B ) = P(A ) + P(B )
(b) Nonmutually exclusive events P(A or B ) = P(A ) + P(B ) – P(A and B )
For three events that are not mutually exclusive, P(A or B or C ) P(A) P(B) P(C ) P(A and B) P(A and C) P(B and C ) P(A and B and C ) See Exercises 23 and 24 in this section. Figure 4–5(a) shows a Venn diagram that represents two mutually exclusive events A and B. In this case, P(A or B) P(A) P(B), since these events are mutually exclusive and do not overlap. In other words, the probability of occurrence of event A or event B is the sum of the areas of the two circles. Figure 4–5(b) represents the probability of two events that are not mutually exclusive. In this case, P(A or B) P(A) P(B) P(A and B). The area in the intersection or overlapping part of both circles corresponds to P(A and B); and when the area of circle A is added to the area of circle B, the overlapping part is counted twice. It must therefore be subtracted once to get the correct area or probability. Note: Venn diagrams were developed by mathematician John Venn (1834–1923) and are used in set theory and symbolic logic. They have been adapted to probability theory also. In set theory, the symbol represents the union of two sets, and A B corresponds to A or B. The symbol represents the intersection of two sets, and A B corresponds to A and B. Venn diagrams show only a general picture of the probability rules and do not portray all situations, such as P(A) 0, accurately.
Applying the Concepts 4–2 Which Pain Reliever Is Best? Assume that following an injury you received from playing your favorite sport, you obtain and read information on new pain medications. In that information you read of a study that was conducted to test the side effects of two new pain medications. Use the following table to answer the questions and decide which, if any, of the two new pain medications you will use. Number of side effects in 12-week clinical trial Side effect Upper respiratory congestion Sinus headache Stomach ache Neurological headache Cough Lower respiratory congestion
Placebo n 192
Drug A n 186
Drug B n 188
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
How many subjects were in the study? How long was the study? What were the variables under study? What type of variables are they, and what level of measurement are they on? Are the numbers in the table exact figures? What is the probability that a randomly selected person was receiving a placebo? What is the probability that a person was receiving a placebo or drug A? Are these mutually exclusive events? What is the complement to this event? 8. What is the probability that a randomly selected person was receiving a placebo or experienced a neurological headache? 9. What is the probability that a randomly selected person was not receiving a placebo or experienced a sinus headache? See page 249 for the answers.
Exercises 4–2 1. Define mutually exclusive events, and give an example of two events that are mutually exclusive and two events that are not mutually exclusive. Two events are
4. Selecting a Fish In a fish tank, there are 24 goldfish, 2 angel fish, and 5 guppies. If a fish is selected at random, find the probability that it is a goldfish or an 26 angel fish. 31
2. Determine whether these events are mutually exclusive.
5. Selecting an Instructor At a convention there are 7 mathematics instructors, 5 computer science instructors, 3 statistics instructors, and 4 science instructors. If an instructor is selected, find the probability of getting a science instructor or a math instructor. 11 19
mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time (i.e., they have no outcomes in common). Examples will vary.
a. Roll a die: Get an even number, and get a number less than 3. No b. Roll a die: Get a prime number (2, 3, 5), and get an odd number. No c. Roll a die: Get a number greater than 3, and get a number less than 3. Yes d. Select a student in your class: The student has blond hair, and the student has blue eyes. No e. Select a student in your college: The student is a sophomore, and the student is a business major. No f. Select any course: It is a calculus course, and it is an English course. Yes g. Select a registered voter: The voter is a Republican, and the voter is a Democrat. Yes 3. College Degrees Awarded The table below represents the college degrees awarded in a recent academic year by gender. Men Women
Choose a degree at random. Find the probability that it is a. b. c. d.
A bachelor's degree 0.707 A doctorate or a degree awarded to a woman 0.589 A doctorate awarded to a woman 0.011 Not a master's degree 0.731
6. Selecting a Movie A media rental store rented the following number of movie titles in each of these categories: 170 horror, 230 drama, 120 mystery, 310 romance, and 150 comedy. If a person selects a movie to rent, find the probability that it is a romance or a comedy. Is this event likely or unlikely to occur? Explain your answer. 23 49; the probability of the event is slightly less than 0.5, which makes it about equally likely to occur or not to occur.
7. Hospital Staff On a hospital staff, there are 4 dermatologists, 7 surgeons, 5 general practitioners, 3 psychiatrists, and 3 orthopedic specialists. If a doctor is selected at random, find the probability that the doctor is a. A psychiatrist, surgeon, or dermatologist b. A general practitioner or surgeon 116 c. An orthopedic specialist, a surgeon, or a dermatologist 117 d. A surgeon or dermatologist 12
8. Tourist Destinations The probability that a given tourist goes to the amusement park is 0.47, and the probability that she goes to the water park is 0.58. If the probability that she goes to either the water park or the amusement park is 0.95, what is the probability that she visits both of the parks on vacation? 0.10 or 10%
9. Sports Participation At a particular school with 200 male students, 58 play football, 40 play basketball, and 8 play both. What is the probability that a randomly selected male student plays neither sport? 0.55 10. Selecting a Card A single card is drawn from a deck. Find the probability of selecting the following. a. A 4 or a diamond 134 b. A club or a diamond 12 c. A jack or a black card
11. Selecting a Student In a statistics class there are 18 juniors and 10 seniors; 6 of the seniors are females, and 12 of the juniors are males. If a student is selected at random, find the probability of selecting the following. a. A junior or a female 76 b. A senior or a female 47 c. A junior or a senior 1
a. Fiction 0.5 b. Not a children's nonfiction book 0.7692 c. An adult book or a children's nonfiction book 0.6154 13. Young Adult Residences According to the Bureau of the Census, the following statistics describe the number (in thousands) of young adults living at home or in a dormitory in the year 2004. Ages 18–24
Ages 25–34
Choose one student at random. Find the probability that the student is a. A female student aged 25–34 0.058 b. Male or aged 18–24 0.942 c. Under 25 years of age and not male 0.335 14. Endangered Species The chart below shows the numbers of endangered and threatened species both here in the United States and abroad. Endangered
Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians
a. Threatened and in the United States 0.072 b. An endangered foreign bird 0.229 c. A mammal or a threatened foreign species 0.4856 15. Multiple Births The number of multiple births in the United States for a recent year indicated that there were 128,665 sets of twins, 7110 sets of triplets, 468 sets of quadruplets, and 85 sets of quintuplets. Choose one set of siblings at random. Find the probability that it a. Represented more than two babies 0.056 b. Represented quads or quints 0.004 c. Now choose one baby from these multiple births. What is the probability that the baby was a triplet? 16. Licensed Drivers in the United States In a recent year there were the following numbers (in thousands) of licensed drivers in the United States. Age 19 and under Age 20 Age 21
Choose one driver at random. Find the probability that the driver is a. Male and 19 or under 0.301 b. Age 20 or female 0.592 c. At least 20 years old 0.412 17. Student Survey In a recent survey, the following data were obtained in response to the question, "If the number of summer classes were increased, would you be more likely to enroll in one or more of them?"
Choose one species at random. Find the probability that it is
12. Selecting a Book At a used-book sale, 100 books are adult books and 160 are children's books. Of the adult books, 70 are nonfiction while 60 of the children's books are nonfiction. If a book is selected at random, find the probability that it is
251 175 64 8
No opinion
Freshmen Sophomores
If a student is selected at random, find the probability that the student a. Has no opinion 587 b. Is a freshman or is against the issue c. Is a sophomore and favors the issue
18. Mail Delivery A local postal carrier distributes firstclass letters, advertisements, and magazines. For a certain day, she distributed the following numbers of each type of item. Delivered to Home Business
First-class letters
If an item of mail is selected at random, find these probabilities. 467 a. The item went to a home. 1392 b. The item was an ad, or it went to a business. c. The item was a first-class letter, or it went to 833 a home. 1392
19. Medical Tests on Emergency Patients The frequency distribution shown here illustrates the number of medical tests conducted on 30 randomly selected emergency patients. Number of tests performed
Number of patients
0 1 2 3 4 or more
If a patient is selected at random, find these probabilities. a. b. c. d. e.
The patient has had exactly 2 tests done. 151 The patient has had at least 2 tests done. 31 The patient has had at most 3 tests done. 56 The patient has had 3 or fewer tests done. 56 The patient has had 1 or 2 tests done. 13
20. A social organization of 32 members sold college sweatshirts as a fundraiser. The results of their sale are shown below. No. of sweatshirts
No. of students
0 1–5 6–10 11–15 16–20 20
Choose one student at random. Find the probability that the student sold a. More than 10 sweatshirts 0.2813 b. At least one sweatshirt 0.9375 c. 1–5 or more than 15 sweatshirts 0.5625 21. Door-to-Door Sales A sales representative who visits customers at home finds she sells 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 items according to the following frequency distribution. Items sold
8 10 3 2 1
Find the probability that she sells the following. a. b. c. d.
Exactly 1 item 125 More than 2 items At least 1 item 23 23 At most 3 items 24
22. Medical Patients A recent study of 300 patients found that of 100 alcoholic patients, 87 had elevated cholesterol levels, and of 200 nonalcoholic patients, 43 had elevated cholesterol levels. If a patient is selected at random, find the probability that the patient is the following. a. An alcoholic with elevated cholesterol 29 level 100 b. A nonalcoholic 32 c. A nonalcoholic with nonelevated cholesterol 157 level 300 23. Selecting a Card If one card is drawn from an ordinary deck of cards, find the probability of getting the following. a. b. c. d. e.
A king or a queen or a jack 133 A club or a heart or a spade 43 19 A king or a queen or a diamond 52 An ace or a diamond or a heart 137 15 A 9 or a 10 or a spade or a club 26
24. Rolling Die Two dice are rolled. Find the probability of getting a. b. c. d.
A sum of 8, 9, or 10 13 Doubles or a sum of 7 13 A sum greater than 9 or less than 4 14 Based on the answers to a, b, and c, which is least likely to occur? Choice c is least likely to occur.
25. Corn Products U.S. growers harvested 11 billion bushels of corn in 2005. About 1.9 billion bushels were exported, and 1.6 billion bushels were used for ethanol. Choose one bushel of corn at random. What is the probability that it was used either for export or for ethanol? 0.318 Source: www.census.gov
26. Rolling Dice Three dice are rolled. Find the probability of getting a. Triples
b. A sum of 5
Extending the Concepts 27. Purchasing a Pizza The probability that a customer selects a pizza with mushrooms or pepperoni is 0.55, and the probability that the customer selects only mushrooms is 0.32. If the probability that he or she selects only pepperoni is 0.17, find the probability of the customer selecting both items. 0.06
LAFF-A-DAY
28. Building a New Home In building new homes, a contractor finds that the probability of a home buyer selecting a two-car garage is 0.70 and of selecting a one-car garage is 0.20. Find the probability that the buyer will select no garage. The builder does not build houses with three-car or more garages. 0.10 29. In Exercise 28, find the probability that the buyer will not want a two-car garage. 0.30 30. Suppose that P(A) 0.42, P(B) 0.38, and P(A B) 0.70. Are A and B mutually exclusive? Explain. No. P(A B) 0
"I know you haven't had an accident in thirteen years. We're raising your rates because you're about due one." © Bob Schochet. King Features Syndicate.
Calculate Relative Frequency Probabilities The random variable X represents the number of days patients stayed in the hospital from Example 4–14. 1. In C1 of a worksheet, type in the values of X. Name the column X. 2. In C2 enter the frequencies. Name the column f. 3. To calculate the relative frequencies and store them in a new column named Px: a) Select Calc >Calculator. b) Type Px in the box for Store result in variable:. c) Click in the Expression box, then double-click C2 f. d) Type or click the division operator. e) Scroll down the function list to Sum, then click [Select]. f ) Double-click C2 f to select it. g) Click [OK]. The dialog box and completed worksheet are shown.
If the original data, rather than the table, are in a worksheet, use Stat >Tables>Tally to make the tables with percents (Section 2–1). MINITAB can also make a two-way classification table.
Construct a Contingency Table 1. Select File>Open Worksheet to open the Databank.mtw file. 2. Select Stat >Tables>Crosstabulation . . . a) Double-click C4 SMOKING STATUS to select it For rows:. b) Select C11 GENDER for the For Columns: Field. c) Click on option for Counts and then [OK]. The session window and completed dialog box are shown.
Tabulated statistics: SMOKING STATUS, GENDER Rows: SMOKING STATUS Columns: GENDER
F 25 18 7 50
Cell Contents:
M 22 19 9 50
In this sample of 100 there are 25 females who do not smoke compared to 22 men. Sixteen individuals smoke 1 pack or more per day.
To construct a relative frequency table: 1. Enter the data values in L1 and the frequencies in L2. 2. Move the cursor to the top of the L3 column so that L3 is highlighted. 3. Type L2 divided by the sample size, then press ENTER. Use the data from Example 4–14.
Constructing a Relative Frequency Distribution
Use the data from Example 4–14.
1. In a new worksheet, type the label DAYS in cell A1. Beginning in cell A2, type in the data for the variable representing the number of days maternity patients stayed in the hospital. 2. In cell B1, type the label for the frequency, COUNT. Beginning in cell B2, type in the frequencies. 3. In cell B7, compute the total frequency by selecting the sum icon press Enter.
from the toolbar and
4. In cell C1, type a label for the relative frequencies, Rf. In cell C2, type (B2)/(B7) and Enter. In cell C2, type (B3)/(B7) and Enter. Repeat this for each of the remaining frequencies. 5. To find the total relative frequency, select the sum icon sum should be 1.
from the toolbar and Enter. This
Constructing a Contingency Table Example XL4–1
For this example, you will need to have the MegaStat Add-In installed on Excel (refer to Chapter 1, Excel Step by Step instructions for instructions on installing MegaStat). 1. Open the Databank.xls file from the CD-ROM that came with your text. To do this: Double-click My Computer on the Desktop. Double-click the Bluman CD-ROM icon in the CD drive holding the disk. Double-click the datasets folder. Then double-click the all_data-sets folder. Double-click the bluman_es_data-sets_excel-windows folder. In this folder double-click the Databank.xls file. The Excel program will open automatically once you open this file. 4–29
2. Highlight the column labeled SMOKING STATUS to copy these data onto a new Excel worksheet. 3. Click the Microsoft Office Button
, select New Blank Workbook, then Create.
4. With cell A1 selected, click the Paste icon on the toolbar to paste the data into the new workbook. 5. Return to the Databank.xls file. Highlight the column labeled Gender. Copy and paste these data into column B of the worksheet containing the SMOKING STATUS data. 6. Type in the categories for SMOKING STATUS, 0, 1, and 2 into cells C2–C4. In cell D2, type M for male and in cell D3, type F for female.
7. On the toolbar, select Add-Ins. Then select MegaStat. Note: You may need to open MegaStat from the file MegaStat.xls saved on your computer's hard drive. 8. Select Chi-Square/Crosstab>Crosstabulation. 9. In the Row variable Data range box, type A1:A101. In the Row variable Specification range box, type C2:C4. In the Column variable Data range box, type B1:B101. In the Column variable Specification range box, type D2:D3. Remove any checks from the Output Options. Then click [OK].
Section 4–3 The Multiplication Rules and Conditional Probability
The Multiplication Rules and Conditional Probability Section 4–2 showed that the addition rules are used to compute probabilities for mutually exclusive and non-mutually exclusive events. This section introduces the multiplication rules.
The Multiplication Rules The multiplication rules can be used to find the probability of two or more events that occur in sequence. For example, if you toss a coin and then roll a die, you can find the probability of getting a head on the coin and a 4 on the die. These two events are said to be independent since the outcome of the first event (tossing a coin) does not affect the probability outcome of the second event (rolling a die). Two events A and B are independent events if the fact that A occurs does not affect the probability of B occurring.
Here are other examples of independent events: Rolling a die and getting a 6, and then rolling a second die and getting a 3. Drawing a card from a deck and getting a queen, replacing it, and drawing a second card and getting a queen. To find the probability of two independent events that occur in sequence, you must find the probability of each event occurring separately and then multiply the answers. For example, if a coin is tossed twice, the probability of getting two heads is 21 21 14. This result can be verified by looking at the sample space HH, HT, TH, TT. Then P(HH) 14.
Multiplication Rule 1 When two events are independent, the probability of both occurring is P(A and B) P(A) P(B)
Tossing a Coin A coin is flipped and a die is rolled. Find the probability of getting a head on the coin and a 4 on the die. Solution
P(head and 4) P(head) P(4) 12 61 121 Note that the sample space for the coin is H, T; and for the die it is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The problem in Example 4–23 can also be solved by using the sample space H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 The solution is 121 , since there is only one way to get the head-4 outcome.
Drawing a Card A card is drawn from a deck and replaced; then a second card is drawn. Find the probability of getting a queen and then an ace. Solution
The probability of getting a queen is 524 , and since the card is replaced, the probability of getting an ace is 524 . Hence, the probability of getting a queen and an ace is P(queen and ace) P(queen) P(ace)
4 16 1 4 52 52 2704 169
Selecting a Colored Ball An urn contains 3 red balls, 2 blue balls, and 5 white balls. A ball is selected and its color noted. Then it is replaced. A second ball is selected and its color noted. Find the probability of each of these. a. Selecting 2 blue balls b. Selecting 1 blue ball and then 1 white ball c. Selecting 1 red ball and then 1 blue ball Solution 4 251 a. P(blue and blue) P(blue) P(blue) 102 • 102 100 10 101 b. P(blue and white) P(blue) P(white) 102 • 105 100 6 503 c. P(red and blue) P(red) P(blue) 103 • 102 100
Multiplication rule 1 can be extended to three or more independent events by using the formula P(A and B and C and . . . and K ) P(A) P(B) P(C) . . . P(K) When a small sample is selected from a large population and the subjects are not replaced, the probability of the event occurring changes so slightly that for the most part, it is considered to remain the same. Examples 4–26 and 4–27 illustrate this concept.
Survey on Stress A Harris poll found that 46% of Americans say they suffer great stress at least once a week. If three people are selected at random, find the probability that all three will say that they suffer great stress at least once a week. Source: 100% American.
Let S denote stress. Then P(S and S and S) P(S) • P(S) • P(S) (0.46)(0.46)(0.46) 0.097
Male Color Blindness Approximately 9% of men have a type of color blindness that prevents them from distinguishing between red and green. If 3 men are selected at random, find the probability that all of them will have this type of red-green color blindness. Source: USA TODAY.
Let C denote red-green color blindness. Then P(C and C and C ) P(C ) • P(C) • P(C) (0.09)(0.09)(0.09) 0.000729 Hence, the rounded probability is 0.0007. In Examples 4–23 through 4–27, the events were independent of one another, since the occurrence of the first event in no way affected the outcome of the second event. On the other hand, when the occurrence of the first event changes the probability of the occurrence of the second event, the two events are said to be dependent. For example, suppose a card is drawn from a deck and not replaced, and then a second card is drawn. What is the probability of selecting an ace on the first card and a king on the second card? Before an answer to the question can be given, you must realize that the events are dependent. The probability of selecting an ace on the first draw is 524 . If that card is not replaced, the probability of selecting a king on the second card is 514 , since there are 4 kings and 51 cards remaining. The outcome of the first draw has affected the outcome of the second draw. Dependent events are formally defined now. When the outcome or occurrence of the first event affects the outcome or occurrence of the second event in such a way that the probability is changed, the events are said to be dependent events.
Here are some examples of dependent events: Drawing a card from a deck, not replacing it, and then drawing a second card. Selecting a ball from an urn, not replacing it, and then selecting a second ball. Being a lifeguard and getting a suntan. Having high grades and getting a scholarship. Parking in a no-parking zone and getting a parking ticket. To find probabilities when events are dependent, use the multiplication rule with a modification in notation. For the problem just discussed, the probability of getting an ace on the first draw is 524 , and the probability of getting a king on the second draw is 514 . By the multiplication rule, the probability of both events occurring is 16 4 4 4 • 52 51 2652 663 The event of getting a king on the second draw given that an ace was drawn the first time is called a conditional probability. The conditional probability of an event B in relationship to an event A is the probability that event B occurs after event A has already occurred. The notation for conditional 4–33
probability is P(B A). This notation does not mean that B is divided by A; rather, it means the probability that event B occurs given that event A has already occurred. In the card example, P(B A) is the probability that the second card is a king given that the first card is an ace, and it is equal to 514 since the first card was not replaced. Multiplication Rule 2 When two events are dependent, the probability of both occurring is P(A and B) P(A) P(B A)
University Crime At a university in western Pennsylvania, there were 5 burglaries reported in 2003, 16 in 2004, and 32 in 2005. If a researcher wishes to select at random two burglaries to further investigate, find the probability that both will have occurred in 2004. Source: IUP Police Department.
In this case, the events are dependent since the researcher wishes to investigate two distinct cases. Hence the first case is selected and not replaced. 60 15 P(C1 and C2) P(C1) P(C2 C1) 16 53 52 689
Homeowner's and Automobile Insurance World Wide Insurance Company found that 53% of the residents of a city had homeowner's insurance (H) with the company. Of these clients, 27% also had automobile insurance (A) with the company. If a resident is selected at random, find the probability that the resident has both homeowner's and automobile insurance with World Wide Insurance Company. Solution
P(H and A) P(H) P(A H) (0.53)(0.27) 0.1431 This multiplication rule can be extended to three or more events, as shown in Example 4–30.
Drawing Cards Three cards are drawn from an ordinary deck and not replaced. Find the probability of these events. a. Getting 3 jacks b. Getting an ace, a king, and a queen in order c. Getting a club, a spade, and a heart in order d. Getting 3 clubs Solution
a. P(3 jacks)
24 1 4 3 2 • • 52 51 50 132,600 5525
64 8 4 4 4 • • 52 51 50 132,600 16,575 13 13 13 2197 169 c. P(club and spade and heart) • • 52 51 50 132,600 10,200 1716 11 13 12 11 d. P(3 clubs) • • 52 51 50 132,600 850 b. P(ace and king and queen)
Tree diagrams can be used as an aid to finding the solution to probability problems when the events are sequential. Example 4–31 illustrates the use of tree diagrams.
Selecting Colored Balls Box 1 contains 2 red balls and 1 blue ball. Box 2 contains 3 blue balls and 1 red ball. A coin is tossed. If it falls heads up, box 1 is selected and a ball is drawn. If it falls tails up, box 2 is selected and a ball is drawn. Find the probability of selecting a red ball. Solution
The first two branches designate the selection of either box 1 or box 2. Then from box 1, either a red ball or a blue ball can be selected. Likewise, a red ball or blue ball can be selected from box 2. Hence a tree diagram of the example is shown in Figure 4–6. Next determine the probabilities for each branch. Since a coin is being tossed for the box selection, each branch has a probability of 12, that is, heads for box 1 or tails for box 2. The probabilities for the second branches are found by using the basic probability rule. For example, if box 1 is selected and there are 2 red balls and 1 blue ball, the probability of selecting a red ball is 23 and the probability of selecting a blue ball is 13. If box 2 is selected and it contains 3 blue balls and 1 red ball, then the probability of selecting a red ball is 14 and the probability of selecting a blue ball is 34. Next multiply the probability for each outcome, using the rule P(A and B) P A • P B A . For example, the probability of selecting box 1 and selecting a red ball is 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 • 3 6 . The probability of selecting box 1 and a blue ball is 2 • 3 6 . The probability 1 1 1 of selecting box 2 and selecting a red ball is 2 • 4 8. The probability of selecting box 2 and a blue ball is 12 • 34 38. (Note that the sum of these probabilities is 1.) Finally a red ball can be selected from either box 1 or box 2 so P red 26 18 8 3 11 24 24 24 . Figure 4–6 Tree Diagram for Example 4–31
P (R
B 1)
Box 1 1 2
) P (B 1
P (B
Ball Red
|B ) 1
4 B 1)
Box 2 P (B
Tree diagrams can be used when the events are independent or dependent, and they can also be used for sequences of three or more events.
Find the conditional probability of an event.
Conditional Probability The conditional probability of an event B in relationship to an event A was defined as the probability that event B occurs after event A has already occurred. The conditional probability of an event can be found by dividing both sides of the equation for multiplication rule 2 by P(A), as shown: P A and B P A • P B A P A and B P A • P B A P A P A P A and B P B A P A Formula for Conditional Probability The probability that the second event B occurs given that the first event A has occurred can be found by dividing the probability that both events occurred by the probability that the first event has occurred. The formula is P B A
Examples 4–32, 4–33, and 4–34 illustrate the use of this rule.
Selecting Colored Chips A box contains black chips and white chips. A person selects two chips without replacement. If the probability of selecting a black chip and a white chip is 15 56 , and the probability of selecting a black chip on the first draw is 38, find the probability of selecting the white chip on the second draw, given that the first chip selected was a black chip. Solution
Let B selecting a black chip
W selecting a white chip
Then P W B
P B and W 15 56 P B 3 8 5
15 3 15 8 15 8 5 • • 56 8 56 3 56 3 7 7
Hence, the probability of selecting a white chip on the second draw given that the first chip selected was black is 57.
Parking Tickets The probability that Sam parks in a no-parking zone and gets a parking ticket is 0.06, and the probability that Sam cannot find a legal parking space and has to park in the noparking zone is 0.20. On Tuesday, Sam arrives at school and has to park in a no-parking zone. Find the probability that he will get a parking ticket. Solution
Let N parking in a no-parking zone
T getting a ticket
Then P T N
P N and T 0.06 0.30 P N 0.20
Hence, Sam has a 0.30 probability of getting a parking ticket, given that he parked in a no-parking zone. The conditional probability of events occurring can also be computed when the data are given in table form, as shown in Example 4–34.
Survey on Women in the Military A recent survey asked 100 people if they thought women in the armed forces should be permitted to participate in combat. The results of the survey are shown. Gender
Find these probabilities. a. The respondent answered yes, given that the respondent was a female. b. The respondent was a male, given that the respondent answered no. Solution
Let M respondent was a male
Y respondent answered yes
F respondent was a female
N respondent answered no
a. The problem is to find P(Y F ). The rule states P Y F
P F and Y P F
The probability P(F and Y ) is the number of females who responded yes, divided by the total number of respondents: P F and Y
The probability P(F) is the probability of selecting a female: 50 P F 100 Then P Y F
P F and Y 8 100 P F 50 100 4
50 8 100 4 8 • 100 100 100 50 25 1
b. The problem is to find P(M N ). P M N
P N and M 18 100 P N 60 100 3
18 60 18 100 3 • 100 100 100 60 10 1
The Venn diagram for conditional probability is shown in Figure 4–7. In this case, P B A
which is represented by the area in the intersection or overlapping part of the circles A and B, divided by the area of circle A. The reasoning here is that if you assume A has occurred, then A becomes the sample space for the next calculation and is the P A and B denominator of the probability fraction . The numerator P(A and B) represents P A the probability of the part of B that is contained in A. Hence, P(A and B) becomes the P A and B numerator of the probability fraction . Imposing a condition reduces the P A sample space.
Probabilities for "At Least" The multiplication rules can be used with the complementary event rule (Section 4–1) to simplify solving probability problems involving "at least." Examples 4–35, 4–36, and 4–37 illustrate how this is done. Figure 4–7 P (A and B )
Venn Diagram for Conditional Probability
P(S) P(B |A ) =
P (A and B ) P(A )
Drawing Cards A game is played by drawing 4 cards from an ordinary deck and replacing each card after it is drawn. Find the probability that at least 1 ace is drawn. Solution
It is much easier to find the probability that no aces are drawn (i.e., losing) and then subtract that value from 1 than to find the solution directly, because that would involve finding the probability of getting 1 ace, 2 aces, 3 aces, and 4 aces and then adding the results. Let E at least 1 ace is drawn and E no aces drawn. Then 48 48 48 48 P E • • • 52 52 52 52 12 12 12 12 20,736 • • • 13 13 13 13 28,561 Hence, P E 1 P E P winning 1 P losing 1
20,736 7825 0.27 28,561 28,561
or a hand with at least 1 ace will occur about 27% of the time.
Tossing Coins A coin is tossed 5 times. Find the probability of getting at least 1 tail. Solution
It is easier to find the probability of the complement of the event, which is "all heads," and then subtract the probability from 1 to get the probability of at least 1 tail. P at
P E 1 P E least 1 tail 1 P all heads 15 1 P all heads 2 32
Hence, P at least 1 tail 1
The Neckware Association of America reported that 3% of ties sold in the United States are bow ties. If 4 customers who purchased a tie are randomly selected, find the probability that at least 1 purchased a bow tie. Solution
Let E at least 1 bow tie is purchased and E no bow ties are purchased. Then P(E) 0.03
P(E) 1 0.03 0.97
P(no bow ties are purchased) (0.97)(0.97)(0.97)(0.97) 0.885; hence, P(at least one bow tie is purchased) 1 0.885 0.115. Similar methods can be used for problems involving "at most." 4–39
Applying the Concepts 4–3 Guilty or Innocent? In July 1964, an elderly woman was mugged in Costa Mesa, California. In the vicinity of the crime a tall, bearded man sat waiting in a yellow car. Shortly after the crime was committed, a young, tall woman, wearing her blond hair in a ponytail, was seen running from the scene of the crime and getting into the car, which sped off. The police broadcast a description of the suspected muggers. Soon afterward, a couple fitting the description was arrested and convicted of the crime. Although the evidence in the case was largely circumstantial, the two people arrested were nonetheless convicted of the crime. The prosecutor based his entire case on basic probability theory, showing the unlikeness of another couple being in that area while having all the same characteristics that the elderly woman described. The following probabilities were used. Characteristic Drives yellow car Man over 6 feet tall Man wearing tennis shoes Man with beard Woman with blond hair Woman with hair in a ponytail Woman over 6 feet tall
Assumed probability 1 out of 12 1 out of 10 1 out of 4 1 out of 11 1 out of 3 1 out of 13 1 out of 100
Compute the probability of another couple being in that area with the same characteristics. Would you use the addition or multiplication rule? Why? Are the characteristics independent or dependent? How are the computations affected by the assumption of independence or dependence? Should any court case be based solely on probabilities? Would you convict the couple who was arrested even if there were no eyewitnesses? Comment on why in today's justice system no person can be convicted solely on the results of probabilities. 8. In actuality, aren't most court cases based on uncalculated probabilities? See page 249 for the answers.
Exercises 4–3 1. State which events are independent and which are dependent. a. Tossing a coin and drawing a card from a deck Independent b. Drawing a ball from an urn, not replacing it, and then drawing a second ball Dependent c. Getting a raise in salary and purchasing a new car Dependent d. Driving on ice and having an accident Dependent e. Having a large shoe size and having a high IQ Independent f. A father being left-handed and a daughter being left-handed Dependent g. Smoking excessively and having lung cancer Dependent 4–40
h. Eating an excessive amount of ice cream and smoking an excessive amount of cigarettes Independent 2. Exercise If 37% of high school students said that they exercise regularly, find the probability that 5 randomly selected high school students will say that they exercise regularly. Would you consider this event likely or unlikely to occur? Explain your answer. 0.007; the event is very unlikely to occur since its probability is very small.
3. Video and Computer Games Sixty-nine percent of U.S. heads of households play video or computer games. Choose 4 heads of households at random. Find the probability that a. None play video or computer games 0.009 b. All four do 0.227 Source: www.theesa.com
4. Seat Belt Use The Gallup Poll reported that 52% of Americans used a seat belt the last time they got into a car. If 4 people are selected at random, find the probability that they all used a seat belt the last time they got into a car. 7.3%
13. Drawing a Card Four cards are drawn from a deck without replacement. Find these probabilities. 1 a. All are kings. 270,725 11 b. All are diamonds. 4165 46 c. All are red cards. 833
Source: 100% American.
14. Scientific Study In a scientific study there are 8 guinea pigs, 5 of which are pregnant. If 3 are selected at random without replacement, find the probability that all are pregnant. 285
5. Automobile Sales An automobile salesperson finds the probability of making a sale is 0.21. If she talks to 4 customers, find the probability that she will make 4 sales. Is the event likely or unlikely to occur? Explain your answer. 0.00194 The event is highly unlikely since the
15. In Exercise 14, find the probability that none are pregnant. 561
probability is small.
6. Prison Populations If 25% of U.S. federal prison inmates are not U.S. citizens, find the probability that 2 randomly selected federal prison inmates will not be U.S. citizens. 6.3%
16. Winning a Door Prize At a gathering consisting of 10 men and 20 women, two door prizes are awarded. Find the probability that both prizes are won by men. The winning ticket is not replaced. Would you consider this event likely or unlikely to occur? 293 unlikely
Source: Harper's Index.
7. MLS Players Of the 216 players on major league soccer rosters, 80.1% are U.S. citizens. If 3 players are selected at random for an exhibition, what is the probability that all are U.S. citizens? 0.5139
17. In Exercise 16, find the probability that both prizes are won by women. Which event (Exercise 16 or 17) is most likely to occur? 38 87 Number 20 is more likely to occur.
18. Sales A manufacturer makes two models of an item: model I, which accounts for 80% of unit sales, and model II, which accounts for 20% of unit sales. Because of defects, the manufacturer has to replace (or exchange) 10% of its model I and 18% of its model II. If a model is selected at random, find the probability that it will be defective. 0.116
8. Working Women and Computer Use It is reported that 72% of working women use computers at work. Choose 5 working women at random. Find a. The probability that at least 1 doesn't use a computer at work 0.807 b. The probability that all 5 use a computer in their jobs 0.194 Source: www.infoplease.com
9. Text Messages via Cell Phones Thirty-five percent of people who own cell phones use their phones to send and receive text messages. Choose 4 cell phone owners at random. What is the probability that none use their phones for texting? 0.179 10. Cards If 2 cards are selected from a standard deck of 52 cards without replacement, find these probabilities.
19. Student Financial Aid In a recent year 8,073,000 male students and 10,980,000 female students were enrolled as undergraduates. Receiving aid were 60.6% of the male students and 65.2% of the female students. Of those receiving aid, 44.8% of the males got federal aid and 50.4% of the females got federal aid. Choose 1 student at random. (Hint: Make a tree diagram.) Find the probability that the student is a. A male student without aid 0.167 b. A male student, given that the student has aid 0.406 c. A female student or a student who receives federal aid 0.691
a. Both are spades. b. Both are the same suit. 174 1 c. Both are kings. 221 1 17
Source: www.nces.gov
11. Cable Television In 2006, 86% of U.S. households had cable TV. Choose 3 households at random. Find the probability that a. None of the 3 households had cable TV 0.003 b. All 3 households had cable TV 0.636 c. At least 1 of the 3 households had cable TV 0.997 Source: www.infoplease.com
12. Flashlight Batteries A flashlight has 6 batteries, 2 of which are defective. If 2 are selected at random without replacement, find the probability that both are defective.
20. Selecting Colored Balls Urn 1 contains 5 red balls and 3 black balls. Urn 2 contains 3 red balls and 1 black ball. Urn 3 contains 4 red balls and 2 black balls. If an urn is selected at random and a ball is drawn, find the probability it will be red. 49 72 21. Automobile Insurance An insurance company classifies drivers as low-risk, medium-risk, and highrisk. Of those insured, 60% are low-risk, 30% are medium-risk, and 10% are high-risk. After a study, the company finds that during a 1-year period, 1% of the 4–41
low-risk drivers had an accident, 5% of the medium-risk drivers had an accident, and 9% of the high-risk drivers had an accident. If a driver is selected at random, find the probability that the driver will have had an accident during the year. 0.03 22. Defective Items A production process produces an item. On average, 15% of all items produced are defective. Each item is inspected before being shipped, and the inspector misclassifies an item 10% of the time. What proportion of the items will be "classified as good"? What is the probability that an item is defective given that it was classified as good? 0.78 0.0192 23. Prison Populations For a recent year, 0.99 of the incarcerated population is adults and 0.07 of these are female. If an incarcerated person is selected at random, find the probability that the person is a female given that the person is an adult. 0.071 Source: Bureau of Justice.
24. Rolling Dice Roll two standard dice and add the numbers. What is the probability of getting a number larger than 9 for the first time on the third roll? 0.1157 25. Model Railroad Circuit A circuit to run a model railroad has 8 switches. Two are defective. If you select 2 switches at random and test them, find the probability that the second one is defective, given that the first one is defective. 17 26. Country Club Activities At the Avonlea Country Club, 73% of the members play bridge and swim, and 82% play bridge. If a member is selected at random, find the probability that the member swims, given that the member plays bridge. 89% 27. College Courses At a large university, the probability that a student takes calculus and is on the dean's list is 0.042. The probability that a student is on the dean's list is 0.21. Find the probability that the student is taking calculus, given that he or she is on the dean's list. 0.2 28. Country Club Members At the Coulterville Country Club, 72% of the members play golf and are college graduates, and 80% of the members play golf. If a member is selected at random, find the probability that the member is a college graduate given that the member plays golf. 0.9 29. Pizza and Salads In a pizza restaurant, 95% of the customers order pizza. If 65% of the customers order pizza and a salad, find the probability that a customer who orders pizza will also order a salad. 68.4% 30. Gift Baskets The Gift Basket Store had the following premade gift baskets containing the following combinations in stock. 4–42
Choose 1 basket at random. Find the probability that it contains a. Coffee or candy 0.7143 b. Tea given that it contains mugs 0.4348 c. Tea and cookies 0.1558 Source: www.infoplease.com
31. Blood Types and Rh Factors In addition to being grouped into four types, human blood is grouped by its Rhesus (Rh) factor. Consider the figures below which show the distributions of these groups for Americans. Rh Rh
Choose 1 American at random. Find the probability that the person a. b. c. d.
Is a universal donor, i.e., has O negative blood 0.06 Has type O blood given that the person is Rh 0.4353 Has A or AB blood 0.35 Has Rh given that the person has type B 0.1667
32. Doctor Specialties Below are listed the numbers of doctors in various specialties by gender. Male Female
Choose 1 doctor at random. a. Find P (male pediatrician). 0.498 b. Find P (pathologist female). 0.109 c. Are the characteristics "female" and "pathologist" independent? Explain. No. P(path female) P(path) Source: World Almanac.
33. Olympic Medals The medal distribution from the 2008 Summer Olympic Games for the top 23 countries is shown below. United States Russia China Great Britain Others
Choose 1 medal winner at random. a. Find the probability that the winner won the gold medal, given that the winner was from the United States. 0.327
b. Find the probability that the winner was from the United States, given that she or he won a gold medal. 0.119 c. Are the events "medal winner is from United States" and "gold medal won" independent? Explain. No. P(G U.S.) P(G) 34. Computer Ownership At a local university 54.3% of incoming first-year students have computers. If 3 students are selected at random, find the following probabilities. a. None have computers. 0.0954 b. At least one has a computer. 0.9046 c. All have computers. 0.1601 35. Leisure Time Exercise Only 27% of U.S. adults get enough leisure time exercise to achieve cardiovascular fitness. Choose 3 adults at random. Find the probability that a. All 3 get enough daily exercise 0.0197 b. At least 1 of the 3 gets enough exercise 0.611 Source: www.infoplease.com
36. Customer Purchases In a department store there are 120 customers, 90 of whom will buy at least 1 item. If 5 customers are selected at random, one by one, find the probability that all will buy at least 1 item. 0.231 37. Marital Status of Women According to the Statistical Abstract of the United States, 70.3% of females ages 20 to 24 have never been married. Choose 5 young women in this age category at random. Find the probability that a. None has ever been married 0.1717 b. At least 1 has been married 0.8283 Source: New York Times Almanac.
38. Fatal Accidents The American Automobile Association (AAA) reports that of the fatal car and truck accidents, 54% are caused by car driver error. If 3 accidents are chosen at random, find the probability that a. All are caused by car driver error 0.157 b. None is caused by car driver error 0.097 c. At least 1 is caused by car driver error 0.903 Source: AAA quoted on CNN.
39. On-Time Airplane Arrivals The greater Cincinnati airport led major U.S. airports in on-time arrivals in the last quarter of 2005 with an 84.3% on-time rate. Choose 5 arrivals at random and find the probability that at least 1 was not on time. 0.574 Source: www.census.gov
40. Online Electronic Games Fifty-six percent of electronic gamers play games online, and sixty-four percent of those
gamers are female. What is the probability that a randomly selected gamer plays games online and is male? 0.202 Source: www.tech.msn.com
41. Reading to Children Fifty-eight percent of American children (ages 3 to 5) are read to every day by someone at home. Suppose 5 children are randomly selected. What is the probability that at least 1 is read to every day by someone at home? 0.9869 Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics.
42. Doctoral Assistantships Of Ph.D. students, 60% have paid assistantships. If 3 students are selected at random, find the probabilities a. All have assistantships 0.216 b. None has an assistantship 0.064 c. At least 1 has an assistantship 0.936 Source: U.S. Department of Education, Chronicle of Higher Education.
43. Selecting Cards If 4 cards are drawn from a deck of 52 and not replaced, find the probability of getting at 14,498 least 1 club. 20,825 44. Full-Time College Enrollment The majority (69%) of undergraduate students were enrolled in a 4-year college in a recent year. Eighty-one percent of those enrolled attended full-time. Choose 1 enrolled undergraduate student at random. What is the probability that she or he is a part-time student at a 4-year college? 0.131 Source: www.census.gov
45. Family and Children's Computer Games It was reported that 19.8% of computer games sold in 2005 were classified as "family and children's." Choose 5 purchased computer games at random. Find the probability that a. None of the 5 was family and children's 0.332 b. At least 1 of the 5 was family and children's 0.668 Source: www.theesa.com
46. Medication Effectiveness A medication is 75% effective against a bacterial infection. Find the probability that if 12 people take the medication, at least 1 person's infection will not improve. 96.8% 47. Tossing a Coin A coin is tossed 5 times; find the probability of getting at least 1 tail. Would you consider this event likely to happen? Explain your answer. 31 32 48. Selecting a Letter of the Alphabet If 3 letters of the alphabet are selected at random, find the probability of getting at least 1 letter x. Letters can be used more than once. Would you consider this event likely to happen? Explain your answer. 0.111; the event is very unlikely to occur since the probability is only about 11%.
49. Rolling a Die A die is rolled 6 times. Find the probability of getting at least one 4. Would you consider this event likely or unlikely? Explain your answer. 0.665 It will happen almost 67% of the time. It's somewhat likely.
50. High School Grades of First-Year College Students Forty-seven percent of first-year college students enrolled in 2005 had an average grade of A in high school compared to 20% of first-year college students in 1970. Choose 6 first-year college students at random enrolled in 2005. Find the probability that a. All had an A average in high school 0.011 b. None had an A average in high school 0.022 c. At least 1 had an A average in high school 0.978
51. Rolling a Die If a die is rolled 3 times, find the probability of getting at least 1 even number. 78 52. Selecting a Flower In a large vase, there are 8 roses, 5 daisies, 12 lilies, and 9 orchids. If 4 flowers are selected at random, find the probability that at least 1 of the flowers is a rose. Would you consider this event likely to occur? Explain your answer. 0.678; yes the event is a little more likely to occur than not since the probability is about 68%.
Source: www.census.gov
Extending the Concepts 53. Let A and B be two mutually exclusive events. Are A and B independent events? Explain your answer. No, since P(A B) 0 and does not equal P(A) P(B).
54. Types of Vehicles The Bargain Auto Mall has the following cars in stock. Foreign Domestic
Are the events "compact" and "domestic" independent? Explain. No, since P(C D) P(C). 55. College Enrollment An admissions director knows that the probability a student will enroll after a campus visit is 0.55, or P(E) 0.55. While students are on campus visits, interviews with professors are arranged.
The admissions director computes these conditional probabilities for students enrolling after visiting three professors, DW, LP, and MH. P(E DW) 0.95
P(E LP) 0.55
P(E MH) 0.15
Is there something wrong with the numbers? Explain. 56. Commercials Event A is the event that a person remembers a certain product commercial. Event B is the event that a person buys the product. If P(B) 0.35, comment on each of these conditional probabilities if you were vice president for sales. a. P(B A) 0.20 b. P(B A) 0.35 c. P(B A) 0.55
Counting Rules Many times a person must know the number of all possible outcomes for a sequence of events. To determine this number, three rules can be used: the fundamental counting rule, the permutation rule, and the combination rule. These rules are explained here, and they will be used in Section 4–5 to find probabilities of events. The first rule is called the fundamental counting rule.
The Fundamental Counting Rule Objective
Find the total number of outcomes in a sequence of events, using the fundamental counting rule.
Fundamental Counting Rule In a sequence of n events in which the first one has k1 possibilities and the second event has k2 and the third has k3, and so forth, the total number of possibilities of the sequence will be k1 k2 k3 kn Note: In this case and means to multiply.
Section 4–4 Counting Rules
Examples 4–38 through 4–41 illustrate the fundamental counting rule.
Tossing a Coin and Rolling a Die A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Find the number of outcomes for the sequence of events. Die
H, 1
Complete Tree Diagram for Example 4–38
s ead
H, 6 T, 1
Tai ls
T, 2
5 T, 5
Interesting Fact Possible games of chess: 25 10115.
Since the coin can land either heads up or tails up and since the die can land with any one of six numbers showing face up, there are 2 6 12 possibilities. A tree diagram can also be drawn for the sequence of events. See Figure 4–8.
Types of Paint A paint manufacturer wishes to manufacture several different paints. The categories include Color Type Texture Use
Red, blue, white, black, green, brown, yellow Latex, oil Flat, semigloss, high gloss Outdoor, indoor
How many different kinds of paint can be made if you can select one color, one type, one texture, and one use? Solution
You can choose one color and one type and one texture and one use. Since there are 7 color choices, 2 type choices, 3 texture choices, and 2 use choices, the total number of possible different paints is Color 7
Type •
Texture •
Use •
Distribution of Blood Types There are four blood types, A, B, AB, and O. Blood can also be Rh and Rh . Finally, a blood donor can be classified as either male or female. How many different ways can a donor have his or her blood labeled?
A, Rh , M
A, Rh , F
B, Rh , M
B, Rh , F
AB, Rh , M
AB, Rh , F
O, Rh , M
O, Rh , F
A Rh
AB Rh
Since there are 4 possibilities for blood type, 2 possibilities for Rh factor, and 2 possibilities for the gender of the donor, there are 4 2 2, or 16, different classification categories, as shown. Blood type 4
Rh •
Gender •
A tree diagram for the events is shown in Figure 4–9. When determining the number of different possibilities of a sequence of events, you must know whether repetitions are permissible.
Identification Cards The manager of a department store chain wishes to make four-digit identification cards for her employees. How many different cards can be made if she uses the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 and repetitions are permitted?
Since there are 4 spaces to fill on each card and there are 6 choices for each space, the total number of cards that can be made is 6 6 6 6 1296. Now, what if repetitions are not permitted? For Example 4–41, the first digit can be chosen in 6 ways. But the second digit can be chosen in only 5 ways, since there are only five digits left, etc. Thus, the solution is 6 5 4 3 360 The same situation occurs when one is drawing balls from an urn or cards from a deck. If the ball or card is replaced before the next one is selected, then repetitions are permitted, since the same one can be selected again. But if the selected ball or card is not replaced, then repetitions are not permitted, since the same ball or card cannot be selected the second time. These examples illustrate the fundamental counting rule. In summary: If repetitions are permitted, then the numbers stay the same going from left to right. If repetitions are not permitted, then the numbers decrease by 1 for each place left to right. Two other rules that can be used to determine the total number of possibilities of a sequence of events are the permutation rule and the combination rule.
Historical Note In 1808 Christian Kramp first used the factorial notation.
Factorial Notation These rules use factorial notation. The factorial notation uses the exclamation point. 5! 5 4 3 2 1 9! 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To use the formulas in the permutation and combination rules, a special definition of 0! is needed. 0! 1.
Factorial Formulas For any counting n n! n(n 1)(n 2) 1 0! 1
Permutations A permutation is an arrangement of n objects in a specific order.
Examples 4–42 and 4–43 illustrate permutations.
Business Location Suppose a business owner has a choice of 5 locations in which to establish her business. She decides to rank each location according to certain criteria, such as price of the store and parking facilities. How many different ways can she rank the 5 locations? 4–47
There are 5! 5 4 3 2 1 120 different possible rankings. The reason is that she has 5 choices for the first location, 4 choices for the second location, 3 choices for the third location, etc.
In Example 4–42 all objects were used up. But what happens when not all objects are used up? The answer to this question is given in Example 4–43.
Business Location Suppose the business owner in Example 4–42 wishes to rank only the top 3 of the 5 locations. How many different ways can she rank them? Solution
Using the fundamental counting rule, she can select any one of the 5 for first choice, then any one of the remaining 4 locations for her second choice, and finally, any one of the remaining locations for her third choice, as shown. First choice
Second choice •
Third choice •
The solutions in Examples 4–42 and 4–43 are permutations.
Permutation Rule The arrangement of n objects in a specific order using r objects at a time is called a permutation of n objects taking r objects at a time. It is written as nPr , and the formula is n Pr
n! r !
The notation nPr is used for permutations. 6P4
6! 4 !
6! 6 • 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1 360 2! 2•1
Although Examples 4–42 and 4–43 were solved by the multiplication rule, they can now be solved by the permutation rule. In Example 4–42, 5 locations were taken and then arranged in order; hence, 5 P5
5! 5! 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1 120 5 5 ! 0! 1
(Recall that 0! 1.) 4–48
In Example 4–43, 3 locations were selected from 5 locations, so n 5 and r 3; hence 5 P3
5! 5! 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1 60 5 3 ! 2! 2•1
Examples 4–44 and 4–45 illustrate the permutation rule.
Television Ads The advertising director for a television show has 7 ads to use on the program. If she selects 1 of them for the opening of the show, 1 for the middle of the show, and 1 for the ending of the show, how many possible ways can this be accomplished? Solution
Since order is important, the solution is 7 P3
7! 7! 210 7 3 ! 4!
Hence, there would be 210 ways to show 3 ads.
School Musical Plays A school musical director can select 2 musical plays to present next year. One will be presented in the fall, and one will be presented in the spring. If she has 9 to pick from, how many different possibilities are there? Solution
Order is important since one play can be presented in the fall and the other play in the spring. 9 P2
9! 9! 9 • 8 • 7! 72 2 ! 7! 7!
There are 72 different possibilities.
Combinations Suppose a dress designer wishes to select two colors of material to design a new dress, and she has on hand four colors. How many different possibilities can there be in this situation? This type of problem differs from previous ones in that the order of selection is not important. That is, if the designer selects yellow and red, this selection is the same as the selection red and yellow. This type of selection is called a combination. The difference between a permutation and a combination is that in a combination, the order or arrangement of the objects is not important; by contrast, order is important in a permutation. Example 4–46 illustrates this difference. A selection of distinct objects without regard to order is called a combination.
Letters Given the letters A, B, C, and D, list the permutations and combinations for selecting two letters. Solution
The permutations are AB AC AD
BA BC BD
CA CB CD
DA DB DC
In permutations, AB is different from BA. But in combinations, AB is the same as BA since the order of the objects does not matter in combinations. Therefore, if duplicates are removed from a list of permutations, what is left is a list of combinations, as shown. BA BC BD
AB AC AD
Hence the combinations of A, B, C, and D are AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, and CD. (Alternatively, BA could be listed and AB crossed out, etc.) The combinations have been listed alphabetically for convenience, but this is not a requirement.
Interesting Fact The total number of hours spent mowing lawns in the United States each year: 2,220,000,000.
Combinations are used when the order or arrangement is not important, as in the selecting process. Suppose a committee of 5 students is to be selected from 25 students. The 5 selected students represent a combination, since it does not matter who is selected first, second, etc. Combination Rule The number of combinations of r objects selected from n objects is denoted by nCr and is given by the formula nC r
n! r !r!
Combinations How many combinations of 4 objects are there, taken 2 at a time? Solution
Since this is a combination problem, the answer is 2
4! 4! 4 • 3 • 2! 6 4C2 4 2 !2! 2!2! 2 • 1 • 2! This is the same result shown in Example 4–46.
Notice that the expression for nCr is n
which is the formula for permutations with r! in the denominator. In other words, nCr
P n r r!
This r! divides out the duplicates from the number of permutations, as shown in Example 4–46. For each two letters, there are two permutations but only one combination. Hence, dividing the number of permutations by r! eliminates the duplicates. This result can be verified for other values of n and r. Note: nCn 1.
Book Reviews A newspaper editor has received 8 books to review. He decides that he can use 3 reviews in his newspaper. How many different ways can these 3 reviews be selected? Solution 8C3
8! 8! 8•7•6 56 3 !3! 5!3! 3 • 2 • 1
There are 56 possibilities.
Committee Selection In a club there are 7 women and 5 men. A committee of 3 women and 2 men is to be chosen. How many different possibilities are there? Solution
Here, you must select 3 women from 7 women, which can be done in 7C3, or 35, ways. Next, 2 men must be selected from 5 men, which can be done in 5C2, or 10, ways. Finally, by the fundamental counting rule, the total number of different ways is 35 10 350, since you are choosing both men and women. Using the formula gives 7C3
• 5C2
7! 5! • 350 3 !3! 5 2 !2! 4–51
Table 4–1 summarizes the counting rules.
Summary of Counting Rules
Fundamental counting rule
The number of ways a sequence of n events can occur if the first event can occur in k1 ways, the second event can occur in k2 ways, etc.
k1 • k2 • k3 • • • kn
Permutation rule
The number of permutations of n objects taking r objects at a time (order is important)
nP r
The number of combinations of r objects taken from n objects (order is not important)
nC r
Combination rule
Applying the Concepts 4–4 Garage Door Openers Garage door openers originally had a series of four on/off switches so that homeowners could personalize the frequencies that opened their garage doors. If all garage door openers were set at the same frequency, anyone with a garage door opener could open anyone else's garage door. 1. Use a tree diagram to show how many different positions 4 consecutive on/off switches could be in. After garage door openers became more popular, another set of 4 on/off switches was added to the systems. 2. Find a pattern of how many different positions are possible with the addition of each on/off switch. 3. How many different positions are possible with 8 consecutive on/off switches? 4. Is it reasonable to assume, if you owned a garage door opener with 8 switches, that someone could use his or her garage door opener to open your garage door by trying all the different possible positions? In 1989 it was reported that the ignition keys for 1988 Dodge Caravans were made from a single blank that had five cuts on it. Each cut was made at one out of five possible levels. In 1988, assume there were 420,000 Dodge Caravans sold in the United States. 5. How many different possible keys can be made from the same key blank? 6. How many different 1988 Dodge Caravans could any one key start? Look at the ignition key for your car and count the number of cuts on it. Assume that the cuts are made at one of any of five possible levels. Most car companies use one key blank for all their makes and models of cars. 7. Conjecture how many cars your car company sold over recent years, and then figure out how many other cars your car key could start. What would you do to decrease the odds of someone being able to open another vehicle with his or her key? See page 250 for the answers.
Exercises 4–4 1. Zip Codes How many 5-digit zip codes are possible if digits can be repeated? If there cannot be repetitions? 100,000; 30,240
2. Batting Order How many ways can a baseball manager arrange a batting order of 9 players? 362,880 3. Video Games How many different ways can 6 different video game cartridges be arranged on a shelf? 720 4. Visiting Nurses How many different ways can a visiting nurse visit 9 patients if she wants to visit them all in one day? 362,880 5. Laundry Soap Display A store manager wishes to display 7 different kinds of laundry soap in a row. How many different ways can this be done? 5040 ways 6. Show Programs Three bands and two comics are performing for a student talent show. How many different programs (in terms of order) can be arranged? How many if the comics must perform between bands? 120; 12
7. Campus Tours Student volunteers take visitors on a tour of 10 campus buildings. How many different tours are possible? (Assume order is important.) 3,628,000 8. Radio Station Call Letters The call letters of a radio station must have 4 letters. The first letter must be a K or a W. How many different station call letters can be made if repetitions are not allowed? If repetitions are allowed? 27,600; 35,152 9. Identification Tags How many different 3-digit identification tags can be made if the digits can be used more than once? If the first digit must be a 5 and repetitions are not permitted? 1000; 72 10. Secret Code Word How many 4-letter code words can be made using the letters in the word pencil if repetitions are permitted? If repetitions are not permitted? 1296; 360 11. Selection of Officers Six students are running for the positions of president and vice-president, and five students are running for secretary and treasurer. If the two highest vote getters in each of the two contests are elected, how many winning combinations can there be? 600 12. Automobile Trips There are 2 major roads from city X to city Y and 4 major roads from city Y to city Z. How many different trips can be made from city X to city Z passing through city Y ? 8 13. Evaluate each of these. a. b. c. d.
8! 40,320 10! 3,628,800 0! 1 1! 1
e. f. g. h.
12P4 11,880 5P3 60 6P0 1
i. j.
6P2 30
14. County Assessments The County Assessment Bureau decides to reassess homes in 8 different areas. How many different ways can this be accomplished? 40,320 15. Sports Car Stripes How many different 4-color code stripes can be made on a sports car if each code consists of the colors green, red, blue, and white? All colors are used only once. 24 16. Manufacturing Tests An inspector must select 3 tests to perform in a certain order on a manufactured part. He has a choice of 7 tests. How many ways can he perform 3 different tests? 210 17. Threatened Species of Reptiles There are 22 threatened species of reptiles in the United States. In how many ways can you choose 4 to write about? (Order is not important.) 7315 Source: www.infoplease.com
18. Inspecting Restaurants How many different ways can a city health department inspector visit 5 restaurants in a city with 10 restaurants? 30,240 19. How many different 4-letter permutations can be formed from the letters in the word decagon? 840 20. Cell Phone Models A particular cell phone company offers 4 models of phones, each in 6 different colors and each available with any one of 5 calling plans. How many combinations are possible? 120 21. ID Cards How many different ID cards can be made if there are 6 digits on a card and no digit can be used more than once? 151,200 22. Free-Sample Requests An online coupon service has 13 offers for free samples. How may different requests are possible if a customer must request exactly 3 free samples? How many are possible if the customer may request up to 3 free samples? 286; 378 (count 0) 23. Ticket Selection How many different ways can 4 tickets be selected from 50 tickets if each ticket wins a different prize? 5,527,200 24. Movie Selections The Foreign Language Club is showing a four-movie marathon of subtitled movies. How many ways can they choose 4 from the 11 available? 330 25. Task Assignments How many ways can an adviser choose 4 students from a class of 12 if they are all assigned the same task? How many ways can the students be chosen if they are each given a different task? 495; 11,880 26. Agency Cases An investigative agency has 7 cases and 5 agents. How many different ways can the cases be assigned if only 1 case is assigned to each agent? 2520 4–53
27. (ans) Evaluate each expression. a. 5C2 10 d. 6C2 15 g. 3C3 1 b. 8C3 56 e. 6C4 15 h. 9C7 36 c. 7C4 35 f. 3C0 1 i. 12C2 66
4C3 4
28. Selecting Cards How many ways can 3 cards be selected from a standard deck of 52 cards, disregarding the order of selection? 22,100 29. Selecting Coins How many ways can a person select 3 coins from a box consisting of a penny, a nickel, a dime, a quarter, a half-dollar, and a one-dollar coin? 120 30. Selecting Players How many ways can 4 baseball players and 3 basketball players be selected from 12 baseball players and 9 basketball players? 41,580 31. Selecting a Committee How many ways can a committee of 4 people be selected from a group of 10 people? 210
40. Selecting a Jury How many ways can a jury of 6 women and 6 men be selected from 10 women and 12 men? 194,040 41. Selecting a Golf Foursome How many ways can a foursome of 2 men and 2 women be selected from 10 men and 12 women in a golf club? 2970 42. Investigative Team The state narcotics bureau must form a 5-member investigative team. If it has 25 agents from which to choose, how many different possible teams can be formed? 53,130 43. Dominoes A domino is a flat rectangular block the face of which is divided into two square parts, each part showing from zero to six pips (or dots). Playing a game consists of playing dominoes with a matching number of pips. Explain why there are 28 dominoes in a complete set. 7C2 is 21 combinations 7 double tiles 28
32. Selecting Christmas Presents If a person can select 3 presents from 10 presents under a Christmas tree, how many different combinations are there? 120
44. Charity Event Participants There are 16 seniors and 15 juniors in a particular social organization. In how many ways can 4 seniors and 2 juniors be chosen to participate in a charity event? 191,100
33. Questions for a Test How many different tests can be made from a test bank of 20 questions if the test consists of 5 questions? 15,504
45. Selecting Commercials How many ways can a person select 7 television commercials from 11 television commercials? 330
34. Promotional Program The general manager of a fast-food restaurant chain must select 6 restaurants from 11 for a promotional program. How many different possible ways can this selection be done? 462
46. DVD Selection How many ways can a person select 8 DVDs from a display of 13 DVDs? 1287
35. Music Program Selections A jazz band has prepared 18 selections for a concert tour. At each stop they will perform 10. How many different programs are possible? How many programs are possible if they always begin with the same song and end with the same song? 43,758; 12,870
36. Freight Train Cars In a train yard there are 4 tank cars, 12 boxcars, and 7 flatcars. How many ways can a train be made up consisting of 2 tank cars, 5 boxcars, and 3 flatcars? (In this case, order is not important.) 166,320 37. Selecting a Committee There are 7 women and 5 men in a department. How many ways can a committee of 4 people be selected? How many ways can this committee be selected if there must be 2 men and 2 women on the committee? How many ways can this committee be selected if there must be at least 2 women on the committee? 495; 210; 420 38. Selecting Cereal Boxes Wake Up cereal comes in 2 types, crispy and crunchy. If a researcher has 10 boxes of each, how many ways can she select 3 boxes of each for a quality control test? 14,400 39. Hawaiian Words The Hawaiian alphabet consists of 7 consonants and 5 vowels. How many three-letter "words" are possible if there are never two consonants together and if a word must always end in a vowel? 475 4–54
47. Candy Bar Selection How many ways can a person select 6 candy bars from a list of 10 and 6 salty snacks from a list of 12 to put in a vending machine? 194,040 48. Selecting a Location An advertising manager decides to have an ad campaign in which 8 special calculators will be hidden at various locations in a shopping mall. If he has 17 locations from which to pick, how many different possible combinations can he choose? 24,310 Permutations and Combinations 49. Selecting Posters A buyer decides to stock 8 different posters. How many ways can she select these 8 if there are 20 from which to choose? 125,970 50. Test Marketing Products Anderson Research Company decides to test-market a product in 6 areas. How many different ways can 3 areas be selected in a certain order for the first test? 120 51. Selecting Rats How many different ways can a researcher select 5 rats from 20 rats and assign each to a different test? 1,860,480 52. Selecting Musicals How many different ways can a theatrical group select 2 musicals and 3 dramas from 11 musicals and 8 dramas to be presented during the year? 3080
53. Textbook Selection How many different ways can an instructor select 2 textbooks from a possible 17? 136 54. DVD Selection How many ways can a person select 8 DVDs from 10 DVDs? 45 55. Public Service Announcements How many different ways can 5 public service announcements be run during 1 hour? 120 56. Signal Flags How many different signals can be made by using at least 3 different flags if there are 5 different flags from which to select? 300
57. Dinner Selections How many ways can a dinner patron select 3 appetizers and 2 vegetables if there are 6 appetizers and 5 vegetables on the menu? 200 58. Air Pollution The Environmental Protection Agency must investigate 9 mills for complaints of air pollution. How many different ways can a representative select 5 of these to investigate this week? 126 59. Selecting Officers In a board of directors composed of 8 people, how many ways can one chief executive officer, one director, and one treasurer be selected? 336
Extending the Concepts 60. Selecting Coins How many different ways can you select one or more coins if you have 2 nickels, 1 dime, and 1 half-dollar? 15 61. People Seated in a Circle In how many ways can 3 people be seated in a circle? 4? n? (Hint: Think of them standing in a line before they sit down and/or draw diagrams.) 2; 6; (n 1)! 62. Seating in a Movie Theater How many different ways can 5 people—A, B, C, D, and E—sit in a row at a movie
theater if (a) A and B must sit together; (b) C must sit to the right of, but not necessarily next to, B; (c) D and E will not sit next to each other? a. 48 b. 60 c. 72 63. Poker Hands Using combinations, calculate the number of each poker hand in a deck of cards. (A poker hand consists of 5 cards dealt in any order.) a. Royal flush 4 b. Straight flush 36
c. Four of a kind 624 d. Full house 3744
Factorials, Permutations, and Combinations Factorials n!
1. Type the value of n. 2. Press MATH and move the cursor to PRB, then press 4 for !. 3. Press ENTER. Permutations n Pr
1. Type the value of n. 2. Press MATH and move the cursor to PRB, then press 2 for nPr. 3. Type the value of r. 4. Press ENTER. Combinations nCr
1. Type the value of n. 2. Press MATH and move the cursor to PRB, then press 3 for nCr. 3. Type the value of r. 4. Press ENTER. Calculate 5!, 8P3, and 12C5 (Examples 4–42, 4–44, and 4–48 from the text). 4–55
Permutations, Combinations, and Factorials
To find a value of a permutation, for example, 5P3: 1. In an open cell in an Excel worksheet, select the Formulas tab on the toolbar. Then click the Insert function icon
2. Select the Statistical function category, then the PERMUT function, and click [OK].
3. Type 5 in the Number box. 4. Type 3 in the Number_chosen box and click [OK]. The selected cell will display the answer: 60. To find a value of a combination, for example, 5C3: 1. In an open cell, select the Formulas tab on the toolbar. Click the Insert function icon. 2. Select the All function category, then the COMBIN function, and click [OK].
3. Type 5 in the Number box. 4. Type 3 in the Number_chosen box and click [OK]. The selected cell will display the answer: 10. To find a factorial of a number, for example, 7!: 1. In an open cell, select the Formulas tab on the toolbar. Click the Insert function icon. 4–56
Section 4–5 Probability and Counting Rules
2. Select the Math & Trig function category, then the FACT function, and click [OK].
3. Type 7 in the Number box and click [OK]. The selected cell will display the answer: 5040.
Probability and Counting Rules The counting rules can be combined with the probability rules in this chapter to solve many types of probability problems. By using the fundamental counting rule, the permutation rules, and the combination rule, you can compute the probability of outcomes of many experiments, such as getting a full house when 5 cards are dealt or selecting a committee of 3 women and 2 men from a club consisting of 10 women and 10 men.
Four Aces Find the probability of getting 4 aces when 5 cards are drawn from an ordinary deck of cards. 4–57
There are 52C5 ways to draw 5 cards from a deck. There is only 1 way to get 4 aces (that is, 4C4), but there are 48 possibilities to get the fifth card. Therefore, there are 48 ways to get 4 aces and 1 other card. Hence, P 4 aces 4
1 • 48 C4 • 48 48 1 2,598,960 2,598,960 54,145 52C5
Defective Transistors A box contains 24 transistors, 4 of which are defective. If 4 are sold at random, find the following probabilities. a. Exactly 2 are defective. c. All are defective. b. None is defective. d. At least 1 is defective. Solution
There are 24C4 ways to sell 4 transistors, so the denominator in each case will be 10,626. a. Two defective transistors can be selected as 4C2 and two nondefective ones as 20C2. Hence, C • C 1140 190 P exactly 2 defectives 4 2 20 2 C 10,626 1771 24 4 b. The number of ways to choose no defectives is 20C4. Hence, C 4845 1615 P no defectives 20 4 C 10,626 3542 24 4 c. The number of ways to choose 4 defectives from 4 is 4C4, or 1. Hence, P all defective
1 1 C 10,626 24 4
d. To find the probability of at least 1 defective transistor, find the probability that there are no defective transistors, and then subtract that probability from 1. P at least 1 defective 1 P no defectives C 1615 1927 1 20 4 1 3542 3542 24C4
Magazines A store has 6 TV Graphic magazines and 8 Newstime magazines on the counter. If two customers purchased a magazine, find the probability that one of each magazine was purchased. Solution
P 1 TV Graphic and 1 Newstime 6
C1 • 8C1 6 • 8 48 91 91 14C2
Combination Lock A combination lock consists of the 26 letters of the alphabet. If a 3-letter combination is needed, find the probability that the combination will consist of the letters ABC in that order. The same letter can be used more than once. (Note: A combination lock is really a permutation lock.) Solution
Since repetitions are permitted, there are 26 26 26 17,576 different possible combinations. And since there is only one ABC combination, the probability is P(ABC) 1 263 1 17,576.
Tennis Tournament There are 8 married couples in a tennis club. If 1 man and 1 woman are selected at random to plan the summer tournament, find the probability that they are married to each other. Solution
Since there are 8 ways to select the man and 8 ways to select the woman, there are 8 8, or 64, ways to select 1 man and 1 woman. Since there are 8 married couples, the solution is 648 18. As indicated at the beginning of this section, the counting rules and the probability rules can be used to solve a large variety of probability problems found in business, gambling, economics, biology, and other fields.
Applying the Concepts 4–5 Counting Rules and Probability One of the biggest problems for students when doing probability problems is to decide which formula or formulas to use. Another problem is to decide whether two events are independent or dependent. Use the following problem to help develop a better understanding of these concepts. Assume you are given a 5-question multiple-choice quiz. Each question has 5 possible answers: A, B, C, D, and E. 1. 2. 3. 4.
How many events are there? Are the events independent or dependent? If you guess at each question, what is the probability that you get all of them correct? What is the probability that a person would guess answer A for each question?
Assume that you are given a test in which you are to match the correct answers in the right column with the questions in the left column. You can use each answer only once. 5. 6. 7. 8.
How many events are there? Are the events independent or dependent? What is the probability of getting them all correct if you are guessing? What is the difference between the two problems?
Speaking of Statistics The Mathematics of Gambling Gambling is big business. There are state lotteries, casinos, sports betting, and church bingos. It seems that today everybody is either watching or playing Texas Hold 'Em Poker. Using permutations, combinations, and the probability rules, mathematicians can find the probabilities of various gambling games. Here are the probabilities of the various 5-card poker hands. Hand
Number of ways
Straight flush Four of a kind Full house Flush Straight Three of a kind Two pairs One pair Less than one pair
40 624 3,744 5,108 10,200 54,912 123,552 1,098,240 1,302,540
0.000015 0.000240 0.001441 0.001965 0.003925 0.021129 0.047539 0.422569 0.501177
The chance of winning at gambling games can be compared by using what is called the house advantage, house edge, or house percentage. For example, the house advantage for roulette is about 5.26%, which means in the long run, the house wins 5.26 cents on every $1 bet; or you will lose, on average, 5.26 cents on every $1 you bet. The lower the house advantage, the more favorable the game is to you. For the game of craps, the house advantage is anywhere between 1.4 and 15%, depending on what you bet on. For the game called keno, the house advantage is 29.5%. The house of advantage for Chuck-a-Luck is 7.87%, and for baccarat, it is either 1.36 or 1.17% depending on your bet. Slot machines have a house advantage anywhere from about 4 to 10% depending on the geographic location, such as Atlantic City, Las Vegas, and Mississippi, and the amount put in the machine, such as 5¢, 25¢, and $1. Actually, gamblers found winning strategies for the game blackjack or 21 such as card counting. However, the casinos retaliated by using multiple decks and by banning card counters.
Exercises 4–5 1. Selecting Cards Find the probability of getting 2 face cards (king, queen, or jack) when 2 cards are drawn 11 from a deck without replacement. 221 2. Selecting a Committee A parent-teacher committee consisting of 4 people is to be formed from 20 parents and 5 teachers. Find the probability that the committee will consist of these people. (Assume that the selection will be random.) 1 a. All teachers 2530 b. 2 teachers and 2 parents
969 c. All parents 2530 d. 1 teacher and 3 parents
3. Management Seminar In a company there are 7 executives: 4 women and 3 men. Three are selected to attend a management seminar. Find these probabilities. a. b. c. d.
All 3 selected will be women. 354 All 3 selected will be men. 351 2 men and 1 woman will be selected. 1 man and 2 women will be selected.
4. Senate Partisanship The composition of the Senate of the 111th Congress is 41 Republicans
2 Independent
57 Democrats
A new committee is being formed to study ways to benefit the arts in education. If 3 Senators are selected at random to head the committee, what is the probability that they will all be Republicans? What is the probability that they will all be Democrats? What is the probability that there will be 1 from each party, including the Independent? 0.0659; 0.1810; 0.0289 Source: New York Times Almanac.
5. Congressional Committee Memberships The composition of the 108th Congress was 51 Republicans, 48 Democrats, and 1 Independent. A committee on aid to higher education is to be formed with 3 Senators to be chosen at random to head the committee. Find the probability that the group of 3 consists of a. All Republicans 0.129 b. All Democrats 0.107 c. 1 Democrat, 1 Republican, and 1 Independent 0.0908 6. Defective Resistors A package contains 12 resistors, 3 of which are defective. If 4 are selected, find the probability of getting 14 a. 0 defective resistors 55 28 b. 1 defective resistor 55 c. 3 defective resistors 551 7. Winning Tickets If 50 tickets are sold and 2 prizes are to be awarded, find the probability that one person will 1 win 2 prizes if that person buys 2 tickets. 1225 8. Getting a Full House Find the probability of getting a full house (3 cards of one denomination and 2 of another) when 5 cards are dealt from an ordinary 18 6 4165 deck. 12,495 9. Flight School Graduation At a recent graduation at a naval flight school, 18 Marines, 10 members of the Navy, and 3 members of the Coast Guard got their wings. Choose 3 pilots at random to feature on a training brochure. Find the probability that there will be a. 1 of each 0.120 b. 0 members of the Navy 0.296 c. 3 Marines 0.182 10. Selecting Cards The red face cards and the black cards numbered 2–9 are put into a bag. Four cards are drawn at random without replacement. Find the following probabilities:
All 4 cards are red. 0.002 2 cards are red and 2 cards are black. 0.246 At least 1 of the cards is red. 0.751 All 4 cards are black. 0.249
11. Socks in a Drawer A drawer contains 11 identical red socks and 8 identical black socks. Suppose that you choose 2 socks at random in the dark. a. What is the probability that you get a pair of red socks? 0.3216 b. What is the probability that you get a pair of black socks? 0.1637 c. What is the probability that you get 2 unmatched socks? 0.5146 d. Where did the other red sock go? It probably got lost in the wash!
12. Selecting Books Find the probability of selecting 3 science books and 4 math books from 8 science books and 9 math books. The books are selected at 882 random. 2431 13. Rolling Three Dice When 3 dice are rolled, find the probability of getting a sum of 7. 725 14. Football Team Selection A football team consists of 20 each freshmen and sophomores, 15 juniors, and 10 seniors. Four players are selected at random to serve as captains. Find the probability that a. All 4 are seniors 0.0003 b. There is 1 each: freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior 0.089 c. There are 2 sophomores and 2 freshmen 0.053 d. At least 1 of the students is a senior 0.496 15. Arrangement of Washers Find the probability that if 5 different-sized washers are arranged in a row, they will be arranged in order of size. 601 16. Using the information in Exercise 63 in Section 4–4, find the probability of each poker hand. 4 a. Royal flush 2,598,960 36 b. Straight flush 2,598,960 624 c. Four of a kind 2,598,960
17. Plant Selection All holly plants are dioecious—a male plant must be planted within 30 to 40 feet of the female plants in order to yield berries. A home improvement store has 12 unmarked holly plants for sale, 8 of which are female. If a homeowner buys 3 plants at random, what is the probability that berries will be produced? 0.727
Summary In this chapter, the basic concepts of probability are explained. • There are three basic types of probability. They are classical probability, empirical probability, and subjective probability. Classical probability uses samples spaces. Empirical probability uses frequency distributions, and subjective probability uses an educated guess to determine the probability of an event. The probability of any event is a number from 0 to 1. If an event cannot occur, the probability is 0. If an event is certain, the probability is 1. The sum of the probability of all the events in the sample space is 1. To find the probability of the complement of an event, subtract the probability of the event from 1. (4–1) • Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time; otherwise, the events are not mutually exclusive. To find the probability of two mutually exclusive events occurring, add the probability of each event. To find the probability of two events when they are not mutually exclusive, add the possibilities of the individual events and then subtract the probability that both events occur at the same time. These types of probability problems can be solved by using the addition rules. (4–2) • Two events are independent if the occurrence of the first event does not change the probability of the second event occurring. Otherwise, the events are dependent. To find the probability of two independent events occurring, multiply the probabilities of each event. To find the probability that two dependent events occur, multiply the probability that the first event occurs by the probability that the second event occurs given that the first event has already occurred. The complement of an event is found by selecting the outcomes in the sample space that are not involved in the outcomes of the event. These types of problems can be solved by using the multiplication rules and the complementary event rules. (4–3) • Finally, when a large number of events can occur, the fundamental counting rule, the permutation rule, and the combination rule can be used to determine the number of ways that these events can occur. (4–4) • The counting rules and the probability rules can be used to solve more-complex probability problems. (4–5)
Important Terms classical probability 186
empirical probability 191
law of large numbers 194
probability experiment 183
combination 229
equally likely events 186
sample space 183
complement of an event 189
event 185
mutually exclusive events 199
compound event 186 conditional probability 213 dependent events 213
fundamental counting rule 224 independent events 211
outcome 183 permutation 227 probability 182
simple event 185 subjective probability 194 tree diagram 185 Venn diagrams 190
Important Formulas Formula for classical probability: number of outcomes n(E) in E P(E) total number of n(S) outcomes in sample space 4–62
Formula for empirical probability: P(E)
frequency for class f total frequencies n in distribution
Addition rule 1, for two mutually exclusive events: P(A or B) P(A) P(B)
Addition rule 2, for events that are not mutually exclusive: P(A or B) P(A) P(B) P(A and B) Multiplication rule 1, for independent events: P(A and B) P(A) P(B)
Multiplication rule 2, for dependent events: P(A and B) P(A) P(B A)
Formula for conditional probability: P(B A)
P(A and B) P(A)
Formula for complementary events: P(E) 1 P(E)
or or
P(E) 1 P(E) P(E) P(E) 1
Fundamental counting rule: In a sequence of n events in which the first one has k1 possibilities, the second event has k2 possibilities, the third has k3 possibilities, etc., the total number of possibilities of the sequence will be
k1 k2 k3 kn Permutation rule: The number of permutations of n objects taking r objects at a time when order is important is n! n Pr (n r)! Combination rule: The number of combinations of r objects selected from n objects when order is not important is n! (n r)!r!
A blue sweater 359 A yellow or a white sweater 23 35 A red, a blue, or a yellow sweater 19 35 A sweater that was not white (4–2) 19 35
Review Exercises 1. When a standard die is rolled, find the probability of getting a. A 5 0.167 b. A number larger than 2 0.667 c. An odd number (4–1) 0.5 2. Selecting a Card When a card is selected from a deck, find the probability of getting a. A club 41 b. A face card or a heart 11 26 c. A 6 and a spade 521 d. A king 131 e. A red card (4–1) 21 3. Software Selection The top-10 selling computer software titles last year consisted of 3 for doing taxes, 5 antivirus or security programs, and 2 "other." Choose one title at random. a. What is the probability that it is not used for doing taxes? 0.7 b. What is the probability that it is used for taxes or is one of the "other" programs? (4–1) 0.5 Source: www.infoplease.com
4. A six-sided die is printed with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, and 13. Roll the die once—what is the probability of getting an even number? Roll the die twice and add the numbers. What is the probability of getting an odd sum on the dice? (4–1) 0.333; 0.444 5. Breakfast Drink In a recent survey,18 people preferred milk, 29 people preferred coffee, and 13 people preferred juice as their primary drink for breakfast. If a person is selected at random, find the probability that the person preferred juice as her or his primary drink. (4–1) 13 60 6. Purchasing Sweaters During a sale at a men's store, 16 white sweaters, 3 red sweaters, 9 blue sweaters, and 7 yellow sweaters were purchased. If a customer is selected at random, find the probability that he bought.
7. Budget Rental Cars Cheap Rentals has nothing but budget cars for rental. The probability that a car has air conditioning is 0.5, and the probability that a car has a CD player is 0.37. The probability that a car has both air conditioning and a CD player is 0.06. What is the probability that a randomly selected car has neither air conditioning nor a CD player? (4–2) 0.19 8. Rolling Two Dice When two dice are rolled, find the probability of getting a. A sum of 5 or 6 14 b. A sum greater than 9 16 c. A sum less than 4 or greater than 9 14 d. A sum that is divisible by 4 14 e. A sum of 14 0 f. A sum less than 13 (4–1) 1 9. Car and Boat Ownership The probability that a person owns a car is 0.80, that a person owns a boat is 0.30, and that a person owns both a car and a boat is 0.12. Find the probability that a person owns either a boat or a car. (4–2) 0.98 10. Car Purchases There is a 0.39 probability that John will purchase a new car, a 0.73 probability that Mary will purchase a new car, and a 0.36 probability that both will purchase a new car. Find the probability that neither will purchase a new car. (4–2) 0.24 11. Online Course Selection Roughly 1 in 6 students enrolled in higher education took at least one online course last fall. Choose 5 enrolled students at random. Find the probability that a. All 5 took online courses 0.0001 b. None of the 5 took a course online 0.402 c. At least 1 took an online course (4–2) 0.598 Source: www.encarta.msn.com
12. Borrowing Books Of Americans using library services, 67% borrow books. If 5 patrons are chosen at random, what is the probability that all borrowed books? That none borrowed books? (4–3) Source: American Library Association.
13. Drawing Cards Three cards are drawn from an ordinary deck without replacement. Find the probability of getting a. All black cards 172 11 b. All spades 850 1 c. All queens (4–3) 5525 14. Coin Toss and Card Drawn A coin is tossed and a card is drawn from a deck. Find the probability of getting a. A head and a 6 261 b. A tail and a red card 41 c. A head and a club (4–3) 18 15. Movie Releases The top five countries for movie releases so far this year are the United States with 471 releases, United Kingdom with 386, Japan with 79, Germany with 316, and France with 132. Choose 1 new release at random. Find the probability that it is a. b. c. d.
European 0.603 From the United States 0.340 German or French 0.324 German given that it is European (4–2) 0.379
that she will live on campus is 0.73, find the probability that she will buy a new car, given that she lives on campus. (4–3) 0.51 20. Applying Shipping Labels Four unmarked packages have lost their shipping labels, and you must reapply them. What is the probability that you apply the labels and get all 4 of them correct? Exactly 3 correct? Exactly 2? At least 1 correct? (4–3) 0.0417; impossible; 0.25; 0.625 21. Health Club Membership Of the members of the Blue River Health Club, 43% have a lifetime membership and exercise regularly (three or more times a week). If 75% of the club members exercise regularly, find the probability that a randomly selected member is a life member, given that he or she exercises regularly. (4–3) 57.3% 22. Bad Weather The probability that it snows and the bus arrives late is 0.023. José hears the weather forecast, and there is a 40% chance of snow tomorrow. Find the probability that the bus will be late, given that it snows. (4–3) 0.058 23. Education Level and Smoking At a large factory, the employees were surveyed and classified according to their level of education and whether they smoked. The data are shown in the table. Educational level
Source: www.showbizdata.com
16. Factory Output A manufacturing company has three factories: X, Y, and Z. The daily output of each is shown here. Product
Factory Y
Factory Z
TVs Stereos
If one item is selected at random, find these probabilities. 57 a. It was manufactured at factory X or is a stereo. 104 10 b. It was manufactured at factory Y or factory Z. 13 c. It is a TV or was manufactured at factory Z. (4–3) 34 17. Effectiveness of Vaccine A vaccine has a 90% probability of being effective in preventing a certain disease. The probability of getting the disease if a person is not vaccinated is 50%. In a certain geographic region, 25% of the people get vaccinated. If a person is selected at random, find the probability that he or she will contract the disease. (4–3) 0.4 18. Television Models A manufacturer makes three models of a television set, models A, B, and C. A store sells 40% of model A sets, 40% of model B sets, and 20% of model C sets. Of model A sets, 3% have stereo sound; of model B sets, 7% have stereo sound; and of model C sets, 9% have stereo sound. If a set is sold at random, find the probability that it has stereo sound. (4–3) 5.8% 19. Car Purchase The probability that Sue will live on campus and buy a new car is 0.37. If the probability 4–64
Smoking habit
Not high school graduate
Smoke Do not smoke
If an employee is selected at random, find these probabilities. a. The employee smokes, given that he or she 19 graduated from college. 44 b. Given that the employee did not graduate from high school, he or she is a smoker. (4–3) 14 24. War Veterans Approximately 11% of the civilian population are veterans. Choose 5 civilians at random. What is the probability that none are veterans? What is the probability that at least 1 is a veteran? (4–3) 0.558; 0.442 Source: www.factfinder.census.gov
25. DVD Players Eighty-one percent of U.S. households have DVD players. Choose 6 households at random. What is the probability that at least 1 does not have a DVD player? (4–3) 0.718 Source: www.infoplease.com
26. Chronic Sinusitis The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reports that 15% of Americans have chronic sinusitis. If 5 people are selected at random, find the probability that at least 1 has chronic sinusitis. (4–3) 55.6% Source: 100% American.
27. Automobile License Plate An automobile license plate consists of 3 letters followed by 4 digits. How many different plates can be made if repetitions are allowed? If repetitions are not allowed? If repetitions are allowed in the letters but not in the digits? (4–4) 175,760,000; 78,624,000; 88,583,040
28. Types of Copy Paper White copy paper is offered in 5 different strengths and 11 different degrees of brightness, recycled or not, and acid-free or not. How many different types of paper are available for order? (4–4) 220 29. Baseball Players How many ways can 3 outfielders and 4 infielders be chosen from 5 outfielders and 7 infielders? (4–4) 350 30. Computer Operators How many different ways can 8 computer operators be seated in a row? (4–4) 40,320 31. Student Representatives How many ways can a student select 2 electives from a possible choice of 10 electives? (4–4) 45 32. Committee Representation There are 6 Republican, 5 Democrat, and 4 Independent candidates. How many different ways can a committee of 3 Republicans, 2 Democrats, and 1 Independent be selected? (4–4) 800 33. Song Selections A promotional MP3 player is available with the capacity to store 100 songs which can be reordered at the push of a button. How many different arrangements of these songs are possible? (Note: Factorials get very big, very fast! How large a factorial will your calculator calculate?) (4–4) 100! (Answers may vary regarding calculator.) 34. Employee Health Care Plans A new employee has a choice of 5 health care plans, 3 retirement plans, and 2 different expense accounts. If a person selects 1 of each option, how many different options does he or she have? (4–4) 30 35. Course Enrollment There are 12 students who wish to enroll in a particular course. There are only 4 seats left in the classroom. How many different ways can 4 students be selected to attend the class? (4–4) 495 36. Candy Selection A candy store allows customers to select 3 different candies to be packaged and mailed. If there are 13 varieties available, how many possible selections can be made? (4–4) 286
37. Book Selection If a student can select 5 novels from a reading list of 20 for a course in literature, how many different possible ways can this selection be done? (4–4) 15,504 38. Course Selection If a student can select one of 3 language courses, one of 5 mathematics courses, and one of 4 history courses, how many different schedules can be made? (4–4) 60 39. License Plates License plates are to be issued with 3 letters followed by 4 single digits. How many such license plates are possible? If the plates are issued at random, what is the probability that the license plate says USA followed by a number that is divisible by 5? (4–5) 175,760,000; 0.0000114 40. Leisure Activities A newspaper advertises 5 different movies, 3 plays, and 2 baseball games for the weekend. If a couple selects 3 activities, find the probability that they attend 2 plays and 1 movie. (4–5) 18 41. Territorial Selection Several territories and colonies today are still under the jurisdiction of another country. France holds the most with 16 territories, the United Kingdom has 15, the United States has 14, and several other countries have territories as well. Choose 3 territories at random from those held by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. What is the probability that all 3 belong to the same country? (4–5) Source: www.infoplease.com 0.097
42. Yahtzee Yahtzee is a game played with 5 dice. Players attempt to score points by rolling various combinations. When all 5 dice show the same number, it is called a Yahtzee and scores 50 points for the first one and 100 points for each subsequent Yahtzee in the same game. What is the probability that a person throws a Yahtzee on the very first roll? What is the probability that a person throws two Yahtzees on two successive turns? (4–5) 0.000772; 0.0000006 43. Personnel Classification For a survey, a subject can be classified as follows: Gender: male or female Marital status: single, married, widowed, divorced Occupation: administration, faculty, staff Draw a tree diagram for the different ways a person can be classified. (4–4)
Would You Bet Your Life?—Revisited In his book Probabilities in Everyday Life, John D. McGervey states that the chance of being killed on any given commercial airline flight is almost 1 in 1 million and that the chance of being killed during a transcontinental auto trip is about 1 in 8000. The corresponding probabilities are 1 1,000,000 0.000001 as compared to 1 8000 0.000125. Since the second number is 125 times greater than the first number, you have a much higher risk driving than flying across the United States.
Chapter Quiz Determine whether each statement is true or false. If the statement is false, explain why. 1. Subjective probability has little use in the real world. False 2. Classical probability uses a frequency distribution to compute probabilities. False 3. In classical probability, all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely. True 4. When two events are not mutually exclusive, P(A or B) P(A) P(B). False 5. If two events are dependent, they must have the same probability of occurring. False 6. An event and its complement can occur at the same time. False 7. The arrangement ABC is the same as BAC for combinations. True 8. When objects are arranged in a specific order, the arrangement is called a combination. False Select the best answer. 9. The probability that an event happens is 0.42. What is the probability that the event won't happen? a. 0.42 b. 0.58
c. 0 d. 1
10. When a meteorologist says that there is a 30% chance of showers, what type of probability is the person using? a. Classical b. Empirical
c. Relative d. Subjective
11. The sample space for tossing 3 coins consists of how many outcomes? a. 2 b. 4
12. The complement of guessing 5 correct answers on a 5-question true/false exam is a. b. c. d.
Guessing 5 incorrect answers Guessing at least 1 incorrect answer Guessing at least 1 correct answer Guessing no incorrect answers
13. When two dice are rolled, the sample space consists of how many events? a. 6 b. 12
c. 36 d. 54
14. What is nP0? a. 0 b. 1 4–66
c. n d. It cannot be determined.
15. What is the number of permutations of 6 different objects taken all together? a. 0 c. 36 b. 1 d. 720 16. What is 0!? a. 0 b. 1
c. Undefined d. 10
17. What is nCn? a. 0 b. 1
Complete the following statements with the best answer. 18. The set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment is called the . Sample space 19. The probability of an event can be any number between and including and . 0, 1 20. If an event cannot occur, its probability is
21. The sum of the probabilities of the events in the sample space is . 1 22. When two events cannot occur at the same time, they are said to be . Mutually exclusive 23. When a card is drawn, find the probability of getting a. A jack 131 b. A 4 131 c. A card less than 6 (an ace is considered above 6)
24. Selecting a Card When a card is drawn from a deck, find the probability of getting a. A diamond 14 c. A 5 and a heart e. A red card 12
b. A 5 or a heart d. A king 131
25. Selecting a Sweater At a men's clothing store, 12 men purchased blue golf sweaters, 8 purchased green sweaters, 4 purchased gray sweaters, and 7 bought black sweaters. If a customer is selected at random, find the probability that he purchased a. b. c. d.
A blue sweater 12 31 A green or gray sweater 12 31 A green or black or blue sweater 24 A sweater that was not black 31
26. Rolling Dice When 2 dice are rolled, find the probability of getting a. b. c. d. e. f.
A sum of 6 or 7 11 36 A sum greater than 8 185 A sum less than 3 or greater than 8 A sum that is divisible by 3 13 A sum of 16 0 A sum less than 11 11 12
27. Appliance Ownership The probability that a person owns a microwave oven is 0.75, that a person owns a compact disk player is 0.25, and that a person owns both a microwave and a CD player is 0.16. Find the probability that a person owns either a microwave or a CD player, but not both. 0.68 28. Starting Salaries Of the physics graduates of a university, 30% received a starting salary of $30,000 or more. If 5 of the graduates are selected at random, find the probability that all had a starting salary of $30,000 or more. 0.002 29. Selecting Cards Five cards are drawn from an ordinary deck without replacement. Find the probability of getting 253 a. All red cards 9996 33 b. All diamonds 66,640 c. All aces 0
30. Scholarships The probability that Samantha will be accepted by the college of her choice and obtain a scholarship is 0.35. If the probability that she is accepted by the college is 0.65, find the probability that she will obtain a scholarship given that she is accepted by the college. 0.54 31. New Car Warranty The probability that a customer will buy a car and an extended warranty is 0.16. If the probability that a customer will purchase a car is 0.30, find the probability that the customer will also purchase the extended warranty. 0.53 32. Bowling and Club Membership Of the members of the Spring Lake Bowling Lanes, 57% have a lifetime membership and bowl regularly (three or more times a week). If 70% of the club members bowl regularly, find the probability that a randomly selected member is a lifetime member, given that he or she bowls regularly. 0.81 33. Work and Weather The probability that Mike has to work overtime and it rains is 0.028. Mike hears the weather forecast, and there is a 50% chance of rain. Find the probability that he will have to work overtime, given that it rains. 0.056 34. Education of Factory Employees At a large factory, the employees were surveyed and classified according to their level of education and whether they attend a sports event at least once a month. The data are shown in the table. Educational level
Two-year college degree
Four-year college degree
Attend Do not attend
If an employee is selected at random, find the probability that
a. The employee attends sports events regularly, given that he or she graduated from college (2- or 4-year degree) 21 b. Given that the employee is a high school graduate, he or she does not attend sports events regularly 37 35. Heart Attacks In a certain high-risk group, the chances of a person having suffered a heart attack are 55%. If 6 people are chosen, find the probability that at least 1 will have had a heart attack. 0.99 36. Rolling a Die A single die is rolled 4 times. Find the probability of getting at least one 5. 0.518 37. Eye Color If 85% of all people have brown eyes and 6 people are selected at random, find the probability that at least 1 of them has brown eyes. 0.9999886 38. Singer Selection How many ways can 5 sopranos and 4 altos be selected from 7 sopranos and 9 altos? 2646 39. Speaker Selection How many different ways can 8 speakers be seated on a stage? 40,320 40. Stocking Machines A soda machine servicer must restock and collect money from 15 machines, each one at a different location. How many ways can she select 4 machines to service in 1 day? 1365 41. ID Cards One company's ID cards consist of 5 letters followed by 2 digits. How many cards can be made if repetitions are allowed? If repetitions are not allowed? 1,188,137,600; 710,424,000 42. How many different arrangements of the letters in the word number can be made? 720 43. Physics Test A physics test consists of 25 true/false questions. How many different possible answer keys can be made? 33,554,432 44. Cellular Telephones How many different ways can 5 cellular telephones be selected from 8 cellular phones? 56 45. Fruit Selection On a lunch counter, there are 3 oranges, 5 apples, and 2 bananas. If 3 pieces of fruit are selected, find the probability that 1 orange, 1 apple, and 1 banana are selected. 41 46. Cruise Ship Activities A cruise director schedules 4 different movies, 2 bridge games, and 3 tennis games for a two-day period. If a couple selects 3 activities, find the probability that they attend 2 movies and 1 tennis game. 143 47. Committee Selection At a sorority meeting, there are 6 seniors, 4 juniors, and 2 sophomores. If a committee of 3 is to be formed, find the probability that 1 of each will be selected. 12 55 48. Banquet Meal Choices For a banquet, a committee can select beef, pork, chicken, or veal; baked potatoes or mashed potatoes; and peas or green beans for a vegetable. Draw a tree diagram for all possible choices of a meat, a potato, and a vegetable. 4–67
Critical Thinking Challenges 1. Con Man Game Consider this problem: A con man has 3 coins. One coin has been specially made and has a head on each side. A second coin has been specially made, and on each side it has a tail. Finally, a third coin has a head and a tail on it. All coins are of the same denomination. The con man places the 3 coins in his pocket, selects one, and shows you one side. It is heads. He is willing to bet you even money that it is the two-headed coin. His reasoning is that it can't be the two-tailed coin since a head is showing; therefore, there is a 50-50 chance of it being the two-headed coin. Would you take the bet? (Hint: See Exercise 1 in Data Projects.) 2. de Méré Dice Game Chevalier de Méré won money when he bet unsuspecting patrons that in 4 rolls of 1 die, he could get at least one 6; but he lost money when he bet that in 24 rolls of 2 dice, he could get at least a double 6. Using the probability rules, find the probability of each event and explain why he won the majority of the time on the first game but lost the majority of the time when playing the second game. (Hint: Find the probabilities of losing each game and subtract from 1.) 3. Classical Birthday Problem How many people do you think need to be in a room so that 2 people will have the same birthday (month and day)? You might think it is 366. This would, of course, guarantee it (excluding leap year), but how many people would need to be in a room so that there would be a 90% probability that 2 people would be born on the same day? What about a 50% probability? Actually, the number is much smaller than you may think. For example, if you have 50 people in a room, the probability that 2 people will have the same birthday is 97%. If you have 23 people in a room, there is a 50% probability that 2 people were born on the same day! The problem can be solved by using the probability rules. It must be assumed that all birthdays are equally likely, but this assumption will have little effect on the answers. The way to find the answer is by using the complementary event rule as P(2 people having the same birthday) 1 P(all have different birthdays).
For example, suppose there were 3 people in the room. The probability that each had a different birthday would be 365 364 363 365P3 • • 0.992 365 365 365 365 3 Hence, the probability that at least 2 of the 3 people will have the same birthday will be 1 0.992 0.008 Hence, for k people, the formula is P(at least 2 people have the same birthday) P 1 365 kk 365 Using your calculator, complete the table and verify that for at least a 50% chance of 2 people having the same birthday, 23 or more people will be needed.
Number of people 1 2 5 10 15 20 21 22 23
Probability that at least 2 have the same birthday 0.000 0.003 0.027
4. We know that if the probability of an event happening is 100%, then the event is a certainty. Can it be concluded that if there is a 50% chance of contracting a communicable disease through contact with an infected person, there would be a 100% chance of contracting the disease if 2 contacts were made with the infected person? Explain your answer.
Data Projects 1. Business and Finance Select a pizza restaurant and a sandwich shop. For the pizza restaurant look at the menu to determine how many sizes, crust types, and toppings are available. How many different pizza types are possible? For the sandwich shop determine how many breads, meats, veggies, cheeses, sauces, and condiments are available. How many different sandwich choices are possible? 4–68
2. Sports and Leisure When poker games are shown on television, there are often percentages displayed that show how likely it is that a certain hand will win. Investigate how these percentages are determined. Show an example with two competing hands in a Texas Hold 'Em game. Include the percentages that each hand will win after the deal, the flop, the turn, and the river.
3. Technology A music player or music organization program can keep track of how many different artists are in a library. First note how many different artists are in your music library. Then find the probability that if 25 songs are selected at random, none will have the same artist.
5. Politics and Economics Consider the U.S. Senate. Find out about the composition of any three of the Senate's standing committees. How many different committees of Senators are possible, knowing the party composition of the Senate and the number of committee members from each party for each committee?
4. Health and Wellness Assume that the gender distribution of babies is such that one-half the time females are born and one-half the time males are born. In a family of 3 children, what is the probability that all are girls? In a family of 4? Is it unusual that in a family with 4 children all would be girls? In a family of 5?
6. Your Class Research the famous Monty Hall probability problem. Conduct a simulation of the Monty Hall problem online using a simulation program or in class using live "contestants." After 50 simulations compare your results to those stated in the research you did. Did your simulation support the conclusions?
Answers to Applying the Concepts Section 4–1
Tossing a Coin
1. The sample space is the listing of all possible outcomes of the coin toss. 2. The possible outcomes are heads or tails. 3. Classical probability says that a fair coin has a 50-50 chance of coming up heads or tails. 4. The law of large numbers says that as you increase the number of trials, the overall results will approach the theoretical probability. However, since the coin has no "memory," it still has a 50-50 chance of coming up heads or tails on the next toss. Knowing what has already happened should not change your opinion on what will happen on the next toss. 5. The empirical approach to probability is based on running an experiment and looking at the results. You cannot do that at this time. 6. Subjective probabilities could be used if you believe the coin is biased. 7. Answers will vary; however, they should address that a fair coin has a 50-50 chance of coming up heads or tails on the next flip. Section 4–2 Which Pain Reliever Is Best? 1. There were 192 186 188 566 subjects in the study. 2. The study lasted for 12 weeks. 3. The variables are the type of pain reliever and the side effects. 4. Both variables are qualitative and nominal. 5. The numbers in the table are exact figures. 6. The probability that a randomly selected person was receiving a placebo is 192 566 0.3392 (about 34%). 7. The probability that a randomly selected person was receiving a placebo or drug A is (192 186) 566 378 566 0.6678 (about 67%). These are mutually
exclusive events. The complement is that a randomly selected person was receiving drug B. 8. The probability that a randomly selected person was receiving a placebo or experienced a neurological headache is (192 55 72) 566 319 566 0.5636 (about 56%). 9. The probability that a randomly selected person was not receiving a placebo or experienced a sinus headache is (186 188) 566 11 566 385 566 0.6802 (about 68%). Section 4–3 Guilty or Innocent? 1. The probability of another couple with the same characteristics being in that area is 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 • 10 • 4 • 11 • 3 • 13 • 100 20,592,000 , assuming the characteristics are independent of one another. 2. You would use the multiplication rule, since you are looking for the probability of multiple events happening together. 3. We do not know if the characteristics are dependent or independent, but we assumed independence for the calculation in question 1. 4. The probabilities would change if there were dependence among two or more events. 5. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that probabilities can be used to explain how unlikely it is to have a set of events occur at the same time (in this case, how unlikely it is to have another couple with the same characteristics in that area). 6. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that if the only eyewitness was the woman who was mugged and the probabilities are accurate, it seems very unlikely that a couple matching these characteristics would be in that area at that time. This might cause you to convict the couple. 4–69
7. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that our probabilities are theoretical and serve a purpose when appropriate, but that court cases are based on much more than impersonal chance.
2. With 5 on/off switches, there are 25 32 different settings. With 6 on/off switches, there are 26 64 different settings. In general, if there are k on/off switches, there are 2k different settings.
8. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that juries decide whether to convict a defendant if they find evidence "beyond a reasonable doubt" that the person is guilty. In probability terms, this means that if the defendant was actually innocent, then the chance of seeing the events that occurred is so unlikely as to have occurred by chance. Therefore, the jury concludes that the defendant is guilty.
3. With 8 consecutive on/off switches, there are 28 256 different settings.
Section 4–4 Garage Door Openers 1. Four on/off switches lead to 16 different settings. On Off
4. It is less likely for someone to be able to open your garage door if you have 8 on/off settings (probability about 0.4%) than if you have 4 on/off switches (probability about 6.0%). Having 8 on/off switches in the opener seems pretty safe. 5. Each key blank could be made into 55 3125 possible keys. 6. If there were 420,000 Dodge Caravans sold in the United States, then any one key could start about 420,000 3125 134.4, or about 134, different Caravans. 7. Answers will vary. Section 4–5 Counting Rules and Probability 1. There are five different events: each multiple-choice question is an event. 2. These events are independent. 3. If you guess on 1 question, the probability of getting it correct is 0.20. Thus, if you guess on all 5 questions, the probability of getting all of them correct is (0.20)5 0.00032. 4. The probability that a person would guess answer A for a question is 0.20, so the probability that a person would guess answer A for each question is (0.20)5 0.00032. 5. There are five different events: each matching question is an event. 6. These are dependent events. 7. The probability of getting them all correct if you are 1 0.0083. guessing is 15 • 14 • 13 • 12 • 11 120 8. The difference between the two problems is that we are sampling without replacement in the second problem, so the denominator changes in the event probabilities.
Discrete Probability Distributions
Construct a probability distribution for a random variable.
Find the mean, variance, standard deviation, and expected value for a discrete random variable.
5–2 Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation, and Expectation
Find the exact probability for X successes in n trials of a binomial experiment.
Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the variable of a binomial distribution.
5–4 Other Types of Distributions (Optional) Summary
Find probabilities for outcomes of variables, using the Poisson, hypergeometric, and multinomial distributions.
Chapter 5 Discrete Probability Distributions
Is Pooling Worthwhile? Blood samples are used to screen people for certain diseases. When the disease is rare, health care workers sometimes combine or pool the blood samples of a group of individuals into one batch and then test it. If the test result of the batch is negative, no further testing is needed since none of the individuals in the group has the disease. However, if the test result of the batch is positive, each individual in the group must be tested. Consider this hypothetical example: Suppose the probability of a person having the disease is 0.05, and a pooled sample of 15 individuals is tested. What is the probability that no further testing will be needed for the individuals in the sample? The answer to this question can be found by using what is called the binomial distribution. See Statistics Today—Revisited at the end of the chapter. This chapter explains probability distributions in general and a specific, often used distribution called the binomial distribution. The Poisson, hypergeometric, and multinomial distributions are also explained.
Introduction Many decisions in business, insurance, and other real-life situations are made by assigning probabilities to all possible outcomes pertaining to the situation and then evaluating the results. For example, a saleswoman can compute the probability that she will make 0, 1, 2, or 3 or more sales in a single day. An insurance company might be able to assign probabilities to the number of vehicles a family owns. A self-employed speaker might be able to compute the probabilities for giving 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 or more speeches each week. Once these probabilities are assigned, statistics such as the mean, variance, and standard deviation can be computed for these events. With these statistics, various decisions can be made. The saleswoman will be able to compute the average number of sales she makes per week, and if she is working on commission, she will be able to approximate her weekly income over a period of time, say, monthly. The public speaker will be able to 5–2
Section 5–1 Probability Distributions
plan ahead and approximate his average income and expenses. The insurance company can use its information to design special computer forms and programs to accommodate its customers' future needs. This chapter explains the concepts and applications of what is called a probability distribution. In addition, special probability distributions, such as the binomial, multinomial, Poisson, and hypergeometric distributions, are explained.
Probability Distributions Before probability distribution is defined formally, the definition of a variable is reviewed. In Chapter 1, a variable was defined as a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values. Various letters of the alphabet, such as X, Y, or Z, are used to represent variables. Since the variables in this chapter are associated with probability, they are called random variables. For example, if a die is rolled, a letter such as X can be used to represent the outcomes. Then the value that X can assume is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, corresponding to the outcomes of rolling a single die. If two coins are tossed, a letter, say Y, can be used to represent the number of heads, in this case 0, 1, or 2. As another example, if the temperature at 8:00 A.M. is 43 and at noon it is 53 , then the values T that the temperature assumes are said to be random, since they are due to various atmospheric conditions at the time the temperature was taken. A random variable is a variable whose values are determined by chance.
Also recall from Chapter 1 that you can classify variables as discrete or continuous by observing the values the variable can assume. If a variable can assume only a specific number of values, such as the outcomes for the roll of a die or the outcomes for the toss of a coin, then the variable is called a discrete variable. Discrete variables have a finite number of possible values or an infinite number of values that can be counted. The word counted means that they can be enumerated using the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc. For example, the number of joggers in Riverview Park each day and the number of phone calls received after a TV commercial airs are examples of discrete variables, since they can be counted. Variables that can assume all values in the interval between any two given values are called continuous variables. For example, if the temperature goes from 62 to 78 in a 24-hour period, it has passed through every possible number from 62 to 78. Continuous random variables are obtained from data that can be measured rather than counted. Continuous random variables can assume an infinite number of values and can be decimal and fractional values. On a continuous scale, a person's weight might be exactly 183.426 pounds if a scale could measure weight to the thousandths place; however, on a digital scale that measures only to tenths of pounds, the weight would be 183.4 pounds. Examples of continuous variables are heights, weights, temperatures, and time. In this chapter only discrete random variables are used; Chapter 6 explains continuous random variables. The procedure shown here for constructing a probability distribution for a discrete random variable uses the probability experiment of tossing three coins. Recall that when three coins are tossed, the sample space is represented as TTT, TTH, THT, HTT, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH; and if X is the random variable for the number of heads, then X assumes the value 0, 1, 2, or 3. 5–3
Probabilities for the values of X can be determined as follows: No heads TTT 1 8
One head TTH 1 8
THT 1 8
Two heads HTT
Three heads THH
HHH 1 8
Hence, the probability of getting no heads is 81, one head is 83, two heads is 83, and three heads is 18. From these values, a probability distribution can be constructed by listing the outcomes and assigning the probability of each outcome, as shown here. Number of heads X
Probability P(X)
A discrete probability distribution consists of the values a random variable can assume and the corresponding probabilities of the values. The probabilities are determined theoretically or by observation.
Discrete probability distributions can be shown by using a graph or a table. Probability distributions can also be represented by a formula. See Exercises 31–36 at the end of this section for examples.
Rolling a Die Construct a probability distribution for rolling a single die. Solution
Since the sample space is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and each outcome has a probability of 16, the distribution is as shown. Outcome X
Probability distributions can be shown graphically by representing the values of X on the x axis and the probabilities P(X) on the y axis.
Tossing Coins Represent graphically the probability distribution for the sample space for tossing three coins. Number of heads X 0 1 2 3 1 1 3 3 Probability P(X) 8 8 8 8 Solution
The values that X assumes are located on the x axis, and the values for P(X) are located on the y axis. The graph is shown in Figure 5–1. Note that for visual appearances, it is not necessary to start with 0 at the origin. Examples 5–1 and 5–2 are illustrations of theoretical probability distributions. You did not need to actually perform the experiments to compute the probabilities. In contrast, to construct actual probability distributions, you must observe the variable over a period of time. They are empirical, as shown in Example 5–3. 5–4
P(X)
Probability Distribution for Example 5–2
Number of heads
Baseball World Series The baseball World Series is played by the winner of the National League and the American League. The first team to win four games wins the World Series. In other words, the series will consist of four to seven games, depending on the individual victories. The data shown consist of 40 World Series events. The number of games played in each series is represented by the variable X. Find the probability P(X) for each X, construct a probability distribution, and draw a graph for the data. X Number of games played 4 5 6 7
The probability P(X) can be computed for each X by dividing the number of games X by the total. For 4 games, 408 0.200 For 6 games, 409 0.225 For 5 games, 407 0.175 The probability distribution is Number of games X Probability P(X) The graph is shown in Figure 5–2.
For 7 games,
P(X )
0.30 0.20 0.10 X 0
Speaking of Statistics Coins, Births, and Other Random (?) Events Examples of random events such as tossing coins are used in almost all books on probability. But is flipping a coin really a random event? Tossing coins dates back to ancient Roman times when the coins usually consisted of the Emperor's head on one side (i.e., heads) and another icon such as a ship on the other side (i.e., ships). Tossing coins was used in both fortune telling and ancient Roman games. A Chinese form of divination called the I-Ching (pronounced E-Ching) is thought to be at least 4000 years old. It consists of 64 hexagrams made up of six horizontal lines. Each line is either broken or unbroken, representing the yin and the yang. These 64 hexagrams are supposed to represent all possible situations in life. To consult the I-Ching, a question is asked and then three coins are tossed six times. The way the coins fall, either heads up or heads down, determines whether the line is broken (yin) or unbroken (yang). Once the hexagon is determined, its meaning is consulted and interpreted to get the answer to the question. (Note: Another method used to determine the hexagon employs yarrow sticks.) In the 16th century, a mathematician named Abraham DeMoivre used the outcomes of tossing coins to study what later became known as the normal distribution; however, his work at that time was not widely known. Mathematicians usually consider the outcomes of a coin toss a random event. That is, each probability of getting a head is 12, and the probability of getting a tail is 12. Also, it is not possible to predict with 100% certainty which outcome will occur. But new studies question this theory. During World War II a South African mathematician named John Kerrich tossed a coin 10,000 times while he was interned in a German prison camp. Unfortunately, the results of his experiment were never recorded, so we don't know the number of heads that occurred. Several studies have shown that when a coin-tossing device is used, the probability that a coin will land on the same side on which it is placed on the coin-tossing device is about 51%. It would take about 10,000 tosses to become aware of this bias. Furthermore, researchers showed that when a coin is spun on its edge, the coin falls tails up about 80% of the time since there is more metal on the heads side of a coin. This makes the coin slightly heavier on the heads side than on the tails side. Another assumption commonly made in probability theory is that the number of male births is equal to the number of female births and that the probability of a boy being born is 12 and the probability of a girl being born is 12. We know this is not exactly true. In the later 1700s, a French mathematician named Pierre Simon Laplace attempted to prove that more males than females are born. He used records from 1745 to 1770 in Paris and showed that the percentage of females born was about 49%. Although these percentages vary somewhat from location to location, further surveys show they are generally true worldwide. Even though there are discrepancies, we generally consider the outcomes to be 50-50 since these discrepancies are relatively small. Based on this article, would you consider the coin toss at the beginning of a football game fair?
Two Requirements for a Probability Distribution 1. The sum of the probabilities of all the events in the sample space must equal 1; that is, P(X) 1. 2. The probability of each event in the sample space must be between or equal to 0 and 1. That is, 0 P(X) 1.
The first requirement states that the sum of the probabilities of all the events must be equal to 1. This sum cannot be less than 1 or greater than 1 since the sample space includes all possible outcomes of the probability experiment. The second requirement states that the probability of any individual event must be a value from 0 to 1. The reason (as stated in Chapter 4) is that the range of the probability of any individual value can be 0, 1, or any value between 0 and 1. A probability cannot be a negative number or greater than 1.
Probability Distributions Determine whether each distribution is a probability distribution. c. X 8 9 a. X 4 6 8 10 2 1 P(X) P(X) 0.6 0.2 0.7 1.5 3 6 b. X
d. X
a. No. It is not a probability distribution since P(X) cannot be negative or greater than 1. b. Yes. It is a probability distribution. c. Yes. It is a probability distribution. d. No, since P(X) 0.7. Many variables in business, education, engineering, and other areas can be analyzed by using probability distributions. Section 5–2 shows methods for finding the mean and standard deviation for a probability distribution.
Applying the Concepts 5–1 Dropping College Courses Use the following table to answer the questions. Reason for Dropping a College Course Too difficult Illness Change in work schedule Change of major Family-related problems Money Miscellaneous No meaningful reason
45 40 20 14 9 7 6 3 5–7
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
What is the variable under study? Is it a random variable? How many people were in the study? Complete the table. From the information given, what is the probability that a student will drop a class because of illness? Money? Change of major? Would you consider the information in the table to be a probability distribution? Are the categories mutually exclusive? Are the categories independent? Are the categories exhaustive? Are the two requirements for a discrete probability distribution met?
Exercises 5–1 1. Define and give three examples of a random variable. A random variable is a variable whose values are determined by chance. Examples will vary.
2. Explain the difference between a discrete and a continuous random variable. 3. Give three examples of a discrete random variable. 4. Give three examples of a continuous random variable. 5. What is a probability distribution? Give an example. For Exercises 6 through 11, determine whether the distribution represents a probability distribution. If it does not, state why. 6. X P(X) 7. X P(X) 8. X P(X) 9. X P(X) 10. X P(X) 11. X P(X)
No. A probability cannot be greater than 1.
16. The time it takes to have a medical physical exam. Continuous
17. The number of mathematics majors in your school Discrete
18. The blood pressures of all patients admitted to a hospital on a specific day Continuous For Exercises 19 through 28, construct a probability distribution for the data and draw a graph for the distribution. 19. Medical Tests The probabilities that a patient will have 0, 1, 2, or 3 medical tests performed on entering a hospital are 156 , 155 , 153 , and 151 , respectively. 20. Investment Return The probabilities of a return on an investment of $5,000, $7,000, and $9,000 are 12, 38, and 81.
No. Probabilities cannot be negative.
For Exercises 12 through 18, state whether the variable is discrete or continuous. 12. The speed of a jet airplane Continuous 13. The number of cheeseburgers a fast-food restaurant serves each day Discrete 14. The number of people who play the state lottery each day Discrete 5–8
15. The weight of an automobile. Continuous
21. Birthday Cake Sales The probabilities that a bakery has a demand for 2, 3, 5, or 7 birthday cakes on any given day are 0.35, 0.41, 0.15, and 0.09, respectively. 22. DVD Rentals The probabilities that a customer will rent 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 DVDs on a single visit to the rental store are 0.15, 0.25, 0.3, 0.25, and 0.05, respectively. 23. Loaded Die A die is loaded in such a way that the probabilities of getting 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are 12, 16, 121 , 121 , 1 1 12 , and 12 , respectively. 24. Item Selection The probabilities that a customer selects 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 items at a convenience store are 0.32, 0.12, 0.23, 0.18, and 0.15, respectively. 25. Student Classes The probabilities that a student is registered for 2, 3, 4, or 5 classes are 0.01, 0.34, 0.62, and 0.03, respectively. 26. Garage Space The probabilities that a randomly selected home has garage space for 0, 1, 2, or 3 cars are 0.22, 0.33, 0.37, and 0.08, respectively.
Section 5–2 Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation, and Expectation
27. Selecting a Monetary Bill A box contains three $1 bills, two $5 bills, five $10 bills, and one $20 bill. Construct a probability distribution for the data if x represents the value of a single bill drawn at random and then replaced.
29. Drawing a Card Construct a probability distribution for drawing a card from a deck of 40 cards consisting of 10 cards numbered 1, 10 cards numbered 2, 15 cards numbered 3, and 5 cards numbered 4. 30. Rolling Two Dice Using the sample space for tossing two dice, construct a probability distribution for the sums 2 through 12.
28. Family with Children Construct a probability distribution for a family with 4 children. Let X be the number of girls.
Extending the Concepts A probability distribution can be written in formula notation such as P(X) 1 X, where X 2, 3, 6. The distribution is shown as follows:
For Exercises 31 through 36, write the distribution for the formula and determine whether it is a probability distribution.
31. P(X) X 6 for X 1, 2, 3
32. P(X) X for X 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 33. P(X) X 6 for X 3, 4, 7 34. P(X) X 0.1 for X 0.1, 0.02, 0.04 35. P(X) X 7 for X 1, 2, 4 36. P(X) X (X 2) for X 0, 1, 2
Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation, and Expectation
The mean, variance, and standard deviation for a probability distribution are computed differently from the mean, variance, and standard deviation for samples. This section explains how these measures—as well as a new measure called the expectation—are calculated for probability distributions.
Mean In Chapter 3, the mean for a sample or population was computed by adding the values and dividing by the total number of values, as shown in these formulas: X
A professor, Augustin Louis Cauchy (1789–1857), wrote a book on probability. While he was teaching at the Military School of Paris, one of his students was Napoleon Bonaparte.
But how would you compute the mean of the number of spots that show on top when a die is rolled? You could try rolling the die, say, 10 times, recording the number of spots, and finding the mean; however, this answer would only approximate the true mean. What about 50 rolls or 100 rolls? Actually, the more times the die is rolled, the better the approximation. You might ask, then, How many times must the die be rolled to get the exact answer? It must be rolled an infinite number of times. Since this task is impossible, the previous formulas cannot be used because the denominators would be infinity. Hence, a new method of computing the mean is necessary. This method gives the exact theoretical value of the mean as if it were possible to roll the die an infinite number of times. Before the formula is stated, an example will be used to explain the concept. Suppose two coins are tossed repeatedly, and the number of heads that occurred is recorded. What will be the mean of the number of heads? The sample space is HH, HT, TH, TT 5–9
and each outcome has a probability of 14. Now, in the long run, you would expect two heads (HH) to occur approximately 41 of the time, one head to occur approximately 21 of the time (HT or TH), and no heads (TT) to occur approximately 14 of the time. Hence, on average, you would expect the number of heads to be 1 4
2 21 1 14 0 1
That is, if it were possible to toss the coins many times or an infinite number of times, the average of the number of heads would be 1. Hence, to find the mean for a probability distribution, you must multiply each possible outcome by its corresponding probability and find the sum of the products. Formula for the Mean of a Probability Distribution The mean of a random variable with a discrete probability distribution is m X1 P(X1) X2 P(X2) X3 P(X3) Xn P(Xn) X P(X)
where X1, X2, X3, . . . , Xn are the outcomes and P(X1), P(X2), P(X3), . . . , P(Xn) are the corresponding probabilities. Note: X P(X) means to sum the products.
Rounding Rule for the Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation for a Probability Distribution The rounding rule for the mean, variance, and standard deviation for variables of a probability distribution is this: The mean, variance, and standard deviation should be rounded to one more decimal place than the outcome X. When fractions are used, they should be reduced to lowest terms. Examples 5–5 through 5–8 illustrate the use of the formula.
Rolling a Die Find the mean of the number of spots that appear when a die is tossed. Solution
In the toss of a die, the mean can be computed thus. Outcome X
m X P(X) 1 61 2 61 3 61 4 61 5 61 6 16 216 321 or 3.5 That is, when a die is tossed many times, the theoretical mean will be 3.5. Note that even though the die cannot show a 3.5, the theoretical average is 3.5. The reason why this formula gives the theoretical mean is that in the long run, each outcome would occur approximately 16 of the time. Hence, multiplying the outcome by its corresponding probability and finding the sum would yield the theoretical mean. In other words, outcome 1 would occur approximately 16 of the time, outcome 2 would occur approximately 16 of the time, etc.
Children in a Family In a family with two children, find the mean of the number of children who will be girls. Solution
The probability distribution is as follows: Number of girls X
Hence, the mean is m X P(X) 0 41 1 21 2 14 1
Tossing Coins If three coins are tossed, find the mean of the number of heads that occur. (See the table preceding Example 5–1.) Solution
The probability distribution is Number of heads X
The mean is m X P(X) 0 81 1 83 2 83 3 18 128 112 or 1.5 The value 1.5 cannot occur as an outcome. Nevertheless, it is the long-run or theoretical average.
Number of Trips of Five Nights or More The probability distribution shown represents the number of trips of five nights or more that American adults take per year. (That is, 6% do not take any trips lasting five nights or more, 70% take one trip lasting five nights or more per year, etc.) Find the mean. Number of trips X Probability P(X)
m X P(X) (0)(0.06) (1)(0.70) (2)(0.20) (3)(0.03) (4)(0.01) 0 0.70 0.40 0.09 0.04 1.23 1.2 Hence, the mean of the number of trips lasting five nights or more per year taken by American adults is 1.2.
Historical Note Fey Manufacturing Co., located in San Francisco, invented the first three-reel, automatic payout slot machine in 1895.
Variance and Standard Deviation For a probability distribution, the mean of the random variable describes the measure of the so-called long-run or theoretical average, but it does not tell anything about the spread of the distribution. Recall from Chapter 3 that to measure this spread or variability, statisticians use the variance and standard deviation. These formulas were used: s2
These formulas cannot be used for a random variable of a probability distribution since N is infinite, so the variance and standard deviation must be computed differently. To find the variance for the random variable of a probability distribution, subtract the theoretical mean of the random variable from each outcome and square the difference. Then multiply each difference by its corresponding probability and add the products. The formula is s2 [(X m)2 P(X)] Finding the variance by using this formula is somewhat tedious. So for simplified computations, a shortcut formula can be used. This formula is algebraically equivalent to the longer one and is used in the examples that follow.
Formula for the Variance of a Probability Distribution Find the variance of a probability distribution by multiplying the square of each outcome by its corresponding probability, summing those products, and subtracting the square of the mean. The formula for the variance of a probability distribution is s2 [X 2 P(X)] m2
The standard deviation of a probability distribution is s 2s2
2 [X2 • P X ] m2
Remember that the variance and standard deviation cannot be negative.
Rolling a Die Compute the variance and standard deviation for the probability distribution in Example 5–5. Solution
Recall that the mean is m 3.5, as computed in Example 5–5. Square each outcome and multiply by the corresponding probability, sum those products, and then subtract the square of the mean. s2 (12 61 22 61 32 61 42 61 52 61 62 16) (3.5)2 2.9 To get the standard deviation, find the square root of the variance. s 22.9 1.7
Selecting Numbered Balls A box contains 5 balls. Two are numbered 3, one is numbered 4, and two are numbered 5. The balls are mixed and one is selected at random. After a ball is selected, its number is recorded. Then it is replaced. If the experiment is repeated many times, find the variance and standard deviation of the numbers on the balls. Solution
Let X be the number on each ball. The probability distribution is Number on ball X
The mean is m X P(X) 3 25 4 15 5 25 4 The variance is s [X 2 P(X)] m2 32 25 42 15 52 25 42 16 45 16 45 The standard deviation is s
4 20.8 0.894 5
The mean, variance, and standard deviation can also be found by using vertical columns, as shown. X P(X) X P(X) X 2 P(X) 3 4 5
1.2 0.8 2.0 X P(X) 4.0
Find the mean by summing the X P(X) column, and find the variance by summing the X 2 P(X) column and subtracting the square of the mean. s2 16.8 42 16.8 16 0.8 and s 20.8 0.894
On Hold for Talk Radio A talk radio station has four telephone lines. If the host is unable to talk (i.e., during a commercial) or is talking to a person, the other callers are placed on hold. When all lines are in use, others who are trying to call in get a busy signal. The probability that 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 people will get through is shown in the distribution. Find the variance and standard deviation for the distribution. X 0 1 2 3 4 P(X) 0.18 0.34 0.23 0.21 0.04 Should the station have considered getting more phone lines installed? 5–13
The mean is m X P(X) 0 (0.18) 1 (0.34) 2 (0.23) 3 (0.21) 4 (0.04) 1.6 The variance is s2 [X 2 P(X)] m2 [02 (0.18) 12 (0.34) 22 (0.23) 32 (0.21) 42 (0.04)] 1.62 [0 0.34 0.92 1.89 0.64] 2.56 3.79 2.56 1.23 1.2 (rounded) The standard deviation is s 2s2, or s 21.2 1.1. No. The mean number of people calling at any one time is 1.6. Since the standard deviation is 1.1, most callers would be accommodated by having four phone lines because m 2s would be 1.6 2(1.1) 1.6 2.2 3.8. Very few callers would get a busy signal since at least 75% of the callers would either get through or be put on hold. (See Chebyshev's theorem in Section 3–2.)
Expectation Another concept related to the mean for a probability distribution is that of expected value or expectation. Expected value is used in various types of games of chance, in insurance, and in other areas, such as decision theory. The expected value of a discrete random variable of a probability distribution is the theoretical average of the variable. The formula is m E(X ) X P(X ) The symbol E(X ) is used for the expected value.
The formula for the expected value is the same as the formula for the theoretical mean. The expected value, then, is the theoretical mean of the probability distribution. That is, E(X) m. When expected value problems involve money, it is customary to round the answer to the nearest cent.
Winning Tickets One thousand tickets are sold at $1 each for a color television valued at $350. What is the expected value of the gain if you purchase one ticket? Solution
The problem can be set up as follows: Gain X Probability P(X)
$349 1 1000
$1 999 1000
Two things should be noted. First, for a win, the net gain is $349, since you do not get the cost of the ticket ($1) back. Second, for a loss, the gain is represented by a negative number, in this case $1. The solution, then, is E(X) $349
1 999 ( $1) $0.65 1000 1000
Expected value problems of this type can also be solved by finding the overall gain (i.e., the value of the prize won or the amount of money won, not considering the cost of the ticket for the prize or the cost to play the game) and subtracting the cost of the tickets or the cost to play the game, as shown: E(X) $350
1 $1 $0.65 1000
Here, the overall gain ($350) must be used. Note that the expectation is $0.65. This does not mean that you lose $0.65, since you can only win a television set valued at $350 or lose $1 on the ticket. What this expectation means is that the average of the losses is $0.65 for each of the 1000 ticket holders. Here is another way of looking at this situation: If you purchased one ticket each week over a long time, the average loss would be $0.65 per ticket, since theoretically, on average, you would win the set once for each 1000 tickets purchased.
Special Die A special six-sided die is made in which 3 sides have 6 spots, 2 sides have 4 spots, and 1 side has 1 spot. If the die is rolled, find the expected value of the number of spots that will occur. Solution
Since there are 3 sides with 6 spots, the probability of getting a 6 is 36 12. Since there are 2 sides with 4 spots, the probability of getting 4 spots is 62 13. The probability of getting 1 spot is 16 since 1 side has 1 spot. Gain X
E(X) 1 61 4 31 6 21 4 21 Notice you can only get 1, 4, or 6 spots; but if you rolled the die a large number of times and found the average, it would be about 4 12.
Bond Investment A financial adviser suggests that his client select one of two types of bonds in which to invest $5000. Bond X pays a return of 4% and has a default rate of 2%. Bond Y has a 212% return and a default rate of 1%. Find the expected rate of return and decide which bond would be a better investment. When the bond defaults, the investor loses all the investment. 5–15
The return on bond X is $5000 • 4% $200. The expected return then is E X $200 0.98 $5000 0.02 $96 The return on bond Y is $5000 • 212% $125. The expected return then is E X $125 0.99 $5000 0.01 $73.75 Hence, bond X would be a better investment since the expected return is higher.
In gambling games, if the expected value of the game is zero, the game is said to be fair. If the expected value of a game is positive, then the game is in favor of the player. That is, the player has a better than even chance of winning. If the expected value of the game is negative, then the game is said to be in favor of the house. That is, in the long run, the players will lose money. In his book Probabilities in Everyday Life (Ivy Books, 1986), author John D. McGervy gives the expectations for various casino games. For keno, the house wins $0.27 on every $1.00 bet. For Chuck-a-Luck, the house wins about $0.52 on every $1.00 bet. For roulette, the house wins about $0.90 on every $1.00 bet. For craps, the house wins about $0.88 on every $1.00 bet. The bottom line here is that if you gamble long enough, sooner or later you will end up losing money.
Applying the Concepts 5–2 Expected Value On March 28, 1979, the nuclear generating facility at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, began discharging radiation into the atmosphere. People exposed to even low levels of radiation can experience health problems ranging from very mild to severe, even causing death. A local newspaper reported that 11 babies were born with kidney problems in the three-county area surrounding the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant. The expected value for that problem in infants in that area was 3. Answer the following questions. 1. What does expected value mean? 2. Would you expect the exact value of 3 all the time? 3. If a news reporter stated that the number of cases of kidney problems in newborns was nearly four times as much as was usually expected, do you think pregnant mothers living in that area would be overly concerned? 4. Is it unlikely that 11 occurred by chance? 5. Are there any other statistics that could better inform the public? 6. Assume that 3 out of 2500 babies were born with kidney problems in that three-county area the year before the accident. Also assume that 11 out of 2500 babies were born with kidney problems in that three-county area the year after the accident. What is the real percent of increase in that abnormality? 7. Do you think that pregnant mothers living in that area should be overly concerned after looking at the results in terms of rates? See page 298 for the answers.
Exercises 5–2 1. Defective DVDs From past experience, a company found that in cartons of DVDs, 90% contain no defective DVDs, 5% contain one defective DVD, 3% contain two defective DVDs, and 2% contain three defective DVDs. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the number of defective DVDs. 0.17; 0.321; 0.567 2. Suit Sales The number of suits sold per day at a retail store is shown in the table, with the corresponding probabilities. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the distribution. 20.8; 1.6; 1.3 Number of suits sold X
If the manager of the retail store wants to be sure that he has enough suits for the next 5 days, how many should the manager purchase? 104 suits 3. Number of Credit Cards A bank vice president feels that each savings account customer has, on average, three credit cards. The following distribution represents the number of credit cards people own. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation. Is the vice president correct? 1.3, 0.9, 1. No, on average, each person has about 1 credit card.
Number of cards X Probability P(X)
4. Trivia Quiz The probabilities that a player will get 5 to 10 questions right on a trivia quiz are shown below. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the distribution. 7.4; 1.84; 1.356 X P(X)
5. Cellular Phone Sales The probability that a cellular phone company kiosk sells X number of new phone contracts per day is shown below. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for this probability distribution. 5.4; 2.94; 1.71 X P(X)
What is the probability that they will sell 6 or more contracts three days in a row? 0.027 6. Traffic Accidents The county highway department recorded the following probabilities for the number of accidents per day on a certain freeway for one month. The number of accidents per day and their corresponding probabilities are shown. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation. 1.3; 1.81; 1.35
Number of accidents X Probability P(X)
7. Commercials During Children's TV Programs A concerned parents group determined the number of commercials shown in each of five children's programs over a period of time. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the distribution shown. 6.6; 1.3; 1.1 Number of commercials X Probability P(X)
8. Number of Televisions per Household A study conducted by a TV station showed the number of televisions per household and the corresponding probabilities for each. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation. 1.9; 0.6; 0.8 Number of televisions X Probability P(X)
If you were taking a survey on the programs that were watched on television, how many program diaries would you send to each household in the survey? 2 diaries 9. Students Using the Math Lab The number of students using the Math Lab per day is found in the distribution below. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for this probability distribution. 9.4; 5.24; 2.289 X P(X)
What is the probability that fewer than 8 or more than 12 use the lab in a given day? 0.25 10. Pizza Deliveries A pizza shop owner determines the number of pizzas that are delivered each day. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the distribution shown. If the manager stated that 45 pizzas were delivered on one day, do you think that this is a believable claim? 37.1; 1.3; 1.1; it could happen (perhaps on a Super Bowl Sunday), but it is highly unlikely.
Number of deliveries X
11. Insurance An insurance company insures a person's antique coin collection worth $20,000 for an annual premium of $300. If the company figures that the probability of the collection being stolen is 0.002, what will be the company's expected profit? $260 12. Job Bids A landscape contractor bids on jobs where he can make $3000 profit. The probabilities of getting 1, 2, 3, or 4 jobs per month are shown. 5–17
Number of jobs Probability
Find the contractor's expected profit per month. $7200 13. Rolling Dice If a person rolls doubles when she tosses two dice, she wins $5. For the game to be fair, how much should she pay to play the game? $0.83 14. Dice Game A person pays $2 to play a certain game by rolling a single die once. If a 1 or a 2 comes up, the person wins nothing. If, however, the player rolls a 3, 4, 5, or 6, he or she wins the difference between the number rolled and $2. Find the expectation for this game. Is the game fair? 33.3 cents; no 15. Lottery Prizes A lottery offers one $1000 prize, one $500 prize, and five $100 prizes. One thousand tickets are sold at $3 each. Find the expectation if a person buys one ticket. $1.00 16. In Exercise 15, find the expectation if a person buys two tickets. Assume that the player's ticket is replaced after each draw and that the same ticket can win more than one prize. $2.00 17. Winning the Lottery For a daily lottery, a person selects a three-digit number. If the person plays for $1, she can win $500. Find the expectation. In the same
daily lottery, if a person boxes a number, she will win $80. Find the expectation if the number 123 is played for $1 and boxed. (When a number is "boxed," it can win when the digits occur in any order.) $0.50, $0.52 18. Life Insurance A 35-year-old woman purchases a $100,000 term life insurance policy for an annual payment of $360. Based on a period life table for the U.S. government, the probability that she will survive the year is 0.999057. Find the expected value of the policy for the insurance company. $265.70 19. Roulette A roulette wheel has 38 numbers, 1 through 36, 0, and 00. One-half of the numbers from 1 through 36 are red, and the other half are black; 0 and 00 are green. A ball is rolled, and it falls into one of the 38 slots, giving a number and a color. The payoffs (winnings) for a $1 bet are as follows:? Red or black Odd or even 1–18 9–36
$1 $1 $1 $1
0 00 Any single number 0 or 00
$35 $35 $35 $17
If a person bets $1, find the expected value for each. a. Red 5.26 cents b. Even 5.26 cents c. 00 5.26 cents
d. Any single number 5.26 cents e. 0 or 00 5.26 cents
Extending the Concepts 20. Rolling Dice Construct a probability distribution for the sum shown on the faces when two dice are rolled. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the distribution. 7; 5.8; 2.4 21. Rolling a Die When one die is rolled, the expected value of the number of spots is 3.5. In Exercise 20, the mean number of spots was found for rolling two dice. What is the mean number of spots if three dice are rolled? 10.5 22. The formula for finding the variance for a probability distribution is 2
s [(X m) P(X)] Verify algebraically that this formula gives the same result as the shortcut formula shown in this section. 23. Rolling a Die Roll a die 100 times. Compute the mean and standard deviation. How does the result compare with the theoretical results of Example 5–5? Answers will vary. 24. Rolling Two Dice Roll two dice 100 times and find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the sum of the spots. Compare the result with the theoretical results obtained in Exercise 20. Answers will vary. 5–18
25. Extracurricular Activities Conduct a survey of the number of extracurricular activities your classmates are enrolled in. Construct a probability distribution and find the mean, variance, and standard deviation. Answers will vary. 26. Promotional Campaign In a recent promotional campaign, a company offered these prizes and the corresponding probabilities. Find the expected value of winning. The tickets are free. Number of prizes
Probability 1 1,000,000 1 50,000 1 10,000 1 1000
If the winner has to mail in the winning ticket to claim the prize, what will be the expectation if the cost of the stamp is considered? Use the current cost of a stamp for a firstclass letter. $1.56 with the cost of a stamp $0.44
THE GAMBLER'S FALLACY
This study shows that a part of the brain reacts to the impact of losing, and it might explain why people tend to increase their bets after losing when gambling. Explain how this type of split decision making may influence fighter pilots, firefighters, or police officers, as the article states.
WHY WE EXPECT TO STRIKE IT RICH AFTER A LOSING STREAK A GAMBLER USUALLY WAGERS more after taking a loss, in the misguided belief that a run of bad luck increases the probability of a win. We tend to cling to the misconception that past events can skew future odds. "On some level, you're thinking, 'If I just lost, it's going to even out.' The extent to which you're disturbed by a loss seems to go along with risky behavior," says University of Michigan psychologist William Gehring, Ph.D., coauthor of a new study linking dicey decision-making to neurological activity originating in the medial frontal cortex, long thought to be an area of the brain used in error detection. Because people are so driven to up the ante after a loss, Gehring believes that the medial frontal cortex unconsciously influences future decisions based on the impact of the loss, in addition to registering the loss itself. Gehring drew this conclusion by asking 12 subjects fitted with electrode caps to choose either the number 5 or 25, with the larger number representing the riskier bet.
On any given round, both numbers could amount to a loss, both could amount to a gain or the results could split, one number signifying a loss, the other a gain. The medial frontal cortex responded to the outcome of a gamble within a quarter of a second, registering sharp electrical impulses only after a loss. Gehring points out that if the medial frontal cortex simply detected errors it would have reacted after participants chose the lesser of two possible gains. In other words, choosing "5" during a round in which both numbers paid off and betting on "25" would have yielded a larger profit. After the study appeared in Science, Gehring received several e-mails from stock traders likening the "gambler's fallacy" to impulsive trading decisions made directly after off-loading a losing security. Researchers speculate that such risky, split-second decision-making could extend to fighter pilots, firemen and policemen—professions in which rapidfire decisions are crucial and frequent. —Dan Schulman
Reprinted with permission from Psychology Today magazine (copyright © 2002 Sussex Publishers, LLC).
To calculate the mean and variance for a discrete random variable by using the formulas: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Enter the x values into L1 and the probabilities into L2. Move the cursor to the top of the L3 column so that L3 is highlighted. Type L1 multiplied by L2, then press ENTER. Move the cursor to the top of the L4 column so that L4 is highlighted. Type L1 followed by the x2 key multiplied by L2, then press ENTER. Type 2nd QUIT to return to the home screen. Type 2nd LIST, move the cursor to MATH, type 5 for sum, then type L3 , then press ENTER. Type 2nd ENTER, move the cursor to L3, type L4, then press ENTER.
Number on ball X
Using the data from Example TI5–1 gives the following:
To calculate the mean and standard deviation for a discrete random variable without using the formulas, modify the procedure to calculate the mean and standard deviation from grouped data (Chapter 3) by entering the x values into L1 and the probabilities into L2.
The Binomial Distribution Many types of probability problems have only two outcomes or can be reduced to two outcomes. For example, when a coin is tossed, it can land heads or tails. When a baby is born, it will be either male or female. In a basketball game, a team either wins or loses. A true/false item can be answered in only two ways, true or false. Other situations can be
Section 5–3 The Binomial Distribution
reduced to two outcomes. For example, a medical treatment can be classified as effective or ineffective, depending on the results. A person can be classified as having normal or abnormal blood pressure, depending on the measure of the blood pressure gauge. A multiple-choice question, even though there are four or five answer choices, can be classified as correct or incorrect. Situations like these are called binomial experiments. A binomial experiment is a probability experiment that satisfies the following four requirements:
In 1653, Blaise Pascal created a triangle of numbers called Pascal's triangle that can be used in the binomial distribution.
1. There must be a fixed number of trials. 2. Each trial can have only two outcomes or outcomes that can be reduced to two outcomes. These outcomes can be considered as either success or failure. 3. The outcomes of each trial must be independent of one another. 4. The probability of a success must remain the same for each trial.
A binomial experiment and its results give rise to a special probability distribution called the binomial distribution. The outcomes of a binomial experiment and the corresponding probabilities of these outcomes are called a binomial distribution.
In binomial experiments, the outcomes are usually classified as successes or failures. For example, the correct answer to a multiple-choice item can be classified as a success, but any of the other choices would be incorrect and hence classified as a failure. The notation that is commonly used for binomial experiments and the binomial distribution is defined now. Notation for the Binomial Distribution P(S) P(F) p q
The symbol for the probability of success The symbol for the probability of failure The numerical probability of a success The numerical probability of a failure P(S) p
n X
P(F) 1 p q
The number of trials The number of successes in n trials
Note that 0 X n and X 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
The probability of a success in a binomial experiment can be computed with this formula. Binomial Probability Formula In a binomial experiment, the probability of exactly X successes in n trials is P(X)
n! p X q n X X !X!
An explanation of why the formula works is given following Example 5–15. 5–21
Tossing Coins A coin is tossed 3 times. Find the probability of getting exactly two heads. Solution
This problem can be solved by looking at the sample space. There are three ways to get two heads. HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, TTH, THT, HTT, TTT The answer is 38, or 0.375. Looking at the problem in Example 5–15 from the standpoint of a binomial experiment, one can show that it meets the four requirements. 1. There are a fixed number of trials (three). 2. There are only two outcomes for each trial, heads or tails. 3. The outcomes are independent of one another (the outcome of one toss in no way affects the outcome of another toss). 4. The probability of a success (heads) is 12 in each case. In this case, n 3, X 2, p 21, and q 12. Hence, substituting in the formula gives P(2 heads)
3! 1 3 2 !2! 2
1 1 3 0.375 2 8
which is the same answer obtained by using the sample space. The same example can be used to explain the formula. First, note that there are three ways to get exactly two heads and one tail from a possible eight ways. They are HHT, HTH, and THH. In this case, then, the number of ways of obtaining two heads from three coin tosses is 3C2, or 3, as shown in Chapter 4. In general, the number of ways to get X successes from n trials without regard to order is n! nCX n X !X! This is the first part of the binomial formula. (Some calculators can be used for this.) Next, each success has a probability of 21 and can occur twice. Likewise, each failure has a probability of 21 and can occur once, giving the (12)2(12)1 part of the formula. To generalize, then, each success has a probability of p and can occur X times, and each failure has a probability of q and can occur n X times. Putting it all together yields the binomial probability formula.
Survey on Doctor Visits A survey found that one out of five Americans say he or she has visited a doctor in any given month. If 10 people are selected at random, find the probability that exactly 3 will have visited a doctor last month. Source: Reader's Digest.
In this case, n 10, X 3, p 51, and q 45. Hence, P(3)
1 10! 10 3 !3! 5
Survey on Employment A survey from Teenage Research Unlimited (Northbrook, Illinois) found that 30% of teenage consumers receive their spending money from part-time jobs. If 5 teenagers are selected at random, find the probability that at least 3 of them will have part-time jobs. Solution
To find the probability that at least 3 have part-time jobs, it is necessary to find the individual probabilities for 3, or 4, or 5 and then add them to get the total probability. 5! 0.3 3 0.7 2 0.132 3 !3! 5! 0.3 4 0.7 1 0.028 P 4 5 4 !4! 5! 0.3 5 0.7 0 0.002 P 5 5 5 !5! P 3
Hence, P(at least three teenagers have part-time jobs) 0.132 0.028 0.002 0.162 Computing probabilities by using the binomial probability formula can be quite tedious at times, so tables have been developed for selected values of n and p. Table B in Appendix C gives the probabilities for individual events. Example 5–18 shows how to use Table B to compute probabilities for binomial experiments.
Tossing Coins Solve the problem in Example 5–15 by using Table B. Solution
Since n 3, X 2, and p 0.5, the value 0.375 is found as shown in Figure 5–3.
Figure 5–3 Using Table B for Example 5–18
p = 0.5 0.6
Survey on Fear of Being Home Alone at Night Public Opinion reported that 5% of Americans are afraid of being alone in a house at night. If a random sample of 20 Americans is selected, find these probabilities by using the binomial table. a. There are exactly 5 people in the sample who are afraid of being alone at night. b. There are at most 3 people in the sample who are afraid of being alone at night. c. There are at least 3 people in the sample who are afraid of being alone at night. Source: 100% American by Daniel Evan Weiss.
a. n 20, p 0.05, and X 5. From the table, we get 0.002. b. n 20 and p 0.05. "At most 3 people" means 0, or 1, or 2, or 3. Hence, the solution is P(0) P(1) P(2) P(3) 0.358 0.377 0.189 0.060 0.984 c. n 20 and p 0.05. "At least 3 people" means 3, 4, 5, . . . , 20. This problem can best be solved by finding P(0) P(1) P(2) and subtracting from 1. P(0) P(1) P(2) 0.358 0.377 0.189 0.924 1 0.924 0.076
Driving While Intoxicated A report from the Secretary of Health and Human Services stated that 70% of singlevehicle traffic fatalities that occur at night on weekends involve an intoxicated driver. If a sample of 15 single-vehicle traffic fatalities that occur at night on a weekend is selected, find the probability that exactly 12 involve a driver who is intoxicated. Source: 100% American by Daniel Evan Weiss.
Now, n 15, p 0.70, and X 12. From Table B, P(12) 0.170. Hence, the probability is 0.17. Remember that in the use of the binomial distribution, the outcomes must be independent. For example, in the selection of components from a batch to be tested, each component must be replaced before the next one is selected. Otherwise, the outcomes are not independent. However, a dilemma arises because there is a chance that the same component could be selected again. This situation can be avoided by not replacing the component and using a distribution called the hypergeometric distribution to calculate the probabilities. The hypergeometric distribution is presented later in this chapter. Note that when the population is large and the sample is small, the binomial probabilities can be shown to be nearly the same as the corresponding hypergeometric probabilities. Objective
Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the variable of a binomial distribution. 5–24
Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation for the Binomial Distribution The mean, variance, and standard deviation of a variable that has the binomial distribution can be found by using the following formulas. Mean: m n p
Variance: s2 n p q
Standard deviation: s 2n p q
These formulas are algebraically equivalent to the formulas for the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the variables for probability distributions, but because they are for variables of the binomial distribution, they have been simplified by using algebra. The algebraic derivation is omitted here, but their equivalence is shown in Example 5–21.
Tossing a Coin A coin is tossed 4 times. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number of heads that will be obtained. Solution
With the formulas for the binomial distribution and n 4, p 21, and q 12, the results are m n p 4 12 2 s2 n p q 4 12 12 1 s 21 1 From Example 5–21, when four coins are tossed many, many times, the average of the number of heads that appear is 2, and the standard deviation of the number of heads is 1. Note that these are theoretical values. As stated previously, this problem can be solved by using the formulas for expected value. The distribution is shown. No. of heads X
m E(X) X P(X) 0 161 1 164 2 166 3 164 4 161 32 16 2 s2 X 2 P(X) m2 02 161 12 164 22 166 32 164 42 161 22 80 16 4 1 s 21 1 Hence, the simplified binomial formulas give the same results.
Rolling a Die A die is rolled 480 times. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number of 3s that will be rolled. Solution
This is a binomial experiment since getting a 3 is a success and not getting a 3 is considered a failure. Hence n 480, p 16, and q 56. m n p 480 16 80 s2 n p q 480 16 56 66.67 s 266.67 8.16
Likelihood of Twins The Statistical Bulletin published by Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. reported that 2% of all American births result in twins. If a random sample of 8000 births is taken, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number of births that would result in twins. Source: 100% American by Daniel Evan Weiss.
This is a binomial situation, since a birth can result in either twins or not twins (i.e., two outcomes). m n p (8000)(0.02) 160 s2 n p q (8000)(0.02)(0.98) 156.8 s 2n p q 2156.8 12.5 For the sample, the average number of births that would result in twins is 160, the variance is 156.8, or 157, and the standard deviation is 12.5, or 13 if rounded.
Applying the Concepts 5–3 Unsanitary Restaurants Health officials routinely check sanitary conditions of restaurants. Assume you visit a popular tourist spot and read in the newspaper that in 3 out of every 7 restaurants checked, there were unsatisfactory health conditions found. Assuming you are planning to eat out 10 times while you are there on vacation, answer the following questions. 1. How likely is it that you will eat at three restaurants with unsanitary conditions? 2. How likely is it that you will eat at four or five restaurants with unsanitary conditions? 3. Explain how you would compute the probability of eating in at least one restaurant with unsanitary conditions. Could you use the complement to solve this problem? 4. What is the most likely number to occur in this experiment? 5. How variable will the data be around the most likely number? 6. How do you know that this is a binomial distribution? 7. If it is a binomial distribution, does that mean that the likelihood of a success is always 50% since there are only two possible outcomes? Check your answers by using the following computer-generated table. Mean 4.29
Std. dev. 1.56492
Cum. Prob.
0.00371 0.02784 0.09396 0.18793 0.24665 0.22199 0.13874 0.05946 0.01672 0.00279 0.00021
Exercises 5–3 1. Which of the following are binomial experiments or can be reduced to binomial experiments? a. Surveying 100 people to determine if they like Sudsy Soap Yes b. Tossing a coin 100 times to see how many heads occur Yes c. Drawing a card with replacement from a deck and getting a heart Yes d. Asking 1000 people which brand of cigarettes they smoke No e. Testing four different brands of aspirin to see which brands are effective No f. Testing one brand of aspirin by using 10 people to determine whether it is effective Yes g. Asking 100 people if they smoke Yes h. Checking 1000 applicants to see whether they were admitted to White Oak College Yes i. Surveying 300 prisoners to see how many different crimes they were convicted of No j. Surveying 300 prisoners to see whether this is their first offense Yes 2. (ans) Compute the probability of X successes, using Table B in Appendix C. a. n 2, p 0.30, X 1 0.420 b. n 4, p 0.60, X 3 0.346 c. n 5, p 0.10, X 0 0.590 d. n 10, p 0.40, X 4 0.251 e. n 12, p 0.90, X 2 0.000 f. n 15, p 0.80, X 12 0.250 g. n 17, p 0.05, X 0 0.418 h. n 20, p 0.50, X 10 0.176 i. n 16, p 0.20, X 3 0.246 3. Compute the probability of X successes, using the binomial formula. a. n 6, X 3, p 0.03 0.0005 b. n 4, X 2, p 0.18 0.131 c. n 5, X 3, p 0.63 0.342 d. n 9, X 0, p 0.42 0.007 e. n 10, X 5, p 0.37 0.173 For Exercises 4 through 13, assume all variables are binomial. (Note: If values are not found in Table B of Appendix C, use the binomial formula.) 4. Guidance Missile System A missile guidance system has five fail-safe components. The probability of each failing is 0.05. Find these probabilities. a. Exactly 2 will fail. 0.021 (TI 0.0214) b. More than 2 will fail. 0.001 (TI 0.001158) c. All will fail. 0 (TI 0.0000003) d. Compare the answers for parts a, b, and c, and explain why these results are reasonable. Since the probability of each event becomes less likely, the probabilities become smaller.
5. True/False Exam A student takes a 20-question, true/false exam and guesses on each question. Find the probability of passing if the lowest passing grade is 15 correct out of 20. Would you consider this event likely to occur? Explain your answer. 0.021; no, it's only about a 2% chance.
6. Multiple-Choice Exam A student takes a 20-question, multiple-choice exam with five choices for each question and guesses on each question. Find the probability of guessing at least 15 out of 20 correctly. Would you consider this event likely or unlikely to occur? Explain your answer. 0.000; the probability is extremely small. 7. Driving to Work Alone It is reported that 77% of workers aged 16 and over drive to work alone. Choose 8 workers at random. Find the probability that a. All drive to work alone 0.124 b. More than one-half drive to work alone 0.912 c. Exactly 3 drive to work alone 0.017 Source: www.factfinder.census.gov
8. High School Dropouts Approximately 10.3% of American high school students drop out of school before graduation. Choose 10 students entering high school at random. Find the probability that a. No more than two drop out 0.925 b. At least 6 graduate 0.998 c. All 10 stay in school and graduate 0.337 Source: www.infoplease.com
9. Survey on Concern for Criminals In a survey, 3 of 4 students said the courts show "too much concern" for criminals. Find the probability that at most 3 out of 7 randomly selected students will agree with this statement. Source: Harper's Index. 0.071
10. Labor Force Couples The percentage of couples where both parties are in the labor force is 52.1. Choose 5 couples at random. Find the probability that a. None of the couples have both persons working 0.025 b. More than 3 of the couples have both persons in the labor force 0.215 c. Fewer than 2 of the couples have both parties working 0.162 Source: www.bls.gov
11. College Education and Business World Success R. H. Bruskin Associates Market Research found that 40% of Americans do not think that having a college education is important to succeed in the business world. If a random sample of five Americans is selected, find these probabilities. a. Exactly 2 people will agree with that statement. 0.346 b. At most 3 people will agree with that statement. 0.913 c. At least 2 people will agree with that statement. 0.663 d. Fewer than 3 people will agree with that statement. Source: 100% American by Daniel Evans Weiss. 0.683
12. Destination Weddings Twenty-six percent of couples who plan to marry this year are planning destination weddings. In a random sample of 12 couples who plan to marry, find the probability that a. Exactly 6 couples will have a destination wedding b. At least 6 couples will have a destination wedding c. Fewer than 5 couples will have a destination wedding a. 0.047 b. 0.065 c. 0.821 Source: Time magazine.
13. People Who Have Some College Education Fiftythree percent of all persons in the U.S. population have at least some college education. Choose 10 persons at random. Find the probability that a. Exactly one-half have some college education 0.242 b. At least 5 do not have any college education 0.547 c. Fewer than 5 have some college education 0.306 Source: New York Times Almanac.
14. (ans) Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for each of the values of n and p when the conditions for the binomial distribution are met. a. n 100, p 0.75 75; 18.8; 4.3 b. n 300, p 0.3 90; 63; 7.9 c. n 20, p 0.5 10; 5; 2.2 d. n 10, p 0.8 8; 1.6; 1.3 e. n 1000, p 0.1 100; 90; 9.5 f. n 500, p 0.25 125; 93.8; 9.7 g. n 50, p 25 20; 12; 3.5 h. n 36, p 16 6; 5; 2.2 15. Social Security Recipients A study found that 1% of Social Security recipients are too young to vote. If 800 Social Security recipients are randomly selected, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number of recipients who are too young to vote. 8; 7.9; 2.8 Source: Harper's Index.
16. Tossing Coins Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the number of heads when ten coins are tossed. 5; 2.5; 1.58 17. Defective Calculators If 3% of calculators are defective, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of a lot of 300 calculators. 9; 8.73; 2.95 18. Federal Government Employee E-mail Use It has been reported that 83% of federal government employees use e-mail. If a sample of 200 federal government employees is selected, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number who use e-mail. Source: USA TODAY. 166; 28.2; 5.3
19. Watching Fireworks A survey found that 21% of Americans watch fireworks on television on July 4. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number of individuals who watch fireworks on television on July 4 if a random sample of 1000 Americans is selected. Source: USA Snapshot, USA TODAY.
210; 165.9; 12.9
20. Alternate Sources of Fuel Eighty-five percent of Americans favor spending government money to develop alternative sources of fuel for automobiles. For a random sample of 120 Americans, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the number who favor government spending for alternative fuels. Source: www.pollingreport.com 102; 15.3; 3.912
21. Survey on Bathing Pets A survey found that 25% of pet owners had their pets bathed professionally rather than do it themselves. If 18 pet owners are randomly selected, find the probability that exactly 5 people have their pets bathed professionally. 0.199 Source: USA Snapshot, USA TODAY.
22. Survey on Answering Machine Ownership In a survey, 63% of Americans said they own an answering machine. If 14 Americans are selected at random, find the probability that exactly 9 own an answering machine. 0.217 Source: USA Snapshot, USA TODAY.
23. Poverty and the Federal Government One out of every three Americans believes that the U.S. government should take "primary responsibility" for eliminating poverty in the United States. If 10 Americans are selected, find the probability that at most 3 will believe that the U.S. government should take primary responsibility for eliminating poverty. 0.559 Source: Harper's Index.
24. Internet Purchases Thirty-two percent of adult Internet users have purchased products or services online. For a random sample of 200 adult Internet users, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the number who have purchased goods or services online. 64; 43.52; 6.597 Source: www.infoplease.com
25. Survey on Internet Awareness In a survey, 58% of American adults said they had never heard of the Internet. If 20 American adults are selected at random, find the probability that exactly 12 will say they have never heard of the Internet. 0.177 Source: Harper's Index.
26. Job Elimination In the past year, 13% of businesses have eliminated jobs. If 5 businesses are selected at random, find the probability that at least 3 have eliminated jobs during the last year. 0.018 Source: USA TODAY.
27. Survey of High School Seniors Of graduating high school seniors, 14% said that their generation will be remembered for their social concerns. If 7 graduating seniors are selected at random, find the probability that either 2 or 3 will agree with that statement. 0.246 Source: USA TODAY.
28. Is this a binomial distribution? Explain. X P(X)
Extending the Concepts 29. Children in a Family The graph shown here represents the probability distribution for the number of girls in a family of three children. From this graph, construct a probability distribution.
30. Construct a binomial distribution graph for the number of defective computer chips in a lot of 4 if p 0.3.
0.375 0.250 0.125 X 0
1 2 Number of girls
Calculate a Binomial Probability
From Example 5–19, it is known that 5% of the population is afraid of being alone at night. If a random sample of 20 Americans is selected, what is the probability that exactly 5 of them are afraid? n 20
p 0.05 (5%)
X 5 (5 out of 20)
No data need to be entered in the worksheet. 1. Select Calc >Probability Distributions>Binomial. 2. Click the option for Probability. 3. Click in the text box for Number of trials:. 4. Type in 20, then Tab to Probability of success, then type .05. 5. Click the option for Input constant, then type in 5. Leave the text box for Optional storage empty. If the name of a constant such as K1 is entered here, the results are stored but not displayed in the session window. 6. Click [OK]. The results are visible in the session window. Probability Density Function Binomial with n = 20 and p = 0.05 x f(x) 5 0.0022446 5–29
Construct a Binomial Distribution
These instructions will use n 20 and p 0.05. 1. Select Calc >Make Patterned Data>Simple Set of Numbers. 2. You must enter three items: a) Enter X in the box for Store patterned data in:. MINITAB will use the first empty column of the active worksheet and name it X. b) Press Tab. Enter the value of 0 for the first value. Press Tab. c) Enter 20 for the last value. This value should be n. In steps of:, the value should be 1. 3. Click [OK]. 4. Select Calc >Probability Distributions>Binomial. 5. In the dialog box you must enter five items. a) Click the button for Probability. b) In the box for Number of trials enter 20. c) Enter .05 in the Probability of success.
d) Check the button for Input columns, then type the column name, X, in the text box. e) Click in the box for Optional storage, then type Px. 6. Click [OK]. The first available column will be named Px, and the calculated probabilities will be stored in it. 7. To view the completed table, click the worksheet icon on the toolbar. Graph a Binomial Distribution
The table must be available in the worksheet. 1. Select Graph>Scatterplot, then Simple. a) Double-click on C2 Px for the Y variable and C1 X for the X variable. b) Click [Data view], then Project lines, then [OK]. Deselect any other type of display that may be selected in this list. c) Click on [Labels], then Title/Footnotes. d) Type an appropriate title, such as Binomial Distribution n 20, p .05. e) Press Tab to the Subtitle 1, then type in Your Name. f) Optional: Click [Scales] then [Gridlines] then check the box for Y major ticks. g) Click [OK] twice. 5–30
The graph will be displayed in a window. Right-click the control box to save, print, or close the graph.
Binomial Random Variables To find the probability for a binomial variable: Press 2nd [DISTR] then 0 for binomial pdf( (Note: On the TI-84 Plus Use A) The form is binompdf(n,p,X ). Example: n 20, X 5, p .05. (Example 5–19a from the text) binompdf(20,.05,5) Example: n 20, X 0, 1, 2, 3, p .05. (Example 5–19b from the text) binompdf(20,.05,{0,1,2,3}) The calculator will display the probabilities in a list. Use the arrow keys to view entire display. To find the cumulative probability for a binomial random variable: Press 2nd [DISTR] then A (ALPHA MATH) for binomcdf( (Note: On the TI-84 Plus Use B) The form is binomcdf(n,p,X). This will calculate the cumulative probability for values from 0 to X. Example: n 20, X 0, 1, 2, 3, p .05 (Example 5–19b from the text) binomcdf(20,.05,3)
To construct a binomial probability table: 1. Enter the X values 0 through n into L1. 2. Move the cursor to the top of the L2 column so that L2 is highlighted. 3. Type the command binompdf(n,p,L1), then press ENTER. Example: n 20, p .05 (Example 5–19 from the text)
Creating a Binomial Distribution and Graph These instructions will demonstrate how Excel can be used to construct a binomial distribution table for n 20 and p 0.35. 1. Type X for the binomial variable label in cell A1 of an Excel worksheet. 2. Type P(X) for the corresponding probabilities in cell B1. 3. Enter the integers from 0 to 20 in column A starting at cell A2. Select the Data tab from the toolbar. Then select Data Analysis. Under Analysis Tools, select Random Number Generation and click [OK]. 4. In the Random Number Generation dialog box, enter the following: a) Number of Variables: 1 b) Distribution: Patterned c) Parameters: From 0 to 20 in steps of 1, repeating each number: 1 times and repeating each sequence 1 times d) Output range: A2:A21 5. Then click [OK].
Random Number Generation Dialog Box
6. To determine the probability corresponding to the first value of the binomial random variable, select cell B2 and type: BINOMDIST(0,20,.35,FALSE). This will give the probability of obtaining 0 successes in 20 trials of a binomial experiment for which the probability of success is 0.35. 7. Repeat step 6, changing the first parameter, for each of the values of the random variable from column A. Note: If you wish to obtain the cumulative probabilities for each of the values in column A, you can type: BINOMDIST(0,20,.35,TRUE) and repeat for each of the values in column A. To create the graph: 1. Select the Insert tab from the toolbar and the Column Chart. 2. Select the Clustered Column (the first column chart under the 2-D Column selections). 3. You will need to edit the data for the chart. a) Right-click the mouse on any location of the chart. Click the Select Data option. The Select Data Source dialog box will appear. b) Click X in the Legend Entries box and click Remove. c) Click the Edit button under Horizontal Axis Labels to insert a range for the variable X. d) When the Axis Labels box appears, highlight cells A2 to A21 on the worksheet, then click [OK]. 4. To change the title of the chart: a) Left-click once on the current title. b) Type a new title for the chart, for example, Binomial Distribution (20, .35, .65). 5–32
Section 5–4 Other Types of Distributions (Optional)
Other Types of Distributions (Optional) In addition to the binomial distribution, other types of distributions are used in statistics. Three of the most commonly used distributions are the multinomial distribution, the Poisson distribution, and the hypergeometric distribution. They are described next.
Objective 5 Find probabilities for outcomes of variables, using the Poisson, hypergeometric, and multinomial distributions.
The Multinomial Distribution Recall that in order for an experiment to be binomial, two outcomes are required for each trial. But if each trial in an experiment has more than two outcomes, a distribution called the multinomial distribution must be used. For example, a survey might require the responses of "approve," "disapprove," or "no opinion." In another situation, a person may have a choice of one of five activities for Friday night, such as a movie, dinner, baseball game, play, or party. Since these situations have more than two possible outcomes for each trial, the binomial distribution cannot be used to compute probabilities. The multinomial distribution can be used for such situations if the probabilities for each trial remain constant and the outcomes are independent for a fixed number of trials. The events must also be mutually exclusive. Formula for the Multinomial Distribution If X consists of events E1, E2, E3, . . . , Ek, which have corresponding probabilities p1, p2, p3, . . . , pk of occurring, and X1 is the number of times E1 will occur, X2 is the number of times E2 will occur, X3 is the number of times E3 will occur, etc., then the probability that X will occur is P(X)
n! pX1 pX2 2 pXk k X1! X2! X3! Xk! 1
where X1 X2 X3 . . . Xk n and p1 p2 p3 . . . pk 1.
Leisure Activities In a large city, 50% of the people choose a movie, 30% choose dinner and a play, and 20% choose shopping as a leisure activity. If a sample of 5 people is randomly selected, find the probability that 3 are planning to go to a movie, 1 to a play, and 1 to a shopping mall. 5–33
We know that n 5, X1 3, X2 1, X3 1, p1 0.50, p2 0.30, and p3 0.20. Substituting in the formula gives P(X)
5! (0.50)3(0.30)1(0.20)1 0.15 3! 1! 1!
Again, note that the multinomial distribution can be used even though replacement is not done, provided that the sample is small in comparison with the population.
Coffee Shop Customers A small airport coffee shop manager found that the probabilities a customer buys 0, 1, 2, or 3 cups of coffee are 0.3, 0.5, 0.15, and 0.05, respectively. If 8 customers enter the shop, find the probability that 2 will purchase something other than coffee, 4 will purchase 1 cup of coffee, 1 will purchase 2 cups, and 1 will purchase 3 cups. Solution
Let n 8, X1 2, X2 4, X3 1, and X4 1. p1 0.3
p2 0.5
p3 0.15
Then P(X)
8! • 0.3 2 0.5 4 0.15 1 0.05 1 0.0354 2!4!1!1!
Selecting Colored Balls A box contains 4 white balls, 3 red balls, and 3 blue balls. A ball is selected at random, and its color is written down. It is replaced each time. Find the probability that if 5 balls are selected, 2 are white, 2 are red, and 1 is blue. Solution
istorical Notes
Simeon D. Poisson (1781–1840) formulated the distribution that bears his name. It appears only once in his writings and is only one page long. Mathematicians paid little attention to it until 1907, when a statistician named W. S. Gosset found real applications for it.
We know that n 5, X1 2, X2 2, X3 1; p1 104 , p2 103 , and p3 103 ; hence, 4 2 3 2 3 1 81 5! P(X) 2!2!1! 10 10 10 625
Thus, the multinomial distribution is similar to the binomial distribution but has the advantage of allowing you to compute probabilities when there are more than two outcomes for each trial in the experiment. That is, the multinomial distribution is a general distribution, and the binomial distribution is a special case of the multinomial distribution.
The Poisson Distribution A discrete probability distribution that is useful when n is large and p is small and when the independent variables occur over a period of time is called the Poisson distribution. In addition to being used for the stated conditions (i.e., n is large, p is small, and the variables occur over a period of time), the Poisson distribution can be used when a density of items is distributed over a given area or volume, such as the number of plants growing per acre or the number of defects in a given length of videotape.
Formula for the Poisson Distribution The probability of X occurrences in an interval of time, volume, area, etc., for a variable where l (Greek letter lambda) is the mean number of occurrences per unit (time, volume, area, etc.) is P(X; l)
e llX X!
where X 0, 1, 2, . . .
The letter e is a constant approximately equal to 2.7183.
Round the answers to four decimal places.
Typographical Errors If there are 200 typographical errors randomly distributed in a 500-page manuscript, find the probability that a given page contains exactly 3 errors. Solution
First, find the mean number l of errors. Since there are 200 errors distributed over 500 pages, each page has an average of l
200 2 0.4 500 5
or 0.4 error per page. Since X 3, substituting into the formula yields P X; l
e llX 2.7183 0.4 0.4 3 0.0072 X! 3!
Thus, there is less than a 1% chance that any given page will contain exactly 3 errors. Since the mathematics involved in computing Poisson probabilities is somewhat complicated, tables have been compiled for these probabilities. Table C in Appendix C gives P for various values for l and X. In Example 5–27, where X is 3 and l is 0.4, the table gives the value 0.0072 for the probability. See Figure 5–4. ␭ = 0.4
Figure 5–4 Using Table C
␭ 0.3
0 1 2 3 X = 3 4
Toll-Free Telephone Calls A sales firm receives, on average, 3 calls per hour on its toll-free number. For any given hour, find the probability that it will receive the following. a. At most 3 calls
b. At least 3 calls
c. 5 or more calls 5–35
a. "At most 3 calls" means 0, 1, 2, or 3 calls. Hence, P(0; 3) P(1; 3) P(2; 3) P(3; 3) 0.0498 0.1494 0.2240 0.2240 0.6472 b. "At least 3 calls" means 3 or more calls. It is easier to find the probability of 0, 1, and 2 calls and then subtract this answer from 1 to get the probability of at least 3 calls. P(0; 3) P(1; 3) P(2; 3) 0.0498 0.1494 0.2240 0.4232 and 1 0.4232 0.5768 c. For the probability of 5 or more calls, it is easier to find the probability of getting 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 calls and subtract this answer from 1. Hence, P(0; 3) P(1; 3) P(2; 3) P(3; 3) P(4; 3) 0.0498 0.1494 0.2240 0.2240 0.1680 0.8152 and 1 0.8152 0.1848 Thus, for the events described, the part a event is most likely to occur, and the part c event is least likely to occur. The Poisson distribution can also be used to approximate the binomial distribution when the expected value l n p is less than 5, as shown in Example 5–29. (The same is true when n q 5.)
Left-Handed People If approximately 2% of the people in a room of 200 people are left-handed, find the probability that exactly 5 people there are left-handed. Solution
Since l n p, then l (200)(0.02) 4. Hence, P X; l
2.7183 4 4 5
which is verified by the formula 200C5(0.02)5(0.98)195 0.1579. The difference between the two answers is based on the fact that the Poisson distribution is an approximation and rounding has been used.
The Hypergeometric Distribution When sampling is done without replacement, the binomial distribution does not give exact probabilities, since the trials are not independent. The smaller the size of the population, the less accurate the binomial probabilities will be. For example, suppose a committee of 4 people is to be selected from 7 women and 5 men. What is the probability that the committee will consist of 3 women and 1 man? 5–36
To solve this problem, you must find the number of ways a committee of 3 women and 1 man can be selected from 7 women and 5 men. This answer can be found by using combinations; it is 7C3
5C1 35 5 175
Next, find the total number of ways a committee of 4 people can be selected from 12 people. Again, by the use of combinations, the answer is 12C4
Finally, the probability of getting a committee of 3 women and 1 man from 7 women and 5 men is P X
The results of the problem can be generalized by using a special probability distribution called the hypergeometric distribution. The hypergeometric distribution is a distribution of a variable that has two outcomes when sampling is done without replacement. The probabilities for the hypergeometric distribution can be calculated by using the formula given next. Formula for the Hypergeometric Distribution Given a population with only two types of objects (females and males, defective and nondefective, successes and failures, etc.), such that there are a items of one kind and b items of another kind and a b equals the total population, the probability P(X) of selecting without replacement a sample of size n with X items of type a and n X items of type b is C C P X a X b n X a bCn
The basis of the formula is that there are aCX ways of selecting the first type of items, C b n X ways of selecting the second type of items, and a bCn ways of selecting n items from the entire population.
Assistant Manager Applicants Ten people apply for a job as assistant manager of a restaurant. Five have completed college and five have not. If the manager selects 3 applicants at random, find the probability that all 3 are college graduates. Solution
Assigning the values to the variables gives a 5 college graduates b 5 nongraduates
n 3 X 3
and n X 0. Substituting in the formula gives 10 1 C C P X 5 3 5 0 120 12 10C3
House Insurance A recent study found that 2 out of every 10 houses in a neighborhood have no insurance. If 5 houses are selected from 10 houses, find the probability that exactly 1 will be uninsured. Solution
In this example, a 2, b 8, n 5, X 1, and n X 4. P X 2
C1 8C4 2 • 70 140 5 252 252 9 10C5
In many situations where objects are manufactured and shipped to a company, the company selects a few items and tests them to see whether they are satisfactory or defective. If a certain percentage is defective, the company then can refuse the whole shipment. This procedure saves the time and cost of testing every single item. To make the judgment about whether to accept or reject the whole shipment based on a small sample of tests, the company must know the probability of getting a specific number of defective items. To calculate the probability, the company uses the hypergeometric distribution.
Defective Compressor Tanks A lot of 12 compressor tanks is checked to see whether there are any defective tanks. Three tanks are checked for leaks. If 1 or more of the 3 is defective, the lot is rejected. Find the probability that the lot will be rejected if there are actually 3 defective tanks in the lot. Solution
Since the lot is rejected if at least 1 tank is found to be defective, it is necessary to find the probability that none are defective and subtract this probability from 1. Here, a 3, b 9, n 3, and X 0; so P X 3
C0 9C3 1 84 0.38 220 12C3
Hence, P(at least 1 defective) 1 P(no defectives) 1 0.38 0.62 There is a 0.62, or 62%, probability that the lot will be rejected when 3 of the 12 tanks are defective.
A summary of the discrete distributions used in this chapter is shown in Table 5–1.
An IBM supercomputer set a world record in 2008 by performing 1.026 quadrillion calculations in 1 second.
Summary of Discrete Distributions
1. Binomial distribution P X
m n p
n! pX qn X X !X! s 2n p q
Used when there are only two outcomes for a fixed number of independent trials and the probability for each success remains the same for each trial. 2. Multinomial distribution P X
n! pX1 pX2 2 • • • pXk k X1! X2! X3! • • • Xk! 1
where X1 X2 X3 . . . Xk n
p1 p2 p3 . . . pk 1
Used when the distribution has more than two outcomes, the probabilities for each trial remain constant, outcomes are independent, and there are a fixed number of trials. 3. Poisson distribution P X; l
Used when n is large and p is small, the independent variable occurs over a period of time, or a density of items is distributed over a given area or volume. 4. Hypergeometric distribution C C P X a X b n X a bCn Used when there are two outcomes and sampling is done without replacement.
Applying the Concepts 5–4 Rockets and Targets During the latter days of World War II, the Germans developed flying rocket bombs. These bombs were used to attack London. Allied military intelligence didn't know whether these bombs were fired at random or had a sophisticated aiming device. To determine the answer, they used the Poisson distribution. To assess the accuracy of these bombs, London was divided into 576 square regions. Each region was 14 square kilometer in area. They then compared the number of actual hits with the theoretical number of hits by using the Poisson distribution. If the values in both distributions were close, then they would conclude that the rockets were fired at random. The actual distribution is as follows: Hits Regions
1. Using the Poisson distribution, find the theoretical values for each number of hits. In this case, the number of bombs was 535, and the number of regions was 576. So
535 0.929 576
For 3 hits, P X
X • e ! 0.929 3 2.7183 0.929
Hence the number of hits is (0.0528)(576) 30.4128. Complete the table for the other number of hits. Hits
2. Write a brief statement comparing the two distributions. 3. Based on your answer to question 2, can you conclude that the rockets were fired at random? See page 298 for the answer.
Exercises 5–4 1. Use the multinomial formula and find the probabilities for each. a. n 6, X1 3, X2 2, X3 1, p1 0.5, p2 0.3, p3 0.2 0.135 b. n 5, X1 1, X2 2, X3 2, p1 0.3, p2 0.6, p3 0.1 0.0324 c. n 4, X1 1, X2 1, X3 2, p1 0.8, p2 0.1, p3 0.1 0.0096 d. n 3, X1 1, X2 1, X3 1, p1 0.5, p2 0.3, p3 0.2 0.18 e. n 5, X1 1, X2 3, X3 1, p1 0.7, p2 0.2, p3 0.1 0.0112 2. Firearm Sales When people were asked if they felt that the laws covering the sale of firearms should be more strict, less strict, or kept as they are now, 54% responded more strict, 11% responded less, 34% said keep them as they are now, and 1% had no opinion. If 10 randomly selected people are asked the same question, what is the probability that 4 will respond more strict, 3 less, 2 keep them the same, and 1 have no opinion? 0.0016 Source: www.pollingreport.com
3. M&M Color Distribution According to the manufacturer, M&M's are produced and distributed in the following proportions: 13% brown, 13% red, 14% yellow, 16% green, 20% orange, and 24% blue. In a random sample of 12 M&M's, what is the probability of having 2 of each color? 0.0025 4. Truck Inspection Violations The probabilities are 0.50, 0.40, and 0.10 that a trailer truck will have no violations, 1 violation, or 2 or more violations when it is given a safety inspection by state police. If 5 trailer trucks are inspected, find the probability that 3 will have no violations, 1 will have 1 violation, and 1 will have 2 or more violations. 0.1 5–40
5. Rolling a Die A die is rolled 4 times. Find the 1 probability of two 1s, one 2, and one 3. 108 6. Mendel's Theory According to Mendel's theory, if tall and colorful plants are crossed with short and colorless plants, the corresponding probabilities are 169 , 163 , 163 , and 161 for tall and colorful, tall and colorless, short and colorful, and short and colorless, respectively. If 8 plants are selected, find the probability that 1 will be tall and colorful, 3 will be tall and colorless, 3 will be short and colorful, and 1 will be short and colorless. 0.002 7. Find each probability P(X; l), using Table C in Appendix C. a. P(5; 4) 0.1563 b. P(2; 4) 0.1465 c. P(6; 3) 0.0504 d. P(10; 7) 0.071 e. P(9; 8) 0.1241 8. Copy Machine Output A copy machine randomly puts out 10 blank sheets per 500 copies processed. Find the probability that in a run of 300 copies, 5 sheets of paper will be blank. 0.1606 9. Study of Robberies A recent study of robberies for a certain geographic region showed an average of 1 robbery per 20,000 people. In a city of 80,000 people, find the probability of the following. a. 0 robberies 0.0183 b. 1 robbery 0.0733 c. 2 robberies 0.1465 d. 3 or more robberies 0.7619 10. Misprints on Manuscript Pages In a 400-page manuscript, there are 200 randomly distributed misprints. If a page is selected, find the probability that it has 1 misprint. 0.3033
11. Telephone Soliciting A telephone soliciting company obtains an average of 5 orders per 1000 solicitations. If the company reaches 250 potential customers, find the probability of obtaining at least 2 orders. 0.3554 12. Mail Ordering A mail-order company receives an average of 5 orders per 500 solicitations. If it sends out 100 advertisements, find the probability of receiving at least 2 orders. 0.2642 13. Company Mailing Of a company's mailings 1.5% are returned because of incorrect or incomplete addresses. In a mailing of 200 pieces, find the probability that none will be returned. 0.0498 14. Emission Inspection Failures If 3% of all cars fail the emissions inspection, find the probability that in a sample of 90 cars, 3 will fail. Use the Poisson approximation. 0.2205 15. Phone Inquiries The average number of phone inquiries per day at the poison control center is 4. Find the probability it will receive 5 calls on a given day. Use the Poisson approximation. 0.1563 16. Defective Calculators In a batch of 2000 calculators, there are, on average, 8 defective ones. If a random sample of 150 is selected, find the probability of 5 defective ones. 0.0004
17. School Newspaper Staff A school newspaper staff is comprised of 5 seniors, 4 juniors, 5 sophomores, and 7 freshmen. If 4 staff members are chosen at random for a publicity photo, what is the probability that there will be 1 student from each class? 0.117 18. Missing Pages from Books A bookstore owner examines 5 books from each lot of 25 to check for missing pages. If he finds at least 2 books with missing pages, the entire lot is returned. If, indeed, there are 5 books with missing pages, find the probability that the lot will be returned. 0.252 19. Types of CDs A CD case contains 10 jazz albums, 4 classical albums, and 2 soundtracks. Choose 3 at random to put in a CD changer. What is the probability of selecting 2 jazz albums and 1 classical album? 0.321 20. Defective Computer Keyboards A shipment of 24 computer keyboards is rejected if 4 are checked for defects and at least 1 is found to be defective. Find the probability that the shipment will be returned if there are actually 6 defective keyboards. 0.712 21. Defective Electronics A shipment of 24 electric typewriters is rejected if 3 are checked for defects and at least 1 is found to be defective. Find the probability that the shipment will be returned if there are actually 6 typewriters that are defective. 0.597
Poisson Random Variables To find the probability for a Poisson random variable: Press 2nd [DISTR] then B (ALPHA APPS) for poissonpdf( (Note: On the TI-84 Plus Use C) The form is poissonpdf(l,X). Example: l 0.4, X 3 (Example 5–27 from the text) poissonpdf(.4,3) Example: l 3, X 0, 1, 2, 3 (Example 5–28a from the text) poissonpdf(3,{0,1,2,3}) The calculator will display the probabilities in a list. Use the arrow keys to view the entire display. To find the cumulative probability for a Poisson random variable: Press 2nd [DISTR] then C (ALPHA PRGM) for poissoncdf( (Note: On the TI-84 Plus Use D) The form is poissoncdf(l,X). This will calculate the cumulative probability for values from 0 to X. Example: l 3, X 0, 1, 2, 3 (Example 5–28a from the text) poissoncdf(3,3)
To construct a Poisson probability table: 1. Enter the X values 0 through a large possible value of X into L1. 2. Move the cursor to the top of the L2 column so that L2 is highlighted. 3. Enter the command poissonpdf(l,L1) then press ENTER. Example: l 3, X 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10 (Example 5–28 from the text)
Summary • A discrete probability distribution consists of the values a random variable can assume and the corresponding probabilities of these values. There are two requirements of a probability distribution: the sum of the probabilities of the events must equal 1, and the probability of any single event must be a number from 0 to 1. Probability distributions can be graphed. (5–1) • The mean, variance, and standard deviation of a probability distribution can be found. The expected value of a discrete random variable of a probability distribution can also be found. This is basically a measure of the average. (5–2) • A binomial experiment has four requirements. There must be a fixed number of trials. Each trial can have only two outcomes. The outcomes are independent of each other, and the probability of a success must remain the same for each trial. The probabilities of the outcomes can be found by using the binomial formula or the binomial table. (5–3) • In addition to the binomial distribution, there are some other commonly used probability distributions. They are the multinomial distribution, the Poisson distribution, and the hypergeometric distribution. (5–4)
Important Terms binomial distribution 271
discrete probability distribution 254
hypergeometric distribution 287
binomial experiment 271
expected value 264
multinomial distribution 283
Poisson distribution 284 random variable 253
Important Formulas Formula for the mean of a probability distribution: M X P(X) Formulas for the variance and standard deviation of a probability distribution: S2 [X 2 P(X)] M2 S 2 [X 2 P(X)] M2 Formula for expected value: E(X) X P(X) 5–42
Binomial probability formula: P(X )
n! pX q n X (n X )!X!
where X 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . n
Formula for the mean of the binomial distribution: M n p Formulas for the variance and standard deviation of the binomial distribution: S2 n p q
S 2n p q
Formula for the multinomial distribution:
P X)
Formula for the Poisson distribution:
(The Xs sum to n and the ps sum to one)
P(X; L)
Formula for the hypergeometric distribution: P(X) a
CX bCn X a bCn
Review Exercises 15-minute period is distributed as shown. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the distribution. (5–2) 2.1; 1.4; 1.2
For Exercises 1 through 3, determine whether the distribution represents a probability distribution. If it does not, state why. 1. X P(X) 2. X P(X) 3. X P(X)
Number of customers X
(5–1) Yes
(5–1) No. The sum of the
probabilities does not equal 1.
(5–1) No; the sum
of the probabilities is greater than 1.
Number of calls X
5. Credit Cards A large retail company encourages its employees to get customers to apply for the store credit card. Below is the distribution for the number of credit card applications received per employee for an 8-hour shift. X P(X)
a. What is the probability that an employee will get 2 or 3 applications during any given shift? (5–1) 0.35 b. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for this probability distribution. (5–2) 1.55; 1.8075; 1.3444 6. Coins in a Box A box contains 5 pennies, 3 dimes, 1 quarter, and 1 half-dollar. Construct a probability distribution and draw a graph for the data. (5–1) 7. Tie Purchases At Tyler's Tie Shop, Tyler found the probabilities that a customer will buy 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 ties, as shown. Construct a graph for the distribution. (5–1) Number of ties X
8. Customers in a Bank A bank has a drive-through service. The number of customers arriving during a
9. Arrivals at an Airport At a small rural airport, the number of arrivals per hour during the day has the distribution shown. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the data. (5–2) 7.22; 2.1716; 1.47 Number X
4. Emergency Calls The number of emergency calls a local police department receives per 24-hour period is distributed as shown here. Construct a graph for the data. (5–1)
0.14 0.21 0.24 0.18 0.16 0.07
10. Cans of Paint Purchased During a recent paint sale at Corner Hardware, the number of cans of paint purchased was distributed as shown. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the distribution. (5–2) 2.1; 1.5; 1.2 Number of cans X Probability P(X)
11. Inquiries Received The number of inquiries received per day for a college catalog is distributed as shown. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the data. (5–2) 24.2; 1.5; 1.2 Number of inquiries X
12. Outdoor Regatta A producer plans an outdoor regatta for May 3. The cost of the regatta is $8000. This includes advertising, security, printing tickets, entertainment, etc. The producer plans to make $15,000 profit if all goes well. However, if it rains, the regatta will have to be canceled. According to the weather report, the probability of rain is 0.3. Find the producer's expected profit. (5–2) $8100 13. Card Game A game is set up as follows: All the diamonds are removed from a deck of cards, and these 13 cards are placed in a bag. The cards are mixed up, and then one card is chosen at random (and then replaced). The player wins according to the following rules. 5–43
If the ace is drawn, the player loses $20. If a face card is drawn, the player wins $10. If any other card (2–10) is drawn, the player wins $2. How much should be charged to play this game in order for it to be fair? (5–2) $2.15 14. Using Exercise 13, how much should be charged if instead of winning $2 for drawing a 2–10, the player wins the amount shown on the card in dollars? (5–2) $4.92 15. Let x be a binomial random variable with n 12 and p 0.3. Find the following: a. P(X 8) 0.008 b. P(X 5) 0.724 c. P(X 10) 0.0002 d. P(4 X 9) (5–3) 0.276 16. Internet Access via Cell Phone Fourteen percent of cell phone users use their cell phones to access the Internet. In a random sample of 10 cell phone users, what is the probability that exactly 2 have used their phones to access the Internet? More than 2? (5–3) 0.2639; 0.155 Source: www.infoplease.com
17. Computer Literacy Test If 80% of job applicants are able to pass a computer literacy test, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number of people who pass the examination in a sample of 150 applicants. (5–3) 120; 24; 4.9 18. Flu Shots It has been reported that 63% of adults aged 65 and over got their flu shots last year. In a random sample of 300 adults aged 65 and over, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the number who got their flu shots. (5–3) 189; 69.93; 8.3624 Source: U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
19. U.S. Police Chiefs and the Death Penalty The chance that a U.S. police chief believes the death penalty "significantly reduces the number of homicides" is 1 in 4. If a random sample of 8 police chiefs is selected, find the probability that at most 3 believe that the death penalty significantly reduces the number of homicides. (5–3) 0.886 Source: Harper's Index.
20. Household Wood Burning American Energy Review reported that 27% of American households burn wood. If a random sample of 500 American households is selected, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number of households that burn wood. (5–3) 135; 98.6; 9.9 Source: 100% American by Daniel Evan Weiss.
21. Pizza for Breakfast Three out of four American adults under age 35 have eaten pizza for breakfast. If a random sample of 20 adults under age 35 is selected, find the probability that exactly 16 have eaten pizza for breakfast. (5–3) Source: Harper's Index. 0.190
22. Unmarried Women According to survey records, 75.4% of women aged 20–24 have never been married. In a random sample of 250 young women aged 20–24, 5–44
find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the number who are or who have been married. (5–3) Source: www.infoplease.com 61.5; 46.371; 6.8096
23. (Opt.) Accuracy Count of Votes After a recent national election, voters were asked how confident they were that votes in their state would be counted accurately. The results are shown below. 0.0193 46% Very confident 41% Somewhat confident 9% Not very confident 3% Not at all confident If 10 voters are selected at random, find the probability that 5 would be very confident, 3 somewhat confident, 1 not very confident, and 1 not at all confident. (5–4) Source: New York Times.
24. (Opt.) Before a DVD leaves the factory, it is given a quality control check. The probabilities that a DVD contains 0, 1, or 2 defects are 0.90, 0.06, and 0.04, respectively. In a sample of 12 recorders, find the probability that 8 have 0 defects, 3 have 1 defect, and 1 has 2 defects. (5–4) 0.007 25. (Opt.) In a Christmas display, the probability that all lights are the same color is 0.50; that 2 colors are used is 0.40; and that 3 or more colors are used is 0.10. If a sample of 10 displays is selected, find the probability that 5 have only 1 color of light, 3 have 2 colors, and 2 have 3 or more colors. (5–4) 0.050 26. (Opt.) Lost Luggage in Airlines Transportation officials reported that 8.25 out of every 1000 airline passengers lost luggage during their travels last year. If we randomly select 400 airline passengers, what is the probability that 5 lost some luggage? (5–4) 0.1203 Source: U.S. Department of Transportation.
27. (Opt.) Computer Help Hot Line receives, on average, 6 calls per hour asking for assistance. The distribution is Poisson. For any randomly selected hour, find the probability that the company will receive a. At least 6 calls 0.5543 b. 4 or more calls 0.8488 c. At most 5 calls (5–4) 0.4457 28. (Opt.) The number of boating accidents on Lake Emilie follows a Poisson distribution. The probability of an accident is 0.003. If there are 1000 boats on the lake during a summer month, find the probability that there will be 6 accidents. (5–4) 0.0504 29. (Opt.) If 5 cards are drawn from a deck, find the probability that 2 will be hearts. (5–4) 0.27 30. (Opt.) Of the 50 automobiles in a used-car lot, 10 are white. If 5 automobiles are selected to be sold at an auction, find the probability that exactly 2 will be white. (5–4) 0.21 31. (Opt.) Items Donated to a Food Bank At a food bank a case of donated items contains 10 cans of soup, 8 cans of vegetables, and 8 cans of fruit. If 3 cans are selected at random to distribute, find the probability of getting 1 vegetable and 2 cans of fruit. (5–4) 0.0862
Is Pooling Worthwhile?—Revisited
In the case of the pooled sample, the probability that only one test will be needed can be determined by using the binomial distribution. The question being asked is, In a sample of 15 individuals, what is the probability that no individual will have the disease? Hence, n 15, p 0.05, and X 0. From Table B in Appendix C, the probability is 0.463, or 46% of the time, only one test will be needed. For screening purposes, then, pooling samples in this case would save considerable time, money, and effort as opposed to testing every individual in the population.
Chapter Quiz Determine whether each statement is true or false. If the statement is false, explain why. 1. The expected value of a random variable can be thought of as a long-run average. True 2. The number of courses a student is taking this semester is an example of a continuous random variable. False 3. When the binomial distribution is used, the outcomes must be dependent. False 4. A binomial experiment has a fixed number of trials. True Complete these statements with the best answer. 5. Random variable values are determined by chance . 6. The mean for a binomial variable can be found by using the formula n p . 7. One requirement for a probability distribution is that the sum of all the events in the sample space must 1 equal . Select the best answer. 8. What is the sum of the probabilities of all outcomes in a probability distribution? a. 0 c. 1 b. 12 d. It cannot be determined. 9. How many outcomes are there in a binomial experiment? a. 0 c. 2 b. 1 d. It varies.
13. X P(X)
15 0.02 Yes
15. Calls for a Fire Company The number of fire calls the Conestoga Valley Fire Company receives per day is distributed as follows: Number X 5 6 7 8 9 Probability P(X) 0.28
Construct a graph for the data. 16. Telephones per Household A study was conducted to determine the number of telephones each household has. The data are shown here. Number of telephones
Construct a probability distribution and draw a graph for the data.
Number X
Probability P(X) 0.10
Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the distribution. 2.0; 1.3; 1.1 18. Calls for a Crisis Hot Line The number of calls received per day at a crisis hot line is distributed as follows:
For questions 11 through 14, determine if the distribution represents a probability distribution. If not, state why. P(X)
17. CD Purchases During a recent CD sale at Matt's Music Store, the number of CDs customers purchased was distributed as follows:
10. The number of trials for a binomial experiment a. Can be infinite b. Is unchanged c. Is unlimited d. Must be fixed
11. X
No, since P(X) 1
Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the distribution. 32.2; 1.1; 1.0 5–45
19. Selecting a Card There are 6 playing cards placed face down in a box. They are the 4 of diamonds, the 5 of hearts, the 2 of clubs, the 10 of spades, the 3 of diamonds, and the 7 of hearts. A person selects a card. Find the expected value of the draw. 5.2 20. Selecting a Card A person selects a card from an ordinary deck of cards. If it is a black card, she wins $2. If it is a red card between or including 3 and 7, she wins $10. If it is a red face card, she wins $25; and if it is a black jack, she wins an extra $100. Find the expectation of the game. $9.65 21. Carpooling If 40% of all commuters ride to work in carpools, find the probability that if 8 workers are selected, 5 will ride in carpools. 0.124 22. Employed Women If 60% of all women are employed outside the home, find the probability that in a sample of 20 women, a. Exactly 15 are employed 0.075 b. At least 10 are employed 0.872 c. At most 5 are not employed outside the home 0.125 23. Driver's Exam If 80% of the applicants are able to pass a driver's proficiency road test, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number of people who pass the test in a sample of 300 applicants. 240; 48; 6.9 24. Meeting Attendance A history class has 75 members. If there is a 12% absentee rate per class meeting, find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the number of students who will be absent from each class. 9; 7.9; 2.8
25. Income Tax Errors (Optional) The probability that a person will make 0, 1, 2, or 3 errors on his or her income tax return is 0.50, 0.30, 0.15, and 0.05, respectively. If 30 claims are selected, find the probability that 15 will contain 0 errors, 8 will contain 1 error, 5 will contain 2 errors, and 2 will contain 3 errors. 0.008
26. Quality Control Check (Optional) Before a television set leaves the factory, it is given a quality control check. The probability that a television contains 0, 1, or 2 defects is 0.88, 0.08, and 0.04, respectively. In a sample of 16 televisions, find the probability that 9 will have 0 defects, 4 will have 1 defect, and 3 will have 2 defects. 0.0003 27. Bowling Team Uniforms (Optional) Among the teams in a bowling league, the probability that the uniforms are all 1 color is 0.45, that 2 colors are used is 0.35, and that 3 or more colors are used is 0.20. If a sample of 12 uniforms is selected, find the probability that 5 contain only 1 color, 4 contain 2 colors, and 3 contain 3 or more colors. 0.061 28. Elm Trees (Optional) If 8% of the population of trees are elm trees, find the probability that in a sample of 100 trees, there are exactly 6 elm trees. Assume the distribution is approximately Poisson. 0.122 29. Sports Score Hot Line Calls (Optional) Sports Scores Hot Line receives, on the average, 8 calls per hour requesting the latest sports scores. The distribution is Poisson in nature. For any randomly selected hour, find the probability that the company will receive a. At least 8 calls 0.5470 b. 3 or more calls 0.9863 c. At most 7 calls 0.4529 30. Color of Raincoats (Optional) There are 48 raincoats for sale at a local men's clothing store. Twelve are black. If 6 raincoats are selected to be marked down, find the probability that exactly 3 will be black. 0.128 31. Youth Group Officers (Optional) A youth group has 8 boys and 6 girls. If a slate of 4 officers is selected, find the probability that exactly a. 3 are girls 0.160 b. 2 are girls 0.42 c. 4 are boys 0.07
Critical Thinking Challenges 1. Lottery Numbers Pennsylvania has a lottery entitled "Big 4." To win, a player must correctly match four digits from a daily lottery in which four digits are selected. Find the probability of winning. 2. Lottery Numbers In the Big 4 lottery, for a bet of $100, the payoff is $5000. What is the expected value of winning? Is it worth it? 3. Lottery Numbers If you played the same four-digit number every day (or any four-digit number for that matter) in the Big 4, how often (in years) would you win, assuming you have average luck?
4. Chuck-a-Luck In the game Chuck-a-Luck, three dice are rolled. A player bets a certain amount (say $1.00) on a number from 1 to 6. If the number appears on 1 die, the person wins $1.00. If it appears on 2 dice, the person wins $2.00, and if it appears on all 3 dice, the person wins $3.00. What are the chances of winning $1.00? $2.00? $3.00? 5. Chuck-a-Luck What is the expected value of the game of Chuck-a-Luck if a player bets $1.00 on one number?
Data Projects 1. Business and Finance Assume that a life insurance company would like to make a profit of $250 on a $100,000 policy sold to a person whose probability of surviving the year is 0.9985. What premium should the company charge the customer? If the company would like to make a $250 profit on a $100,000 policy at a premium of $500, what is the lowest life expectancy it should accept for a customer? 2. Sports and Leisure Baseball, hockey, and basketball all use a seven-game series to determine their championship. Find the probability that with two evenly matched teams a champion will be found in 4 games. Repeat for 5, 6, and 7 games. Look at the historical results for the three sports. How do the actual results compare to the theoretical? 3. Technology Use your most recent itemized phone bill for the data in this problem. Assume that incoming and outgoing calls are equal in the population (why is this a reasonable assumption?). This means assume p 0.5. For the number of calls you made last month, what would be the mean number of outgoing calls in a random selection of calls? Also, compute the standard deviation. Was the number of outgoing calls you made an unusual amount given the above? In a selection of 12 calls, what is the probability that less than 3 were outgoing?
4. Health and Wellness Use Red Cross data to determine the percentage of the population with an Rh factor that is positive (A , B , AB , or O blood types). Use that value for p. How many students in your class have a positive Rh factor? Is this an unusual amount? 5. Politics and Economics Find out what percentage of citizens in your state is registered to vote. Assuming that this is a binomial variable, what would be the mean number of registered voters in a random group of citizens with a sample size equal to the number of students in your class? Also determine the standard deviation. How many students in your class are registered to vote? Is this an unusual number, given the above? 6. Your Class Have each student in class toss 4 coins on her or his desk, and note how many heads are showing. Create a frequency table displaying the results. Compare the frequency table to the theoretical probability distribution for the outcome when 4 coins are tossed. Find the mean for the frequency table. How does it compare with the mean for the probability distribution?
Dropping College Courses
1. The random variable under study is the reason for dropping a college course. 2. There were a total of 144 people in the study. 3. The complete table is as follows: Reason for Dropping a College Course Too difficult Illness Change in work schedule Change of major Family-related problems Money Miscellaneous No meaningful reason
31.25 27.78 13.89 9.72 6.25 4.86 4.17 2.08
4. The probability that a student will drop a class because of illness is about 28%. The probability that a student will drop a class because of money is about 5%. The probability that a student will drop a class because of a change of major is about 10%. 5. The information is not itself a probability distribution, but it can be used as one. 6. The categories are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but we treated them as such in computing the probabilities. 7. The categories are not independent. 8. The categories are exhaustive. 9. Since all the probabilities are between 0 and 1, inclusive, and the probabilities sum to 1, the requirements for a discrete probability distribution are met.
Section 5–2 Expected Value 1. The expected value is the mean in a discrete probability distribution. 2. We would expect variation from the expected value of 3. 3. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that pregnant mothers in that area might be overly concerned upon hearing that the number of cases of kidney problems in newborns was nearly 4 times what was usually expected. Other mothers (particularly those who had taken a statistics course!) might ask for more information about the claim. 4. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that it does seem unlikely to have 11 newborns with kidney problems when we expect only 3 newborns to have kidney problems. 5. The public might better be informed by percentages or rates (e.g., rate per 1000 newborns). 6. The increase of 8 babies born with kidney problems represents a 0.32% increase (less than 12%). 7. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that the percentage increase does not seem to be something to be overly concerned about. Section 5–3 Unsanitary Restaurants 1. The probability of eating at 3 restaurants with unsanitary conditions out of the 10 restaurants is 0.18793. 2. The probability of eating at 4 or 5 restaurants with unsanitary conditions out of the 10 restaurants is (0.24665) (0.22199) 0.46864.
3. To find this probability, you could add the probabilities for eating at 1, 2, . . . , 10 unsanitary restaurants. An easier way to compute the probability is to subtract the probability of eating at no unsanitary restaurants from 1 (using the complement rule). 4. The highest probability for this distribution is 4, but the expected number of unsanitary restaurants that you would eat at is 10 • 37 4.29. 5. The standard deviation for this distribution is 2 10 37 47 1.56. 6. We have two possible outcomes: "success" is eating in an unsanitary restaurant; "failure" is eating in a sanitary restaurant. The probability that one restaurant is unsanitary is independent of the probability that any other restaurant is unsanitary. The probability that a restaurant is unsanitary remains constant at 37. And we are looking at the number of unsanitary restaurants that we eat at out of 10 "trials." 7. The likelihood of success will vary from situation to situation. Just because we have two possible outcomes, this does not mean that each outcome occurs with probability 0.50. Section 5–4 Rockets and Targets 1. The theoretical values for the number of hits are as follows: Hits Regions
2. The actual values are very close to the theoretical values. 3. Since the actual values are close to the theoretical values, it does appear that the rockets were fired at random.
Identify the properties of a normal distribution. Find the area under the standard normal distribution, given various z values.
Use the central limit theorem to solve problems involving sample means for large samples.
Use the normal approximation to compute probabilities for a binomial variable.
6–2 Applications of the Normal Distribution 6–3 The Central Limit Theorem 6–4 The Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution Summary
Chapter 6 The Normal Distribution
The name normal curve was used by several statisticians, namely, Francis Galton, Charles Sanders, Wilhelm Lexis, and Karl Pearson near the end of the 19th century.
What Is Normal? Medical researchers have determined so-called normal intervals for a person's blood pressure, cholesterol, triglycerides, and the like. For example, the normal range of systolic blood pressure is 110 to 140. The normal interval for a person's triglycerides is from 30 to 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl). By measuring these variables, a physician can determine if a patient's vital statistics are within the normal interval or if some type of treatment is needed to correct a condition and avoid future illnesses. The question then is, How does one determine the so-called normal intervals? See Statistics Today—Revisited at the end of the chapter. In this chapter, you will learn how researchers determine normal intervals for specific medical tests by using a normal distribution. You will see how the same methods are used to determine the lifetimes of batteries, the strength of ropes, and many other traits.
Introduction Random variables can be either discrete or continuous. Discrete variables and their distributions were explained in Chapter 5. Recall that a discrete variable cannot assume all values between any two given values of the variables. On the other hand, a continuous variable can assume all values between any two given values of the variables. Examples of continuous variables are the heights of adult men, body temperatures of rats, and cholesterol levels of adults. Many continuous variables, such as the examples just mentioned, have distributions that are bell-shaped, and these are called approximately normally distributed variables. For example, if a researcher selects a random sample of 100 adult women, measures their heights, and constructs a histogram, the researcher gets a graph similar to the one shown in Figure 6–1(a). Now, if the researcher increases the sample size and decreases the width of the classes, the histograms will look like the ones shown in Figure 6–1(b) and (c). Finally, if it were possible to measure exactly the heights of all adult females in the United States and plot them, the histogram would approach what is called a normal distribution, shown in Figure 6–1(d). This distribution is also known as
Figure 6–1 Histograms for the Distribution of Heights of Adult Women (a) Random sample of 100 women
(b) Sample size increased and class width decreased
(c) Sample size increased and class width decreased further
(d) Normal distribution for the population
Figure 6–2 Normal and Skewed Distributions
Mean Median Mode (a) Normal
Mean Median Mode (b) Negatively skewed
Mode Median Mean (c) Positively skewed
a bell curve or a Gaussian distribution, named for the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), who derived its equation. No variable fits a normal distribution perfectly, since a normal distribution is a theoretical distribution. However, a normal distribution can be used to describe many variables, because the deviations from a normal distribution are very small. This concept will be explained further in Section 6–1. When the data values are evenly distributed about the mean, a distribution is said to be a symmetric distribution. (A normal distribution is symmetric.) Figure 6–2(a) shows a symmetric distribution. When the majority of the data values fall to the left or right of the mean, the distribution is said to be skewed. When the majority of the data values fall to the right of the mean, the distribution is said to be a negatively or left-skewed distribution. The mean is to the left of the median, and the mean and the median are to the left of the mode. See Figure 6–2(b). When the majority of the data values fall to the left of the mean, a distribution is said to be a positively or right-skewed distribution. The mean falls to the right of the median, and both the mean and the median fall to the right of the mode. See Figure 6–2(c). 6–3
The "tail" of the curve indicates the direction of skewness (right is positive, left is negative). These distributions can be compared with the ones shown in Figure 3–1 in Chapter 3. Both types follow the same principles. This chapter will present the properties of a normal distribution and discuss its applications. Then a very important fact about a normal distribution called the central limit theorem will be explained. Finally, the chapter will explain how a normal distribution curve can be used as an approximation to other distributions, such as the binomial distribution. Since a binomial distribution is a discrete distribution, a correction for continuity may be employed when a normal distribution is used for its approximation.
In mathematics, curves can be represented by equations. For example, the equation of the circle shown in Figure 6–3 is x2 y2 r 2, where r is the radius. A circle can be used to represent many physical objects, such as a wheel or a gear. Even though it is not possible to manufacture a wheel that is perfectly round, the equation and the properties of a circle can be used to study many aspects of the wheel, such as area, velocity, and acceleration. In a similar manner, the theoretical curve, called a normal distribution curve, can be used to study many variables that are not perfectly normally distributed but are nevertheless approximately normal. The mathematical equation for a normal distribution is
e X m 2s s 2p 2
Graph of a Circle and an Application
e 2.718 ( means "is approximately equal to") p 3.14 m population mean s population standard deviation This equation may look formidable, but in applied statistics, tables or technology is used for specific problems instead of the equation. Another important consideration in applied statistics is that the area under a normal distribution curve is used more often than the values on the y axis. Therefore, when a normal distribution is pictured, the y axis is sometimes omitted. Circles can be different sizes, depending on their diameters (or radii), and can be used to represent wheels of different sizes. Likewise, normal curves have different shapes and can be used to represent different variables. The shape and position of a normal distribution curve depend on two parameters, the mean and the standard deviation. Each normally distributed variable has its own normal distribution curve, which depends on the values of the variable's mean and standard deviation. Figure 6–4(a) shows two normal distributions with the same mean values but different standard deviations. The larger the standard deviation, the more dispersed, or spread out, the distribution is. Figure 6–4(b) shows two normal distributions with the same standard deviation but with different means. These curves have the same shapes but are located at different positions on the x axis. Figure 6–4(c) shows two normal distributions with different means and different standard deviations.
Section 6–1 Normal Distributions
Curve 2
Figure 6–4 Shapes of Normal Distributions
␴1 > ␴2
␮1 = ␮2 (a) Same means but different standard deviations
Curve 2 Curve 1
␮1
(b) Different means but same standard deviations
The discovery of the equation for a normal distribution can be traced to three mathematicians. In 1733, the French mathematician Abraham DeMoivre derived an equation for a normal distribution based on the random variation of the number of heads appearing when a large number of coins were tossed. Not realizing any connection with the naturally occurring variables, he showed this formula to only a few friends. About 100 years later, two mathematicians, Pierre Laplace in France and Carl Gauss in Germany, derived the equation of the normal curve independently and without any knowledge of DeMoivre's work. In 1924, Karl Pearson found that DeMoivre had discovered the formula before Laplace or Gauss.
␴1 = ␴2
(c) Different means and different standard deviations
A normal distribution is a continuous, symmetric, bell-shaped distribution of a variable.
The properties of a normal distribution, including those mentioned in the definition, are explained next.
Summary of the Properties of the Theoretical Normal Distribution 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
A normal distribution curve is bell-shaped. The mean, median, and mode are equal and are located at the center of the distribution. A normal distribution curve is unimodal (i.e., it has only one mode). The curve is symmetric about the mean, which is equivalent to saying that its shape is the same on both sides of a vertical line passing through the center. The curve is continuous; that is, there are no gaps or holes. For each value of X, there is a corresponding value of Y. The curve never touches the x axis. Theoretically, no matter how far in either direction the curve extends, it never meets the x axis—but it gets increasingly closer. The total area under a normal distribution curve is equal to 1.00, or 100%. This fact may seem unusual, since the curve never touches the x axis, but one can prove it mathematically by using calculus. (The proof is beyond the scope of this textbook.) The area under the part of a normal curve that lies within 1 standard deviation of the mean is approximately 0.68, or 68%; within 2 standard deviations, about 0.95, or 95%; and within 3 standard deviations, about 0.997, or 99.7%. See Figure 6–5, which also shows the area in each region.
The values given in item 8 of the summary follow the empirical rule for data given in Section 3–2. You must know these properties in order to solve problems involving distributions that are approximately normal. 6–5
Figure 6–5 Areas Under a Normal Distribution Curve
2.28% ␮ – 3␴
13.59% ␮ – 2␴
␮ – 1␴
␮
␮ + 1␴
2.28% ␮ + 3␴
About 68% About 95% About 99.7%
The Standard Normal Distribution Since each normally distributed variable has its own mean and standard deviation, as stated earlier, the shape and location of these curves will vary. In practical applications, then, you would have to have a table of areas under the curve for each variable. To simplify this situation, statisticians use what is called the standard normal distribution. Objective
The standard normal distribution is a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
The standard normal distribution is shown in Figure 6–6. The values under the curve indicate the proportion of area in each section. For example, the area between the mean and 1 standard deviation above or below the mean is about 0.3413, or 34.13%. The formula for the standard normal distribution is e z 2 2p 2
All normally distributed variables can be transformed into the standard normally distributed variable by using the formula for the standard score: z
value mean standard deviation
This is the same formula used in Section 3–3. The use of this formula will be explained in Section 6–3. As stated earlier, the area under a normal distribution curve is used to solve practical application problems, such as finding the percentage of adult women whose height is between 5 feet 4 inches and 5 feet 7 inches, or finding the probability that a new battery will last longer than 4 years. Hence, the major emphasis of this section will be to show the procedure for finding the area under the standard normal distribution curve for any z value. The applications will be shown in Section 6–2. Once the X values are transformed by using the preceding formula, they are called z values. The z value or z score is actually the number of standard deviations that a particular X value is away from the mean. Table E in Appendix C gives the area (to four decimal places) under the standard normal curve for any z value from 3.49 to 3.49. 6–6
Figure 6–6 Standard Normal Distribution 34.13%
Bell-shaped distributions occurred quite often in early coin-tossing and die-rolling experiments.
Finding Areas Under the Standard Normal Distribution Curve For the solution of problems using the standard normal distribution, a two-step process is recommended with the use of the Procedure Table shown. The two steps are Step 1
Draw the normal distribution curve and shade the area.
Find the appropriate figure in the Procedure Table and follow the directions given.
There are three basic types of problems, and all three are summarized in the Procedure Table. Note that this table is presented as an aid in understanding how to use the standard normal distribution table and in visualizing the problems. After learning the procedures, you should not find it necessary to refer to the Procedure Table for every problem.
Finding the Area Under the Standard Normal Distribution Curve 2. To the right of any z value: Look up the z value and subtract the area from 1.
1. To the left of any z value: Look up the z value in the table and use the area given.
or 0
or –z
3. Between any two z values: Look up both z values and subtract the corresponding areas.
or –z 0
z1 z2
–z 1 –z 2 0
Figure 6–7 z
Table E Area Value for z 1.39
0.0 ... 1.3
Table E in Appendix C gives the area under the normal distribution curve to the left of any z value given in two decimal places. For example, the area to the left of a z value of 1.39 is found by looking up 1.3 in the left column and 0.09 in the top row. Where the two lines meet gives an area of 0.9177. See Figure 6–7.
Find the area to the left of z 2.06. Solution Step 1
Draw the figure. The desired area is shown in Figure 6–8.
Figure 6–8 Area Under the Standard Normal Distribution Curve for Example 6–1
We are looking for the area under the standard normal distribution to the left of z 2.06. Since this is an example of the first case, look up the area in the table. It is 0.9803. Hence, 98.03% of the area is less than z 2.06.
Find the area to the right of z 1.19. Solution Step 1
We are looking for the area to the right of z 1.19. This is an example of the second case. Look up the area for z 1.19. It is 0.1170. Subtract it from 1.0000. 1.0000 0.1170 0.8830. Hence, 88.30% of the area under the standard normal distribution curve is to the left of z 1.19.
Find the area between z 1.68 and z 1.37. Solution Step 1
Draw the figure as shown. The desired area is shown in Figure 6–10.
Figure 6–10 Area Under the Standard Normal Distribution Curve for Example 6–3
Since the area desired is between two given z values, look up the areas corresponding to the two z values and subtract the smaller area from the larger area. (Do not subtract the z values.) The area for z 1.68 is 0.9535, and the area for z 1.37 is 0.0853. The area between the two z values is 0.9535 0.0853 0.8682 or 86.82%.
A Normal Distribution Curve as a Probability Distribution Curve A normal distribution curve can be used as a probability distribution curve for normally distributed variables. Recall that a normal distribution is a continuous distribution, as opposed to a discrete probability distribution, as explained in Chapter 5. The fact that it is continuous means that there are no gaps in the curve. In other words, for every z value on the x axis, there is a corresponding height, or frequency, value. The area under the standard normal distribution curve can also be thought of as a probability. That is, if it were possible to select any z value at random, the probability of choosing one, say, between 0 and 2.00 would be the same as the area under the curve between 0 and 2.00. In this case, the area is 0.4772. Therefore, the probability of randomly selecting any z value between 0 and 2.00 is 0.4772. The problems involving probability are solved in the same manner as the previous examples involving areas in this section. For example, if the problem is to find the probability of selecting a z value between 2.25 and 2.94, solve it by using the method shown in case 3 of the Procedure Table. For probabilities, a special notation is used. For example, if the problem is to find the probability of any z value between 0 and 2.32, this probability is written as P(0 z 2.32). 6–9
Note: In a continuous distribution, the probability of any exact z value is 0 since the area would be represented by a vertical line above the value. But vertical lines in theory have no area. So P a z b P a z b .
Find the probability for each. a. P(0 z 2.32) b. P(z 1.65) c. P(z 1.91) Solution
a. P(0 z 2.32) means to find the area under the standard normal distribution curve between 0 and 2.32. First look up the area corresponding to 2.32. It is 0.9898. Then look up the area corresponding to z 0. It is 0.500. Subtract the two areas: 0.9898 0.5000 0.4898. Hence the probability is 0.4898, or 48.98%. This is shown in Figure 6–11.
Figure 6–11 Area Under the Standard Normal Distribution Curve for Part a of Example 6–4
b. P(z 1.65) is represented in Figure 6–12. Look up the area corresponding to z 1.65 in Table E. It is 0.9505. Hence, P(z 1.65) 0.9505, or 95.05%.
Figure 6–12 Area Under the Standard Normal Distribution Curve for Part b of Example 6–4
c. P(z 1.91) is shown in Figure 6–13. Look up the area that corresponds to z 1.91. It is 0.9719. Then subtract this area from 1.0000. P(z 1.91) 1.0000 0.9719 0.0281, or 2.81%. 6–10
Figure 6–13 Area Under the Standard Normal Distribution Curve for Part c of Example 6–4
Sometimes, one must find a specific z value for a given area under the standard normal distribution curve. The procedure is to work backward, using Table E. Since Table E is cumulative, it is necessary to locate the cumulative area up to a given z value. Example 6–5 shows this.
Find the z value such that the area under the standard normal distribution curve between 0 and the z value is 0.2123. Solution
Draw the figure. The area is shown in Figure 6–14. 0.2123
In this case it is necessary to add 0.5000 to the given area of 0.2123 to get the cumulative area of 0.7123. Look up the area in Table E. The value in the left column is 0.5, and the top value is 0.06. Add these two values to get z 0.56. See Figure 6–15. Figure 6–15 Finding the z Value from Table E for Example 6–5
0.7123 Start here
0.7 ...
Figure 6–16 1
The Relationship Between Area and Probability
(a) Clock
Area 3 • 1 12
3 units (b) Rectangle
If the exact area cannot be found, use the closest value. For example, if you wanted to find the z value for an area 0.9241, the closest area is 0.9236, which gives a z value of 1.43. See Table E in Appendix C. The rationale for using an area under a continuous curve to determine a probability can be understood by considering the example of a watch that is powered by a battery. When the battery goes dead, what is the probability that the minute hand will stop somewhere between the numbers 2 and 5 on the face of the watch? In this case, the values of the variable constitute a continuous variable since the hour hand can stop anywhere on the dial's face between 0 and 12 (one revolution of the minute hand). Hence, the sample space can be considered to be 12 units long, and the distance between the numbers 2 and 5 is 5 2, or 3 units. Hence, the probability that the minute hand stops on a number between 2 and 5 is 123 14. See Figure 6–16(a). The problem could also be solved by using a graph of a continuous variable. Let us assume that since the watch can stop anytime at random, the values where the minute hand would land are spread evenly over the range of 0 through 12. The graph would then consist of a continuous uniform distribution with a range of 12 units. Now if we require the area under the curve to be 1 (like the area under the standard normal distribution), the height of the rectangle formed by the curve and the x axis would need to be 121 . The reason is that the area of a rectangle is equal to the base times the height. If the base is 12 units long, then the height has to be 121 since 12 121 1. The area of the rectangle with a base from 2 through 5 would be 3 121 , or 14. See Figure 6–16(b). Notice that the area of the small rectangle is the same as the probability found previously. Hence the area of this rectangle corresponds to the probability of this event. The same reasoning can be applied to the standard normal distribution curve shown in Example 6–5. Finding the area under the standard normal distribution curve is the first step in solving a wide variety of practical applications in which the variables are normally distributed. Some of these applications will be presented in Section 6–2. 6–12
Applying the Concepts 6–1 Assessing Normality Many times in statistics it is necessary to see if a set of data values is approximately normally distributed. There are special techniques that can be used. One technique is to draw a histogram for the data and see if it is approximately bell-shaped. (Note: It does not have to be exactly symmetric to be bell-shaped.) The numbers of branches of the 50 top libraries are shown. 67 36 24 13 26
Construct a frequency distribution for the data. Construct a histogram for the data. Describe the shape of the histogram. Based on your answer to question 3, do you feel that the distribution is approximately normal?
In addition to the histogram, distributions that are approximately normal have about 68% of the values fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean, about 95% of the data values fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean, and almost 100% of the data values fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean. (See Figure 6–5.) 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Find the mean and standard deviation for the data. What percent of the data values fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean? What percent of the data values fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean? What percent of the data values fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean? How do your answers to questions 6, 7, and 8 compare to 68, 95, and 100%, respectively? Does your answer help support the conclusion you reached in question 4? Explain.
(More techniques for assessing normality are explained in Section 6–2.) See pages 353 and 354 for the answers.
Exercises 6–1 1. What are the characteristics of a normal distribution? 2. Why is the standard normal distribution important in statistical analysis? Many variables are normally distributed, and the distribution can be used to describe these variables.
3. What is the total area under the standard normal distribution curve? 1 or 100% 4. What percentage of the area falls below the mean? Above the mean? 50% of the area lies below the mean, and 50% of the area lies above the mean.
5. About what percentage of the area under the normal distribution curve falls within 1 standard deviation above and below the mean? 2 standard deviations? 3 standard deviations? 68%; 95%; 99.7%
For Exercises 6 through 25, find the area under the standard normal distribution curve. 6. Between z 0 and z 1.77 0.4616 7. Between z 0 and z 0.75 0.2734 8. Between z 0 and z 0.32 0.1255 9. Between z 0 and z 2.07 0.4808 10. To the right of z 2.01 0.0222 11. To the right of z 0.29 0.3859 12. To the left of z 0.75 0.2266 13. To the left of z 1.39 0.0823 6–13
14. Between z 1.23 and z 1.90 0.0806
z 1.39 (TI: 1.3885)
15. Between z 1.05 and z 1.78 0.1094 16. Between z 0.96 and z 0.36 0.1909 17. Between z 1.56 and z 1.83 0.0258 z
18. Between z 0.24 and z 1.12 0.4634 19. Between z 1.46 and z 1.98 0.0482
20. To the left of z 1.31 0.9049 21. To the left of z 2.11 0.9826
22. To the right of z 1.92 0.9726 23. To the right of z 0.17 0.5675
24. To the left of z 2.15 and to the right of z 1.62 0.0684
25. To the right of z 1.92 and to the left of z 0.44 0.3574
In Exercises 26 through 39, find the probabilities for each, using the standard normal distribution.
26. P(0 z 1.96) 0.4750
28. P( 1.23 z 0) 0.3907
29. P( 1.43 z 0) 0.4236 30. P(z 0.82) 0.2061 31. P(z 2.83) 0.0023
32. P(z 1.77) 0.0384
1.26 (TI: 1.2602)
34. P( 0.20 z 1.56) 0.5199 35. P( 2.46 z 1.74) 0.9522 (TI: 0.9521) z
36. P(1.12 z 1.43) 0.0550
46. Find the z value to the right of the mean so that
37. P(1.46 z 2.97) 0.0706 (TI: 0.0707) 38. P(z 1.43) 0.9236 39. P(z 1.42) 0.9222 For Exercises 40 through 45, find the z value that corresponds to the given area. 40.
a. 54.78% of the area under the distribution curve lies to the left of it. 0.12 b. 69.85% of the area under the distribution curve lies to the left of it. 0.52 c. 88.10% of the area under the distribution curve lies to the left of it. 1.18 47. Find the z value to the left of the mean so that a. 98.87% of the area under the distribution curve lies to the right of it. 2.28 (TI: 2.2801) b. 82.12% of the area under the distribution curve lies to the right of it. 0.92 (TI: 0.91995) c. 60.64% of the area under the distribution curve lies to the right of it. 0.27 (TI: 0.26995)
48. Find two z values so that 48% of the middle area is bounded by them. z 0.64 49. Find two z values, one positive and one negative, that are equidistant from the mean so that the areas in the two tails total the following values.
a. 5% z 1.96 and z 1.96 (TI: 1.95996) b. 10% z 1.65 and z 1.65, approximately (TI: 1.64485)
c. 1% z 2.58 and z 2.58, approximately (TI: 2.57583)
Extending the Concepts 50. In the standard normal distribution, find the values of z for the 75th, 80th, and 92nd percentiles. 0.6745; 0.8416; 1.41 51. Find P( 1 z 1), P( 2 z 2), and P( 3 z 3). How do these values compare with the empirical rule?
56. Find z0 such that P( z0 z z0) 0.76. 1.175 57. Find the equation for the standard normal distribution by substituting 0 for m and 1 for s in the equation
52. Find z0 such that P(z z0) 0.1234. 1.16 53. Find z0 such that P( 1.2 z z0) 0.8671. 2.10 54. Find z0 such that P(z0 z 2.5) 0.7672. 0.75 55. Find z0 such that the area between z0 and z 0.5 is 0.2345 (two answers). 1.45 and 0.11
0.6827; 0.9545; 0.9973; they are very close.
e X 2 2p 2
58. Graph by hand the standard normal distribution by using the formula derived in Exercise 57. Let p 3.14 and e 2.718. Use X values of 2, 1.5, 1, 0.5, 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2. (Use a calculator to compute the y values.)
The Standard Normal Distribution It is possible to determine the height of the density curve given a value of z, the cumulative area given a value of z, or a z value given a cumulative area. Examples are from Table E in Appendix C. Find the Area to the Left of z 1.39
1. Select Calc >Probability Distributions>Normal. There are three options. 2. Click the button for Cumulative probability. In the center section, the mean and standard deviation for the standard normal distribution are the defaults. The mean should be 0, and the standard deviation should be 1. 3. Click the button for Input Constant, then click inside the text box and type in 1.39. Leave the storage box empty. 4. Click [OK].
Cumulative Distribution Function Normal with mean = 0 and standard deviation = 1 x P( X Probability Distributions>Normal. 2. Click the button for Cumulative probability. 3. Click the button for Input Constant, then enter 2.06 in the text box. Do not forget the minus sign. 4. Click in the text box for Optional storage and type K1. 5. Click [OK]. The area to the left of 2.06 is stored in K1 but not displayed in the session window. To determine the area to the right of the z value, subtract this constant from 1, then display the result. 6. Select Calc >Calculator. a) Type K2 in the text box for Store result in:. b) Type in the expression 1 K1, then click [OK]. 7. Select Data>Display Data. Drag the mouse over K1 and K2, then click [Select] and [OK]. The results will be in the session window and stored in the constants. Data Display K1 0.0196993 K2 0.980301
8. To see the constants and other information about the worksheet, click the Project Manager icon. In the left pane click on the green worksheet icon, and then click the constants folder. You should see all constants and their values in the right pane of the Project Manager. 9. For the third example calculate the two probabilities and store them in K1 and K2. 10. Use the calculator to subtract K1 from K2 and store in K3. The calculator and project manager windows are shown.
Calculate a z Value Given the Cumulative Probability
Find the z value for a cumulative probability of 0.025. 1. Select Calc >Probability Distributions>Normal. 2. Click the option for Inverse cumulative probability, then the option for Input constant. 3. In the text box type .025, the cumulative area, then click [OK]. 4. In the dialog box, the z value will be returned, 1.960. Inverse Cumulative Distribution Function Normal with mean = 0 and standard deviation = 1 P ( X Basic Statistics>Graphical Summary presented in Section 3–3 to create the histogram. Is it symmetric? Is there a single peak? Check for Outliers
3. Select Calc >Calculator, then type PC in the text box for Store result in:. 4. Enter the expression: 3*(MEAN(C1) MEDI(C1))/(STDEV(C1)). Make sure you get all the parentheses in the right place! 5. Click [OK]. The result, 0.148318, will be stored in the first row of C2 named PC. Since it is smaller than 1, the distribution is not skewed. Construct a Normal Probability Plot
6. Select Graph>Probability Plot, then Single and click [OK]. 7. Double-click C1 Inventory to select the data to be graphed. 8. Click [Distribution] and make sure that Normal is selected. Click [OK]. 6–30
Section 6–2 Applications of the Normal Distribution
9. Click [Labels] and enter the title for the graph: Quantile Plot for Inventory. You may also put Your Name in the subtitle. 10. Click [OK] twice. Inspect the graph to see if the graph of the points is linear. These data are nearly normal. What do you look for in the plot? a) An "S curve" indicates a distribution that is too thick in the tails, a uniform distribution, for example. b) Concave plots indicate a skewed distribution. c) If one end has a point that is extremely high or low, there may be outliers. This data set appears to be nearly normal by every one of the four criteria!
Normal Random Variables To find the probability for a normal random variable: Press 2nd [DISTR], then 2 for normalcdf( The form is normalcdf(lower x value, upper x value, m, s) Use E99 for (infinity) and E99 for (negative infinity). Press 2nd [EE] to get E. Example: Find the probability that x is between 27 and 31 when m 28 and s 2 (Example 6–7a from the text). normalcdf(27,31,28,2) To find the percentile for a normal random variable: Press 2nd [DISTR], then 3 for invNorm( The form is invNorm(area to the left of x value, m, s) Example: Find the 90th percentile when m 200 and s 20 (Example 6–9 from text). invNorm(.9,200,20) To construct a normal quantile plot: 1. Enter the data values into L1. 2. Press 2nd [STAT PLOT] to get the STAT PLOT menu. 3. Press 1 for Plot 1. 4. Turn on the plot by pressing ENTER while the cursor is flashing over ON. 5. Move the cursor to the normal quantile plot (6th graph). 6. Make sure L1 is entered for the Data List and X is highlighted for the Data Axis. 7. Press WINDOW for the Window menu. Adjust Xmin and Xmax according to the data values. Adjust Ymin and Ymax as well, Ymin 3 and Ymax 3 usually work fine. 8. Press GRAPH. Using the data from the previous example gives
Since the points in the normal quantile plot lie close to a straight line, the distribution is approximately normal. 6–31
Normal Quantile Plot Excel can be used to construct a normal quantile plot in order to examine if a set of data is approximately normally distributed. 1. Enter the data from the MINITAB example into column A of a new worksheet. The data should be sorted in ascending order. If the data are not already sorted in ascending order, highlight the data to be sorted and select the Sort & Filter icon from the toolbar. Then select Sort Smallest to Largest. 2. After all the data are entered and sorted in column A, select cell B1. Type: =NORMSINV(1/(2*18)). Since the sample size is 18, each score represents 181 , or approximately 5.6%, of the sample. Each data value is assumed to subdivide the data into equal intervals. Each data value corresponds to the midpoint of a particular subinterval. Thus, this procedure will standardize the data by assuming each data value represents the midpoint of a subinterval of width 181 . 3. Repeat the procedure from step 2 for each data value in column A. However, for each subsequent value in column A, enter the next odd multiple of 361 in the argument for the NORMSINV function. For example, in cell B2, type: =NORMSINV(3/(2*18)). In cell B3, type: =NORMSINV(5/(2*18)),