text:
Ritual plants of Muslim graveyards in northern Israel
Amots Dafni1,
Efraim Lev2,
Sabine Beckmann3 &
Christian Eichberger4
This article surveys the botanical composition of 40 Muslim graveyards in northern Israel, accompanied by an ethnobotanical study of the folkloristic traditions of the use of these plants in cemeteries.
Three groups of plants were found to be repeated systematically and were also recognized for their ritual importance: aromatics herbs (especially Salvia fruticosa and Rosmarinus officinalis), white flowered plants (mainly Narcissus tazetta, Urginea maritima, Iris spp. and Pancratium spp.) and Cupressus sempervirens as the leading cemetery tree.
As endemic use we can indicate the essential role of S. fruticosa as the main plant used in all human rites of passage symbolizing the human life cycle. The rosemary is of European origin while the use of basil is of Indian influence.
The use of white flowers as cemeteries plants reflects an old European influence and almost the same species are used or their congeners. Most of the trees and shrubs that are planted in Muslim cemeteries in Israel have the same use in ancient as well in modern European cultures.
In conclusion, our findings on the occurrence of plants in graveyards reflect the geographic situation of Israel as a crossroads in the cultural arena between Asia and Europe. Most of the traditions are common to the whole Middle East showing high relatedness to the classical world as well as to the present-day Europe.
Plants were used to mark rites of passage both in human and in the annual cycle, as well as to decorate and to symbolize [[1]:262]. Plants, especially flowers, have been used at funerals in many cultures [[1]:66–70; [2]:165–167; [3]: 3–5]. Folkard [[4]:193] wrote, "All nations at different periods seem to have delighted to deck the graves of their departed relatives with garlands of flowers. The association of certain trees and plants with death and its glooming surrounding dates from a period remote and shadowy in its activity".
A century later Vickery [[5]:196] noted: "Flowers symbolize human mortality, and are equally symbolic of resurrection and rebirth, springtime and autumn, renewal and decay, and have long continued to provide consolation and hope at critical times in man's life".
In the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt (16 – 12 centuries BC.) flowers of a particular sacred tree were considered life giving, so they were called "flowers of life". These flowers, and flowers of lotus, were used in funerals. Statues and coffins of the deceased were decorated with garlands of flowers [[6]:89].
According to Folkard [[4]:194] "The flowers strewed over graves by the Greeks were the Amaranth, Myrtle, and Polyanthous (=Narcissus)... The ancient Christians would choose different plants according to the age of the dead person: the flowers so used were deemed typical of the dead: to the young were assigned the blossoms of spring and summer, to middle age, aromatic herbs and the branches of primeval trees".
Roman funerals demanded a lot of flowers. The corpse was adorned as an expression of honour and affection. The funeral urn was similarly decorated. Flowers were scattered on the guests at the funeral banquet, and wreaths of dry and artificial flowers were placed at the tomb. After the funeral, fresh flowers, especially roses, lilies and violets, were used to deck out tombs as a memorial to show that the dead were still remembered [[1]:67; [4]:195; [7]:151].
The ancient Israelites differed from other religions: "The culture of flowers had put down deep roots in most societies of the Mediterranean and the Near East, being rejected only by ancient Israelites. As we have seen the Israelites accepted neither the sacrifices made to their neighbour's gods nor the garlands that accompanied these offerings" [[1]:70]. Therefore, as a rejection of their neighbours' "idolatry", they did not display flowers or plants at their ceremonies. In modern times Orthodox Jews do not use flowers in ceremonies, synagogues, cemeteries or even in houses [[1]:46–47]. Vickery [[5]:187] mentioned "In communities where burial takes place very soon after death, as is the case with Orthodox Jews, flowers are rarely associated with mourning, and the substitutes are mainly stones". While Goody [[1]:46–47] stated "Down today one finds stones not flowers in the cemetery, and then as reminder rather than offering". Secular Jews bring garlands of flowers and leave them on the tombs, but the ultra-religious are forbidden to plant any plant or flower upon graves [[8]: IIV; 34–35].
Interestingly, several authors [9–11] dealing with Muslim funeral customs, don't mentioned any ceremonial use of plants of any kind. While Spoer and Spoer [[12]:131] mentioned that "sweet smelling herbs" are placed on graves in Palestine.
The present article is a survey of the plants ritually used in Muslim graveyards of in northern Israel in the context of their cultural and ethnobotanical background.
The field study (1999–2005) was carried out in 35 Muslim villages in northern Israel, mainly in the Galilee. Field observations included recording plant species in the graveyards. Oral interviews were held with 80 informants, 48 who are cited personally (Appendix 1). The average age of the informants was 59.3 (SD = 18.1) years. Respondents were 41 males and seven females. In general women were reluctant to be interviewed, and when they agreed the interview was held in the presence of other family members.
The informants were mainly chosen according to their knowledge of common traditions and/or religious status. In each village we made a preliminary survey to locate people who are regarded as well immersed in local traditions and/or in religious customs.
The informants were asked about the ritual and religious importance of the plants found in the cemeteries, and why they were planted there. We used interview techniques to avoid a non spontaneous atmosphere and to overcome the reluctance of the informants to cooperate, Most informants refused to be videotaped or tape recorded. The botanical survey covered 40 cemeteries. We tried to avoid modern irrigated plots, on which many ornamental plants are grown. Cemeteries older than 50 years were considered "traditional". For each cemetery we listed the 20 most common plant species. Two parameters were calculated for each plant species: frequency (percentage of cemeteries in which the plant species appears) and dominance (percentage of cemeteries in which the species is the most common one).
We divided the list of recorded plants and the oral information gathered at the cemeteries into three categories based on the botanical characters of the plants: 1. Plants with aromatic leaves (Table 1); 2. White-flowered plants (Table 2) and 3. Trees and bushes (Table 3). These categories were found to correlate, more or less, with oral ethnobotanical evidence.
Table 1 Plants used in graveyards – aromatic plants.
Table 2 Plants used in graveyards – white-flowered plants.
Table 3 Plants used in graveyards – trees and shrubs.
Aromatic plants
Data concerning the presence of aromatic plants in the surveyed cemeteries are presented in Table 1. The following points emerge:
1. On average, 6.0 (SD = 4.3; range 0–14) aromatic species were present in each cemetery.
2. Half of the recorded species were members of the family Lamiaceae.
3. Only one cemetery had no aromatic plant.
4. The most frequent as well as dominant species in cemeteries was Salvia fruticosa and the second was Rosmarinus officinalis.
5. In 18 cemeteries wreaths of aromatic plants were placed on the fresh graves at the funeral and/or during later visits (especially Salvia and Ocimum).
6. The presence of wild aromatic plants in the nearby natural habitats did not correlate with species diversity of such species on graves. In fact, 66% of the aromatic species in cemeteries were not indigenous.
7. In the traditional cemeteries all the plants were perennial, only recently the adoption of irrigation systems allows maintenance of annuals such as basil (Ocimum).
8. In the old traditional cemeteries (mostly abandoned or neglected today) S. fruticosa and R. officinalis were almost the only aromatic species present.
In attempt to uncover the possible role of Salvia fruticosa's use in funerals and cemeteries informants were asked "Why is S. fruticosa used in funerals and planted at graves?". We received the following answers (Bold number in parenthesis indicates the informant identity, see Appendix 1):
1. "The angels like a good odour and come to the fragrant plants, and they also transfer the prayers to the dead" (7). "We place Salvia in cemeteries because it gives a good odour. When a person is deceased the angels come to visit him and they like good odour – that is why we put Salvia there" (7, 8, 16, 19). This note is related to the common belief that angels go to judge the dead person in his grave [[10]:74; [11] passim; [12]:130,134].
2. "Fragrant plants are planted in cemeteries to counteract the unpleasant smell; we have to recall because the burial was superficial" (15). "For a good odour in the cemetery" (17, 28, 33, 36, 38, 41, 43, 49).
3. "We put Salvia on graves because it gives medicine, "barakeh" (a divine blessing) and good odour" (11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 20, 21, 24, 29). "Because it is a blessed and sacred plant that gives good odour and it is healing" (15, 21, 25, 26, 34, 43, 44).
4. "Because it is evergreen and has a good odour" (26, 30, 40).
5. "As a token of honour and appreciation for the deceased" (9, 24, 39).
6. "Because of its good odour, beauty, and medicinal power "(20, 31, 35, 48).
7. "It has fragrance; it is a beloved and respected plant. It accompanies man during all stages of his life" (15, 18, 32, 33).
8. "We purify the dead with Salvia and for good odour" (10, 38).
9. "It expels the Satan and the evil eyes" (7, 19, 23, 33, 45, 47, 48).
10. "There is justice in this plant" (34).
11. "For the blessing of the dead" (48).
Three-Lobed Sage (Salvia fruticosa) has an important role in daily rituals in the Muslim life-cycle in Israel and today it accompanies each person as a main ritual plant from birth to death:
1. When an infant is born he is placed on a bed of fresh leaves of three-lobed sage, and the mother drinks three-lobed sage tea (1, 7, 15, 24, 34, 37). When infant is born a ceremony called mauled is performed. A sheep is slaughtered and all the friends and the relatives are invited. The Sheikh arrives and reads chapters from the Quran. A substantial number of three-lobed sage leaves are mixed with barley and placed on a tray near the Sheikh. The Sheikh reads the (appropriate) chapter and each of the guests takes a fistful of the mixture in a small packet. At home this mixture is used to prepare an incense against evil eye and demons; it is placed on burning coals and then the house is blessed with a good fragrance and the demons are expelled (1,12, 27).
2. At every wedding, and any other family feast, incense of three-lobed sage leaves is placed on burning coals. It is used against evil eye and to expel demons (1, 2, 18, 27).
3. Garlands of three-lobed sage for incense are left at the graves of saintly people as well as in front of sacred trees, for the private use of the visitors who pray and burn incense in honour of the holy man (A. Dafni personal observations).
4. Garlands of three-lobed sage are used in funerals and also placed at graves; the dead body is placed on a layer of fresh three-lobed sage leaves (2, 24, 34, 42).
One informant (15) summarized the importance of three-lobed sage in the daily local ritual: "By placing three-lobed sage on the graves, a connection is sustained from birth to death", while another person (27) said "The three-lobed sage accompanies man in all stages of his life".
White-flowered plants
Data concerning the presence of white flowered flowers species in the surveyed cemeteries are presented in Table 2. We report the the following trends:
1. White flowers are more common in old traditional cemeteries, some of which are abandoned or neglected today.
2. The commonest white-flowered plants in traditional graveyards are Iris spp.
3. Today the most common plants in new cemeteries are Narcissus tazetta and Urginea maritima.
4. White flowered species are usually taken from the local nearby vegetation. Pancratium maritimum may be found in cemeteries along the seashore, which is their original habitat, while Pancratium parviflorum is evident in cemeteries near calcareous habitats, in which it grows naturally.
5. Narcissus tazetta (and other white cultivars) and Iris spp. are scattered without any clear geographic or ecological pattern.
6. Asphodelus ramosus is quite rare as a graveyard plant.
7. All the species in this group are perennial geophytes, which need no cultivation.
When we asked the informants "Why are white flowers planted on graves?" we received the following answers:
1. "White flowers are signs of "something good" (26).
2. "White is the way to Paradise" (28).
3. "White flowers are pure like the soul of the deceased" (4). "The white colour a sign that a man is pure and clean" (10).
4. "The white flower recalls the colour that characterizes the Haj, white colour is beloved by God, and white colour will erase the deceased's sins" (7).
5. "Because of the beauty, and to honour the deceased.... white colour .... A bride wears white, every dead person is wrapped in white cloth, the pilgrims to Mecca wear identical white clothes to show that all are equal" (8).
6. "White colour is the colour of birth (the baby is wrapped in a white cloth), of a wedding (the bride's dress), and of death (the white shroud)...life commenced with white and ended with white (27).
7. "The white flower recalls the colour of the pilgrim's garment ...white is preferred by God and will redeem the dead person" (34).
8. In this connection we heard the following story "A king had a lovely daughter. One day the daughter was violated, and a girl who disguised herself a boy was accused of the rape. When the head of the accused girl was cut off, her real identity was disclosed and the people regretted their deed. Zambak (a general name for white flowers like Lilium, Iris and Pancratium) flowers were planted on the daughter's grave. Because the raped daughter had acquiesced to the violation she was buried and a carob tree (which is regarded as a 'bad tree') was planted over her grave" (5).
Data concerning the presence of trees and bushes in the surveyed cemeteries are presented in Table 3. From our observations and Table 3 we can conclude:
1. Cypress is the most frequent (68.9%) as well as the only dominant plant (20.6%). It is planted especially as a fence round cemeteries and also between graves. In old traditional cemeteries, cypress is almost the only tree.
2. Palms and olives are planted among graves and branches of both species are frequently placed on fresh graves. An interesting feature is the abundance of palm branches placed on tombs on 'Id el-fitr (the feast at the end of Ramadan).
3. Ziziphus spina christi is not planted but is a component of the natural vegetation.
4. Several species of cultivated fruit trees are planted today in cemeteries (e.g. pomegranate, oranges, almonds, mulberry, and loquat); at present it is hard to see any pattern in this trend.
5. In one Bedouin village (Arab al Aramshe, 40–43), branches of Laurus nobilis are placed on graves.
6. In one Village (Akhbara), young shoots of Myrtus communis are placed on fresh graves (46–48, and our personal observations). In this village myrtle is grown commercially for the Jewish religious market for use at the Tabernacle Festival.
The following answers were given, by the informants, to our question, "Why are trees planted in graveyards?"
1. "Shrubs and trees are planted on graveyards to create a connection between the deceased and his God" (21).
2. "Each tree protects the grave because it is green – a protection against evil events" (18).
3. "Every planted tree on a grave is praising the merciful god, on behalf of the deceased, all the time" (27).
4. "Green trees reduced the punishments inside the grave" (39).
Discussion and conclusion
The custom to put aromatic plants in cemeteries is deep-rooted in human history (Table 1). One may point out three reasons for the use of aromatic plants in cemeteries as well as in funerals.
1: Seaton [[13]:11] explained the use of aromatic as follows" Flowers, especially aromatic ones, played a hygienic role in handling of the dead in those days before embalming. While according to others: "Aromatic herbs and strongly scented flowers may suggest the original use of funeral flowers... to mask the odour of decaying flesh" [[5]:186–187]. " Aromatic herbs and strongly scented flowers were invariably used to hide the odour of decay in the days when the dead were laid out, often several days, in private houses before burial" [[14]:101] see also [[4]:189] concerning Wales, [[15]:428] for England and [[16]:47] for ancient Greece, Rome and Arabia). In Iraq and Iran the Christian sect of the Mandaeans used to smell sweet smelling flowers "so that the smell of death shall not reach them" [[17]:183]. The Armenians in Constantinople would plant Turpentine Terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus L.) on graves and use the aromatic resins to mask the smell from the graves [[18]:67]. It is noteworthy that in Rome perfumes were used in funerals for the same purpose [[19]:286]. Our findings corroborate this general trend.
2. De Cleene and Lejeune [[20]: I: 647] explain the use of rosemary in funerals: "It was in fact...that its aroma conserved the dead body and that its evergreen leaves guaranteed immortality. Since incense was expensive, there was a preference for the aromatic Rosemary in religious ceremonies in antiquity, especially burial" (see also [[21]: 89; [22]:315]).
3. The main aromatic plants have a special ritual importance throughout the human rites of passage, from birth through weddings to the grave.
To summarize the informants' views on S. fruticosa one may recognize the respect devoted to these specific plant as an important medicinal, as well as a ritual plant that accompanied man from birth to death. The informants indicated the special reverence to S. fruticosa as a blessed plant beyond its physical qualities. There were some nuances and different views among the informants, but all expressed the high importance of this plant in daily life. Hardly any cemetery is devoid of the prevalence of this species (Table 1).
Rosemary has been very common in Europe as a funeral plant since ancient times [[20], II: 645–647; [22]:315–316] and was used at weddings as well [[5]:364; [20], I:647–648], the explanation given is "It may seem surprising to learn that the plant's symbolism is linked to birth, sexual capacity and death". The reason for this is probably to be found in the belief that this aromatic plant keeps at bay evil spirits, which might otherwise exercise their harmful influence at life's important rites of passage (birth, marriage, and death) [[23]:191–192].
Several species of basil, especially "tulsi" (Ocimum sanctum L.), are regarded as the most sacred plants in the Hindu religion and therefore Basil is found in almost every Hindu house throughout India. The leaves are used for different ceremonies as: births, and weddings, sacred rituals, as well as in funerals [[24]:44–45; [25]:34–35; [26]:38–39].
Zohary and Grebel [[27]:613–614] noted the ritual role of the myrtle as a funeral as well as a wedding plant in Europe. In Judaism it is well known as a wedding plant (Jerusalem Talmud, Peah, 1: 15, and 4). In our survey we found that myrtle is commonly planted in graveyards (Table 1.) but only in one village young shoots are placed directly on the graves.
White flowered plants
White flowers are used in cemeteries and funeral due to the following reasons:
1. The white colour is a symbol of purity. According to Puckle [[2]:169] the fact that white flowers are almost exclusively used at funerals reminds us that they are a special token of purity. Our informants stressed the role of white colour as a symbol of purity and the rites of passage in human life as a reason why white flowers are planted on graves. Crowfoot and Baldensperger [[28]:126] recorded a story that clarifies this trend. An innocent girl from the village of Artas (in the Judean Mountains) was killed by her brother, who claimed that she had brought the family fame into disrepute. A white flower, "as it were the flower of gourd plant climbing upwards", grew on her grave and all the people of the village and the area knew and said it is because she was innocent. We found a similar story, which reaffirms the popular belief that white flowers are emblem of the purity of the deceased. White flowers were frequently used for funerals and as graveyard plants in Europe [[29]:157; [30]:220–221, 228, 253]. In German folklore the soul was supposed to take the form of a flower, such as a lily or a white rose. White lilies are said to spring from the grave of one unjustly executed as a token of the person's innocence [[31]:12]. In Britain white flowers are "funeral flowers" and must not be brought indoor [[32]:63].
Although the Madonna Lily (Lilium candidum L.) was not found in our survey it is worth mentioning in this context. The lily was popular among the Greeks and Romans, and was dedicated by the Christian Church to the Madonna, probably because its delicate whiteness was considered a symbol of purity [[33]:482].
According to De Cleene and Lejeune [[20], II: 324] the lily became a flower of death, graves, and the churchyard in Europe. It is preferably planted on the graves of children and virgins. As a grave flower it also symbolizes love, which transcends death. According to our survey the lily is apparently a "Christian plant" and not used by the Muslims for any ritual uses. As a wild plant it is very rare locally, although the cultivated species is quite common in Christian monasteries. Lily images can be found in Christian cemeteries engraved on gravestones (e.g. the Templar Cemeteries in Haifa as well as in Jerusalem: A. Dafni (Personal observations 20.4.2004 and 13.6.2004 respectively), as in Christian graves in the States [[34]:283–284].
2. Old myths related to the underworld – In the Greek Mythology narcissus is related to the underworld. Gaia, to please Hades, made the narcissus (Narcissus poeticus L.) grow so that its sweet perfume would entice Persephone, the daughter of Demeter into the underworld. This myth, in association with the scent of the narcissus, goes back the custom that has persisted to modern times of bedecking the dead and their graves with these flowers [[21]:68–69; [35]:248]. When the dead went into the presence of the gods of the underworld, they carried crowns of narcissus that those who mourned had placed in their white hands when the last good-byes were said [[37]:148].
Asphodel was mentioned in Homer [[38]; xi, 539, 543; xxiv, 13] as growing in the meadows of the land of departed [[21]:65]. The Greeks also planted asphodel round their graves, as the fleshy roots of these plants were supposed to nourish the dead [[1]:191; [31]:157].
Iris accompanied the souls of mortals to their rest along a path made by the rainbow, whose iridescent colours the iris possesses [[21]:64–65].
The Sea Squill is very common especially in old cemeteries as a connection to God as "messengers of the praying to the dead" (owing to its very deep roots). One of the local names basl el maytin (bulb of the dead) reflects this popular belief [[39]:295–296; [40]:87], it is also called "basl el makbara" (the cemetery's bulb, 18, 25).
3. White is the Muslim colour of mourning – This explains the occurrence of irises from Spain to Kashmir [[21]:64–65] as well as in North Africa (S. Jury, University of Reading, Pers. Comm. 18.10.05)., as we already found.
4. Symbol of repentance – In Britain roses (usually white), rue, hyssop, thyme, or wormwood, all considered symbolic of repentance, and were arranged on coffins [[5]:184–185].
Some trees and shrubs are planted in graveyards due the following reasons:
1. Evergreen plants – These shrubs and trees are symbol of eternity, according to Puckle [[2]:167], (see also [[42]:182] for cypress). The ongoing custom of planting certain kinds of trees in graveyards is due to their appearance, which by association promotes their use as symbols of immutable grief. Myrtle was regarded to have "sombre appearance" [[2]:99] and cypress as "dark and gloomy...to express sorrow [[58]:18]. Cypress was planted in cemeteries also because its dark green branches [[43]:154; [52]:194]
Evergreen trees were carried at funerals as a symbol of the soul's immortality. Jenner [[43]:154] mentioned "...the cypresses. From its not losing its leaves in wind it has adopted as the image of the just man who preserved his virtue.... In this significance it was placed on gravestones...from its dark and sombre colouring it has been used as a symbol of mourning and death, and it is almost universally used in cemeteries ".
In England until the 19th century mourners customarily followed the corpse to the grave carrying rosemary, ivy, laurel, and other evergreens as a sign of immortality [[14]:102]. According to Maurin [[44]:196] evergreen foliage in cemeteries is held in contrast to the decay of the body. Folkard [[4]:189] noted "the belief in a future existence doubtless led to the custom of planting trees on tombs, especially the cypress, which was regarded as typical both of life and death. The tree growing over the grave, one can easily imagine, was looked upon by the ancients as an emblem of the soul departed become immortal".
The Greeks considered the myrtle a symbol of love and immortality, due to its evergreen character [[2]:167; [20]: 2003 I: 442; [37]:144].
2. Triumphal species – Laurel and date palm were use in Europe at funerals to "symbolize victory over adversity in life" [[45]:191], (see also [[2]:99; [20]: I; 129; [46]: 375]). In many cultures the date palm is a symbol of military victory and eternal fame. In funeral wreaths the palm is a mark of honour for the deceased. This wreath also symbolizes triumph over death [[2]:168; [20]: II: 213]. In later Greek mythology date palm is closely associated with Apollo and his twin sister Artemis as well as Athena. Therefore the date palm often appears as a symbol of light and victory [[35]: 48ff]. Cypress is frequently represented on ancient gravestones [[47]:13]. The unusual combination of cypress branches with palm fronds represents the triumph over death [[20]: II: 401]. Today, on Mount Kackar (North-eastern Turkey), there are depictions of the cypress tree on tombstones of men (A. Dafni personal observations).
3. Remnants of tree worship – Puckle [[2]:165] related trees in cemeteries to tree worship. Planting certain trees in the churchyard and cemetery is an almost a universal custom. In Israel tree worship is still widespread, and many of the trees are associated with graveyards and are especially venerated (50, 51, 52, [[48–50], passim]).
4. Trees are mentioned in religious scripture – Ziziphus spina christi (L.) Desf. has a special role as a cemetery tree due to its being mentioned in the Quran (LIII: 13–18; LVI: 28–32) under the name of "lote tree" [[51]:65–74] and, accordingly, this species is highly respected by the Muslims through the Middle East [[50]: passim]. In several countries [[50] and references therein] the bodies of dead Muslims were washed with water in which the leaves of Ziziphus spina – christi were soaked. That is the reason why this species is kept in cemeteries.
The olive is highly praised locally as a "blessed tree" (al-shajart al-mubraka) and is mentioned several times in the Quran [[51]:34–39], in North Africa people say that the olive "looks towards heaven to praise God" and a cut, of even unproductive twigs hearted their deep religious feelings [[52]:512–513].
The date palm has notable religious importance in Islam [[51]:22–27] everyone who has performed the Haj pilgrimage decorates the entrance to his house with an "arch" of palm fronds. Anyone entering the house has to pass under these branches. Palm branches are carried in front of every Muslim funeral procession (in Palestine) and later laid over the grave. Four such branches are put into the ground, one at each corner of the tomb, in such a way that their tops touch each other. Often these branches are interwoven with flowers. It is a common belief that as long as they remain green the deceased is able to praise God. In this way God partly, or wholly, forgives the deceased for his misdeeds in life. Many tombstones have small palm branches engraved on them [[53]:153]. Graves are copiously adorned with palm fronds by visitors to cemeteries during festivals such as Id El Fitr at the end of the Ramadan (A. Dafni Acre, Oct. 2004, personal observation).
5. The trees do not regenerate after cutting – Scholars have explained the mourning symbolism of cypress by the fact that it does not send up new shoots after having been cut [[54]:192].
6. Relation to the underworld – The cypress, called by Greeks and Romans alike "the mournful tree", was also sacred to the rulers of the underworld, and to their associates, the Fates and the Furies. Accordingly it was customary to plant it by the grave, and, in the event of a death, to place it either before the house or in the vestibule, to warn those about to perform a sacred rite against entering a place polluted by a dead body [[47]:39;55:XVI, 60; [56]: IV, 507;]. According to Ovid [[57], X: 106–142], this tree was named after Kyparissos, Apollo's favourite. This young boy accidentally slew his beloved stag. The boy was struck with such anguish that he besought the gods to doom his life to everlasting gloom. They, in compliance, transformed him into a cypress tree.
7. Mythical powers – In Antiquity the laurel was seen as physically and morally purifying [[45]: 288–290,293,302]. Laurel was used in funeral rites as an attempt to preserve the continued vitality and strength of the Roman people because it is an emblem of prosperity and agricultural productivity [[3]:107–108].
In conclusion, our findings on the occurrence of plants in graveyards reflect the geographic situation of Israel as a crossroads in the cultural arena between Asia and Europe. Most of the traditions are common to the whole Middle East showing high relatedness to the Greco-Roman as well as to the present-day Europe.
As endemic tradition we can indicate the essential role of S. fruticosa as the main plant used at all human rites of passage symbolizing the human life cycle. Rosemary is of European origin while the use of basil is of Indian influence.
The use of white flowers as cemetery plants may reflect an old European influence and almost the same species are used or their congeners.
The cypress is the main Muslim cemetery' tree as in ancient as well as modern European cultures. The date palm and the olive, the next most prevalent trees in cemeteries, reflect the status of these two species in the Quran as blessed trees.
List of the cited informants.
The number after the name indicates the age of the informant followed by the name of village and the date of the interview.
Shukri Araf, 62, Maeelia, 26.6.00.
Hamud Jaudat, 30, Kabul, 18.8.00.
Zaher Mahra, 40, Acre, 20.8.00,
*Amana Halifi, 63, Iblin, 1.12.00.
Sheikh Hussien Shahin, 70, Beit Jan, 12.9.00.
* Amana Izat Abu el Heija, 73, Kaukab Abu el Heija, 03.07.03,
Raja Taha, 54, Deir Hana, 31.12.03.
Abbas Mustafa Daud, 82, Dabburieyh, 7.1.04.
Jafar Muhammed Sbeikhi, 58, Shibli, 22.1.04
Adel Abu Hamid, 57, Kafr Manda, 3.6.04
Jafar Muhammed Sbeikhi, Shibli, 67, 22.1. 04.
Araf Farooki, 65, Tamra, 2.8.04.
Ali El Anan-Abu Khaled, 67, Salame, 2.8.04
Makhmud Awad, 68, Tamra, 2.8.04.
Abbas Mustafa Daud, 82, Tamra, 2.8.04.
Raja El-Hatib, 62, Dier Hana, 02.08.04
Tamir Fallakh Mazarib, 35, Mazarib (Beit Zarzir), 11.8.04.
Abu Ma'aruf, 75, Bueina-Nujeidat, 16.8.04.
Abu Razze, 95, Bueina-Nujeidat, 16.8.04.
*Hadi Samiyeh, 90, Mazra'a, 24.8.04
Sheikh Akhmed-Abu Ammar, 54, Majdal Kurum 28.8.04.
Jamil Abu Raeed Arafat, 71, Mesh'hed, 23.9.04.
Abu Khaled Ali El Anan, 67, Salame, 2.9.04
Jamil Shibli, Shibli, 34, 1.11.04.
Makhmud Kmeidi Abu Ikhia, 57, Shibli, 1.11.04.
Makhmud Maslaha-Abu Karem, 57, Daburrieyh, 11.11.04
Mukhamed Taher, 65, Rumana, 23.11.04
Mukhamed Ali Fukra, 58, Bueina-Nujeidat, 23.11.04
Yusuf Nimmr Massar-Abu Lutuf, 67, Sakhnin, 1.1.05,
Muhana Dalashi, 61, Bueina, 1.1.05
Nasser Khalil, 68, Sakhnin, 1.1.05
Abdaala Ahab, 60, Shibli, 3.1.05.
Salman Shibli, 46, Shibli, 3.1.05
*Na'amaeh Mukhamad Iktilat, 40, Daburieh, 3.1.05.
Ahmed Abu Rakhman Iktilat, 82, Daburieh, 3.1.05
Sami Salman Shibli, 31, Daburieh, 1.3.05.
Abed Zuabi, 61, Taibe, 28.1.05
Ali Zuabi, 30, Taibe, 28.1.05)
Mustafa Daud, 56, Shibli, 12.3.05
Abdalla Taha, 62, Shibli 12.3.05
Fathi Ali,, 55, Arab el Aramshe, 22.3.05
Wakhid Ali, 32, Arab el Aramshe, 22.3.05
Wahib Ali, 20, Arab el Aramshe, 22.3.05
*Rukkiah Maghis, 50, Jordikh, 22.3.05
*Umm Ommar, 75, Jordikh, 22, 3.05
Akhmed Khaled Khleikhel, 63, Akbara, 28.3.05
*Zahara um Mukhmed Khleikhel, 80, Akbara, 28.3.05
Sa'eed Makhmud Khsein Khleikhel, 80, Akbara, 28.3.05
* = Female
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This article is dedicated to all the informants who shared their knowledge with us. The authors would like to express their deepest thanks to Moris Tsemach, Salman Abu Rukan, and Shay Levy for field assistance, and to Prof. Beryl Simpson, Prof. Peter Bernhard, Dr. Idith Fintel-Ginsberg, Dr. Frangiska Megaloudi, Toby Gish, Ron Gish, Marcia Forg and Nimrod Manor for their comments on the various drafts of this paper.
Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
Amots Dafni
Department of Eretz Israel Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
Efraim Lev
Vigla Panagias, 72100 Agios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece
Sabine Beckmann
Department of Organismic Biology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria
Christian Eichberger
Search for Amots Dafni in:
Search for Efraim Lev in:
Search for Sabine Beckmann in:
Search for Christian Eichberger in:
Correspondence to Amots Dafni.
Dafni, A., Lev, E., Beckmann, S. et al. Ritual plants of Muslim graveyards in northern Israel. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 2, 38 (2006) doi:10.1186/1746-4269-2-38
Aromatic Plant
Dead Person
Sacred Tree


text:
Общата хълбочна артерия () се намира на нивото на IV поясен прешлен и представлява разклонение на коремната аорта. Последната се разделя на два значително дебели клона - лява и дясна обща хълбочна артерия. След отделянето си от коремната аорта тези два клона се насочват встрани и надолу, достигат до съответната кръстцово-хълбочна става и всеки от тях се разделя на следните два подклона:
 Вътрешна хълбочна артерия (arteria iliaca interna).
 Външна хълбочна артерия (arteria iliaca externa).

Вижте също
 Артерия

Артерии

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Q: Undefined Control sequences \rowcolors Getting errors with alternating rows saying undefined control sequences. Any help please!
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{xcolor}
\usepackage{booktabs}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\begin{document}

\begin{table}
    \captionsetup{font={footnotesize}}
    \caption{List of localities}
    \label{table2}
    \scriptsize
    \centering
    \rowcolors[]{1}{white}{cyan}
    \begin{threeparttable}
         \begin{tabularx}{\textwidth}{@{\extracolsep{\fill}}l c |l c | l c}
         \specialrule{.2em}{.1em}{.1em}
         %\textbf{Locality} &
         %\multicolumn{3}{c}{\textbf{Countries}\tnote{\textasteriskcentered}} \\
         %\cmidrule(lr){1-3}
        \textbf{G} & \textbf{Population size} & \textbf{L} & \textbf{Population size} & \textbf{SL} & \textbf{Population size} \\

       \specialrule{.2em}{.1em}{.1em}
       Upper Guinea     & $4,308,494$ & Northern  & $2,233,091$ & & $4,976,871$ \\
       Middle Guinea    & $2,670,567$ & Southern & $1,243,517$ &  & \\
       Lower Guinea     & $3,649,911$ &  &  &  &  \\
       \specialrule{.2em}{.1em}{.1em}
       Total & $10,628,972$ &  & $3,476,608$ &  & $4,976,871$ \\
       \specialrule{.2em}{.1em}{.1em}
\end{tabularx}

\begin{tablenotes}[para]
    \tiny
    \item[\textdagger]
    \tiny Data.
\end{tablenotes}

\end{threeparttable}

\end{table}
\end{document}

A: You have to use \usepackage[table]{xcolor} instead of \usepackage{xcolor}. Second since you use tabularx, better use X column and get rid of \extracolsep.
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[table]{xcolor}
\usepackage{booktabs}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{caption}
\usepackage{threeparttable}
\usepackage{tabularx}
\begin{document}

\begin{table}[htb]
\captionsetup{font=footnotesize}
\caption{List of localities}
\label{table2}
\scriptsize
\centering
\rowcolors[]{1}{white}{cyan}
\begin{threeparttable}
\begin{tabularx}{\textwidth}{X c |X c | X c}
\specialrule{.2em}{.1em}{.1em}

%\textbf{Locality} &

%\multicolumn{3}{c}{\textbf{Countries}\tnote{\textasteriskcentered}} \\

%\cmidrule(lr){1-3}

\textbf{G} & \textbf{Population size} & \textbf{L} & \textbf{Population size} & \textbf{S
L} & \textbf{Population size} \\

\specialrule{.2em}{.1em}{.1em}
 Upper Guinea   & $4,308,494$ & Northern  & $2,233,091$ & & $4,976,871$ \\

 Middle Guinea  & $2,670,567$ & Southern & $1,243,517$ &  & \\
 Lower Guinea   & $3,649,911$ &  &  &  &  \\

\specialrule{.2em}{.1em}{.1em}

Total & $10,628,972$ &  & $3,476,608$ &  & $4,976,871$ \\

\specialrule{.2em}{.1em}{.1em}
\end{tabularx}

\begin{tablenotes}[para]

            \tiny

      \item[\textdagger]
            \tiny Data.
\end{tablenotes}

\end{threeparttable}

\end{table}
\end{document}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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All limited copies of this vinyl of Moon Beams will be signed by Awon with a message to the purchaser unless stated otherwise. The vinyl version also features the instrumentals from the project.
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Planet Earth is feeling the heat. Temperatures are rising and current projections say that 9.6 billion of us will inhabit the planet by 2050. And with climate change already taking a toll on crops, fresh water supplies, and other critical resources, many wonder how we will manage to feed an increasingly hot and hungry planet. Journalist Lisa Palmer has traveled the world documenting the innovations of people and organizations on the front lines of fighting the food gap. She shares those stories in her new book, "Hot, Hungry Planet: The Fight to Stop a Global Food Crisis in the Face of Climate Change." That's the focus of this edition of Wilson Center NOW.


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Over the past 21 days, the trend for APPF's stories per day has been choppy and unclear. It has oscillated between 1 and 2.
CITE and JBL are the most mentioned tickers in articles about APPF.
Latest APPF News From Around the Web
Below are the latest news stories about APPFOLIO INC that investors may wish to consider to help them evaluate APPF as an investment opportunity.
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Award-winning software now helps enable asset managers to drive new efficiencies and implement scalable data-driven insightsSANTA BARBARA, Calif., Feb. 02, 2023 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- AppFolio, Inc. (NASDAQ:APPF), a leading provider of cloud business management solutions for the real estate industry, today announced AppFolio Alpha™, an AI-powered investment management solution designed to provide an all-in-one experience that automatically aggregates, normalizes, and visualizes key property managem
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AppFolio, Inc. (NASDAQ:APPF) Q4 2022 Earnings Call Transcript
AppFolio, Inc. (NASDAQ:APPF) Q4 2022 Earnings Call Transcript January 26, 2023 Operator: Good afternoon, and thank you for standing by and welcome to the AppFolio, Inc.'s Fourth Quarter 2022 Financial Results Conference Call. Please be advised today's conference is being recorded and a replay will be available on AppFolio's Investor Relations website. I would now […]
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AppFolio (APPF) delivered earnings and revenue surprises of 61.54% and 6.03%, respectively, for the quarter ended December 2022. Do the numbers hold clues to what lies ahead for the stock?
AppFolio, Inc. Announces Fourth Quarter and Fiscal Year 2022 Financial Results
Revenue grows 31% in 2022 SANTA BARBARA, Calif., Jan. 26, 2023 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- AppFolio, Inc. (NASDAQ: APPF) ("AppFolio" or the "Company"), a leading provider of cloud business management solutions for the real estate industry, today announced its financial results for the fourth quarter and fiscal year ended December 31, 2022. "AppFolio continued to show resilience in the changing real estate industry with 2022 revenue growth of 31%. Not only did we successfully grow our payments business,
2023 AppFolio Property Manager Benchmark Report: Growth Outlook Is Positive Among Property Management Organizations Despite Broader Economic Challenges
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AppFolio, Inc. Announces Date of Fourth Quarter and Year Ended 2022 Financial Results Conference Call
SANTA BARBARA, Calif., Jan. 12, 2023 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- AppFolio, Inc. (NASDAQ: APPF) today announced that it will report its fourth quarter and year ended 2022 financial results after the close of the U.S. financial markets on Thursday, January 26, 2023. In conjunction with this announcement, AppFolio will host a conference call on Thursday, January 26, 2023, at 5:00 p.m. (Eastern Time), to discuss the company's financial results and business outlook. A live webcast of the call will be availab
Even though AppFolio (NASDAQ:APPF) has lost US$231m market cap in last 7 days, shareholders are still up 169% over 5 years
The worst result, after buying shares in a company (assuming no leverage), would be if you lose all the money you put...
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'Sloppy, bad, false data': Tenant-screening reports used by landlords can include outdated or incorrect information, CFPB says
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Вера Лоузер (урожд. Адриан; ; род. 28 октября 1993, Виндхук, Намибия) — намибийская профессиональная шоссейная велогонщица. Она представляла свою страну на Играх Содружества 2014 и 2018 годов, а также на летних Олимпийских играх 2016 года. Десять раз, в том числе девять лет подряд в период с 2014 по 2022 год, становилась чемпионкой Намибии в групповой гонке и семь раз в индивидуальной гонке.

Биография

Достижения

См. также
 Крейвен, Дэн

Примечания

Ссылки

Велогонщики на летних Олимпийских играх 2020 года


- How you can access and update your information.
We are Rainbow Living, registered charity number 1116067.
Rainbow Living is a Devon-based charity with a strong Christian ethos. We are a volunteer-run charity which supports adults with disabilities, mainly learning disability, by providing accommodation to enable tenants to live with their peers as independently as possible in supported living. We have three Rainbow Houses in Devon.
Rainbow Living's appointed Data Controller is Christopher Eggins (Email: chris@rainbowliving.org.uk) and Janet Raeburn is the charity's Data Processor (Email: janet@rainbowliving.org.uk).
Personal data means any information that may be used to identify you, such as your name, telephone number, postal and email addresses, and your bank details if you are supporting us financially.
- Where it is necessary for our legitimate interests relating to running our daily operations, as long as, in each case, these interests are in line with applicable law and your legal rights and freedoms.
- To inform individuals of news, events, and activities in the pursuance of Rainbow Living's objectives.
- To process gift aid donations.
If you support us, for example, by signing up to an event, donating, signing up to Gift Aid, or signing up to a campaign, we will usually collect your name, contact details, and whether you would like to be contacted, and how we would do so. If appropriate, we may also ask to collect your date of birth, financial details, Gift Aid eligibility, or reasons for support.
We collect this data so we can keep you up to date with information you have requested, or may be interested in, and to ask for more support, in the way that you have chosen; to run our events; and to fulfil our legal responsibilities for financial and Gift Aid reporting.
We collect information from you if you contact us with an enquiry or submit a 'Contact Us' form on our website. The information we collect may include your name and email address, and any other information that you provide to enable us to respond to your enquiry. The information we collect will only be used by Rainbow Living. On our website we will never ask you for personal data; if you enter postal address or phone number into our online form, we may use these details to contact you, unless you ask us not to.
We use a third-party provider, Mailchimp, to deliver our e-newsletters. We collect statistics around email opening and clicks using industry standard technologies. For more information, please see Mailchimp's privacy notice.
We will never sell your information to any third party organisations, and we will not share your personal information for others to use in their marketing or fundraising.
For our tenants, we may have to share some sensitive data, for example with a care provider, in order to undertake our charitable activities; this is done with the consent of the individual tenant, witnessed by a parent/guardian where applicable in an easy to read format.
In all other respects, unless we are required to share your data for legal or regulatory reasons, to help with a complaint, or to administer a Gift in Will, we will never share your data with other organisations.
We do use third-party organisations to help us collect donations, such as JustGiving and MyDonate. Where we use external companies to collect or process data on our behalf, we ensure that the company has put in place contracts to control how they manage the data they may collect or have access to, and we make sure that your data is treated with the same level of care as if we were handling it directly.
We ensure that the most appropriate technical controls are in placed to keep your data safely. Access to your data is regularly reviewed and only accessible to relevant trained staff, volunteers and contractors.
Christopher Eggins ensures that Rainbow Living complies with its obligations under (the GDPR) by keeping personal data up to date; by storing and destroying it securely; by not collecting or retaining excessive amounts of data; by protecting personal data from loss, misuse, unauthorised access and disclosure, and by ensuring that appropriate technical measures are in place to protect personal data.
We ensure there are appropriate technical controls in place to protect your personal details. We regularly review the information that we hold, and delete anything that is no longer required, and we regularly review who has access to information that we hold.
If you are a tenant living in a Rainbow Living property, we will keep your personal data for as long you remain a tenant.
All other information is held for as long as you have an active relationship with Rainbow Living or until you withdraw your consent for us to do so (see below).
Rainbow Living does not anticipate it will transfer data abroad. If the personal data is to be transferred to countries or territories outside the UK, we will inform you how the data will be protected, together with details of how to obtain copies of the relevant safeguards.
Rainbow Living does not anticipate there will be automated decision making. If Rainbow Living engages in any automated decision making then details of the automated decision making, together with information about the logic involved and the significance and consequences of the processing for the individual, will be made known to you.
If we wish to use your personal data for a new purpose, not covered by this Privacy Notice, then we will provide you with a new notice explaining the new use prior to commencing the processing and setting out the relevant purposes and processing conditions. Where and whenever necessary, we will seek your prior consent to the new processing.
You can access the personal information we hold by emailing chris@rainbowliving.org.uk or calling 01392 560125.
If you are at any point unhappy with the way that we handle your personal data, you have the right to make a complaint to the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO).
Any complaints should, in the first instance, be sent to the Rainbow Living Chairperson, Janet Pinniger, email: jan@rainbowliving.org.uk or call 01392 560125.
You can contact the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) on 0303 123 1113, or via email https://ico.org.uk/global/contact-us/email or at the Information Commissioner's Office, Wycliffe House, Water Lane, Wilmslow, Cheshire SK9 5AF.
This policy is updated from time to time; the latest version is published on this page. This policy may change, but we will always have the latest version available for you on our website. It there are any major changes, we will add a notice on our website or contact you.
This policy, the one you are reading now, was last updated on 3rd May 2018.


text:
Q: Disabling options won't work correctly in my case I am trying to check if 3 different queries could be executed.
Depending on true or false (if / else), a jQuery script should be run to either enable or disable an <option> tag.
My problem is, whenever I run this code, either all <option> tags are disabled or they are all enabled.
disable_options.php
if (isset($_POST['first_field_selected'])) {
    $selected = $_POST['first_field_selected'];
    $output;
    // define unisolierte Systeme mit Einfachglas
    if($result = $db->query("SELECT * FROM produkte WHERE $selected = 1 AND `unisolierte Systeme mit Einfachglas` = 1")) {
        $output .= '';
    }
    else {
        $output .= '';
    }

    // define unisolierte Systeme mit Isolierglas
    if($result = $db->query("SELECT * FROM produkte WHERE $selected = 1 AND `unisolierte Systeme mit Isolierglas` = 1")) {
        $output .= '';
    }
    else {
        $output .= '';
    }

    // define isolierte Systeme bis Dreifachglas
    if($result = $db->query("SELECT * FROM produkte WHERE $selected = 1 AND `isolierte Systeme bis Dreifachglas` = 1")) {
        $output .= '';
    }
    else {
        $output .= '';
    }
    echo $output;
}

index.html

script.js
$.ajax({
     url : "typo3conf/ext/produkteguide_sg/pi1/disable_options.php",
     type: "POST",
     data : { first_field_selected: this.value },
     success: function(data, textStatus, jqXHR)
     {
          $(".first_script").html(data);
     },
     error: function (jqXHR, textStatus, errorThrown)
     {
         alert(errorThrown);
     }
});

If you want to make yourself a picture, please go to this page and select "Einbau in Fassade". You will see that on the next select field ALL options are disabled. In phpMyAdmin "Einbau in Fassade" (which is $selected) is set to 1, as you see in the image below.


text:
Sunbury News on Facebook
Sunbury News on Twitter
Posted on August 17, 2016 by Sunbury News
Pollock keynote speaker at COC
News, Top Stories
Lenny C. Lepola - newsguy@ee.net
Last Friday morning, members of the Sunbury/Big Walnut Area Chamber of Commerce hosted their August Membership Breakfast & Golf Outing, sponsored by Firestone, Brehm, Wolf, Whitney & Young LLP, Forman Realtors, and Sunbury Chiropractic Center.
As part of the pre-golf breakfast COC members highlighted a Back to School in the Sunbury/Big Walnut Area session, with guest speaker Angie Pollock.
Pollock, who is in her second year serving as the Big Walnut Local School District superintendent, said the school district is successful because of a supportive community.
"We're growing very quickly," Pollock said. "We already have 310 students entering the fifth grade. When I came here a few short years ago a bubble class was 240 students. Now we're getting classes in the 290's and more are coming in every day."
Pollock said with rapid residential growth and increasing student populations on the school district's doorstep, it's important to focus on maintaining the traditional values and culture of the Big Walnut community.
Pollock showed a video of year two of the district's 2020 vision – creating classrooms and learning environments that simulate the world that 21st century students will live and work in.
Pollock said the school district's 2020 vision has three goals: personalize instruction, engage students, and use data to ensure that student's minds are growing.
"We want to make certain we're preparing our students for the world they're heading into," Pollock said. "In today's world there's no need to memorize. The world needs students who can think, ask the right questions, solve problems."
Pollock also noted the school district's $133.9 million, 8.3-mil Bond Issue that will be on the November 8 ballot.
Members of the district's facilities committee used the district's 2015 enrollment study, with low, most likely, and high-end student population growth projections over the next decade to determine facilities needs.
Committee members determined that by 2019 all seven of the school district's buildings would be at capacity at the low to moderate projection range; that by 2026 the district will be serving at least an additional 2,000 students.
The committee's final recommendation for meeting student population growth was to build a new 1,850-student high school on a new site that's centrally located where traffic would work, move middle school students to the high school, move intermediate students to the middle school, and turn the intermediate school into an elementary school and consolidate in-town preschool at that facility. The recommendation also includes the construction of one new elementary building.
"Our student population is at 3,652 right now," Pollock said. "Our in-town elementary buildings are full; we still have some wiggle room at Souders. An elementary building takes two years to build; a high school that would serve 1,800 students takes four years.
"We understand that 8.3 mils is not a drop in the bucket," Pollock added. "That would put us between 47 and 48 mils. Delaware, Olentangy, and Westerville are in the 52- to 59-mil range, making us still quite a bit lower than surrounding school districts."
http://aimmedianetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/48/2016/08/web1_AngiePollock-009.a.jpgPollock
Lenny C. Lepola
newsguy@ee.net
Reporter Lenny C. Lepola can be reached at 614-266-6093.
40 N Sandusky Suite #202,
Sunbury OH, 43015
Follow @SunburyNews1
Hi! A visitor to our site felt the following article might be of interest to you: Pollock keynote speaker at COC. Here is a link to that story: https://www.sunburynews.com/news/1986/pollock-keynote-speaker-at-coc


A project for Public Health professionals to help understand the inequalities in poverty and homicide in Baltimore in 2016 using Open Source data.
There is evidence that poverty and violence go hand-in-hand for a number of reasons. Those who are poor may come into friction with those who are not. Or the lack of wealth is systemic, learing to a poor public safety infrasctructure. Or those who are poor do things deemed criminal by society in order to survive.
That is all for this project. Please feel free to use the code for your own needs, but do cite your data sources and give me a shout-out to let me know how you're using it. Also, if you have any questions, please contact me via Twitter @EpiRen or Facebook.
baltimore-homicide-inequity is maintained by RFNajera.


text:
Climatologists offer explanation for widening of tropical belt
by Iqbal Pittalwala, University of California - Riverside
A cool-water anomaly known as La Niña occupied the tropical Pacific Ocean throughout 2007 and early 2008. In April 2008, scientists at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory announced that while the La Niña was weakening, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)—a larger-scale, slower-cycling ocean pattern—had shifted to its cool phase. This image shows the sea surface temperature anomaly in the Pacific Ocean from April 14–21, 2008. Places where the Pacific was cooler than normal are blue, places where temperatures were average are white, and places where the ocean was warmer than normal are red. The broad area of cooler-than-average water off the coast of North America from Alaska (top center) to the equator is a classic feature of the cool phase of the PDO. The cool waters wrap in a horseshoe shape around a core of warmer-than-average water. (In the warm phase, the pattern is reversed). Unlike El Niño and La Niña, which may occur every 3 to 7 years and last from 6 to 18 months, the PDO can remain in the same phase for 20 to 30 years. The shift in the PDO can have significant implications for global climate. Credit: NASA/Jesse Allen, AMSR-E/Chelle Gentemann And Frank Wentz/Remote Sensing Systems.
(Phys.org) —Recent studies have shown that the Earth's tropical belt—demarcated, roughly, by the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn—has progressively expanded since at least the late 1970s. Several explanations for this widening have been proposed, such as radiative forcing due to greenhouse gas increase and stratospheric ozone depletion.
Now, a team of climatologists, led by researchers at the University of California, Riverside, posits that the recent widening of the tropical belt is primarily caused by multi-decadal sea surface temperature variability in the Pacific Ocean. This variability includes the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), a long-lived El Niño-like pattern of Pacific climate variability that works like a switch every 30 years or so between two different circulation patterns in the North Pacific Ocean. It also includes, the researchers say, anthropogenic pollutants, which act to modify the PDO.
Study results appear March 16 in Nature Geoscience.
"Prior analyses have found that climate models underestimate the observed rate of tropical widening, leading to questions on possible model deficiencies, possible errors in the observations, and lack of confidence in future projections," said Robert J. Allen, an assistant professor of climatology in UC Riverside's Department of Earth Sciences, who led the study. "Furthermore, there has been no clear explanation for what is driving the widening."
Now Allen's team has found that the recent tropical widening is largely driven by the PDO.
"Although this widening is considered a 'natural' mode of climate variability, implying tropical widening is primarily driven by internal dynamics of the climate system, we also show that anthropogenic pollutants have driven trends in the PDO," Allen said. "Thus, tropical widening is related to both the PDO and anthropogenic pollutants."
Widening concerns
Tropical widening is associated with several significant changes in our climate, including shifts in large-scale atmospheric circulation, like storm tracks, and major climate zones. For example, in Southern California, tropical widening may be associated with less precipitation.
Of particular concern are the semi-arid regions poleward of the subtropical dry belts, including the Mediterranean, the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, southern Australia, southern Africa, and parts of South America. A poleward expansion of the tropics is likely to bring even drier conditions to these heavily populated regions, but may bring increased moisture to other areas.
Widening of the tropics would also probably be associated with poleward movement of major extratropical climate zones due to changes in the position of jet streams, storm tracks, mean position of high and low pressure systems, and associated precipitation regimes. An increase in the width of the tropics could increase the area affected by tropical storms (hurricanes), or could change climatological tropical cyclone development regions and tracks.
Belt contraction
Allen's research team also showed that prior to the recent (since ~1980 onwards) tropical widening, the tropical belt actually contracted for several decades, consistent with the reversal of the PDO during this earlier time period.
"The reversal of the PDO, in turn, may be related to the global increase in anthropogenic pollutant emissions prior to the ~ early 1980s," Allen said.
Allen's team analyzed IPCC AR5 (5th Assessment Report) climate models, several observational and reanalysis data sets, and conducted their own climate model experiments to quantify tropical widening, and to isolate the main cause.
"When we analyzed IPCC climate model experiments driven with the time-evolution of observed sea surface temperatures, we found much larger rates of tropical widening, in better agreement to the observed rate–particularly in the Northern Hemisphere," Allen said. "This immediately pointed to the importance of sea surface temperatures, and also suggested that models are capable of reproducing the observed rate of tropical widening, that is, they were not 'deficient' in some way."
Encouraged by their findings, the researchers then asked the question, "What aspect of the SSTs is driving the expansion?" They found the answer in the leading pattern of sea surface temperature variability in the North Pacific: the PDO.
They supported their argument by re-analyzing the models with PDO-variability statistically removed.
"In this case, we found tropical widening—particularly in the Northern Hemisphere—is completely eliminated," Allen said. "This is true for both types of models–those driven with observed sea surface temperatures, and the coupled climate models that simulate evolution of both the atmosphere and ocean and are thus not expected to yield the real-world evolution of the PDO.
"If we stratify the rate of tropical widening in the coupled models by their respective PDO evolution," Allen added, "we find a statistically significant relationship: coupled models that simulate a larger PDO trend have larger tropical widening, and vice versa. Thus, even coupled models can simulate the observed rate of tropical widening, but only if they simulate the real-world evolution of the PDO."
Next, the researchers will be looking at how anthropogenic pollutants, by modifying the PDO and large scale weather systems, have affected precipitation in the Southwest United States, including Southern California.
"Future emissions pathways show decreased pollutant emissions through the 21st century, implying pollutants may continue to drive a positive PDO and tropical widening," Allen said.
Effect of ocean temperature on southwestern US climate analyzed
Journal information: Nature Geoscience
Provided by University of California - Riverside
Citation: Climatologists offer explanation for widening of tropical belt (2014, March 17) retrieved 18 July 2019 from https://phys.org/news/2014-03-climatologists-explanation-widening-tropical-belt.html
Black carbon, tropospheric ozone most likely driving Earth's tropical belt expansion
Warm ocean water depth encourages development of Northeast Pacific hurricanes
Sensitivity of carbon cycle to tropical temperature variations has doubled
Pacific ocean temperature influences tornado activity in US, study finds
Study highlights growing threat of intense tropical cyclones hitting East Asia


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Notes: Well, I needed a whole lot more yarn than the pattern called for. Once I had knit through the 280 yards I had originally bought (thinking I only needed 250), I was still about 3 feet short on the length of the main piece. Yes, 3 FEET. I went back to my LYS intending to buy 3 or 4 more balls of the yarn, but they only had two left. Such is life. I knit it all up and ended up with a piece about 1.5 feet short, stretched it out with some blocking, and just dealt with it. I think it turned out ok, though the jacket would be quite a bit swingier if I had had enough yarn. In addition, the pattern calls for 100 yards of the collar yarn, and I needed 150.
And speaking of the collar yarn, I chose a chunky 100% wool instead of a fuzzy wool/acrylic blend because I couldn't find a good substitution, and the collar ended up a little heavy. I would recommend going for the blend for an appropriately floppy collar.
And though it's not floppy, I do like the big, ruffly collar. It's almost a hoodie!
AND I love that you almost can't tell if it's a jacket or a cape, unless you spot the cool, big arm-holes from the side.
I think this is such a beautiful design. The hard part will be finding somewhere fabulous enough to wear it!
this looks terrific on you -- so glamorous!
perfect for going on on those cool san francisco evenings!! looks fantastic on you.
I absolutely love all your knitting! Great choice of patterns and yarn...now I'm inspired to knit again!
WOW how did I miss this. It looks smashing. Have you worn it anywhere fun?


text:
In this Oct. 5, 2018 photo the U. S. Supreme Court building stands quietly before dawn in Washington. The Supreme Court won't let the Trump administration begin enforcing a ban on asylum for any immigrants who illegally cross the U.S.-Mexico border. New Justice Brett Kavanaugh and three other conservative justices sided with the administration. The court's order Friday leaves in place lower court rulings that blocked President Donald Trump's proclamation in November automatically denying asylum to people who enter the country from Mexico without going through official border crossings. (AP Photo/J. David Ake)
Supreme Court rejects Trump plea to enforce asylum ban
WASHINGTON (AP) — A divided Supreme Court won't let the Trump administration begin enforcing a ban on asylum for any immigrants who illegally cross the U.S.-Mexico border. Chief Justice John Roberts joined his four more liberal colleagues Friday in ruling against the administration in the very case...
This photo shows the exterior of the New York Stock Exchange on Thursday evening, Dec. 20, 2018. Stocks went into another slide Thursday in what is shaping up as the worst December on Wall Street since the depths of the Great Depression, with prices dragged down by rising fears of a recession somewhere on the horizon. The Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped 464 points, bringing its losses to more than 1,700 since last Friday. (AP Photo/Patrick Sison)
Santa Rally fails to materialize as markets head south again
LONDON (AP) — Stock markets all around the world fell further Friday amid growing fears about the outlook for the global economy and ongoing concerns about the pace of interest rate increases in the U.S. Many stock markets are on track to end 2018 more than 10 percent lower than where they started...
House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy, R-Calif., top, is met by reporters at the Capitol after he and Speaker Paul Ryan returned from the White House as Congress tries to pass legislation that would avert a partial government shutdown, at the Capitol in Washington, Thursday, Dec. 20, 2018. (AP Photo/J. Scott Applewhite)
The Latest: House approves wall funding as shutdown nears
WASHINGTON (AP) — The Latest on efforts to avoid a government shutdown (all times local): 7:58 p.m. The Republican-led House has approved funding for President Donald Trump's border wall in legislation that pushes the government closer to a partial government shutdown. The House voted 217-185,...
U.S. Special Representative for North Korea Stephen Biegun, center left, speaks to the media with South Korea's Special Representative for Korean Peninsula Peace and Security Affairs Lee Do-hoon, center right, at Foreign Ministry in Seoul, South Korea, Friday, Dec. 21, 2018. The Trump administration's special envoy for North Korea on Friday expressed optimism about the diplomatic push to resolve the nuclear crisis, a day after the North issued a surprisingly blunt statement saying it will never disarm unless the U.S. removes what it calls a nuclear threat. (AP Photo/Lee Jin-man)
US envoy optimistic about N. Korea despite latest friction
SEOUL, South Korea (AP) — The Trump administration's special envoy for North Korea on Friday expressed optimism about the diplomatic push to resolve the nuclear crisis, a day after the North issued a surprisingly blunt statement saying it will never disarm unless the United States removes what it...
FILE -In this Sept. 21, 2018, file photo, Defense Secretary Jim Mattis speaks during the 2018 POW/MIA National Recognition Day Ceremony at the Pentagon in Washington. President Donald Trump says Mattis will be retiring at the end of February 2019 and that a new secretary will be named shortly. (AP Photo/Susan Walsh, file)
Mattis resigning as Pentagon chief after clashes with Trump
WASHINGTON (AP) — Defense Secretary Jim Mattis resigned Thursday after clashing with President Donald Trump over the abrupt withdrawal of U.S. troops from Syria and after two years of deep disagreements over America's role in the world. Mattis, perhaps the most respected foreign policy official in...
FILE - In this July 4, 2017, file photo distributed by the North Korean government, North Korean leader Kim Jong Un, second from right, inspects the preparation of the launch of a Hwasong-14 intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) in North Korea's northwest. North Korea on Thursday, Dec. 20, 2018, says it will never unilaterally give up its nuclear weapons unless the United States removes its nuclear threat first. (Korean Central News Agency/Korea News Service via AP, File)
N. Korea says it won't denuclearize unless US removes threat
SEOUL, South Korea (AP) — North Korea said Thursday it will never unilaterally give up its nuclear weapons unless the United States first removes what Pyongyang called a nuclear threat. The surprisingly blunt statement jars with Seoul's rosier presentation of the North Korean position and could...
Russian President Vladimir, also seen at a big screens, speaks during his annual news conference in Moscow, Russia, Thursday, Dec. 20, 2018. Speaking at news conference Thursday, Putin pointed at the U.S. intention to withdraw from the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. He said that if the U.S. puts intermediate-range missiles in Europe, Russia will be forced to take countermeasures. (AP Photo/Alexander Zemlianichenko)
The Latest: Putin rejects criticism of his foreign policy
MOSCOW (AP) — The Latest on Russian President Vladimir Putin's annual news conference (all times local): 3:30 p.m. President Vladimir Putin has rejected Western criticism of his foreign policy, describing it as part of a smear campaign serving internal political goals. Putin scoffed at Western...
China says trade talks with US planned for January
BEIJING (AP) — Chinese and U.S. envoys will hold talks in January aimed at resolving a tariff battle, a Ministry of Commerce spokesman said Thursday. Timing and other details are being worked out following discussions by phone about intellectual property protection, trade balances and other issues...
People walk across an electronic board showing Hong Kong share index outside a bank in Hong Kong, Thursday, Dec. 20, 2018. Asian stock markets sank Thursday after the Federal Reserve raised U.S. interest rates and Wall Street dived to a 15-month low.(AP Photo/Kin Cheung)
Global stocks plunge after Wall Street fall on rate hike
BEIJING (AP) — Global stock prices plunged Thursday, following Wall Street down after the Federal Reserve raised U.S. interest rates. KEEPING SCORE: In early trading, France's CAC 40 index fell 1.4 percent to 4,709.13 points and Germany's DAX lost 1.3 percent to 10,620,79. London's FTSE 100...
The U.S. Capitol is seen as Congress and President Donald Trump move closer to a deadline to fund parts of the government, in Washington, Wednesday, Dec. 19, 2018. (AP Photo/J. Scott Applewhite)
Senate approves bill to keep government running into 2019
WASHINGTON (AP) — The Senate approved legislation Wednesday to temporarily fund the government, a key step toward averting a federal shutdown after President Donald Trump backed off his demand for money for a border wall with Mexico. Senators passed the measure, which would keep government running...


A VERY TASTEFULLY RENOVATED and FULLY FURNISHED APARTMENT of 70m2 on the 7th floor.
This delicious bright apartment has a spacious living room with a balcony with a spacious vieuw. There is a very big and spacious bedroom. The kitchen is equipped with all modern equipment and a luxury bathroom with shower, sink and toilet.


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