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https://www.edge.org/conversation/george_church-church-speaks
Church Speaks
Conversation : LIFE
A Conversation With George Church [2.14.18]
The biggest energy creators in the world, the ones that take solar energy and turn it into a form that's useful to humans, are these photosynthetic organisms. The cyanobacteria fix [carbon via] light as well or better than land plants. Under ideal circumstances, they can be maybe seven to ten times more productive per photon. . . .
Cyanobacteria turn carbon dioxide, a global warming gas, into carbohydrates and other carbon-containing polymers, which sequester the carbon so that they're no longer global warming gases. They turn it into their own bodies. They do this on such a big scale that about 15 percent of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is fixed every year by these cyanobacteria, which is roughly the amount that we're off from the pre-industrial era. If all of the material that they fix didn't turn back into carbon dioxide, we'd have solved the global warming problem in a year or two. The reality, however, is that almost as soon as they divide and make baby bacteria, phages break them open, spilling their guts, and they start turning into carbon dioxide. Then all the other things around them start chomping on the bits left over from the phages.
GEORGE CHURCH is professor of genetics at Harvard Medical School, director of the Personal Genome Project, and co-author (with Ed Regis) of Regenesis. George Church's Edge Bio page
I would say that there are two things I'm obsessing about recently. One is global warming and the other is augmentation. Global warming is something that strikes me as an interesting social phenomenon and scientific challenge. From the social side, you've got denialism, which, to me, is more important. You have denialism on a bunch of fronts. You've got denial of the Holocaust and evolution, but those aren't things that necessarily in and of themselves impact our lives. It's very heartrending and callous that anyone would deny the Holocaust, but as long as they don't add to that a lot of other racism, nobody's going to get hurt by it.
I imagine that we could probably populate my company enEvolv, which has evolution in the title, mostly with creationists and they would still get the products out. You just follow a recipe. Even though you're doing evolution, you don't need to believe it. Maybe it would help if the very top scientists believed in neo-Darwinism or something. Those are curious things that people fight about and have deep feelings about, but they don't affect day-to-day life.
Global warming is something that could be catastrophic. You could argue that it's in the same category because you can't prove that my life today is worse because of global warming, but it's something where it could be exponential. The odds are against it, but we don't even know how to calculate the odds. It's not like we're playing blackjack or something like that. There's more carbon in the Arctic tundra than in the entire atmosphere plus all the rain forests put together. And that carbon, unlike the rain forest where you have to burn the rain forest to release it, goes into the atmosphere as soon as you get melting. It's already many gigatons per year going up. That's something that could spiral out of control.
Even for the ultra concerned citizens, almost all the suggestions are not about how to prevent an exponential release, but how to slow down the inevitable. It's like the extinction problem: If you don't have a way of reversing it, then you're fighting a losing battle. That's not psychologically a good thing, it's hard to get enthusiastic funding for it, and you will ultimately fail. Whether it's solar panels, or not using your SUVs as much, or not buying SUVs, or having smaller houses—all of these things are slowing down the inevitable. It's hard to get excited about that.
The other thing that is problematic socially is the whole idea that it's an "inconvenient truth." To some extent Gore's phrase is brilliant, but it's also counterproductive because the people for whom it is inconvenient don't want to believe it's inconvenient. People don't want to give up their SUVs and their steak meals. It would be better to talk about a convenient solution, whether or not that's the real solution or the best solution, just talk about it so you get acceptance first. You need acceptance before you can get to the best solution.
The other part that makes acceptance difficult is blame. People will say, "It's not my fault," and that gets confused for "it's not anybody's fault." You could make an argument that it's not your fault because you weren't around during the Industrial Revolution. You didn't personally do that much; you're just one seven billionth of the problem at most. You could make an argument that you're not personally to blame, but then expanding that to no human being has had anything to do with it is where things go off the tracks. The thing that got us into the position of denial was the blame game. You want everybody to be inconvenienced because it's their fault. That's two strikes against you.
I don't know if you've read The Righteous Mind, but Jon Haidt makes the point that even people who consider themselves very rational are not using a rational argument when making decisions. They're making decisions and then using the rational argument to rationalize. A lot of what he says sounds obvious once you restate it, but I found the way he says it and backs it up with social science research very illuminating, if not compelling.
The elephant, as he refers to it, the thing that's making your decisions in your life, is deciding that this person is telling you that you're responsible for something you don't feel responsible for. It's telling you that you have to sacrifice many things that you don't want to sacrifice. From your viewpoint, that person is inconvenient, incorrect, and you're going to ignore them. The more they insult you and your way of life, the less you're going to listen to them, and then you're going to make a bunch of rationalizations about that. This is why we have problems.
So, let's reframe it as you're not responsible necessarily, but here's an opportunity. Let's say nature caused this global warming, and maybe this global warming could get worse. Let's not even say that it has gotten to a horrible place. We're above 400 parts per million, and maybe that's too far, but it could get exponentially worse. If it keeps going up exponentially, we'll eventually consume all of the carbon dioxide and all the methane that's right below the surface, and we know there's tons of methane in the cold water that could be released. Methane, by the way, is a global warming gas that's twenty-eight times worse than carbon dioxide. All this stuff could result in melting of all the ice, and then you could get to temperatures that aren't necessarily in the historical record.
There's a tendency to use history as an indicator of the future—of course, the SEC warns us against doing this when investing in stocks. There is a non-zero probability that we could go somewhere that is without historical precedent. Look at Venus. Venus has an atmosphere that's ninety-five times higher pressure and temperatures that would carbonize life. At one point something must have happened in its history that had never happened before and was irreversible at that point. We don't want Earth to turn into Venus.
If we stop blaming and start talking about opportunities, what could we do? We already do lots of things that are unnatural. Natural would be to let weeds grow all over the planet instead of planting crops. The fact is there was an opportunity there. It's not our fault that the world was not covered with beautiful crops; it's our opportunity to cover it with beautiful crops. The same thing would happen if an asteroid were headed our way, or if we had seismic information that there was going to be some super volcano; it wouldn't be our fault, but you wouldn't deny the possibility that the human race should band together and solve the problem proactively in anticipation of possible disaster. Even if it's not guaranteed that that asteroid is going to hit us, if it's big enough and it's headed our way, we would band together as a population to fight it.
Once you get past that "not my fault" attitude, treat it as an opportunity, and then you get to the science and engineering aspects, which are more interesting.
I probably started seriously in the '90s when I got interested in photosynthesis. We published some papers together with Penny Chisholm, a professor at MIT, on the most abundant photosynthetic organism on the planet. There are on the order of 1023 of these organisms on the planet. It's a mind-boggling number of them. Nobody knew about them before Penny started working on them.
People would look at the ocean and see something that looks pretty close to sterile. Occasionally, a fish would float by. If you scoop up the ocean, you'll find diatoms and a few heterotrophs, various kinds of phytoplankton and zooplankton, things that whales might filter feed. It's not that dense, not like what you would get from a scum-covered pond or the excrement of animals, which is solid bacteria. There are more bacterial cells in just two kilograms of your intestines than in the whole rest of your body.
In the ocean, even though they're dilute, there are more of these photosynthetic organisms than the rest. The reason people missed them is because they're so small. They're even smaller than the bacteria that people notice. They just look like little blips in the microscope, like they might be a mistake or a little speck of something that isn't real. What Penny noticed was that they were highly fluorescent. And she eventually figured out how to culture them, even though they don't culture very well.
I used to think of the ocean as a harsh and dynamic environment, and anything that survived there had to be versatile and able to handle all the differences of storms and sunlight, but these are fussy, fragile creatures, even though they're one of the most abundant creatures on the planet. If you get the iron concentration or the copper concentration just a little bit off—too much or too little—they say, "I'm out of here. I'm dead. Forget about it." These cyanobacteria are very fastidious for the most part, and they might be part of the solution.
How does this relate to my genome work? I met Penny because I was a technology developer. Most of my interesting collaborations came because I had a technology, and people would either seek me out so they could use the technology or I would seek them out. I've had Department of Energy funding ever since I started my laboratory in 1986, '87. In fact, it's the only grant that I've had continuously since 1987. I was developing technology for the Human Genome Project, and then I thought, wow, this is the Department of Energy, we should be taking this technology developed for the Human Genome Project, which really isn't in the purview of the Department of Energy. They have a health effects component, but microorganisms that impact energy were much more in their realm.
The biggest energy creators in the world, the ones that take solar energy and turn it into a form that's useful to humans, are these photosynthetic organisms. The cyanobacteria fix [carbon via] light as well or better than land plants. Under ideal circumstances, they can be maybe seven to ten times more productive per photon.
I sought out Penny because I had this genome hammer. I had a set of tools for analyzing genomes, transcriptomes, and proteomes, and I thought we should apply it to something that would be of benefit to the Department of Energy. Penny and I collaborated until there was a reorganization of the Department of Energy and we were encouraged to get separate grants. It left a lasting impression on me because she came from a very different culture than I did. She was technically in the Department of Civil Engineering at MIT, and I'm clearly not a civil engineer. Moreover, she was an ecologist. She loves the oceans and these photosynthetic bacteria. This was her life, so I learned to appreciate it from her viewpoint, which was great. I'm always a technologist the same way she's always a biologist, so I kept thinking about how we could use these cyanobacteria to solve energy problems.
One of the companies I started was called Joule. Like most of the biofuel companies, I knew it was going to be a difficult problem not just scientifically but also from a social and economic standpoint. At any moment, the price per barrel could be engineered downward. It's just trivial for OPEC or anybody else in that business to temporarily drop the price to the point where it destabilizes all the competing technologies and then drive it back up again at their leisure.
It struck me as an important and interesting problem, so I wanted to become more conversant with it. Both at Joule and LS9 we discovered ways that you could turn carbon dioxide or other carbon compounds into alkanes, the things that make up gasoline and diesel fuel. They're a polymer of carbons with hydrogens coming off—a hydrocarbon—and we figured out how to make those enzymatically. We found the enzymes that occur in nature, which was not obvious, and both companies have patents on making those alkanes. The survival of those kinds of biofuel companies have depended on them creating more valuable chemicals rather than solving the energy problem, unfortunately. Some of them have survived, like Amyris, which has thrived by pivoting from biofuels to flavors, fragrances, and other high-value biochemicals.
It's not in my main stream of technology development or even in applications of our technology, but we do have modest efforts that at a minimum help raise consciousness. Sometimes it takes a relatively small suggestion or demonstration to make a big change, and certainly that's happened to us in the past. A small contribution to DNA sequencing, or DNA editing, or DNA synthesis has caused million-fold changes in the economics of those fields. The one we're most known for, which is a tiny project in the lab but has gotten a disproportionate share of attention, is getting mammoths, cold-resistant elephants, to stomp around and change the temperature of the soil in the Arctic. There's so much carbon in it that you don't want the soil to raise in temperature. There's experimental evidence that that sort of activity could reduce the soil temperature. But the fact is that even if that were spectacularly successful, it is just another one of the many methods of slowing down the inevitable. In other words, if you lower the temperature of the Arctic tundra, you don't reverse the carbon problem. You're missing the opportunity of improving or intentionally changing the amount of carbon and other global warming gases. It's like solar panels and lowering your consumption, things like that.
[Arctic grass and] cyanobacteria, on the other hand, they fix [carbon]. Cyanobacteria turn carbon dioxide, a global warming gas, into carbohydrates and other carbon-containing polymers, which sequester the carbon so that they're no longer global warming gases. They turn it into their own bodies. They do this on such a big scale that about 15 percent of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is fixed every year by these cyanobacteria, which is roughly the amount that we're off from the pre-industrial era. If all of the material that they fix didn't turn back into carbon dioxide, we'd have solved the global warming problem in a year or two. The reality, however, is that almost as soon as they divide and make baby bacteria, phages break them open, spilling their guts, and they start turning into carbon dioxide. Then all the other things around them start chomping on the bits left over from the phages.
If you could make the cyanobacteria resistant to the phages, then you might be able to reduce that. Even a small reduction in that immediate turnover from carbon comes in, gets fixed into carbohydrates, the cell protecting those carbohydrates breaks open and all the hungry heterotrophs eat it and turn it back into carbon dioxide—if you could break that cycle even a little bit, you'd start sequestering carbon dioxide.
Where are these bacteria in the real world? They are in all the oceans of the world, all the lakes, all the rivers—every body of water is filled with these bacteria. There are different strains—there's a freshwater set, a deepwater set, and so forth—but as a class, photosynthetic bacteria are so simple. They're point-like. They're not colonies for the most part. The abundant ones that do most of the photosynthesis are rugged individuals. They're out there by themselves doing their thing, fixing carbon, and they're at great risk.
The phages are also everywhere. There are about ten times as many phages, which are barely alive. They're parasites. They're in every ocean, every lake, every stream, and they're constantly killing the bacteria.
The most abundant bacteria—cyanobacteria, or, Prochlorococcus is a particularly abundant one—are so small that you can't see them under a conventional microscope. There are some super resolution microscopes that allow you to see some detail, and certainly with electron microscopes you can see them, but you can't see them with the naked eye. If you pick up a glass of ocean water, it doesn't even look green. There's not even a bulk measurement that makes it look like they're there, but they are. The phages that destroy them are even smaller. Those can only be seen by electron microscopes at the best resolution. They're tiny killing machines that just have DNA and RNA plus a protein coat. They go in and they take over the cell.
The world has slowly come to see what an important part of the ecosystem cyanobacteria is, though nobody discusses it as a serious way of dealing with carbon sequestration. I could be completely off base in saying that we should give this a thorough look, to see if there's a way that we could harness this incredible amount of photosynthesis and use it to turn carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and just have that sequestered.
It's ironic that one of the big efforts in biotechnology has been making biodegradable plastics. That's been considered a great success story, but what we really want to do is make non-degradable or not easily degradable plastics out of the carbon dioxide. We want to sequester carbon dioxide into things that don't turn over, and the problem with the cyanobacteria is they do turn over. While they're intact, they're in pretty good shape. They're good at fixing the carbon; they're just not good at keeping it fixed. If we could change that, then the amount of photosynthetic capability is vast, and we could quickly start pulling carbon dioxide out of the air.
There are two options that tie into my research, in addition to the older research with Penny where we had elucidated many of the characteristics of these organisms. My newer research is about making bacteria that are resistant to all phages. We've done a demonstration project in E. coli where we've changed the genetic code. It's one of the largest genome engineering projects where we had to change hundreds of genes in a particular way. This is not just arbitrarily making a copy of a genome; this is engineering hundreds of genes so that you could change the genetic code, where you could remove from the cell something that phages depend on. In fact, the cell depends on it. Normally, you couldn't remove it from the cell because it was an essential gene, but by moving around the genetic code, it makes it possible for you to delete the thing that was previously essential. (In the codon table there are 64 codons for 21 functions, 20 amino acids plus stop, and so that means there are extra codons.) Now when the phage comes in, it can't set up shop. It can't do anything because it's missing something that is absolutely essential for it. It used to be essential for the host, but the host has been taken to the shop and made it so it's nonessential and deleted it, but the phage wasn't present during that transaction, so the phage is still dependent on it and can't grow. Not only can't it grow, it's so messed up by this change that it can't even evolve.
There's a constant warfare in which the bacteria becomes a little resistant to the phage, the phage becomes resistant to the resistance, and you keep playing this little cat and mouse game. In this case, you've changed it so radically that the phage can't evolve. Most of this is pretty strong theoretical argument. Some of it is backed up by experiments since we've made one genome which has a changed genetic code.
How does this go from the lab into the real world? The organism we've done the largest genome engineering project on so far is E. coli. It's an industrial microorganism, and it has a phage problem. The hope is that when we perfect the strain which is resistant to all viruses, all E. coli bacterial phages, that will then become the favorite E. coli to use in industry.
There's a bunch of things we have to do to make sure that it manufactures the things that industry cares about in addition to being phage-resistant. If it were just phage-resistant and didn't manufacture well, they're not going to take it. That'll be the first product that we engineer and release into the real world via resistant to all phages. They don't have to worry quite so much about phages, certainly not about phages they've never seen before. This is a profound thought, that you can be resistant to viruses and phages you've never seen before. You don't have to make a specific drug, or a specific vaccine, or specific strategy for that particular virus.
We then need to do it again, but on new bacteria. And maybe we start with other bacteria that have industrial and agricultural significance, like bacteria in the dairy industry—yogurt and cheese, for example, have a big phage virus problem. Then you might want to do it on these cyanobacteria, these photosynthetic organisms, and show that you can make them resistant to phages, and determine whether that increases their productivity, whether they now fix a lot of the carbon and the carbon stays fixed.
What's interesting is this doesn't necessarily involve vast amounts of money, but it could save vast amounts of money. Like many things in early-stage science and engineering, it's highly leveraged. A hundred thousand dollars or a couple million dollars can get you a breakthrough that is transformative and self-fueling from that point on. Once you've made the breakthrough that makes it obvious, then there's plenty of money and plenty of will to scale it up.
Even though this might make sense from an existential risk standpoint, from a society-wide standpoint, it could be a tragedy of the commons, where we can't figure out how individuals, companies, or countries can benefit. We can see how it would be of great benefit especially if we have an exponential increase in temperature and release of global warming gases.
I'm always looking for the win-win, something where you don't necessarily have to make a lot of sacrifices or crazy investments. The biofuels was one strategy. We knew there wasn't necessarily an easy path to get companies interested in engineering these organisms. Another one might be carbon credits, to the extent that those are accepted. This would be a good way of achieving carbon credits.
The final and the most interesting way is if you take the carbohydrates that these organisms make and turn them into something valuable. In other words, something that is non-biodegradable and valuable. So, you take advantage of the fact that these things are self-assembling, that biology can build very large structures with very little management. If you want to have a forest, you just don't interfere with it and you'll have a forest. The ecology might go one way or another, but it will fill the land with photosynthetic organisms unless you interfere with it on a regular basis.
The same thing could happen in the ocean with a little nudge. This is very whimsical and intentionally playful, but you could have these things fix the carbon into a structure that was valuable: a bridge across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, or floating cities. You could make things that have intrinsic value and, because of their self-assembly nature, don't cost a lot of money. They can create as many jobs as you want to create, but they don't have to.
You could conceivably imagine a scenario where the bacteria are doing all the work, just as if a volcano or a forest fire clears the land, you don't have to do that much; it's going to create a forest there. Here, you'd have to nudge it in some kind of engineered way, but the engineering and the science behind it isn't even in the same league of cost as most of industry and all the money that is at risk due to temperature change.
Any book that is about or adjacent to an existential risk needs to, or ideally would, raise consciousness about the existential risk. The goal might be to calm people down or rile people up, but the book should either come to a conclusion or argue why it's premature to come to a conclusion about whether this is a sufficiently big existential risk to apply resources.
Technology developers, in particular, ought to at least think about existential risk. Some of our time should be set aside to talking with the public; some of it should be set to ethical standards, safety, and security; and part of it should be towards big existential risk questions, even if they're low probability of happening during our lifetime or our kids'. It seems like almost everything that I get close to and care about is exponential. These exponentials in computers, electronics, DNA reading and writing are all things where I'm seeing million-fold changes in less than a decade. I can imagine that happening with some of these other things. An asteroid could come out of nowhere and we would have very little time to react. Global warming could go exponential and we would have relatively little time to react.
In some cases it's better to overreact to an imaginary problem or problem that could materialize than to underreact and not have enough time, because you start making bad decisions when you don't have enough time. Take, for example, Y2K: We don't know whether that was a big crisis or not. It turned out it was a fizzle in the end, but was it a fizzle because we reacted to it in advance? In fact, many of the things where safety engineers and security experts are most effective, they get least credit for because they were so effective that no one ever knew it was a problem. The reason that we push back on existential risks where we have unknown or low probabilities is because it's going to be inconvenient, because it's going to make us have to sacrifice. Even if we don't know the probability but we know the consequences are huge, we come up with a clever solution that doesn't require us to give up our sacred cows.
That's easy to say and harder to pull off, but I've seen many cases of win-win in my life. Rather than having the gut-wrenching decision of whether we should sequence your genome or mine at $3 billion, we just said, "Let's bring it down to $1,000 and then we can do both of them." That's a win-win. We didn't have to have a big national debate as to who gets sequenced and who doesn't. We didn't have to have death panels decide who gets to benefit from this new technology or who doesn't.
The main risk in AI, for my mind, is it's not so much whether we can mathematically understand what they're thinking; it's whether we're capable of teaching them ethical behavior. We're barely capable of teaching each other ethical behavior. We're barely capable of agreeing on what it is. But over long periods of time and over large numbers of cultures, we tend to agree on enough that things might even be improving. They're acceptable enough so that our population is growing. Our middle class and even maybe our upper class is growing in numbers, and if Steven Pinker and others are correct about violence decreasing, maybe our ethics are good enough. But maybe we bring in a wildcard: Let's say we genetically engineer an octopus to be brilliant and can manipulate bombs and rockets. We have no idea how an octopus thinks. We have no idea why its ethics would align with ours at all.
If we teach a dog, we've got a slightly better chance because they're a little bit more aligned with humans. But if we teach a piece of silicon, we don't know that it's going to follow our rules. You can say, "Well, they won't necessarily be doing human tasks. They'll be calculating big sums of numbers and doing statistics. They'll be doing advertising." Wait a minute, they are doing advertising that's starting to influence human life. "They'll be guiding drones." Well, that could affect a human being. "They'll be manipulating markets." They're starting to do things that could really impact our lives. They're not just doing boring mechanical tasks. We better make sure that their ethics are somewhat aligned with ours.
We haven't reduced our own ethics to a consensus or mathematics, so it's all done by gut feeling. No matter how much rationalization we wrap around it, it's mostly gut feeling. It's a combination of instincts and deep culture, admittedly multicultural, but there's something that we have in common that pushes us in the right direction. I am doubtful that we can guarantee or even come close. We never let guarantees interfere with technology. We always take the technology. We're very greedy. I'm pretty sure that there will be general consensus that we can't teach these things ethics. The alternative is teaching ourselves how to be as clever as the machines. Rather than trying to teach them ethics, let's teach ourselves to do the task that they're currently doing. It's not so farfetched.
Things like Jeopardy, Go, or Chess aren't tasks that we need to do. They were always activities that give you bragging rights. Except for game playing as an end in itself, our ancestors did not depend on being able to win those games. They were representative of intellectual skills that would be beneficial, like the ability to be a good businessperson. The point is, in order for a computer to win at those games, they have to use 100,000 watts of power continuously while a human brain is using 20 watts. Admittedly, the body it's in is using another 80 watts, and maybe that body has creature comforts that require more watts, but the fact is we're very energy-efficient for doing this. Humans are also doing a lot more than losing games of Chess, Go, and Jeopardy; we're worrying about our family, about our careers, and about existential risk. We're doing all kinds of things that computers can't yet do. The thing is we're ahead, and biotechnology is going faster than computer technology.
Corporations are like machines in that corporations behave like people. They have some of the rights of citizens. They've been granted certain rights, but they're also like machines in that we don't know the ethics of the companies are going to perfectly coincide with people. The difference is that those are machines made out of people, so there is some hope that they might more naturally align their ethics with the population. Even when people talk about evil corporations, what they mean is that the customers that are supporting the corporations want things that are not in their own best interests. So, if I bought cigarettes, I would be supporting a company that's giving me cancer, but I'm the one that's doing it. Maybe they did an ad campaign that sucked me in, and that may make them evil, but I ultimately paid for that ad campaign.
Corporations can have ethical problems because they're composed in a way that's not culturally and biologically aligned perfectly with the people that make up the corporation. That could happen with the big five AI-related companies, or it could be that they are perfectly aligned with the population, hypothetically, in terms of ethics, but they don't know how to teach the machines ethics.
There might even be a consensus that's derivable about the importance of value alignment. So many people that think about it at all end up in that direction. It may be something we could agree on as a goal, but very few of us would have a clue as to how to achieve that goal. We could get some agreement that it would be nice to eliminate poverty, diseases of poverty, diseases in general, but we don't know how. We can't write a recipe for that, and the same thing goes for value alignment. We can agree that it's a cool thing, but how do you do that? How do you convince yourself you've done it?
We are definitely living in exponential times, where many of these things are reinforcing each other. We're using deep machine learning to accelerate our biological research. We might soon be using the biological research to accelerate the production of better algorithms. We have a grant from IARPA that's aimed at improving visual deep machine learning by figuring out exactly how a rodent processes visual information in its visual cortex. That could result in much better algorithms.
It could be that some of the brain initiative projects allow us to build human brains that are more consistent with our ethics and capable of doing advanced tasks like artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence has the connotation of silicon-based, so you'd have to give it a new name—superintelligence or human-based intelligence—to distinguish it both from artificial intelligence and human intelligence. The safest path by far is getting humans to do all the tasks that they would like to delegate to machines, but we're not obviously on that super safe path.
There's this confluence of technologies where we have autocatalytic cycles, a particular technology that feeds on itself. I can use biotechnology to find new nanomachines in the wild and turn them into new biotechnologies. We can use those biotechnologies to engineer new biotechnologies, and you get a tight loop. Or we can have a bigger loop where the artificial intelligence will help us build biotechnologies that will help us build artificial intelligence. The point is all these things are autocatalytic in that the more of them we have, the more we get, and it just goes exponential. That can buy us all kinds of medium to short-term benefits. Because it's going so fast now, it's not unusual to be able to get breakthroughs that may allow us to conquer malaria and Lyme disease by engineering the animal vectors of those, and to cure our transplantation crisis by engineering pigs to be humanized enough so that they can be organ donors. That may have its own little autocatalytic loop because it's hard to debug enhancement in human beings. You can enhance the pig organs so that they're resistant to viruses, resistant to senescence, resistant to cancer, maybe cryopreservable, and you can work out this whole preventative medicine, this whole enhancement medicine in pigs that are headed for desperately ill people. The ethics are well-aligned. You want to give a desperately ill person the best organ you can, including enhancement.
That's a whole other possible loop that would result in enhancement of human beings that may save us from enhancements of non-human beings. That's very important. All these loops that make us more intelligent, possibly more ethical, may also help us see opportunities that are staring us in the face. Whether or not you want to deny our involvement in climate change, there's an opportunity there for getting the climate to be what we want it to be, where we want it to be. Just like we wouldn't miss an opportunity to deflect an asteroid or improve crop productivity, we're probably not going to miss the opportunity to make climate what we want it to be. There may not be immediate alignment on that, but there's a remarkable level of alignment, even when you play the blame game and the belt-tightening game that came out of the accords that the United States is not a signatory for. It was a signatory and it may not be in the near future. There's enough consensus there, and there would probably be even more if it were a win-win that didn't require sacrifice.
All these things come together in a time of exponential change. It's not necessarily some panacea that's full of abundance and you don't have to think and it's easy, but there are some win-wins to be had if we think about it deeply and we talk about it as if science was a real thing rather than something that's inconvenient.
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Class Certification Denied in Tropicana Orange Juice Labeling MDL
by Michael R. McDonald
In the Tropicana Orange Juice multidistrict litigation (MDL), plaintiffs' bid for class certification has been rejected due to the need for individualized proofs and inability to ascertain class members. On January 22, 2018, U.S. District Judge William J. Martini (DNJ) denied class certification in the multidistrict litigation, In re Tropicana Orange Juice Marketing and Sales Practices Litigation. The lawsuit claimed that "Tropicana Pure Premium" (TPP) orange juice was mislabeled and misbranded as "100% pure and natural" because the juice contains undisclosed natural flavoring in violation of FDA standards of identity for pasteurized orange juice. Plaintiffs also attacked the marketing of TPP as "pure, natural and fresh from the grove" as demonstrably false given the added flavoring. The MDL judge, however, concluded that plaintiffs' common law and N.J. Consumer Fraud Act ("CFA") claims were "plainly unsuitable for class certification" because each claim "requires individualized proof."
Plaintiffs argued that their unjust enrichment claim was uniform because it focused on the TPP label and consumers uniformly paid for pasteurized orange juice that they did not receive. But the court held that defendant would be unjustly enriched only if a consumer did not receive the benefit of the bargain for which she paid, thus "compel[ling] an inquiry as to what exactly was the benefit of the bargain" in each transaction. Because the evidence showed that plaintiffs purchased TPP for various reasons, they could not prove that putative class members bought TPP because they believed it to be pasteurized orange juice." Certification was denied with respect to common law unjust enrichment claims asserted under New Jersey, New York, California, and Wisconsin laws.
Certification was denied on the breach of warranty claims because the laws of New Jersey, New York, and California required that the statement in question must have been part of the basis of the bargain and the evidence showed that not all class members would have actually seen the statement about pasteurization. Because "reason commands that an individual must actually see or hear a representation for it to become part of that individual's basis of the bargain," individualized proof would be necessary to determine whether putative class members actually saw the statement when purchasing TPP.
Relying on the Third Circuit's decision in Marcus v. BMW, Judge Martini also denied certification of the NJ CFA claims because individualized proofs would be required on the issue of causation. The court rejected the notion of applying a presumption of causation such that all consumers suffered an ascertainable loss because they paid for TPP but did not receive pasteurized orange juice. In this regard, the court explained that the evidence failed to demonstrate that class members all reacted to the pasteurization statements in a sufficiently similar manner, and survey evidence suggested that over 20% of consumers would purchase TPP even with the knowledge that it did not conform to the FDA's standard of identity.
Because New York and California apply an objective, "reasonable consumer" standard, individual issues would not necessarily predominate as they did with the NJ and common law claims. However, the court denied class certification of consumer protection claims under New York (GBL 349 and 350) and California (UCL, CLRA) laws, for failure to meet the Third Circuit's ascertainability standard. Plaintiffs could not show by a preponderance of the evidence that all or even a majority of class members could be identified. Data from potentially hundreds of retailers was the critical component in determining ascertainability. That data was not in the record and the court was skeptical that it could be obtained and would be reliable. In so holding, the court distinguished the Third Circuit's most recent ascertainability decision in City Select Auto Sales Inc. v. BMW Bank of N.A., finding the circumstances more akin to Carrera v. Bayer Corp., where defendant distributed all of its product through retailers.
Finally, the court denied plaintiffs' request to certify a Rule 23(b)(2) class for injunctive relief because none of the named plaintiffs expressed any certainty that they intend to purchase TPP in the future. Thus, they lacked standing to pursue injunctive relief because they could not show they were likely to suffer future injury from defendant's conduct, citing McNair v. Synapse Grp. Inc.
Michael R. McDonald is a Director in the Gibbons Commercial & Criminal Litigation Department.
Tags: Breach of WarrantyClass Certification DeniedRule 23(b)(2)Rule 23(b)(3)Unjust Enrichment

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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text:
Hermine Hug-Hellmuth
Hermine Hug-Hellmuth (born Hermine Hug Edle von Hugenstein; 31 August 1871, Vienna – 9 September 1924, Vienna) was an Austrian psychoanalyst. She is regarded as the first psychoanalyst practicing with children and the first to conceptualize the technique of psychoanalysing children.[1]
Her book, A Young Girl's Diary (1921), published in New York by Thomas Seltzer, was prefaced with an enthusiastic letter from Sigmund Freud dated 27 April 1915.[1][2] Hug-Hellmuth denied authorship, however, and published the diary under the pseudonym Grete Lainer. In 1923 Hug-Hellmuth ultimately accepted title of editor for the diary in the third German edition.[3][4] Written from a psychoanalyst perspective, the work which included Freudian theories to explain phenomena.[5] It was praised within the field of psychoanalysis. It is one of the most cited contributions to child psychoanalysis.[6]
She became a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society from 1913 to 1924 but was murdered by her nephew, Rudolf Hug, on 9 September 1924.[1] Rudolf later claimed that his life was ruined due to the psychoanalytical experiments Hug-Hellmuth performed on him. [7]
Her work influenced such notable psychoanalysts as Anna Freud, Melanie Klein, Jean Berges and Gabriel Balbo.
2 Late life and career
2.2 Implications of her final will and testament
3 Contributions to psychoanalysis
3.1 The Vienna Psychoanalytic Society
3.2 Relationships with other psychoanalysts
3.2.1 Sigmund Freud
3.2.2 Anna Freud
3.2.3 Melanie Klein
3.2.4 Jean Bergès and Gabriel Balbo
4 Diary scandal
4.1 A Young Girl's Diary
4.2 Response
5 Publications[18]
Early life and education[edit]
Hug-Hellmuth was born into a Catholic family, the second daughter of Hugo Hug Von Hugenstein, a military officer in the Austrian war ministry. He was father to an illegitimate daughter named Antonia Farmer who later went by the name Antonia Hug.[6]
Her mother, Ludovika Achepohl was a tutor before dying from a pulmonary disease speculated to be tuberculosis.[6]
She first trained to become a teacher before pursuing psychoanalysis.[8] Hug-Hellmuth became a teacher and taught in private and public school for several years before she returned to her studies and enrolled in University of Vienna in 1897. She studied physical sciences and in 1909, received her doctorate in physics.
She quit her teaching job in 1910 and became a patient of Isidor Sadger Viennese Analyst, who influenced her interest in psychoanalysis. Hug-Hellmuth published her first piece on psychoanalysis in the Zentralblatt fur Psyoanalyse in 1911 entitled "The Analysis of a Dream of 5-Year-Old Boy". In 1921, she became the director of the Educational Counselling Centre associated with the Psychoanalytic.[8]
Her name was not recorded much in official documents and was instead mentioned in English schools that were designed to "cure the children" through games. Hug-Hellmuth's study was about the polyporphically perverse child. She contributed ideas alongside Sigmund Freud in the research of child psychoanalysis. In the English schools, she devised 'games' involving drawing and writing. The games were designed to understand the unconscious minds of children. Her intention was to apply the results of the studies in adults when possible.[4]
Late life and career[edit]
Later on in her professional career, she did a research project called "From the life of the soul of the child. The time of the game" in 1913. The research project made her a pioneer in the field of psychoanalysis. The project was done to help assess the subconscious of children. Her project first started with observations on the children. The observation gave Hermine Hug-Hellmuth many ideas to work with. She would then mark the behaviors as either "sadism", "autosadism", "autoeroticism", "masochism" or "exhibitionism".[4]
In 1919, she presented the "psychoanalytic journal of a little girl" anonymously in Vienna. When it was published by Sandor Ferenczi, Lou Andreas Solome, and Stephan Zweig it received great success and was praised by Sigmund Freud as "little jewel". The document was very reminiscent of Freudian theories and others called it "too good to be true" such that several child specialists doubted how authentic it is. An English psychologist Cyril Burt thought that some scenes inside the diary were too long and could've taken five hours to write and its complexity and literary qualities would not be consistent with a child who supposedly wrote the diary. In response to the accusations, Hermine Hug-Hellmuth republished it under Burt's name and claimed that it is indeed written by a female teenager aged 11 to 14. Some doubts about its authenticity remained nevertheless even after her death.[5]
She later on shifted her perspective on the mater from "perverse polymorphic" child thesis which involved many sexual interpretations to that of child criminal or "psychopath" studies.
One of her projects before her death was on her own nephew who was born as an illegitimate child of her half-sister.[4] She took him in under her care after the death of her sister.[5] His name was Rudolf Otto Hug. She analyzed the letter written by her Rudolph in which she concluded that he portrayed a good part of sexual and sadistic curiosity in his act of piercing the wasp nest as he described in his letter. She emphasized criminal intent in most of her later studies.[4] She believed that he would either become a powerful "genie" or a "murderer".[5]
Her work on the "diary" that she accomplished in her early psychoanalytic career was removed from sale by Sigmund Freud in 1927 following her death.[5]
Death[edit]
In 1906, Hermine Hug-Hellmuth's half-sister Antoine Hug had an illegitimate child named Rudolf Otto Hug, known to friends and family as Rolf.[7][9] Many of Hug-Hellmuth's papers included observations of Rolf, such as his early development, behavior, and dreams.[10] He became an important research subject for Hug-Hellmuth, emerging as the major personality in her first book, Aus Dem Seelenleben des Kindes (On the Spiritual and Mental Life of the Child), published in 1913. She concluded in the book that Rolf's actions were based on abnormal sexual motives and tendencies.[7] Antoine Hug died on February 2, 1915, because of tuberculosis, leaving nine-year-old Rolf an orphan. She did not want Hug-Hellmuth to be Rolf's guardian, therefore, he was taken care of other people, although he did live with Hug-Hellmuth for some time.[9] Rolf was extremely angry with his aunt for many reasons, including his belief that Hug-Hellmuth never saw him as more than a guinea pig.[7] He became a delinquent and at the age of sixteen, attempted suicide. He was placed in an institution of adolescent delinquents in 1922 which he later got expelled in 1924. He started demanding more money from Hug-Hellmuth. On September 9, 1924, Hug-Hellmuth was found dead in her apartment.[9] She was strangled by her nephew Rolf while he was trying to steal money from her. He got convicted of murder and was sentenced to prison for 12 years, though he later granted parole in September 1930.[7][9] He immediately demanded money from Vienna Psychoanalytic Society through Pual Federn, who was a leading psychoanalyst and a close collaborator of Sigmund Freud, to compensate for the fact that his life was ruined because of his aunt's psychoanalytic experiments that were done on him.[7]
Implications of her final will and testament[edit]
In a will written a few days before her death, Hug-Hellmuth requested that no accounting of her life or work be published, even in academic publications on the psychoanalytic field.[8][11] This request is often cited as a reason for the lack of credit Hug-Hellmuth receives for her contributions in child psychoanalysis and lack of acknowledgement on the influence her work had on other contributors to the field.[11]
Contributions to psychoanalysis[edit]
The Vienna Psychoanalytic Society[edit]
The Vienna Psychoanalytic Society was initially named the Wednesday Evening Psychological Meetings before being re-branded in 1906, was started by Sigmund Freud in 1902 as a small informal gathering of minds in his practices' waiting room. Hermine Hug-Hellmuth was first recorded attending the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society on October 8, 1913 and remained an attendee until her death in 1924.[11]
A few weeks after her induction, on October 29, 1913, Hug-Hellmuth gave her first presentation to the group. Introducing two essays by Stanley Hall and His School, one on "rage" and the second on "dolls", Hug-Hellmuth gives commentary on the papers from the viewpoint of psychoanalysis.[11] While both essays held a focus on children, the writing on "dolls" held a great interest to Hug-Hellmuth concerning her studies on what play reveals about the psyche of a child. In the record of the group discussion following her presentation, members criticised the papers and Hall. Claiming fault in his methods of group study over analysis, and the belief that he was confusing concepts of the study and focusing on irrelevant information to conclude. Members rejected the more novel ideas about play and attachment, and how they relate to the child psyche. There is no recorded response from Hug-Hellmuth on the discussion held by the members after her presentation of the material.[11]
Relationships with other psychoanalysts[edit]
Sigmund Freud[edit]
To her further contribution on child psychoanalysis, Hug-Hellmuth anonymously published A Young Girl's Diary in 1921 which contained a Letter by Sigmund Freud written in 1915 that served as a preface to the book:[12]
"This diary is a gem. Never, I believe, has anything been written enabling us to see so clearly into the soul of a young girl, belong- ing to our social and cultural stratum, during the years of puber- tal development. ...We have a description at once so charming, so serious, and so artless that it cannot fail to be of supreme interest to educators and psychologists." "It is certainly incumbent on you to publish the diary. All students of my own writings will be grateful to you [p. 261]."[12]
Written from a Freudian theoretical perspective, the book supposedly contained the nature of the viewpoint of an adolescent girl whom Hug-Hellmuth at the time was treating.[13] Although the book caused a scandal as many people thought to be its contents as fabricated, A Young Girl's Diary was generally acknowledged as an interesting prospect of developing sexuality within a youthful adolescent.[12] Freud defended Hug-Hellmuth's work as legitimate which however was ultimately withdrawn in the German circulation due to its fraudulent speculations.[6]
Anna Freud[edit]
Hug-Hellmuth's psychoanalytical work had great influences on future psychoanalysts such as Anna Freud. Hug-Hellmuth started publishing her works in 1912, while Freud started publishing her first important works by 1927.[6] Although the contribution by Hug-Hellmuth is evident in her work, Freud provided seldom acknowledgment towards her input in the field of psychoanalysis, and had failed to credit Hug-Hellmuth in her book Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis, 1927 although there were many similar structural elements to Hug-Hellmuth's paper On the Technique of Child-Analysis, 1920.[6] Ultimately, Hug-Hellmuth's viewpoint regarding education and child-raising had given weight to Anna Freud's work in respect to her contributions on the ego, defence mechanisms, and prescriptive developmental lines, despite the unacknowledgement of Hug-Hellmuth as her predecessor.[6][14][15]
Melanie Klein[edit]
Klein was also influenced by Hug-Hellmuth's contribution to the field regarding child psychoanalysis. Like Anna Freud, Klein started publishing her first important works in 1927, while also unacknowledging Hug-Hellmuth's input in the field.[6] An appendix to Klein's work The Psycho-Analysis of Children by 'The Melanie Klein Trust' elaborated the introduction of the Psychoanalytic Play Technique by Klein herself in Berlin, and proposed that Hug-Hellmuth and Anna Freud had taken a different direction than her in the field of child psychoanalysis.[6][16] One of the only times Klein acknowledged Hug-Hellmuth was to criticize her technique on child play experimentation as it lacked fixed-rules within the session - a concept that Hug-Hellmuth believed to be beneficial.[6][16] Essentially, it can be seen in Melanie Klein's work regarding her contributions to child's transference and play technique that there is a depiction of impactful evidence by Hug-Hellmuth's significance in the psychoanalytical stream.[6][16]
Jean Bergès and Gabriel Balbo[edit]
Other Psychoanalysts have seen to have an impact by the contributions to the field of child psychoanalysis by Hug-Hellmuth. French Analysts Jean Bergès and Gabriel Balbo have highlighted her works regarding the participation of parents and transference in their book Psychoanalysis and the Child. Bergè and Balbo had recognized Hug-Hellmuth's approach to this concept as her own and ultimately added on to the theory in fine detail.[6]
Diary scandal[edit]
A Young Girl's Diary[edit]
Hermine Hug-Helmuth published A Young Girl's Diary in 1919 under the pseudonym Grete Lainer.[3][4] This book is one of her most famous publications despite her profuse denial of authorship. Her name was not credited in any way until the third German edition in 1923 where she accepted the title of editor. The book was prefaced by a letter from Sigmund Freud to Hug-Hellmuth which was dated April 27, 1915. In the preface, Freud expressed his admiration for her piece of work, calling it a "gem" that must be published.[3]
The diary was an account of a young girl's experiences as she matured from age 11 to 14.[17] Hellmuth claimed the diaries were written by a girl named Vera under the pseudonym Grete Lainer, and were intended for Grete's best friend Hella.[6][4] The book provided a detailed description of her relationships and maturing sexuality. It included the arguments she had with her older sister and the emotions she endured during her mother's passing.[3] Grete also explored her sexual curiosity when pulled over by a handsome police officer yet acknowledged the fear she had for intercourse.[6]
Response[edit]
A Young Girl's Diary was initially praised for its insight since it was uncommon for a book to provide detailed descriptions of an adolescent's life development through maturity. Hellmuth's book became a scandal after many accusations that the diaries were fraudulent. A persistent doubter of Hellmuth's work was Charlotte Buhler, a Professor of Child Psychology in Vienna who also found interest in children's diaries. She strongly opposed psychoanalysis and criticized the book for its clear psychoanalytic perspective that propagated Freud's ideas on sexuality in infants. Charlotte's students persisted even after Hug-Hellmuth's death in trying to prove that A Young Girl's Diary was written by an adult.[6]
Despite the heavily debated controversy, she sold 10, 000 copies and produced 2 English editions, 3 French editions, and 3 German editions. Her book is one of the most cited contributions to child psychoanalysis. Hug-Hellmuth's book is regarded within the field of psychoanalysis and was well received by the Psycho-Analytic Society of London. Sigmund Freud also supported and defended her work as legitimate, but it was not sufficient to prevent the German edition from being withdrawn. Throughout her whole life, Hug-Hellmuth never admitted to writing A Young Girl's Diary.[6]
Publications[18][edit]
1912 The Analysis of a Dream of a 51/2-Year-Old Boy
1912 Contributions to the Subject "Lapses in Writing and Reading"
1912 "A Lapse of Speech" in a Small Schoolboy
1912 The True Nature of the Child's Psyche: The Child's Concept of Death
1912 On Hearing Colours: An Attempt to Clarify the Phenomenon on the Basis of Psychoanalytical Methods
1913 On Female Masturbation
1913 The Mental Life of the Child: A Psychoanalytic Study
1913 On the True Nature of the Child's Psyche: On the First Memories of Childhood
1913 Claire Henrika Weber: "Liddy"
1913 Mother Love
1913 On the True Nature of the Child's Psyche
1913 Children's Dreams
1913 A Female Counterpart to Rank's "A Contribution to Infantile Sexuality"
1913 Child Misdemeanours and Naughtiness
1914 On the True Nature of the Child's Psyche: God and Father
1914 On the True Nature of the Child's Psyche: Children's Letters
1914 Child Psychology, Pedagogy
1915 A Dream About Oneself
1915 War Neurosis in Children
1915 War Neurosis in Women
1915 Some Relations Between Eroticism and Mathematics
1915 A Case of Female Foot Fetishism, or Rather, Shoe Fetishism
1917 On the True Nature of the Child's Psyche: On Early Learning and Maturity
1917 Mother-Son, Father-Daughter
1919 A Young Girl's Diary
1920 On the Technique of the Analysis of Children
1920 Child Psychology and Education
1920 The Technique of Child Analysis
1921 On the True Nature of the Child's Psyche: The "Middle" Child
1921 Psychoanalytical Findings About Women
1921 Correspondence between reviewer of his book (A Young Girl's Diary) and H. Hug-Hellmuth
1923 The Importance of the Family for the Fate of the Individual
1924 The Libidinal Structure of the Family
1924 Child Psychology and Pedagogy
1924 New Paths to the Understanding of Youth. Psychoanalytical Lectures for Parents, Teachers, Educators, Kindergarten Teachers and Social Workers
^ a b c Glenn, Jules. "Hermine Hug-Hellmuth, her Life and Work: Edited by George MacLean and Ulrich Rappen. New York and London: Routledge. 1991. Pp. 305". PEP Web. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
^ "A young girl's diary By Cedar Paul, Sigmund Freud 1923". Psychspace.com. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
^ a b c d Lebovici, Serge (2005-11-10). A History of Child Psychoanalysis. doi:10.4324/9780203013700. ISBN 9780203013700.
^ a b c d e f g Lenormand, Marie (2012). "Hug-Hellmuth or the Impasses of an Objectifying Conception of the Infantile". Recherches en Psychanalyse. 13 (1): 74. doi:10.3917/rep.013.0074. ISSN 1767-5448.
^ a b c d e Ohayon, Annick (November 11, 2019). "Games of mirrors, games of truth or games of dupes? The autobiography of a criminal seen by a psychoanalyst in 1950". Revue d'histoire de l'enfance "irrégulière".
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Plastow, Michael (2011). "Hermine Hug-Hellmuth, the First Child Psychoanalyst: Legacy and Dilemmas". Australasian Psychiatry. 19 (3): 206–210. doi:10.3109/10398562.2010.526213. ISSN 1039-8562. PMID 21682616.
^ a b c d e f "Hug-Hellmuth, Hermine (1871–1924) | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
^ a b c Drell, Martin J. (1982). "Hermine Hug-Hellmuth, A Pioneer in Child Analysis". Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic. 46 (2): 139–150. PMID 7052173. ProQuest 1298130651.
^ a b c d MacLean, George. (1990). Hug-Hellmuth : her life and work. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-90060-3. OCLC 22243610.
^ Maclean, George (1986). "A Brief Story about Dr. Hermine Hug-Hellmuth". The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 31 (6): 586–589. doi:10.1177/070674378603100618. ISSN 0706-7437. PMID 3530425.
^ a b c d e Balsam, Rosemary Marshall (2003). "Women of the Wednesday Society: The Presentations of Drs. Hilferding, Spielrein, and Hug-Hellmuth". American Imago. 60 (3): 303–342. doi:10.1353/aim.2003.0017. ISSN 1085-7931.
^ a b c Grinstein, Alexander; Hills, Beverly (1994). "Hermine Hug-Hellmuth: Her Life and Work". Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association. 42 (3): 901–904. doi:10.1177/000306519404200316. ISSN 0003-0651.
^ Larson, Wendy (2011). "The Freudian Subject and the Maoist Mind: The Diaries of Hermine Hug-Hellmuth and Lei Feng". Psychoanalysis and History. 13 (2): 157–180. doi:10.3366/pah.2011.0087. ISSN 1460-8235. PMID 21970021.
^ Freud, Anna (2018-04-17). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (revised ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429481550. ISBN 978-0-429-48155-0.
^ Freud, Anna (2018-03-22). Normality and Pathology in Childhood: Assessments of Development (1 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429477638. ISBN 978-0-429-47763-8.
^ a b c Klein, Melanie. (1997). The psycho-analysis of children. London: Vintage. ISBN 0-09-975291-3. OCLC 59613322.
^ Lebovici, Serge (2005-11-10). A History of Child Psychoanalysis (1 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203013700. ISBN 9780203013700.
^ (1986). The Published Works of Dr. Hermine Hug-Hellmuth [Letter to the editor]. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25(4), 580. ISSN 0002-7138
Works by or about Hermine Hug-Hellmuth at Internet Archive
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It's been quite a long we last saw Shahrukh Khan in a clean shaved look. The actor was last seen in a clean shaved look during the promotion of Dilwale. The King of Bollywood has been sporting a thick beard for the looks of his upcoming movies Raees and Gauri Shine's next. With the shooting of both these movies is completed, SRK has cut off his beard and is a chikna chikna munda now. SRK shared his new look on twitter with the following tweet.
On the work front, SRK will be next seen in 'Raees' slated for release on 26 Jan 2017. Reportedly, the actor will take some time off before starting his new movies with Aanand L. Rai and Imtiaz Ali.


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Q: Retrieve sources for all installed gems I'm in the process of switching all my projects over to using the rather wonderful rvm and bundler.  On one of them, i want to basically mirror the gem environment on the server which hosts the app.
In order to do this, i did the following:

*

*went onto the server

-did "gem list" which gave me a big list of gems like
actionmailer (2.2.2)
actionpack (2.2.2)
activerecord (2.2.2)
activeresource (2.2.2)
activesupport (2.2.2)
amatch (0.2.3)
archive-tar-minitar (0.5.2)
etc

*

*copied this into a new Gemfile in my local project folder

*did a bit of find and replace to change the format into the Gemfile-friendly format

*added the gem sources that i knew about to the top of the Gemfile

*did "bundle install"
-FAIL

The fail is happening because there's always some gem that can't be found because the source isn't specified.  So, what i was wondering was
a) on the server, is there any way to query the installed gems to get a list of the sources where each was installed from?
b) is this even a good way to do it?  Would it be better to somehow export the gems that are on the server, and install them directly in my new gemset, rather than try to install them from remote sources?  Or something else?
grateful for any advice - max

A: At the risk of stating the obvious, there are some gems being required in the Gemfile that are not available in the sources specified. At the top of the file there should be one or more sources:
source 'http://rubygems.org'

You could try adding
source "http://gems.rubyforge.org"

If bundler still can't find a gem, you could try googling the gem name - see if its been renamed or something. I'd be surprised if it wasn't out there, though, unless it was one you handrolled locally. If you're really stuck, you could copy the gem off the server and include it in the vendor/gems directory of your project, in which case you would need to specify its path in the Gemfile (see the bundler manual for that).
Bear in mind that you don't have to specify all your gem's dependencies; requiring rails will automatically require activerecord, activeresource etc. You can specify them if you like, but if you upgrade a dependent gem then you will have to edit the versions of the dependencies if they don't match.
To answer your original question, I don't believe there is a way of tracing the exact source of the gems installed on a machine.

A: You can use gem list -d and will list, at least the homepages

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Many Faiths at a Peaceful Conference is a photo published in The Graphic on 8 october 1927.
The photo reported the meetings held on 3 october 1927 at the City Temple of the Fellowship of Faiths gathered together in common "Tributes to Christianity" with notable representatives of eight different faiths, including a Buddhist, a Protestant, a Theosophist, a Spiritualist (Arthur Conan Doyle), a Jew, a Mohamedan, a Zoroastrian and an Hindu.
The meeting being organized by Kedar Nath Ras Gupta.
Many Faiths at a Peaceful Conference: Eight living world religions were represented at a meeting held this week at the City Temple, where the speakers gave addresses on what Christianity means to their different faiths. Sitting (from left to right) : Anagarika Dharmapala (Buddhist), Dr. F. W. Norwood (Protestant), Dr. Annie Besant (Theosophist), Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (Spiritualist), Rev. A. Green (Jew), Standing (from left to right) : Dr. A. D. Jilla (Mohamedan), Rev. Theodore Smith (Zoroastrian), Mr. S. N. Mallik (Hindu), and Mr. K. N. Das Gupta, the organizer of the meeting.
This page was last edited on 15 November 2017, at 22:00.


Primary 1/2's topic is Under The Sea and they were very lucky and got to go to Deep Sea World inNorth Queensferry. They all thought it was great because they got to see and feel some fish. Some people's favourite thing about it was the shark tunnel. P1/2 walked through the tunnel. It was dark but there were lights in the water and they could see sharks swimming above and around them!!! When they saw a shark, they had to put their hand on their head like a fin. They also saw a shark called Tinkerbelle. They all loved the trip and learned a lot about sea creatures.


There are some mistakes in this program. If you're completely new to Go, it may only be more confusing to have them explained, but all who wish to see them, please visit this page. Thanks to those who made it.


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Series: The Heroes of Olympus
The Lost Hero: The Graphic Novel
Jason has a problem. He doesn't remember anything before waking up on a school bus holding hands with a girl. Apparently she's his girlfriend Piper, his best friend is a kid named Leo, and they're all students in the Wilderness School, a boarding school for "bad kids." What he did to end up here, Jason has no idea—except that everything seems very wrong.
Piper has a secret. Her father has been missing for three days, and her vivid nightmares reveal that he's in terrible danger. Now her boyfriend doesn't recognize her, and when a freak storm and strange creatures attack during a school field trip, she, Jason, and Leo are whisked away to someplace called Camp Half-Blood. What is going on?
Leo has a way with tools. His new cabin at Camp Half-Blood is filled with them. Seriously, the place beats Wilderness School hands down, with its weapons training, monsters, and fine-looking girls. What's troubling is the curse everyone keeps talking about, and that a camper's gone missing. Weirdest of all, his bunkmates insist they are all—including Leo—related to a god.
Disney Hyperion 9781423163251
Rick Riordan is the #1 New York Times bestselling author of the Percy Jackson and the Olympians series, the Kane Chronicles, the Heroes of Olympus, and Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard
About Rick Riordan
Parent Teacher Resources
Greek Gods Event Kit
Map of Camp Half-Blood
Map of Camp Jupiter
Map of Camp Half-Blood Cabins
Explore Argo II
Chiron's Guide to Greek Mythology
Meet the Greek Gods
Daily Activity Schedule
Percy's Progress Report
Heroes of Olympus Series Guide
View All Parent Teacher Resources


Auction Action – 03/11: We will make you pay!
Fixing Oz Banks Pt 7: What should be the role of the RBA?
Auction Action – 28/10: Call a plumber!!
ALP and Negative Gearing: Why risk it?
RBA Watch: Unintended and Intended consequences!
Auction Action – 7/10: How crook is the housing market?
RBA Watch – Money Money Money!
Fixing Oz Banks Pt 5: What happens next….more small steps.
100% safety for your savings? The RBA will not allow it.


A real find in the centre of Brighton and so close to the Beach. One of our most luxurious properties, an exquisite & stylish four storey house, sleeping up to 12 guests. Interior designed to an exceptional standard using stunning original wallpaper together with Farrow and Ball paints.
Kitchen/Dining - Spacious, open plan, high spec kitchen with a sociable lounge/dining area, perfect for large groups. Dining table seats 12. Wall mounted TV and iPod dock.
An additional utility area at the back of the kitchen provides more storage space, plus a washing machine and tumble dryer.
Patio - Accessed through double doors from the Kitchen, complete with table and chairs for 6.
Living Room - Two sofas to seat 6. Large flat screen TV with Sky+, DVD player and surround sound system. WiFi access.
Cloakroom - WC, wash basin and coat rack.
Bedroom One - Sleeps 1, small double bed.
Bedroom Two - Sleeps 4, two sets of single bunk beds. CD/MP3 player.
Bedroom Three - Sleeps 2, double bed. En suite shower room with wash basin and WC.
Family Bathroom - Bath, separate shower, wash basin and WC.
Bedroom Four - Sleeps 2, twin beds.
Bedroom Five - Sleeps 3, double bed and single bed. En suite shower room with wash basin and WC. There is also a trouser press in this room.
High chair and two travel cots available.
There are six steps up to the front door, from street level. The property is arranged over four floors.
There is no parking available with this property. There are on-street meters and the nearest car park is at Regency Square. For alternative parking ideas, please visit yourparkingspace.co.uk and use the code CROWN10 to receive a 10% discount.
As soon as we entered the house, it felt stunning. The owners have recently redecorated with new luxurious carpets throughout. The house was so warm and welcoming. It was a perfect space for our 2 families. I would highly recommend this home if you are coming to have fun in Brighton.
– 5 Stars, TripAdvisor. June 2018.
11 of us across 3 generations ranging from 4 weeks to 65 years old stayed here. It has everything for this sort of holiday, a wow factor on entering with excellent large kitchen diner and living room (only quibble was that could have done with more chairs in lounge), comfortable bedrooms, very clean, perfect location near to beach, shops and car park. Sillwood Road is surprisingly quiet at night (often stayed in Brighton hotels and been kept awake by drunken revelers in early hours). Wary of extolling its virtues too much in case they put price up before we return next year, which indeed we will!
Beautiful house with loads of space! 11 of us stayed here for a hen party and it was a lovely bright, clean house. Even with that many people there was lots of communal space and the fact there was a large kitchen was great.
– April 2016. TripAdvisor, 5 stars.
A really beautifully designed house, very comfortable and a great location - close to the sea - the kids loved it.
Such a big house and we truly did have one of our best Christmases ever, location was fantastic, house was very warm and accommodating.
We had a lovely weekend thank you! We thoroughly enjoyed our stay and everyone thought the house was great! We all loved the burlesque class, so thank you for that recommendation - it worked out perfectly & Rebecca was great! Jamie our butler was lovely & again everyone said how nice he was, so thank you for making our job of organising the weekend so much easier. We will definitely keep your details for our next trip down to Brighton.
Learn the basic techniques of Oriental cooking.


text:
Derek Blok (31 december 1960) is een Nederlandse musicalzanger, acteur, danser en choreograaf.

Blok volgde de dansopleiding aan de Rotterdamse Dansakademie en volgde zanglessen bij Frits Hassoldt aan het Rotterdams Conservatorium.

Hij speelde diverse rollen in musicals in vele landen. Zo stond hij in Antwerpen op het podium als Feuilly, de Bisschop en Marius in "Les Miserables", speelde Myron en Artie Green in de musical "Sunset Boulevard" in Duitsland en trad op in Los Angeles als Raoul in de musical "Phantom of the Opera", Billy in 42nd Street, de Conferencier in "Cabaret", ensemble en understudy Lucheni in "Elisabeth" en in Nederland ensemble en understudy Harry en Sam in "Mamma Mia!" en ensemble en understudy Lumiere in "Beauty and the Beast". Ook zong hij in het ensemble "Cabaret du Casino" van het Casino van Monte Carlo.

Als danser trad hij op in het Lido en de Moulin Rouge in Parijs en ging op tournee in het buitenland met de Paris Revue Show. Blok debuteerde als acteur in de rol van Gimietto in "Anja en Esther" van Klaus Mann door theatergroep F Act uit Rotterdam.

In Frankrijk zong hij met Line Renaud tijdens haar 40-jarig jubileum op televisie, werkte als medewerker mee aan de televisieprogramma's "Champs-Elysees" en "Start '90" en werkte als choreograaf mee aan het liedjes programma op televisie "La Chance aux Chansons."

In 2002 was Blok deelnemer aan de derde serie van het survival televisieprogramma "Expeditie Robinson" waar hij uiteindelijk de winnaar werd.

Momenteel (2006) is Blok docent musicaldans aan de Frank Sanders Academie te Amsterdam. Ook regisseert hij de nieuwe musical 'Moulin Rouge'.

Nederlands acteur
Nederlands choreograaf
Nederlands danser
Nederlands zanger
Nederlands musicalacteur

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
WHO says "second wave" covid-19 lockdowns should not be "primary means" of controlling virus
Tuesday, October 13, 2020 by: Ethan Huff
Tags: badhealth, badmedicine, badscience, CCP, China, China Virus, Chinese Communist Party, Chinese military, Chinese Virus, coronavirus, covid-19, infections, lockdown, lockdowns, novel coronavirus, outbreak, pandemic, Plandemic, Public Health, quarantine, second wave, WHO, World Health Organization, Wuhan coronavirus
(Natural News) The looming threat of a second wave of lockdowns in response to an alleged second wave of the Wuhan coronavirus (covid-19) has prompted the World Health Organization (WHO) to urge governments not to make the same mistake they did back in the spring by keeping everyone locked up inside their homes for weeks on end.
Speaking to The Spectator in a powerful interview that aired on Oct. 8, David Nabarro explained that lockdowns are simply not the best approach to dealing with the Wuhan coronavirus (covid-19) because they ultimately cause more problems than they supposedly remedy.
"We in the World Health Organization do not advocate lockdowns as the primary means of control of this virus," Nabarro is quoted as saying by The Epoch Times.
"The only time we believe a lockdown is justified is to buy you time to reorganize, regroup, rebalance your resources, protect your health workers who are exhausted, but by and large, we'd rather not do it."
The collateral damage caused by lockdowns is mostly felt by the poor, Nabarro warns, as those on the lower end of the socioeconomic spectrum are dealt the heaviest blow financially. Meanwhile, those at the higher end suffer very little beyond a few minor inconveniences.
Poorer areas of the world that rely on tourism as a major economic driver are also suffering immensely, as far fewer people are traveling for holiday these days. This is causing the economies of poorer nations to collapse, with no end in sight.
"Just look at what's happened to the tourism industry, for example in the Caribbean or in the Pacific, because people aren't taking their holidays," Nabarro noted, adding that smallholder farmers are also suffering due to their markets getting "dented" by the continued lockdowns.
"Look what's happening to poverty levels," he further stated. "It seems that we may well have a doubling of world poverty by next year. Seems that we may well have at least a doubling of child malnutrition because children are not getting meals at school and their parents, in poor families, are not able to afford it."
Coronavirus lockdowns a "terrible, ghastly global catastrophe," Nabarro warns
The nations of the world should seek other methods of containing the Wuhan coronavirus (covid-19) that do not involve shutting down entire economies and ruining people's livelihoods, Nabarro contends. In his view, the lockdowns alone are "a terrible, ghastly global catastrophe" that simply cannot be repeated a second time.
"Stop using lockdown as your primary control method, develop better systems for doing it, work together and learn from each other, but remember – lockdowns just have one little consequence that you must never ever belittle, and that is making poor people an awful lot poorer," he insists.
Nabarro is one of many leading scientists and experts who oppose any further lockdowns in response to the Wuhan coronavirus (covid-19). Many of them have signed the Great Barrington Declaration, which states that "current lockdown policies are producing devastating effects on short and long-term public health."
Keep in mind that failed presidential candidate Hillary Clinton must be throwing a fit in response to this news, seeing has how she declared back in May that those who oppose lockdowns are "domestic terrorists."
Such "terrorists," based on her definition, include not just Nabarro but also Dr. Martine Kulldorff, a professor of medicine at Harvard University and biostatistician and epidemiologist who specializes in detecting and monitoring infectious disease outbreaks and vaccine safety evaluations.
"The most compassionate approach that balances the risks and benefits of reaching herd immunity is to allow those who are at minimal risk of death to live their lives normally to build up immunity to the virus through natural infection, while better protecting those who are at highest risk," the declaration further states.
You can access the latest news about the Wuhan coronavirus (covid-19) at Pandemic.news.
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https://www.naturalnews.com/2020-10-13-who-second-wave-covid19-lockdowns-not-primary-means.html
WHO says "second wave" covid-19 lockdowns should not be "primary means" of controlling virus


There aren't enough horror-based computer games. For a medium that relies so heavily on creating a tense atmosphere, pumping the player with adrenalin and turning a couple of hours in front of a monitor into a memorable experience, the PC games market has produced remarkably few horror titles.
Adventures like Phantasmagoria, The 7th Guest and Gabriel Knight are hardly milestones in gaming history, while the more effective Resident Evil series is really a PlayStation game (like Silent Hill). If you're after some real scares on your desktop, you need to look towards the pure action of 3D shoot 'em ups Half-Life and Aliens Vs Predator, where screaming like a second-rate actress becomes a common occurrence.
What we want is a dark and gritty game, full of zombies, vampires and werewolves, plenty of gore and dangling limbs and graphics to - quite literally - die for. And that's exactly what Nocturne is.
Set in the 1930s, in the era of Prohibition, you can play either as the gun-wielding Stranger (a mysterious fellow who looks like a private eye, complete with shabby raincoat) or the close combat specialist Doc Holliday, a woman of scientific genius. Both belong to Spookhouse, a government organisation established at the turn of the century by Theodore Roosevelt to investigate paranormal activities and confront the evil legions of darkness (well, you wouldn't expect them to be friendly, would you?).
There are bucketloads of NPCs to interact with, including other members of Spookhouse, who will aid you on your way. Among these are a Cajun voodoo master, a former heavyweight boxer and a halfvampire, all of whom boast unique abilities that will help you to progress through the game. There are missions to complete and objects to use and collect, but you don't need to do things in order - you have the freedom to go off exploring and relieving the world of monsters in the most amusing ways you can think of, if that's what you want to do.
It all sounds very good, and it looks even better. Terminal Reality have created an amazing engine that will undoubtedly be used by other developers over the next year, and which caused our jaws to drop in a dribbling mess when we saw it in action. The backgrounds are pre-rendered, but everything else (such as lightning, shadows, fog and reflections) is in real time. We commented on how good the animation of the Stranger's flapping coat is, only to be told that it flutters in real time according to the movements of the character. No matter how much action there is, you can count on shadows playing out everyone's motions against the walls or floor, and the way you uncover darkness gradually with your flashlight is nail-bitingly gorgeous.
On one level, you start in total darkness, until you turn on your torch and start waving it about the room, desperately trying to work out where those growls are coming from.
Dead monsters don't vanish from the scenery, and neither does their blood, so other creatures can track you down by following your trail. Your weapons leave their mark, too, and you can even spell your name on the wall with machine-gun bullets. Nocturne has certainly made an impression on us, and we'll bring you an in-depth preview very soon.


Located next to the church in Santa Mariña.
STAY HERE! The place is spotless, owners are friendly, and food is incredible. There are flies, but no more than you would expect given it is in the countryside.
Lovely albergue, the dorm room is split into three sections that are partially walled off so I lucked out and got a non-bunk bed in a section with just two other beds. Clean sheets, blankets provided, very cozy with a fireplace in the bar downstairs, bathrooms were also clean. I thought the owners were very kind and gracious. The food and coffee was good too. Definitely recommend.


text:
Q: Как сместить элемент Navigation Menu
Как элемент меню сместить в самый низ?

A: Стандартными средствами сделать это невозможно (конечно, на самом деле, можно, но только ужасными костылями), т.к. меню предполагает, что все элементы идут последовательно и имеют одинаковые правила отображения.
Вам надо при малейшем отходе от стандартных виджетов делать полностью свою разметку. Т.е., например, использовать RecyclerView для отображения списка пунктов меню, а выход сделать вне RecyclerView, обернув обоих в LinearLayout, например, выставив нужные параметры высоты для RecyclerView (вес 1 и высоту 0dp).