Oxidative stress, specifically lipid peroxidation, is believed to contribute to the pathophysiology of asthma. This review highlights the pathways through which reactive oxygen species (ROS) may lead to lipid peroxidation. The potential of both the innate and acquired immune systems to activate inflammatory cells and release ROS that may overwhelm the host antioxidant defences and cause lipid peroxidation, accompanied by detrimental pathophysiological effects, are discussed.
Despite the evidence demonstrating the importance of lipid peroxidation, systematic characterisation of oxidative stress and antioxidant defences has not been undertaken, largely due to the lack of appropriate biomarkers. This review discusses the emergence of isoprostanes (specifically 8‐isoprostaglandin F2α) as reliable, in vivo markers of lipid peroxidation, which provides an appropriate tool for studying oxidative stress. Furthermore, the development of techniques to study induced sputum and breath condensate, derived directly from the airway surface, enables the site of oxidative damage to be closely assessed.
Evidence suggests that dietary changes that have occurred over recent years have increased susceptibility to lipid peroxidation, due to reduced antioxidant defences. To date, the limited number of longterm (>1 week) supplementation trials have been promising. However, the development of techniques to study isoprostanes in airwaylining fluid pave the way for further studies investigating the potential for antioxidant supplements to be used as routine therapy in asthma.
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways, involving variable airflow obstruction and increased airway responsiveness to a variety of stimuli 1. The airway mucosal inflammatory response in asthma is characterised by increased vascular permeability with oedema of airway walls, mucus hypersecretion with small airway plugging and infiltration by inflammatory cells, typically eosinophils. Asthma prevalence has increased dramatically in recent years 2. Epidemiological evidence suggests that changes in diet, in particular reduced antioxidant intake, have contributed to increases in asthma prevalence and severity and raises the possibility that dietary interventions may improve asthma 3. While oxidant damage is an established consequence of inflammation, the role of antioxidants and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in asthmatic airway inflammation is illdefined and needs further exploration. Progress in this area has been limited by the lack of sensitive and specific biomarkers of oxidative stress. Isoprostanes are a group of recently discovered lipid peroxidation products that may contribute to many of the pathophysiological changes seen in asthma. This paper reviews recent data on the effects of isoprostanes in asthma and their place as biomarkers of oxidative stress.
Oxidative stress describes the damage that occurs when ROS overwhelm the antioxidant defences of the host. Oxidative stress may play an important role in the pathophysiology of asthma 1, 4 and may be a final common pathway leading to tissue damage. Figure 1⇓ is a simplified description of how exposure to a variety of different substances such as allergens, gaseous pollutants, chemicals, drugs, bacteria and viruses 5 leads to the recruitment and activation of inflammatory cells in asthmatic airways, including mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, lymphocytes, macrophages and platelets. As indicated in figure 1⇓, allergenspecific reactions involving the acquired immune system are characterised by the production of interleukin (IL)‐5 and the subsequent recruitment and activation of eosinophils. In contrast, stimuli that act via the innate immune system lead to the production of IL‐8 and the subsequent recruitment and activation of neutrophils. However, both of these pathways lead to the production of ROS, primarily due to the respiratory burst of activated inflammatory cells.
Mechanisms leading to lipid peroxidation in asthma. IL: interleukin; Th2: T‐helper type‐2 cells; NO2: nitrogen dioxide; ROS: reactive oxygen species; O2·−: superoxide; H2O2: hydrogen peroxide; ·OH: hydroxyl radical; NADPH: reduced nicotinamideadenine dinucleotide phosphate; NADP: nicotinamideadenine dinucleotide phosphate; SOD: superoxide dismutase; EPO: eosinophil peroxidase; MPO: myeloperoxidase; NF: nuclear transcription factor.
Activated inflammatory cells respond with a "respiratory burst", which involves the uptake of oxygen and subsequent release of ROS into surrounding cells. During the respiratory burst, a reduced nicotinamideadenine dinucleotide phosphatedependent superoxidegenerating system is activated and releases superoxide (O2·−) into the cell. A dismutation reaction, catalysed by superoxide dismutase (SOD) then results in the production of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which, in the presence of halide ions (i.e. I−, Cl−, Br−), will react to form a hypohalous acid (e.g. HOCl/HOBr). In eosinophils, this reaction is catalysed by eosinophil peroxidase (EPO). In neutrophils, this reaction is catalysed by myeloperoxidase. HOCl/HOBr may then react with O2·− or Fe2+ to produce another strong oxidant, probably the hydroxyl radical (·OH). Thus, during this "respiratory burst", the inflammatory cells have released high concentrations of O2·−, ·OH, HOCl/HOBr and H2O2 that may leak into surrounding cells resulting in increased quantities of free radicals in airway tissues. Furthermore, the inflammatory cells of asthmatics have an increased capability to generate free radicals compared to controls, which further contributes to high concentrations of ROS 6–8. Excess reactive nitrogen species (RNS) may also be produced by asthmatics. Cytokines may stimulate increased production of nitrosyl (NO·) 9 which reacts with O2·− to form peroxynitrite, a cytotoxic species that has many damaging effects, including lipid oxidation 10. NO· can also be converted to nitrite, which can oxidise proteins. This may be through nitration of tyrosine, in a reaction catalysed by EPO 11. Elevated nitrotyrosine levels have been observed in asthmatics 12. Thus, the excess quantities of ROS and RNS that are produced by asthmatics may overcome the host antioxidant defences and cause oxidative stress.
Oxidative stress can have many detrimental effects on airway function, including airway smooth muscle contraction 13, induction of airway hyperresponsiveness 14, 15, mucus hypersecretion 16, 17, epithelial shedding 18 and vascular exudation 19, 20. Furthermore, ROS can induce cytokine and chemokine production through induction of the oxidative stresssensitive transcription of nuclear factorκB in bronchial epithelial cells 21.
Peroxidation of membrane lipids leads to the production of isoprostanes, a recently discovered series of bioactive prostaglandin (PG)F2like compounds. Isoprostanes are produced independently of the cyclooxygenase enzymes via the peroxidation of arachidonic acid, catalysed by free radicals. This pathway has the potential to form 64 isomeric structures, of which 8‐isoPGF2α is the most well characterised. Isoprostanes have significant biological activity (table 1⇓). Evidence suggests that 8‐isoPGF2α may act in part through the vascular thromboxane A2/PGH2 (TP) receptor 31. However, it has been suggested that 8‐isoPGF2α may also act through a novel receptor, closely related to but distinct from the TP receptor, with a high specificity for 8‐isoPGF2α 32. 8‐isoPGF2α has been found to be a potent constrictor of smooth muscle. This effect has been observed in vitro in human and guinea pig airways 22 as well as in cultured rat aortic smooth muscle 23. 8‐isoPGF2α has also been shown to elicit airway hyperresponsiveness in isolated perfused mouse lungs 24, and cause airway obstruction and airway plasma exudation in guinea pigs in vivo 25. Another isoprostane isomer, 8‐isoPGE2, has been shown to produce physiological responses similar to 8‐isoPGF2α, but at reduced potency 33. These experiments invite speculation about the contribution of isoprostanes to the airway narrowing that is characteristic of asthma. While the situation in humans in vivo may be different, the full impact of elevated isoprostane levels on pulmonary function remains to be established, and in addition to being a reliable marker of lipid peroxidation, isoprostanes may prove to have an important biological role in the pathophysiology of asthma.
Direct measurement of oxidants is difficult since they are highly reactive, shortlived species. Thus, oxidative stress is often measured by observing the damage inflicted by oxygen radicals upon various biomolecules, such as lipids, proteins or deoxyribonucleic acid. Aspects of the antioxidant defence system are also often examined as an indirect marker of oxidative stress. Lipid peroxidation is of particular significance in asthma (fig. 1⇑). Table 2⇓ summarises some of the studies that have investigated lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defences in asthma.
Recently published data from the authors' laboratory 28 demonstrated elevated lipid peroxidation in asthma, as measured by 8‐isoPGF2α (fig. 2⇓). There is overlap between the healthy and asthmatic groups, due to the least severe asthmatics (infrequent episodic) demonstrating median 8‐isoPGF2α concentrations similar to normal values, while the persistent asthmatics demonstrated median 8‐isoPGF2α concentrations 3–4 times the normal group 28. This data is supported by other researchers 29 who have observed elevated 8‐isoPGF2α in breath condensate of asthmatics. Further evidence that allergeninduced asthma involves ROS and lipid peroxidation is the increase in urinary and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid isoprostanes following an allergen challenge 30. The increased isoprostane concentration in BAL fluid 24 h after the challenge provides direct evidence that isoprostanes are produced in airway tissue and may contribute to the physical effects observed during the late response.
Plasma 8‐isoprostaglandin (PG)F2α concentrations in asthmatics (n=15) versus controls (n=15). Plot shows median (horizontal bar through box) and interquartile range 28. #: p=0.042.
Other lipid peroxidation products have also been measured in asthma. Thiobarbituric acidreactive substances (TBARS) measure the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA), an end product of the oxidation and decomposition of polyunsaturated fatty acids containing three or more double bonds. Elevated MDA levels have been observed in both plasma 34–37 and breath condensate in asthmatics 38. Ethane is produced following lipid peroxidation of n‐3 fatty acids and elevated ethane levels have been reported in breath condensate of asthmatics 39. Exhaled pentane levels, produced following peroxidation of n‐6 fatty acids, were not different to controls 40.
Antioxidant deficiencies have been frequently reported in asthmatics. The data is inconsistent, possibly due to variations in disease severity, diet, analytical techniques and body fluids being measured. However, overall, an antioxidant deficiency is indicated. Reports of nonenzymatic antioxidant deficiency include vitamin C (plasma/serum 35, 41, 42, whole blood 36 and BAL fluid 43), vitamin E (BAL fluid 43, bronchial wash 43, plasma/serum 35, 36 and erythrocytes 44) and β‐carotene (serum 35). Glutathione (GSH) is a key antioxidant in the lining fluid of the respiratory tract. Disturbed GSH status is reported in asthma, with total 45 and oxidised 43 GSH being elevated in BAL fluid and reduced GSH being elevated in erythrocytes 42. This suggests that GSH synthesis and/or transport has increased in response to the presence of excess oxidants and has subsequently been oxidised as it performs its antioxidant role. A compensatory but probably inadequate increase in GSH has been reported in other conditions of oxidative stress 64, 65.
Reports on enzymatic antioxidant status in asthma are also inconsistent. SOD and glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx) form an important part of the antioxidant defence system. SOD catalyses the dismutation of O2·− into oxygen and hydroperoxide, which is then acted upon by GSHPx to form water. SOD activity has been reported to be increased 46, decreased 36, 47–51 or unchanged 28, 44, 45, 52, 53 in asthmatics compared with controls. Zn, a cofactor of SOD, has also been reported to be decreased 28, 54 or unchanged 55. Similarly, GSHPx activity has been reported to be decreased 36, 44, 53, 56–61 or unchanged 28, 47–49, 51, 52, 57, 60, 62 in asthmatics, with Se, a cofactor of GSHPx, being decreased 28, 57, 60–62 or unchanged 49, 57, 62. Catalase, another antioxidant enzyme, has also been reported to have low activity 36, 52 or unchanged 44, 47, 48, 51. While the data are difficult to compare due to differences in the disease severity, blood components and body fluids being measured, it is clear that overall, the status of the antioxidant enzymes and their cofactors is often altered in asthma, indicating a disturbed oxidant/antioxidant balance.
There are a number of reports on oxidative stress in asthma, involving other markers such as direct measurement of ROS or protein oxidation, rather than lipid peroxidation. Some examples include elevated breath condensate levels of carbon monoxide 66, nitric oxide 12, 39, 44, 66, 67, nitrotyrosine 12 and H2O2 38, 66. These data provide further evidence of oxidative stress in asthma.
The data previously published by the current authors also indicated that asthma severity is related to the extent of lipid peroxidation 28, with a positive association between 8‐isoPGF2α concentrations and disease severity. A similar trend was recently reported by Montuschi et al. 29 who also reported that 8‐isoPGF2α levels increased in breath condensate as asthma severity increased. A recent study by Paredi et al. 39 also provides evidence that lipid peroxidation is related to asthma severity. This study demonstrated that concentrations of exhaled ethane were increased in patients with more severe bronchoconstriction (forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) <60%), compared with lessconstricted patients (FEV1>60%). These relationships between markers of oxidative stress (in particular 8‐isoPGF2α) and disease severity suggest that such tests may indicate the clinical status of asthma patients. Further work is needed to determine reference ranges for oxidative stress biomarkers (including isoprostanes) in asthmatics of various disease severities and clinical status if they are to become a useful clinical tool.
Elevated 8‐isoPGF2α concentrations have been observed in a variety of respiratory diseases, including cystic fibrosis 68, 69, interstitial lung diseases 70, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 71, 72 and asthma 28, 29. It is likely that the mechanisms leading to oxidative stress vary according to the disease, thus this review article focuses on asthma. The discovery of isoprostanes has generated much interest, as they provide a reliable index of oxidative stress in vivo. Isoprostanes are structurally stable, are produced in vivo and are present in relatively high concentrations 73. Thus, they overcome many of the methodological problems associated with other markers. Most methods previously available to assess oxidative stress in vivo suffer from a lack of specificity and/or sensitivity and are unreliable. Detectable levels of F2‐isoprostanes can be found in all normal animal and human biological fluids (including plasma, urine, bile, gastric juice, synovial fluid and cerebrospinal fluid), and esterified in normal animal tissues. Levels of F2‐isoprostanes detected exceed those of cyclooxygenasederived prostanoids by one to two orders of magnitude 74. Indeed, as a marker of oxidative stress, 8‐isoPGF2α determination of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)induced lipid peroxidation has been shown to be 20 times more sensitive than measurement of TBARS 73.
In models of oxidant injury, levels of F2‐isoprostanes free in the circulation and esterified to tissue phospholipids are dramatically increased. For example, excretion of F2‐isoprostanes in the bile of normal rats after administration of CCl4 was observed to increase in a dosedependent manner 75. Hepatotoxic doses of CCl4 have also caused hepatic lipidesterified F2‐isoprostanes to increase up to 200fold within 1 h 76. Awad et al. 76 also studied specific halothaneinduced lipid peroxidation in rats. A fourfold increase in plasma F2‐isoprostanes and an 11fold increase in liver F2‐isoprostanes was observed.
Isoprostanes are stable when stored at −70°C for up to 6 months 77. The most common methods of quantifying isoprostanes are gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GCMS) and enzyme immunoassay (EIA). EIA is available in kit form and thus is a very quick, simple and costeffective technique. The values of total 8‐isoPGF2α observed in the authors' laboratory in normal plasma using the EIA method 28, 68 were similar to those obtained by Morrow et al. 78 using GCMS. Batchtobatch variability is minimised using standard curves with each assay plate. The major disadvantage of EIA kits is that the kits available at present only contain antibodies specific for the 8‐isoPGF2α isomer. GCMS has the advantage of being able to detect the multiple isomeric forms of isoprostanes. However, the equipment is costly and not widely available and the sample preparation protocols are time and labour intensive 33. Thus, the use of specific immunoassays have expanded research in this area, with several recent studies reportedly using the EIA methodology 28, 29, 70, 71, 79, 80.
The reliability of isoprostanes as in vivo markers of lipid peroxidation makes them an extremely valuable tool for defining the potential of antioxidant agents 81. There are numerous opportunities for trials to examine the effects of antioxidants in preventing or ameliorating the pathology of diseases in which oxidative stress is implicated. Measurement of isoprostanes can provide information regarding which doses or combinations of antioxidants are maximally effective. Several studies have demonstrated that isoprostane levels can be suppressed using antioxidants. Administration of high doses of an antioxidant combination (including vitamin C, E and β‐carotene) in humans for 2 weeks reduced formation of isoprostanes by 25–55% 81. Similarly, a trial in which subjects received high doses of vitamin E for 2 weeks reduced isoprostane levels by 37% 81. Another trial including patients with hepatorenal syndrome revealed that infusion with SOD in three patients resulted in a 50% decrease in circulation levels of F2‐isoprostanes, only 30–60 min after initiating the infusion 73. Furthermore, F2‐isoprostane levels are increased in animals deficient in natural antioxidants, even without additional oxidant stress 73. The isoprostanes have emerged as an effective method of quantifying the potential of antioxidants to inhibit lipid peroxidation.
Evidence has been presented to show that oxidised dietary fat does not interfere with isoprostane measurement. In a study by Gopaul et al. 82, a highfat, fastfood meal did not contribute to the shortterm postprandial concentrations of plasma 8‐isoPGF2α. This is probably due to a dilution effect, as the quantity of 8‐isoPGF2α obtained from a highfat meal when diluted into the circulating blood volume is small compared with endogenous levels. This data is supported by others 74, 83, who have also shown that urinary concentrations of 8‐isoPGF2α were unlikely to be compromised by diet.
There has been some suggestion that 8‐isoPGF2α may also be produced enzymatically by cyclooxygenase activity by some cells and tissues in vitro 84, which raises questions regarding the validity of isoprostanes as a marker of oxidative stress. Monocytes and platelets have shown the ability to synthesise 8‐isoPGF2α via both cyclooxygenase and free radicalcatalysed mechanisms in vitro 85. However, the quantities produced enzymatically appear to be trivial compared with the overall 8‐isoPGF2α synthesis 86. Furthermore, enzymatic production does not appear to occur in humans in vivo 72.
Although biomarkers such as concentrations of MDA, breath alkanes, hydroperoxides and others are satisfactory in many circumstances, they have met criticism by a number of investigators, particularly when examining oxidative stress in vivo 87, 88. These tests have limited specificity and/or sensitivity for oxidative stress or may be unreliable when applying the techniques to human subjects 87.
MDA concentrations are often determined using the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) assay. MDA is an end product of the oxidation and decomposition of polyunsaturated fatty acids containing three or more double bonds. MDA is derived from TBA to form the MDATBA adduct. This adduct is most commonly quantified using a spectrophotometric assay 88. There have been concerns about the specificity and validity of the TBARS assay 87, 88. The reasons for concern include possible interference with haemoglobin or biliverdin present in the sample, the heating condition during the assay, the presence of iron in the reagents used for analysis, rapid metabolism of MDA and the fact that MDA represents <1% of lipid peroxides 88. Thus, it is not recommended to be used as a sole index of lipid peroxidation 89. Some investigators are now measuring MDA directly, by using highperformance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to separate MDA from other interfering chromagens, thus improving specificity 90. However, this approach does not overcome all the limitations of the MDA method.
Primary peroxidation products of lipids can be detected in plasma using HPLC or GCMS. The instability of lipid hydroperoxides can make measurements difficult, as they are readily broken down into alkenes and aldehydes 88.
This noninvasive technique involves measuring pentane exhalation as the end product of (n‐6) fatty acid peroxidation and ethane exhalation as the end product of (n‐3) fatty acid peroxidation 88. The test may be misleading, as hydrocarbon gas production depends on the presence of metal ions to decompose lipid peroxides. If such ions are only available in limited amounts, this index may be inaccurate 91. Other problems include contamination of the atmosphere by these gases, the metabolism of pentane in the liver by cytochrome P450 88, 91 and the concentration of oxygen in vivo, which affects gas production 91.
The resistance of low density lipoproteins (LDL) to induced oxidative stress has been established as a model for studying the protection of polyunsaturated fatty acids by antioxidants in vivo 92. When isolated LDL is exposed to Cu2+ as a prooxidant under standardised conditions, the lag time preceding the onset of lipid peroxidation formation indicates resistance of LDL to oxidative stress. This test is also subject to criticism as it cannot be known for certain whether the in vitro situation accurately reflects in vivo events.
Measurement of autoantibodies directed against oxidative modifications of LDL is a recently developed technique that provides an in vivo marker of lipid peroxidation 93. Enzymelinked immunosorbent assays are available in kit form, providing a quick and simple methodology. However, further understanding of the mechanisms leading to oxidative modification of LDL is necessary, as it has been suggested that such modifications may occur independently of lipid peroxidation 94.
Various biological tissues and fluids contain a range of antioxidants to protect against oxidative damage. For example, human blood contains small molecular antioxidants such as vitamin E, C and β‐carotene, as well as enzymatic antioxidants such as SOD, GSHPx and catalase. Important antioxidants in the respiratory tract lining fluid include reduced GSH, mucin, uric acid, vitamin C and albumin 95. Antioxidants are consumed in times of oxidative stress, thus measurement of these is an indirect marker of the degree of oxidative stress in a system. However, such data must be interpreted with caution, as antioxidant deficiencies may be due to factors other than increased utilisation.
The total radical trapping antioxidant potential (TRAP) and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) are assays designed to describe total capacity to withstand freeradical stress 96. The TRAP assay measures the ability of plasma to buffer a sample of linoleic acid against peroxidation using a heatlabile initiator as the free radical source. The peroxidation level is followed as a decrease in oxygen content of the sample 97. The TEAC assay compares the antioxidant capacity of plasma with that of the potent antioxidant Trolox 34. These assays give some indication of the strength of the antioxidant screen, however, these assays are only an indirect marker of the degree of oxidative stress. As with other measurements of antioxidant concentration, low TRAP or TEAC values may be due to factors other than increased utilisation of antioxidants in the presence of excess ROS.
While many of the studies of oxidative stress in asthma have used blood biomarkers (table 2⇑), it is uncertain whether they accurately represent conditions at the airway surface, the site of oxidative damage. A recent report by Kelly et al. 43 attempted to gain a more accurate picture of local antioxidant defences in the lungs by sampling lunglining fluid. Using BAL fluid, deficiencies in vitamins C and E and an increase in oxidised GSH levels were observed. Interestingly, these deficiencies were not reflected in plasma. Plasma vitamin C concentrations were similar to controls, while plasma vitamin E concentrations were elevated in asthmatics. This emphasises the importance of not relying on blood biomarkers alone to indicate airway antioxidant status and highlights the fact that the relationship between plasma and lunglining fluid antioxidant pools is unknown. It is likely that an accurate estimate of the status of antioxidant defences requires sampling directly from the site of oxidant damage, which in asthma is the airway.
Induced sputum samples have been determined to contain a range of biomarkers useful for studying the lower respiratory tract 98 and provide a noninvasive alternative to BAL samples. Induced sputum is collected by coughing following saline inhalation. Thus, the noninvasive nature of the sample collection is advantageous compared with collection of BAL fluid, which must be performed under anaesthetic. Isoprostanes can be measured in induced sputum by EIA and levels are at least an order of magnitude higher than plasma levels 80.
Several recent studies of oxidative stress in asthma have used breath condensate samples 12, 29, 38, 39, 99. Collection of these samples is also noninvasive, however, the method is limited. Technical modifications may have overcome some of the practical problems, including elimination of ambient contamination of exhaled breath 39, but breath condensate samples are not suitable for a comprehensive analysis of oxidative stress and antioxidant defences as they rely on the volatility of the substances being measured. Thus, induced sputum samples may be the most suitable method of directly examining the spectrum of markers of oxidative stress in a variety of conditions.
Despite the abundance of evidence indicating elevated oxidative stress and reduced antioxidant defences in asthma, antioxidant supplementation studies to date have been limited. The only longer term (>1 week) supplementation trials have been encouraging, involving vitamin C 100 and Se 101, both of which led to a positive improvement in asthma symptoms. However, since much of the epidemiological data suggests that whole foods (in particular fruit and vegetables) are related to asthma symptoms, it is likely that the most effective form of dietary supplementation will involve a combination of antioxidants, possibly including less wellknown antioxidants (such as other flavonoids and carotenoids) that have not been considered previously in relation to asthma. This reinforces the need for a systematic and comprehensive evaluation of the antioxidant status of the asthmatic airways, to establish what combination of antioxidants will be most effective in correcting any deficiencies, thereby potentially reducing asthma incidence and severity. Evaluating the multiple and complex therapeutic combinations will be facilitated by sensitive biomarkers of oxidative stress, measured directly in the airway. Isoprostane measurement in exhaled breath condensate or induced sputum appears ideally suited to this application.
Oxidative stress and disturbed antioxidant status in asthmatics are well established. However, no systematic examination of lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defences in asthmatic airways exists. A comprehensive biochemical evaluation of antioxidant defences is needed to identify the nature and extent of any deficiencies. Much of the reported data has been obtained from various blood components, which may not be representative of what is happening at the airway surface, the initial site of oxidation. Thus, examination of airway biomarkers is critical to determine the potential for antioxidant supplementation to restore the oxidant/antioxidant imbalance. Measurement of isoprostanes in breath condensate or induced sputum should provide useful information concerning the degree of oxidant stress and success of antioxidant therapy in asthma.
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Wood LG, Fitzgerald DA, Gibson PG, Cooper DM, Collins CE, Garg ML. Oxidative stress in cystic fibrosis: dietary and metabolic factors. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20:Suppl. 2, 157–165.
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Pratico D, Basili S, Vieri M, Cordova C, Violi F, Fitzgerald GA. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is associated with an increase in urinary levels of isoprostane F2a III, an index of oxidant stress. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:1709–1714.
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Awad JA, Horn J‐L, Roberts LJ, Franks JJ. Demonstration of halothaneinduced hepatic lipid peroxidation in rats by quantification of F2isoprotanes. Anesthesiology 1996;84:910–916.
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Collins CE, Quaggiotto P, Wood L, O'Loughlin EV, Henry RL, Garg ML. Elevated plasma levels of F2alpha isoprostane in cystic fibrosis. Lipids 1999;34:551–556.
Wood LG, Fitzgerald DA, Gibson PG, Cooper DM, Garg ML. Increased plasma fatty acid concentration following respiratory exacerbations in cystic fibrosis is associated with elevated oxidative stress. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:668–675.
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Pratico D, Lawson JA, Fitzgerald GA. Cyclooxygenase dependent formation of the isoprostane, 8‐epi prostaglandin F2alpha. J Biol Chem 1995;270:9800–9808.
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Pincemail J, Defraigne JO, Limet R. Oxidative stress in clinical situations  fact or fiction?. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1996;13:219–234.
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Tatum VL, Changchit C, Chow CK. Measurement of malondialdehyde by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Lipids 1990;25:226–229.
Gutteridge JMC, Halliwell B. The measurement and mechanism of lipid peroxidation in biological systems. TIBS 1990;15:129–135.
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Hasselmark L, Malmgren R, Zetterstrom O, Unge G. Selenium supplementation in intrinsic asthma. Allergy 1993;48:30–36.


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Home > Mashonaland East > Mutoko (or Tere) Monument
Mutoko (or Tere) Monument
National Monument No.:
Why Visit?:
Small, but very photogenic ruins, commanding an extensive view over the surrounding country from the summit of a small hill, behind which is the huge granite mass of Mtemwa, said to be haunted by a solitary huntsman and his dog.
A good Interpretive Centre with examples of local archaeological finds.
Easy access and short distance from the A2 Mutoko to Nyamapanda Road.
From Harare travel 143 KM to Mutoko. Distances are from the junction of the A2 and Mutoko town as if continuing to Nyamapanda. 5.4 KM turn right at the signpost for Kauyne / Mushimbo and Muzika Schools and Mushimbo Clinic and follow the gravel road which is in good condition. 6.49 KM Just after the ford across the stream which is about 0.3 metres deep (1 foot) turn right at the Mutoko Ruins signpost, 6.75 Km reach the Mutoko Interpretive Centre which is security fenced. 4WD not required for access.
GPS reference: 17⁰23′37.46″S 32⁰16′36.45″E
Local Budya people believe the ruins were built and occupied in the 1600's by Makate, a man with powerful charms who used magic to subdue his rivals. Eventually he was overcome by a Chief from the north named Nehoreka, whose sister married Makate, ostensibly to seal a peace deal, but in reality to steal his powerful charms and the source of his power, and as soon as she had done so, she fled back to her brother. Without his charms, Makate was easily subdued by Nehoreka. The Budya people often refer to Mutoko ruins as Tere RaMakate (Makate's former village)
Selous visited Chief Mutoko in 1891 to get his signature to a treaty of friendship with the BSA Company and Theodore Bent also visited the same year, but apparently Chief Mutoko was not occupying the ruin, as neither reported it.
Dr H.A. Wieschoff carried out the earliest scientific excavation as a member of the Frobenius expedition in 1929, but his report is brief and apparently he did a considerable amount of damage to the walling. He found some gold foil and a gold amulet, Chinese celadon ware, perhaps the result of trading with the Portuguese at Luanze. The same imported ware, from the fourteenth century, has been found at Great Zimbabwe. Also iron arrowheads and knives, copper bracelets and wound copper wire and Iron Age pottery, all of which is exhibited at the Interpretive Centre on site.
Mutoko ruins have been built amongst the rocks, as shown in the plan above by A. Whitty; it has three main platforms with a passage leading from the main entrance to the upper platforms, plus evidence of a chevron pattern in the walling all leading to the conclusion that the style is very reminiscent of Khame Type 4 ruins, although they are both at opposite extremes of Zimbabwe.
The permanent site at Mutoko Ruins probably dates from about 1000 AD when the building of Iron Age settlements (i.e. pole and daga huts surrounded by dry stone walled enclosures) around the homes of a ruling elite began. However, earlier pottery remains were found, including Ziwa ware which date from 200 to 600 AD indicating some kind of settlement was here from much earlier. From the excavated material, it appears that Mutoko Ruins at its height was contemporary and probably later than Great Zimbabwe, from 1300 to 1400 AD.
The style of the stone work is similar to that of Great Zimbabwe; particularly the Valley Ruins at Great Zimbabwe, with dressed stones laid in courses without mortar. The general pattern consists of a circular enclosure raised on granite boulders. Leading up to this is a narrow passage with a square entrance, the step at the foot of the passage has a subtle curve reminiscent of the main entrance to the Enclosure at Great Zimbabwe. The passage is metres (42 feet) in length and resembles passages at Khame Ruins. Originally it probably had a wooden gate, as a post slot is still visible in the wall of the first entrance to the passage. A second entrance is about half-way along the passage, where there are two rounded buttresses. The remains of at least five pole and daga huts are still visible within the enclosure.
One of the enclosures at Mutoko may have been used for smelting iron. A furnace site would have been constructed with clay tuyeres leading into the smelt chamber. The furnace would be lined with alternate layers of iron ore probably found locally and charcoal (wood burnt in an enclosed clay oven without the presence of oxygen) Goat skin bellows would force air into the furnace and after many hours the iron ore would start to melt around 1400⁰Celsius. The furnace would then be tapped (i.e. opened) and the molten iron taken out and beaten into the shape of hoes, adzes or for weapons. Repeated heating and hammering would force out the impurities from the iron until the ironsmiths were satisfied with the final product. Waste iron or slag is often a good identifier of an Iron Age furnace site.
There are well constructed brick and thatched shelters with tables for visitors to enjoy a picnic in comfort. The Site Museum provides useful background information and the Site Curator, Mr Wonder Karumazondo, is very knowledgeable and cheerful tour guide.
Open Wednesday to Sunday 8:00am to 5:00pm
An entrance fee is chargeable
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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You are here: Home Reports & data Environment and health Data update: Short-term health impacts of the 2019–20 Australian bushfires
Go to Environment and health
Data update: Short-term health impacts of the 2019–20 Australian bushfires
Topic: Environment and health
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2021) Data update: Short-term health impacts of the 2019–20 Australian bushfires., AIHW, Australian Government, accessed 17 January 2022
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2021). Data update: Short-term health impacts of the 2019–20 Australian bushfires. Retrieved from https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/environment-and-health/data-update-health-impacts-2019-20-bushfires
Data update: Short-term health impacts of the 2019–20 Australian bushfires. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 12 November 2021, https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/environment-and-health/data-update-health-impacts-2019-20-bushfires
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Data update: Short-term health impacts of the 2019–20 Australian bushfires [Internet]. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2021 [cited 2022 Jan. 17]. Available from: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/environment-and-health/data-update-health-impacts-2019-20-bushfires
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2021, Data update: Short-term health impacts of the 2019–20 Australian bushfires, viewed 17 January 2022, https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/environment-and-health/data-update-health-impacts-2019-20-bushfires
Admitted patients (hospitalisations)
Admitted patients (hospitalisations) - expandAdmitted patients (hospitalisations) - collapse
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with acute exacerbation
Breathing difficulties (abnormalities of breathing)
Heart, stroke and vascular conditions
Mental health-related conditions
Emergency department presentations
Emergency department presentations - expandEmergency department presentations - collapse
Medicare-subsidised mental health services
Medicare-subsidised mental health services - expandMedicare-subsidised mental health services - collapse
Bushfire-specific mental health Medicare-subsidised services
Outdoor physical activity (Australian Capital Territory)
Emergency departments (EDs) are an essential component of Australia's health care system. Many of Australia's public hospitals have purpose-built EDs, staffed 24 hours a day, providing care for patients who require urgent medical, surgical or other attention. ED activity is measured by the number of presentations to the ED.
Data used in this section refer to the 2018–19 and 2019–20 financial years. Data are sourced from the National Non-admitted Patient Emergency Department Care Database (NNAPEDCD).
National standards exist for data on non-admitted patient emergency department services, however, there are some variations in how those services are defined and counted across states and territories and over time. Therefore, comparisons of ED presentations across jurisdictions, and across time should be considered with caution. For more information on the NNAPEDCD, see Technical notes.
The number and rates of presentations to public hospital EDs for conditions related to air pollution and bushfire smoke are presented in the following section and include:
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with acute exacerbation
Heart, stroke, and vascular conditions
Burns.
While not presented in this section, ED presentations for dehydration are also included in the supplementary tables (tables S3 and S4).
Where possible, ED presentations are reported by:
Statistical Area Level 4 (SA4).


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"Congress has kept the American people waiting long enough. I want Congress to finish the gun bill and send it to me by the anniversary of the Columbine tragedy on April 20th."
Today, at the White House, President Clinton announced the release of a new Justice Department report showing the devastating impact that gun violence has on American children. In the wake of last week's tragic shootings, the President convened a meeting with Congressional leaders to break the logjam on pending common-sense gun legislation. The President urged the leaders to act before the April 20th anniversary of the tragedy at Columbine High School to enact legislation that includes closing the gun show loophole, requiring child safety locks for handguns, and banning the importation of large-capacity ammunition clips. The President also called on the leaders to pass his plan to punish adults who recklessly allow children to have access to deadly weapons.
Guns are the weapon of choice for juvenile homicide offenders. Between 1980 and 1997, 70 percent of juvenile homicide offender victims were killed with a firearm.
The rise in murders of juveniles and by juveniles from the mid-1980's to their peak in 1993 was entirely firearms-related - as was their subsequent decline since 1993. Non-gun juvenile homicide remained constant during that period.
Even with recent declines, too many American youth are killed by gunfire: the gun homicide rate of children under 15 is 16 times higher in the U.S. than in 25 other industrialized nations combined.
Barring violent juveniles from owning a gun for life.
HOLDING PARENTS RESPONSIBLE FOR CHILD ACCESS TO GUNS. The President called on the Congressional leaders to pass his Child Access Prevention (CAP) proposal, which would hold adults accountable if they allow children easy access to loaded guns. Sixteen states have already adopted CAP laws, and a recent study shows that these laws help reduce fatal unintentional shootings by an average of 23 percent.
LEADING AN EFFORT TO DEVELOP SMART GUN TECHNOLOGY. The President has proposed a $10 million FY 2001 budget initiative to fund the research, development and replication of "smart gun" technologies, which would limit a gun's use to its proper adult owner and could prevent accidental shooting deaths and deter gun theft.


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Adrian Gutierrez spends only months as lead singer of The Hometown Boys
Just months after joining the legendary group, Adrian Gutierrez is out as lead vocalist.
by John Henry Medina
Photo courtesy of Adrian Gutierrez
The Hometown Boys have decided to part ways with singer Adrian Gutierrez after just over five months as the lead singer of the legendary Conjunto, the group announced via social media on Aug. 28.
"The Hometown Boys want to thank vocalist Adrian Gutierrez for his time and help during these few months," said the post. "God Bless you Adrian in all your future endeavors."
Gutierrez confirmed the news in a social media post of his own. "It is with a heavy heart I have to confirm that I am no longer with The Hometown Boys," he said. "My departure was solely MANAGEMENT'S decision. I want to thank Jefe, Rosie, Stevan, and my band members who were like family to me for sharing the stage and giving me the opportunity to honor the legacy of the original Hometown Boys. I want to thank all the fans that believed in me and showed up to our concerts; you all are the reason I gave 110% during every performance. Thank you all, it was such a privilege."
The Grammy-winning group added the 20-year-old singer as lead vocalist in March 2021 after singer Elias Arredondo was dismissed. Arredondo took over for legendary and longtime lead vocalist Marky Lee in January 2021. Marky Lee passed away from complications of COVID-19 in January shortly after he was let go from the group.
"I hope to continue performing and elevating my craft as an artist," added Gutierrez. "This is not the end of my journey, I have faith God will continue to open doors for me in the future."
The last performance for Gutierrez with The Hometown Boys took place at the 17th annual Tejano Music National Convention during Vegas Tejano Music Week in Las Vegas, Nevada on Aug. 21.
Gutierrez released his debut single, "Dejame Vivir," via Hacienda Records in early 2017 at the age of 16 after the McAllen native won a singing contest in 2016. He also spent time as lead vocalist for Tejano Highway 281.
One of the most celebrated groups of their era, The Hometown Boys started out as a family band many years ago and went on to become one of the most popular conjunto acts in the Southwest. They have been known for hit songs "Mi Ranchito", "Somos Dos Gatos", "El Pintor", and many more great songs. They were the first Hispanics to be inducted into the "Buddy Holly Walk of Fame" in Lubbock, Texas, alongside Buddy Holly, Roy Orbison, Waylon Jennings, and other Texas legends.
TagsAdrian Gutierrez • The Hometown Boys
About John Henry Medina
Managing Editor at TejanoNation.net and host of the syndicated Tejano Nation radio show heard on great stations across the nation every weekend.
1 comment on "Adrian Gutierrez spends only months as lead singer of The Hometown Boys"
sasfinest
I tried to listen to this guy but he just does not have the appeal for the Hometown Boys style!


Literacy Coalition Of New Brunswick, Ltd.
Providing leadership to advance literacy, lifelong learning and essential skills for all NB citizens.
67792: Total amount received from any level of government in Canada.
40806: Income that doesn't fit into other categories, such as sales revenue, interest and investment income, membership fees, etc.
137156: Total amount spent on charitable programs. "Programs" cover all charitable activities the organization carries out on its own.
22502: Total amount spent on management and administration, including board meetings, accounting, rent, office supplies, etc.
3000: Total amount of gifts to qualified organizations. The majority of these donees are registered charities but some other organizations qualify as well.
-634: Expenses that don't fit into another category, including political activities.
596604: Total cash readily available.
12584: Amounts owed by individuals and organizations.
748: Assets not falling under one of the other categories.
12936: Short-term portion of debt obligations such as loans, mortgages, notes, and payments due for goods and services received.
162127: Liabilities not falling under one of the other categories.
Literacy Coalition Of New Brunswick, Ltd.'s headquarters is located at 303 - 212 Queen St, Fredericton NB, E3B1A8.


Facebook is the biggest attraction on the internet. With over 700 million users, Facebook is the prime choice for an online population as a social networking website. It is the biggest platform for users to connect and interact with many people simultaneously and hence it holds a lot of potentials for online entrepreneurs to reach and connect with a large customer base over the growing and popular social media website.
Nowadays, you will not find a single brand that does not have a facebook fan page. Facebook has active users from all age groups and for businesses, it is important that they remain socially active over Facebook and run well-planned campaigns to increase the likes and interaction on their fan page so that their brand loyalty and client turnover rises.
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Facebook Marketing training in Jalandhar is designed according to current IT field scenarios.
We facilitate regular, weekend and personal Facebook Marketing training in Jalandhar.
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British high street bank HSBC not only has weak standards for ensuring it does not finance unethical palm oil companies, but it also continues to provide services to companies which have violated its policies, said Greenpeace.
A new report launched by environmental campaigners Greenpeace International on Tuesday accuses British bank HSBC of supporting deforestation by providing financial services to palm oil companies that are causing rainforest destruction and human rights abuses in Indonesia.
The report, titled Dirty Bankers: How HSBC is financing forest destruction for palm oil, said that HSBC has since 2012 been involved in arranging US$16.3 billion in loans and credit facilities to six errant palm oil firms, and has also raised US$2 billion in bonds for these firms.
The palm oil companies are: Malaysian firm IOI, Indonesian outfits Bumitama Agri and Salim Group, Singapore incorporated Goodhope Asia, Hong Kong-headquartered, Singapore-listed Noble Group, and Korea's Posco Daewoo Corporation.
By financing these companies, HSBC is violating its own policies on responsible lending, said Greenpeace.
But while the campaign focused on HSBC, it is by no means the only bank linked to destructive palm oil companies, said Greenpeace, going on to call HSBC a "relatively progressive" bank that has shown a willingness to engage with its critics.
Japan's Sumitomo and Tokyo Mitsubishi banks, Singaporean bank DBS, and the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group (ANZ) were also linked to four or more of the case studies highlighted in the report.
But as Europe's largest bank, HSBC has a responsibility to set high standards for the rest of the sector, noted the group.
Greenpeace used data from financial information company Bloomberg, company annual reports and financial statements to analyse the loans and bonds provided by HSBC to the six companies.
It found that in 2012 and 2013, HSBC helped arrange US$190 million in loans to Bumitama, which since 2012 has had five complaints filed against it to the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). This is the Kuala Lumpur-based industry association that certifies environmentally and socially-responsible palm oil.
In another instance, HSBC was part of various banking consortia that provided US$400 million in loans to Goodhope Asia in 2014. The company had been the subject of several NGO complaints to RSPO. One grievance, which is still unresolved, accuses the company of using excessive force against villagers, deforestation, and planting on peatland.
Greenpeace also found that HSBC had helped raise almost US$2.4 biliion in loans to various divisions of Korean multinational Posco Daewoo; HSBC's on contribution was at least US$269 million. POSCO Daewoo's palm oil business operates a plantation in Indonesia, and is not an RSPO member—this is a violation of HSBC's policy.
Even the most basic due diligence on HSBC's part would have thrown up the infringements by the six companies and raised alarm, said Greenpeace in its report. It added that this "raises the question: is HSBC failing to apply its policies altogether, or just failing to apply sufficient scrutiny when assessing whether current or prospective customers comply?".
According to Greenpeace, HSBC refused to discuss the specific companies highlighted due to customer confidentiality concerns.
But the bank did tell Greenpeace that following the report's findings, it was preparing a review of its exposure to the palm oil sector. It added that it had closed relationships with 93 palm oil companies since 2014, but declined to name them.
HSBC also told Eco-Business in a statement that it "does not knowingly provide financial services which directly support palm oil companies which do not comply with our policy".
In addition to criticising HSBC's lending and financial services activities, Greenpeace also questioned the standards used by HSBC in its agricultural commodities policy, which was issued in March 2014 and lays out the criteria that palm oil, soy, rubber, and cattle producers must comply with.
The policy requires all its palm oil customers to be RSPO members by the end of June 2014, and have at least one management unit or facility certified by the association by the end of 2014. It expects 100 per cent RSPO certification for all company operations by the end of next year.
But Greenpeace noted that equating RSPO membership and certification to determine company sustainability is deeply flawed, because RSPO standards do not guarantee zero deforestation, and complaints filed with the association can take years to resolve.
A company's RSPO membership also does not mean that 100 per cent of the palm oil it produces has earned the sustainability certification.
This is not the first time HSBC has been criticised for using RSPO membership and certification as a proxy for sustainability—a 2013 report by international campaigners Environment Investigation Agency also called HSBC's reliance on this as "fundamentally misguided".
However, the 2014 policy does not appear to have incorporated these criticisms.
HSBC claims it's a respectable bank with responsible policies on deforestation. But somehow these fine words get forgotten when it's time to sign the contracts.
In the wake of the report, Greenpeace has urged HSBC to explain to the public how it would revise its sustainability policy so that it is truly one which ensures "no deforestation, no peat, no exploitation".
It also called on the bank to be transparent about the palm oil companies in its client base and set a deadline for them to adopt operation-wide zero deforestation policies—and to stop providing financial services or refinancing those that do not.
Richard George, Greenpeace UK forest campaigner, told Eco-Business while HSBC was the focus of this report, "the financial sector as a whole is lagging behind the rest of the market".
But some positive practices are evident in the way German financier Deutsche Bank, for instance, has publicly stated that it will not fund or invest in Bumitama, and the Norwegian Government Pension Fund's move to exclude most of the companies highlighted in the report, he added.
The latter, which George said was "at the more responsible and transparent end of the spectrum", has not only excluded the palm oil firms, but the entire groups that these companies belong to. That is, it won't lend to any part of the company if the agribusiness section is linked to social or environmental abuses.
While Greenpeace will continue its campaign against HSBC, "other banks shouldn't feel off the hook," said George. "The finance sector as a whole needs to step up and reform".


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To : -- Choose destination --Bridgnorth Music FestivalChurch Stretton Arts FestivalCosford Food FestivalFestival at the EdgeLudlow Food and Drink FestivalLudlow Fringe FestivalLudlow Medieval Christmas FayreLudlow Spring FestivalMuch Wenlock Olympian SocietyOswestry Food FestivalOswestry ShowPub in the ParkShrewsbury Flower ShowShrewsbury Food FestivalShrewsbury Steam RallyShropshire Kids FestivalShropshire Oktoberfest The Burwarton Agricultural ShowThe Presteigne Festival of Music and the Arts or
Ludlow Fringe Festival
Town/City : Ludlow County : Shropshire Country : England
15th - 30th June 2019
The Presteigne Festival of Music and the Arts
Town/City : Presteigne County : Powys Country : Wales
Press statement for release on 1 June 2020
The Presteigne Festival board recently made the difficult decision to cancel the 2020 Festival. Whilst this is extremely sad both for our regular audience and all the artists, support staff and volunteers involved, it is imperative that the health and safety of the wider Festival community should be of paramount importance.
However, the organisation has managed to arrange an exciting alternative to the 2020 Festival comprising Presteigne Digital (a series of specially-filmed mini-concerts to be streamed via the Presteigne Festival website), a Winter Festival Weekend and the Festival Orchestra's first commercial recording project for the Resonus label, highlighting past Presteigne commissions.
Presteigne Digital, which runs from 24-27 August and will be available to view at any time after that, will feature performances from the Carducci Quartet, Amy Dickson, Christopher Good, Clare Hammond, Tim Horton, Mathilde Milwidsky, Bradley Smith, Oliver Wass and members of Nova Music Opera in repertoire which was to have been featured at the 2020 Festival – six newly commissioned works from Martin Butler, Amelia Clarkson, Ninfea Cruttwell-Reade, Robin Haigh, Joseph Phibbs and Emma-Ruth Richards, contemporary British pieces and music by Beethoven, Britten, Janáček and Schubert.
The programme for the first ever Presteigne Winter Festival Weekend will be announced in mid- August. A nine-event celebration of string and vocal chamber music supported with literary and music talks, similarly comprises content originally programmed for the 2020 Festival. All events, which are planned to take place from 27-29 November (coinciding with the first Sunday of Advent), will be given to a small, socially distanced audience at St Andrew's Church.
The Festival is extremely grateful to many of its grant funders and individual patrons for agreeing to maintain financial support at this difficult time. These alternative projects, and the 2021 Festival, would be impossible to realise without their understanding. Irrespective of this generous assistance, ticket income so vital to our organisation could be reduced by as much as £24,000. Finances and the Festival's future are delicately poised.
Many freelance artists are struggling financially due to the effects of COVID-19. In arranging the activities outlined above, the Presteigne Festival is now able to guarantee much needed performance or cancellation fees for all the artists who had been engaged to appear at the 2020 Festival.
Artistic Director George Vass commented 'Whilst this imposes considerable financial stress on the organisation, artists and composers are at the very core of our activity; without them the Festival would be nothing at all – we have to support them all we can'.
This is the first time in 38 years that the Presteigne Festival has been forced to cancel. It is hoped that this will be the last – plans are currently being made for the 2021 edition, which will run from 26-30 August next year.
Hailed by Musical Opinion Quarterly as 'an indispensable mainstay of the cultural calendar', the 2020 Presteigne Festival programme brings together a typically wide variety of constituents.
Included is an exploration of lesser-known music from Ireland, Scotland and Wales, a feature of the work of Leoš Janáček – one of the most original musical voices of the twentieth-century – and a celebration of Beethoven's 250th birthday year.
The Festival's advocacy of contemporary British music continues with Tarik O'Regan as composerin-residence and a corpus of eight exciting and eclectic commissions from O'Regan (Mosaic Rooms, a concerto for saxophone and string orchestra), Martin Butler (Body Electric, for solo saxophone), Gary Carpenter (a string orchestra piece, as dreams are made on), Amelia Clarkson (a set of songs for tenor and harp), Ninfea Cruttwell-Reade (the Presteigne Festival's first ever 'Evolve' composer), Joseph Phibbs (a Violin Sonata), Emma-Ruth Richards (a string quartet work, Tenebris Litterarum) and 2020 Royal Philharmonic Society Emerging Composer, Robin Haigh (a work for solo harp).
The Festival's successful partnership with Nova Music Opera continues into its sixth year, with a
triple-bill – Janáček's atmospheric The Diary of One Who Disappeared in the translation by Nobel prize-winner Seamus Heaney is programmed with Judith Weir's striking King Harald's Saga – an opera in three acts for unaccompanied female voice and Ninfea Cruttwell-Reade's fascinating new music theatre work Reginald: The Musings of an Edwardian Gentleman, which draws its material from the writings of Saki.
A balanced collection of supporting events includes a trio of Irish films, literary talks, an exhibition in association with the Sidney Nolan Trust and Presteigne Open Studios, organised in co-operation with locally-based artists.
The 2020 Festival boasts a wonderfully starry artist line-up – the Carducci Quartet, Nova Music Opera, violinist Chloë Hanslip, pianists Clare Hammond and Andrew Matthews-Owen, Australian saxophonist Amy Dickson, singers Bradley Smith and Jonathan Gunthorpe, trumpeter Angela Whelan and harpist Oliver Wass. The Bath Camerata are choir-in-residence conducted by director Benjamin Goodson, whilst the ever-popular resident Festival Orchestra undertakes three concerts under artistic director George Vass.
Community outreach continues to be a vital part of the Presteigne Festival's offer, enabling better
engagement with communities both at home and away. In 2020 we'll be working with senior
members of the community in association with the Bleddfa Centre and the East Radnorshire Day Centre, whilst our Autumn Tour to Bristol and Birmingham will be undertaken by exciting young harpist, Oliver Wass.
The full programme will be available in print and online at the end of April 2020
Brochures available
at the end of April from:
Presteigne Festival, PO Box 30,
Presteigne,
Powys LD8 2WF
www.presteignefestival.com
Images :
Bath Camerata
Carducci Quartet
Clare Hammond
Chloe Hanslip
Bradley Smith
The Burwarton Agricultural Show
Town/City : Bridgnorth County : Shropshire Country : England
BURWARTON SHOW 2020 – CANCELLED
Burwarton Show - Thursday 5 August 2021
With great regret the Show Committee took the decision at the end of April to cancel the 2020 Burwarton Show due to the COVID-19 pandemic and on-going Government restrictions. This has left a deep void in all our lives at a time when we should have been working flat out in the run up to the event.
In the ensuing weeks since cancellation, the Show Manager has been busy liasing with contractors, traders, sponsors, judges and suppliers confirming the cancellation and arranging to carry forward arrangements to 2021. The good working relationships built up over a number of years with our showground contractors has, in the main, resulted in deposits paid earlier in the year being carried forward to next year. Our Main Ring entertainers have also agreed to join us in 2021. Our livestock and equine schedules had been finalised but fortunately not printed and will be reviewed later in the year when judges re-confirm their appointments.
Cancellation of the Show is not without cost – deposits, advertising, booking fees, insurance as well as day to day running expenses. The Society is very grateful to its members and sponsors for their continued financial support to help defray these costs.
The Society supports charity work for the local community and the farming and associated industry as well as organising and running the very successful and popular annual Burwarton Show. Earlier in the year the Society made donations to three very worthy organisations who all work to support those in need in rural Shropshire, namely: R.A.B.I. (the Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution), West Midlands Search & Rescue and Shropshire Rural Support Network. Having been fully stretched offering support to those affected by the severe winter flooding, these organisations have since been called upon to support those affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.
We are all bitterly disappointed that there will be no Burwarton Show this year as we so look forward to seeing the first Thursday in August coming to fruition enabling visitors and exhibitors to meet up with friends and relatives in a relaxed and enjoyable atmosphere.
We will be back on Thursday 5 August 2021 although we are not yet sure just how next year will pan out for event organisers as undoubtedly the world will be a very different place from now on. However, we have faced challenges before and will do our utmost to work around and overcome any obstacles put in our way. Most definitely after such a long period of lockdown, we will all need something to look forward to and hope that Burwarton Show will prove to be that "something".
We are sorry that you are unable to enjoy a Burwarton Show this year, but we look forward to welcoming you again in 2021 – bigger, better and brighter.
Shropshire Oktoberfest
Town/City : Shrewsbury County : Shropshire Country : England
In a County renowned for its food we sometimes forget about the awesome drink the region has to offer.
Shrewsbury Quarry - 2nd & 3rd October 2020
Festival at the Edge
Town/City : Whitchurch County : Shropshire Country : England
International Storytelling Festival
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Editors' Note: This update was authored by Poonam Puri, a Professor of Law and former Associate Dean at Osgoode Hall Law School, and an affiliated scholar with the Canadian law firm, Davies Ward Phillips & Vineberg LLP ("Davies"), and Davies partners Sarah V. Powell, who practices in the areas of environmental, aboriginal and energy law, and litigation partners Luis Sarabia and George J. Pollack. It was submitted to XBMA by Davies partner Berl Nadler who is a member of XBMA's Legal Roundtable.
On September 4, 2015, the Supreme Court of Canada held that the Ontario court has jurisdiction to hear an action brought by Ecuadorian plaintiffs seeking the recognition and enforcement in Ontario of an Ecuadorian judgment against the U.S. multinational corporation Chevron (Chevron US) and its Canadian subsidiary (Chevron Canada) even where Chevron US had no connection to and no assets in Ontario and Chevron Canada was a stranger to the underlying judgment in Ecuador.
The Supreme Court's decision also opens the door for judgment creditors to argue that a subsidiary corporation's assets should be available to satisfy a judgment against a parent corporation.
The ruling, however, leaves in place the substantive defences available under Canadian law to rebut such claims.
On September 4, 2015, the Supreme Court of Canada unanimously held in Chevron Corp v. Yaiguaje that the Ontario court has jurisdiction to hear an action brought by Ecuadorian plaintiffs seeking the recognition and enforcement in Ontario of a US$9.51-billion Ecuadorian judgment for environmental damage against the U.S. multinational corporation Chevron (Chevron US) and its Canadian subsidiary (Chevron Canada). Remarkably, Chevron US had no connection to and no assets in Ontario and Chevron Canada was a stranger to the underlying judgment in Ecuador for which recognition and enforcement is being sought in the Ontario court.
The Supreme Court's decision should be of interest both to Canadian multinational corporations with foreign operations and to foreign entities with operations or assets in Canada because it reduces the procedural obstacles to recognizing and enforcing foreign judgments in Canada. Significantly, however, the ruling leaves in place the substantive defences available under Canadian law to rebut such claims. The Supreme Court's ruling means that the case will now return to an Ontario court to determine whether the Ecuadorian judgment can be properly recognized and enforced in Ontario.
In 2012, Ecuadorian plaintiffs commenced a recognition and enforcement action in Ontario against both Chevron US and Chevron Canada. Chevron US is a Delaware corporation with its head office in California. Chevron Canada is a wholly owned, seventh-level subsidiary of Chevron US, with its head office registered in Alberta. The plaintiffs served Chevron US in California and Chevron Canada in Mississauga, Ontario, where it maintains an office.
Chevron US and Chevron Canada moved before the Ontario court, seeking, inter alia, (i) a declaration that the Ontario court lacked the jurisdiction to hear the plaintiffs' recognition and enforcement action, and (ii) an order dismissing, or permanently staying, that action.
The Ontario Superior Court of Justice held that the Ontario court has jurisdiction over both Chevron US and Chevron Canada. Nonetheless, the motion judge stayed the recognition and enforcement action on his own initiative because the judge held that Chevron US did not itself possess any assets in Ontario and that the plaintiffs had "no hope of success" in piercing the "corporate veil" in order to make the assets of Chevron Canada exigible to satisfy the judgment against its ultimate parent, Chevron US.
On appeal, the Ontario Court of Appeal agreed that the Ontario court has jurisdiction over both Chevron US and Chevron Canada, but held that the motion judge had erred in granting a discretionary stay of the action.
The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the decision of the Ontario Court of Appeal noting that different principles are engaged when considering actions in the first instance and actions for recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments. The purpose of the latter is to allow a pre-existing obligation to be fulfilled, which involves facilitating the collection of a debt already owed by a judgment debtor. The court's role in enforcement proceedings is less invasive than an action in the first instance, militating in favour of generous and liberal enforcement rules for foreign judgments.
The Supreme Court held that there is a low threshold for foreign judgment creditors to commence recognition and enforcement actions of foreign judgments in Ontario. The Court unambiguously held that there is no requirement to find a "real and substantial connection" between the enforcing Canadian court and the foreign action or judgment debtor.
The test for an Ontario court to recognize and enforce a foreign judgment is whether the foreign court validly assumed jurisdiction in the first instance; the foreign court must have had a real and substantial connection with the litigants or the subject matter of the dispute. This will be satisfied if the defendants submitted to the jurisdiction of the foreign court.
In addition, for the Ontario court to assume jurisdiction over the recognition and enforcement action, the defendant must have been properly served – either inside or outside Ontario – under the province's Rules of Civil Procedure (Rules).
The Supreme Court held that it is not necessary for foreign debtors to possess assets in Ontario in order for the Ontario court to take jurisdiction in a recognition and enforcement action. The Court noted that in today's globalized world and electronic age, to require that a judgment creditor wait until the foreign debtor is present or has assets in the province before a court can find that it has jurisdiction in recognition and enforcement proceedings would be to turn a blind eye to current economic reality. The Court stated that there is nothing improper with allowing foreign judgment creditors to choose where they wish to enforce their judgments and to assess where their debtor's assets could be found or may end up being located one day.
The Supreme Court explicitly stated that the Ontario court's jurisdiction over Chevron US and Chevron Canada did not prejudice future arguments regarding their distinct corporate personalities; nor did it settle the question whether Chevron Canada's assets should be available to satisfy Chevron US's debt.
Nonetheless, the Supreme Court's decision opens the door for judgment creditors to argue that a subsidiary corporation's assets should be available to satisfy a judgment against a parent corporation.
The proper use of Ontario judicial resources justifies a stay under the circumstances.
The Ontario courts should decline to exercise jurisdiction on the basis of forum non conveniens.
One of the available defences to the recognition and enforcement of a foreign judgment (i.e., fraud, denial of natural justice in the foreign proceeding or public policy in Canada) should be accepted in the circumstances.
A motion should be brought for summary judgment or for determination of an issue before trial under the Rules.
The plaintiffs in Chevron Corp. v. Yaiguaje may ultimately not succeed on the merits of their recognition and enforcement action in Ontario. And they may be unsuccessful in collecting damages in Ontario from either Chevron US or Chevron Canada. Nonetheless, the Supreme Court's decision has implications for the transnational litigation strategies pursued by Canadian multinational corporations and by non-Canadian entities with operations or assets in Canada. Subsequent developments in this litigation may also provide valuable lessons in parent-subsidiary governance.
Editor's Note: This article was authored by George T. Conway III of Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen & Katz.
The U.S. Chamber Institute for Legal Reform recently published an essay, as part of a report on the litigation of foreign disputes in the U.S. federal courts, detailing the extraordinary impact that the Supreme Court's landmark decision in Morrison v. National Australia Bank has had on transnational securities litigation.
After describing how Morrison sprang from the Supreme Court's increasing concern about the extraterritorial application of U.S. law, the essay explains how the lower courts have applied Morrison to preclude plaintiffs from recovering damages under Section 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and SEC Rule 10b-5 for losses suffered on foreign securities exchanges. The essay goes on to explain how courts have determined what constitutes a domestic securities transaction under Morrison, and how courts applying Morrison have refused to allow claims seeking recovery of losses on foreign transactions in domestically cross-listed securities.
The essay also surveys the case law applying Morrison to other kinds of securities litigation—to claims involving derivative securities transactions, to cases under the Securities Act of 1933, to whistleblower-retaliation claims under the Sarbanes-Oxley and Dodd-Frank Acts, and to criminal prosecutions under Section 10(b). Finally, the essay discusses the ineptly and inaptly drafted "extraterritorial jurisdiction" provision of the Dodd-Frank Act, Section 929P(b)—a provision apparently intended to overrule Morrison in criminal and SEC enforcement cases—and explains why it is increasingly unlikely that this provision will have any effect at all.
This survey of the case law illustrates how Morrison—by reestablishing the traditional understanding that U.S. law ordinarily applies only to domestic, not foreign, matters, and by fashioning a standard that avoids the interference with foreign regulation that the extraterritorial application of U.S. law would produce—has enduringly changed the way the federal courts address transnational securities litigation.
Editors' Note: Contributed by Fang He, a partner at Jun He and a member of XBMA's Legal Roundtable. Ms. He has broad experience in M&A, outbound investment, foreign direct investment, private equity and intellectual property. This article was authored by Christine Kang, Stanley Wan and Mark Chu of Jun He Law Offices. Ms. Kang is a partner of Jun He Law Offices. She has over 15 years' experience in international arbitration and dispute resolution. Ms. Kang is also a listed arbitrator on the Panel of Arbitrators of some major international arbitration institutions including CIETAC. Mr. Wan and Mr. Chu are senior lawyers of Jun He Law Offices.
The recent separation of the two former branches from the well-known Chinese arbitration institution-CIETAC and the branches' establishment as independent arbitration institutions have brought confusion to the domestic and international arbitration community and businesses with regard to some arbitration agreements providing for arbitration at a CIETAC branch. The recent judgments of two Chinese courts in Suzhou and Shenzhen on the jurisdiction of the newly independent arbitration institutions are in conflict with each other and add more confusion to the relevant issues. In response to clients' inquiries, we wrote this article to provide some suggestions on how to avoid potential confusion and protect parties' interest under different scenarios relevant to these arbitration institutions' jurisdiction.