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Chemotherapeutic composition using nanocrystalline calcium phosphate paste
A method and composition are provided for treating cancer in a mammal. The method includes administering to a tumor site of the mammal an anticancer composition comprising a mixture of an anticancer agent and a nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste, said paste comprised of one or more calcium phosphates and a physiologically acceptable fluid, the paste having an injectable or formable consistency at the time of administration and hardenable at the tumor
Lee, Dosuk D. (Brookline, MA, US)
Aiolova, Maria (Brookline, MA, US)
424/649, 514/19.3, 514/27, 514/49, 514/150, 514/171, 514/263.31, 514/283, 514/449, 977/906
A61K33/42; A61K31/337; A61K31/522; A61K31/57; A61K31/655; A61K31/7072
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CLAYTOR, DEIRDRE RENEE
CLARK & ELBING LLP (BOSTON, MA, US)
1. An anticancer composition comprising a mixture of an anticancer agent and a calcium phosphate paste, said paste comprised of one or more nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphates and a physiologically acceptable fluid, the paste having an injectable or formable consistency at the time of administration and hardenable at the tumor site.
2. The composition of claim 1, wherein each calcium phosphate has a Ca/P ratio of less than or equal to 1.7.
3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the anticancer agent is selected from the group consisting of methotrexate, cisplatin, prednisone, hydroxyprogesterone, medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, diethylstilbestrol, testosterone propionate, fluoxymesterone, vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, hydroxyurea, procarbazine, aminoglutethimide, mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, melphalan, uracil mustard, chlorambucil, busulfan, carmustine, lomustine, dacarbazine (DTIC, dimethyltriazenomideazolecarboxamide), procarbozine, 5-fluorouracil, cytarabine, cytosine arabinoside, 6-mercaptopurine, tamoxifen, paclitaxel, etoposide, vinorelbine, gemcitabine, leuprolide, flutamide, goserelin acetate, thioguanine, and mixtures thereof.
4. The composition of claim 3, wherein said anticancer agent is cisplatin.
5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the anticancer composition is of a consistency administrable to the tumor site by cannula or by injection.
6. The composition of claim 1, wherein the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate cement comprises a calcium phosphate selected from the group consisting of amorphous calcium phosphate, poorly crystalline apatitic (PCA) calcium phosphates (PCA), dicalcium phosphates, such as dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD) and dicalcium phosphate anhydrous (DCPA), tricalcium phosphates (TCP), monetite, monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (MCPM), hetpacalcium phosphate, calcium pyrophosphate, calcium metaphosphate, octacalcium phosphates (OCP), hydroxyapatites (HA).
7. The composition of claim 6, wherein at least one of the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphates is selected from the group consisting of amorphous calcium phosphate and poorly crystalline apatitic calcium phosphate.
8. The composition of claim 1, wherein each of the said one or more nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphates has a calcium to phosphate ratio in the range of 1.3 to 1.67.
9. The composition of claim 1, wherein nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste comprises a physiologically acceptable fluid in an amount sufficient to produce a paste having injectable or formable consistency for at least five minutes.
10. The composition of claim 1, wherein nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste comprises a physiologically acceptable fluid in an amount sufficient to produce a paste having injectable or formable consistency for at least twenty minutes.
11. The composition of claim 1, wherein the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste is hardenable into an apatitic calcium phosphate.
12. The composition of claim 1, wherein a therapeutically effect amount of anticancer agent is released from the composition for a time greater than one week.
13. The composition of claim 1, wherein a therapeutically effect amount of anticancer agent is released from the composition for a time greater than two weeks.
14. The composition of claim 1, wherein a therapeutically effect amount of anticancer agent is released from the composition for a time greater than one month.
15. The composition of claim 1, wherein a therapeutically effect amount of anticancer agent is released from the composition for a time greater than three months.
16. The composition of claim 1, wherein delivery of the anticancer therapy to the tumor site is sufficient to at least prevent increase of tumor mass without significant weight loss of the mammal.
17. The composition of claim 1, wherein delivery of the anticancer therapy to the tumor site is sufficient to promote a decrease in tumor mass without significant weight loss in the mammal.
18. An anticancer composition comprising cisplatin admixed with a calcium phosphate paste, said paste comprised of one or more nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphates and a physiologically acceptable fluid, the paste having an injectable or formable consistency at the time of administration and hardenable at the tumor site.
19. A method for treating cancer in a mammal, said method comprising administering to a tumor site of the mammal the anticancer composition of claim 1.
20. A method for treating cancer in a mammal, said method comprising administering to a tumor site of the mammal the anticancer composition of claim 18.
21. A kit for use in preparing a flowable anticancer composition that remains injectable for at least about 20 minutes, said kit comprising: (a) dry ingredients comprising a nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate and a second calcium phosphate in a proportion of about 1:10 to 10:1 by weight; (b) a physiologically acceptable aqueous lubricant in an amount sufficient to produce a flowable product upon combination with said dry ingredients; and (c) an anticancer agent in an amount ranging from about 0.01 to 10 wt. % of said dry ingredients.
22. The kit of claim 21, further comprising a means of mixing the dry ingredients and the lubricant.
23. The kit of claim 21, further comprising injecting means.
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/693,120, filed Oct. 20, 2000 (pending), which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 09/153,133, filed Sep. 15, 1998 (pending), which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 08/729,342, filed Oct. 16, 1996, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,541,037, each of which are incorporated by reference.
The present invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions and methods for the treatment of cancer.
Following surgical removal or radiation therapy for the removal or reduction of hard and soft tissue tumors, patients are faced with the possibility of persistent tumor cells, metastasis and tumor reoccurrence. In the case of bone tumors, patients face the additional problem of poor mechanical integrity of the bone. Cancer patients typically receive postoperative chemotherapy to reduce the chances of tumor reoccurrence and metastasis. Chemotherapy also is used for the treatment of inoperable tumors. Systemically delivered anticancer drugs often produce severe side effects, such as liver toxicity, cardiotoxicity, hair and weight loss. Therapies often are discontinued or otherwise limited due to these adverse side effects.
While the effectiveness of chemotherapy has improved tremendously, the side effects associated with its administration remain a significant factor in patient mortality. Therefore, an important consideration when treating bone tumors and soft-tissue tumors with chemotherapeutic agents is maintaining a long-acting, yet highly effective concentration of the anticancer agent at the local site of the tumor while minimizing the often toxic systemic side effects.
MacroMed reports the use of a biodegradable polymer having reverse thermal gelation properties for intra-tumoral injections. Under the tradename OncoGel™, the poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-based polymer is deliverable through a small-gauge (25) needle and localized delivery is reported. See, U.S. Pat. No. 5,702,717 for further information on the polymeric material.
Hydroxyapatite is a major mineral in bone and teeth. It demonstrates excellent biocompatibility with bony tissue and has been used in the orthopedic industry as bone-filling material. Anticancer agents such as adriamycin, cis-platin and methotrexate have been incorporated into porous hydroxyapatite beads and blocks, and sustained release of the agents have been demonstrated. Administration of the drug-loaded blocks to a tumor site in a cancer rat model resulted in increased life span and reduction in body weight loss. See, Yamamura et al. Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 65:289 (1994); Yamamura et al. Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 66:433 (1994); and Uchida et al. J. Orthop. Res. 10(3):440 (1992).
However, hydroxyapatite ceramics typically are dense, highly crystalline materials, and as such, are poorly resorbable. Porosity must be engineered into the material to permit drug uptake during drug loading and drug release at the tumor site. Engineering of the hydroxyapatite block for a particular drug release profile is difficult and not easily reproducible. An additional limitation of use of a hydroxyapatite solid block or bead is that it requires surgical implantation.
Calcium phosphate cements are compositions having one or more dry components and a liquid which combine to form a material that is capable of setting into a solid calcium phosphate product. Materials that set into solid calcium phosphate mineral products are of particular interest as such products can closely resemble the mineral phase of natural bone, are potentially remodelable, and are biocompatible.
Patents of interest describing calcium phosphate cements include: U.S. Pat. No. 4,684,673 to Adachi et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 5,037,639 to tung et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,683,461, 5,676,976 and 5,650,176 to Lee et al; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,108,690, 5,968,253 to Posner et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,342 to Antonucci et al, as well as U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,880,610, 5,047,031, 5,129,905, 5,336,264, 5,053,212, 5,178,845, and 5,580,623 to Constantz et al.; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,569,442 and 5,571,493 to Fulmer et al.; and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,496,399; 5,683,667; 5,683,496; and 5,697,981 to Ison et al. Also of interest are WO 96/36562 and WO 97/17285.
Constantz et al., "Skeletal Repair by in Situ Formation of the Mineral Phase of Bone," Science (Mar. 24, 1995) 267: 1796-1798, describes a calcium phosphate cement comprising α-tricalcium phosphate, monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (MCPM), and CaCO3. Also of interest is Otsuka et al. "A Novel Skeletal Drug Delivery System Using Self-Setting Calcium Phosphate Cement. 9: Effects of the Mixing Solution Volume on Anticancer Drug Release from Homogeneous Drug-loaded Cement" J. Pharm. Sci. 84(6):733 (June 1995), which describes a calcium phosphate cement made up of tetraclacium phosphate (TTCP) and dicalcium diphosphate (DCPD) and incorporating the anticancer agent 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP). The addition of 6-MP was reported not to interfere with the setting properties of the cement; however, the drug release profile form the cement was not acceptable, presumably due to crystallization of the calcium phosphate cement with time. The effectiveness of cement as a delivery system was not established, as only model in vitro release studies were reported.
A number of these calcium phosphate cements suffer from one or more drawbacks, such as low resorbability, rapid set time, poor flow characteristics and inability to provide controlled release of an active agent. None of the calcium phosphate cements report setting times and material flow characteristics which are amenable to injection or cannulation.
Thus, there is a need for an anticancer agent delivery system that combines desirable delivery characteristics (e.g. resorbability, controlled release, biocompatibility) in conjunction with the ability to be injectable, and thus able to administer the therapeutic mixture by syringe or cannula.
There remains a need for a drug delivery system that slowly releases an anticancer agent exclusively into the tumor.
There remains a further need for a drug delivery system that is easy to administer to the tumor site with minimum trauma to the patient.
The present invention provides a nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate composition for use in the local treatment of cancer. The composition demonstrates excellent biocompatibility, controlled drug release and ease of administration. The composition readily incorporates the drug with simple mixing and can be administered without invasive surgery by injection or by cannula. The setting and crystallization properties of the composition are not significantly affected by the addition of a therapeutic agent. The nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline features of the calcium phosphate carrier provide ideal drug delivery and bioresorption profiles.
In one aspect of the invention, a method for treating cancer in a mammal is provided, in which an anticancer composition is administered to a tumor site of the mammal. The composition includes a mixture of an anticancer agent and a calcium phosphate paste, and the paste includes one or more nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphates and a physiologically acceptable fluid. The paste has an injectable or formable consistency at the time of administration and is hardenable at the tumor site.
In one embodiment, each calcium phosphate has a Ca/P ratio of less than or equal to 1.7.
In another embodiment, the anticancer agent is selected from the group consisting of methotrexate, cis-platin, prednisone, hydroxyprogesterone, medrioxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, diethylstilbestrol, testosterone propionate, fluoxymesterone, vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, hydroxyurea, procarbazine, aminoglutethimide, mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, mephalan, uracil mustard, chlorambucil, busulfan, carmustine, lomusline, dacarbazine (DTIC, dimethyltriazenomideazolecarboxamide), fluorouracil, 5-fluorouracil, cytarabine, cytosine arabinoxide, mercaptopurine, 6-mercaptomurine, tamoxifan, paclitaxel, etopiside, vinorelbine, gemcitabine, leuprolide, flutamide, goseralin acetate, and thioguanine, and mixtures thereof.
In another embodiment, the anticancer composition is administered to the tumor site by cannula or by injection, or the anticancer composition is administrable by cannula or injection more than five minutes after its preparation, or the anticancer composition is administrable by cannula or injection more than twenty minutes after its preparation.
In still another embodiment, the paste hardens into an apatitic calcium phosphate.
In some embodiments, the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste comprises a calcium phosphate selected from the group consisting of poorly crystalline apatitic (PCA) calcium phosphates (PCA), dicalcium phosphates, such as dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD) and dicalcium phosphate anhydrous (DCPA), tricalcium phosphates (TCP), monetite, monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (MCPM), hetpacalcium phosphate, calcium pyrophosphate, calcium metaphosphate, octacalcium phosphates (OCP), hydroxyapatites (HA), or at least one of the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphates is a poorly crystalline apatitic calcium phosphate.
In some embodiments, each of the one or more nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphates has a calcium to phosphate ratio in the range of 1.0 to 1.67, or in the range of 1.3 to 1.67.
In other embodiments, the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste has an overall calcium to phosphate ratio in the range of 1.0 to 1.7, or in the range of 1.40 to 1.65.
In some embodiments, the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste comprises a physiologically acceptable fluid in an amount sufficient to produce a paste having injectable or formable consistency.
In still other embodiments, a therapeutically effect amount of anticancer agent is released from the composition for a time greater than one week, or for a time greater than two week, or for a time greater than one month, or for a time greater than three months.
In yet another embodiment, delivery of the anticancer therapy to the tumor site is sufficient to prevent increase of tumor mass without significant weight loss of the mammal, or delivery of the anticancer therapy to the tumor site is sufficient to result in a decrease in tumor mass without significant weight loss in the mammal.
In still another embodiment, the particle size of the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate is selected to provide a desired release kinetic of the anticancer drug.
In another aspect of the invention, an anticancer composition includes a mixture of a physiologically effective amount of an anticancer agent and a calcium phosphate paste including one or more nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate and a physiologically acceptable fluid. The paste has an injectable or formable consistency at the time of administration and hardenable at the tumor site.
In one embodiment, each calcium phosphate having a Ca/P ratio of less than or equal to 1.7.
In another embodiment, the anticancer agent is selected from the group consisting of methotrexate, cis-platin, prednisone, hydroxyprogesterone, medrioxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, diethylstilbestrol, testosterone propionate, fluoxymesterone, vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, hydroxyurea, procarbazine, aminoglutethimide, mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, mephalan, uracil mustard, chlorambucil, busulfan, carmustine, lomusline, dacarbazine (DTIC, dimethyltriazenomideazolecarboxamide), fluorouracil, 5-fluorouracil, cytarabine, cytosine arabinoxide, mercaptopurine, 6-mercaptomurine, tamoxifan, paclitaxel, etopiside, vinorelbine, gemcitabine, leuprolide, flutamide, goseralin acetate, and thioguanine, and mixtures thereof In still other embodiments, the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate cement comprises a calcium phosphate selected from the group consisting of amorphous calcium phosphate, poorly crystalline apatitic (PCA) calcium phosphates (PCA), dicalcium phosphates, such as dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD) and dicalcium phosphate anhydrous (DCPA), tricalcium phosphates (TCP), monetite, monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (MCPM), hetpacalcium phosphate, calcium pyrophosphate, calcium metaphosphate, octacalcium phosphates (OCP), hydroxyapatites (HA), or at least one of the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphates is selected from the group consisting of amorphous calcium phosphate and poorly crystalline apatitic calcium phosphate.
In some embodiments, each of the one or more nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphates has a calcium to phosphate ratio in the range of 1.3 to 1.67, or the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste has an overall calcium to phosphate ratio in the range of 1.0 to 1.7, in the range of 1.0 to 1.67 or in the range of 1.40 to 1.65.
In other embodiments, the anticancer composition is of a consistency administrable to the tumor site by cannula or by injection.
In other embodiments, the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste comprises a physiologically acceptable fluid in an amount sufficient to produce a paste having injectable or formable consistency for at least five minutes, or for at least twenty minutes.
In still other embodiments, the nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate paste is hardenable into an apatitic calcium phosphate.
In yet other embodiments, a therapeutically effect amount of anticancer agent is released from the composition for a time greater than one week, or for a time greater than two week, or for a time greater than one month, or for a time greater than three months.
In still another embodiment, delivery of the anticancer therapy to the tumor site is sufficient to at least prevent increase of tumor mass without significant weight loss of the mammal, or delivery of the anticancer therapy to the tumor site is sufficient to prevent a decrease in tumor mass without significant weight loss in the mammal.
In yet another embodiment, the particle size of the calcium phosphate is selected to provide a desired release kinetic of the anticancer drug.
In still another aspect of the invention, a kit for use in preparing a flowable anticancer composition that remain injectable for at least about 20 minutes is provided. The kit includes dry ingredients having a nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate and a second calcium phosphate in a proportion of about 1:10 to 10:1 by weight; a physiologically acceptable aqueous lubricant in an amount sufficient to produce a flowable product upon combination with the dry ingredients; and an anticancer agent in an amount ranging from about 0.01 to 10 wt. % of the dry ingredients.
In one embodiment, the kit further includes a means of mixing the dry ingredients and the lubricant, or an injecting means.
By "nanocrystalline calcium phosphate (NCP)" is meant a calcium phosphate solid which exhibits crystalline domains on the order of nanometers or Angstroms. NCP materials may include localized structure based upon well-known calcium phosphates, such as hydroxyapatite, tricalcium apatite, octacalcium phosphate, etc.; however, long-range order is substantially absent. Exemplary NCP materials based upon hydroxyapatite are found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,783,217.
By "poorly crystalline apatitic (PCA) calcium phosphate" is meant a synthetic calcium phosphate of apatitic structure demonstrating only short-range crystallinity. The PCA calcium phosphate is not necessarily restricted to a single calcium phosphate phase, provided is demonstrates the characteristic X-ray diffraction pattern of an apatitic mineral, namely two broad peaks in the region of 20-35° with a peak centered at 26° and a second peak centered at 32°. Exemplary PCA calcium phosphate materials are found in U.S. Ser. No. 08/729,342, hereby incorporated by reference.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING
The invention is described with reference to the following drawings which are presented for the purpose of illustration only, which are not intended to be limiting of the invention, and in which:
FIG. 1 is a plot of the % tumor mass change over time in C3H mice for 25 mg/kg cisplatin dose in calcium phosphate delivery vehicle (▴), calcium phosphate delivery vehicle alone (*), no treatment (+), and systemic IV administration of cisplatin (−);
FIG. 2 is a plot of total body weight over time for C3H mice treated with cisplatin in calcium phosphate delivery vehicle of the invention (♦), and for rats treated with a positive control (intravenous administration) (▪);
FIG. 3 is a plot of the % tumor mass change over time for C3H mice for 25 mg/kg cisplatin dose in calcium phosphate delivery vehicle (▴), calcium phosphate delivery vehicle alone (*), no treatment (+), and systemic IV administration of cisplatin (−); and
FIG. 4 is a plot of total body weight over time for C3H mice treated with cisplatin in calcium phosphate delivery vehicle of the invention (♦), and for rats treated with a positive control (intravenous administration) (▪).
The nanocrystalline calcium phosphate composition of the invention demonstrates excellent biocompatibility, controlled drug release and ease of administration. The composition readily incorporates the drug with simple mixing and can be administered without invasive surgery by injection or by cannula. The flowable material may be injected into a cancellous bone void and the material sets into a solid calcium phosphate product that is capable of withstanding physiological loads, making such products extremely attractive for use in the treatment of bone tumors. The composition may similarly be injected into soft-tissue tumors. The flowable nature of the calcium phosphate composition of the invention allows the mixture to flow around and into the tumor, where it hardens into a calcium phosphate cement. The tumor may be encapsulated thereby in the hardened calcium phosphate cement which confines the cancer cells of the tumor and helps to prevent metastasis.
The calcium phosphate paste may include any nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate material in which the chemical composition and material properties have been selected to provide the desired flow properties and bioresorption. The desired flow properties include the ability to deliver the calcium phosphate composition by syringe or cannula. The paste is considered "injectable" if it is capable of passing through a 16 gauge needle. In preferred embodiments, injectability is maintained after storage, for example, for one minute, five minutes, ten minutes and most preferably 30 minutes. Injectability is evaluated by determining the ability to inject 1 cc of paste material through a 16 gauge needle or smaller, with only finger or hand pressure being applied by the user. The material is capable of injection through small gauge needles, e.g., 18-gauge to 25-gauge needles.
The paste is made up of a dry powder component, a liquid component and an anticancer agent.
The dry component includes one or more nanocrystalline calcium phosphates. Each calcium phosphate has a calcium to phosphate (Ca/P) ratio of less than or equal to 1.7, and preferably a Ca/P ratio in the range of 1.0-1.65. Calcium phosphates of interest include, but are not limited to, calcium phosphates such as poorly crystalline apatitic (PCA) calcium phosphates (PCA), dicalcium phosphates, such as dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD) and dicalcium phosphate anhydrous (DCPA), tricalcium phosphates (e.g., α- and β-TCPs), monetite, monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (MCPM), hetpacalcium phosphates, calcium pyrophosphates, calcium metaphosphates, octacalcium phosphates (OCP), hydroxyapatites (HA), which are nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline in nature. Other calcium phosphates are described by Driessen (1995), which is hereby incorporated by reference. Carbonated or otherwise substituted versions of these calcium phosphates are also contemplated in the invention. Calcium deficient or poorly crystalline apatitic calcium phosphates having a Ca/P ratio of about 1.0-1.65, preferably 1.0-1.6, or 1.0-1.5 or 1.0-1.4, or 1.50-1.65, and more particularly 1.55-1.65, are preferred. Another preferred calcium phosphate is nanocrystalline calcium phosphate (NCP), in particular a hydroxyapatitic NCP.
The preferred nanocrystalline calcium phosphates, NCP, or PCA calcium phosphate, may be used alone, or in combination with each other, or individually with a second calcium phosphate to form the dry component of the composition. Suitable second calcium phosphates are those which are capable of reacting with the primary calcium phosphate to form a hardened cement. Exemplary calcium phosphates include dicalcium phosphates, such as dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD) and dicalcium phosphate anhydrous (DCPA), tricalcium phosphates (TCP), monetite, monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (MCPM), hetpacalcium phosphate, calcium pyrophosphate, calcium metaphosphate, octacalcium phosphates (OCP), hydroxyapatites (HA). A preferred dry powder combination is a nanocrystalline calcium phosphate and dicalcium phosphate, e.g., DCPD. Another preferred embodiment is a poorly crystalline apatitic calcium phosphate and a dicalcium phosphate. A detailed description of the preparation and characteristics of suitable calcium phosphates can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,783,217, which is hereby incorporated by reference.
A particularly preferred dry component is a combination of calcium phosphate powders which react to form an apatitic calcium phosphate. Hydroxy apatite is the mineral component of naturally-occurring bone having a Ca/P ratio of 1.67, although the actual Ca/P ratio of bone varies between 1.5 and 1.7. The composition and relative amounts of the dry powder components preferably are selected to provide an overall Ca/P ratio in the range of 1.0-1.7, or 1.3-1.65, or 1.4-1.6, or preferably close to that of naturally-occurring bone, that is in the range of 1.45 to 1.7. It has been observed that calcium-deficient compositions exhibit more rapid, resorption characteristics. In some embodiments where rapid resorption is desired, it may be desired to use select dry powder components to provide an overall Ca/P ratio of less than 1.67, and preferably in the range of 1.4 to 1.65.
The composition of the invention also includes one or more anticancer agents. The anticancer agent may be introduced with the powder component, or with the liquid component of the composition, or it may be separately added to the composition. Suitable anticancer agents may be one or more of known chemotherapy drugs such as methotrexate, cis-platin, prednisone, hydroxyprogesterone, medrioxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, diethylstilbestrol, testosterone propionate, fluoxymesterone, vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, hydroxyurea, procarbazine, aminoglutethimide, mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, mephalan, uracil mustard, chlorambucil, busulfan, carmustine, lomusline, dacarbazine (DTIC, dimethyltriazenomideazolecarboxamide), fluorouracil, 5-fluorouracil, cytarabine, cytosine arabinoxide, mercaptopurine, 6-mercaptomurine, tamoxifan, paclitaxel, etopiside, vinorelbine, gemcitabine, leuprolide, flutamide, goseralin acetate, and thioguanine, and mixtures thereof.
Exemplary anticancer agents and the suggested dosage are found in Table 1. The amount of anticancer agent that is present in the cement will be sufficient to provide a composition that at least prevents tumor growth in the region where the composition has been introduced as compared to a control. In preferred embodiments, the amount and effectiveness of the anticancer agent is sufficient to reduce the tumor size or even to substantially eliminate the tumor.
Cancer Drug Mechanism of action Dosage response rate
Breast tamoxifan non-steroidal 20 mg/daily as 1st
antiestrogen; inhibits (tablet) line hormonal
binding of estrogen to therapy; 60%
receptors steroid receptor
cancers respond
doxorubicin inhibits action of 60-75 none known
topoisomerase II; forms mg/m2 IV
free radicals, binds to (every 21
membrane days)
methotrexate inhibitor of dihydrofolate 30-40 with cyclophosphamide
reductase; interferes with mg/m2 IV and 5-fluorouracil,
cellular enzymes (once a 30-50%)
week)
cyclophosphamide alkylating agent; 50-1000 35% alone, 90%
crosslinks DNA and mg/m2; combination
RNA strands, prevents 1× therapy
cell division treatment
5-fluorouracil effects DNA and RNA 500 mg/m2, partial remission
1× day, 10-20%
repeat 4-5
paclitaxol stabilizes microtubule 175 mg/m2, 56-62% response in
formation leading to cell (every three previously treated
death weeks) patients
small cell etoposide interferes with DNA 80/m2 30-35% alone;
lung (+cisplatin) synthesis by interacting for three days 50% with cisplatin
with topoisomerases II
non-small paclitaxol interferes with DNA 80 mg/m2 mg 34-40% in
cell lung (+cisplatin) synthesis by interacting for three days previously
with topoisomerases II untreated patients
vinorelbine antitubulin, causes miotic 30 mg/m2 33% alone;
(+cisplatin) arrest in G2 and M for 3 days 28% with cisplatin
gemcitabine affects cell undergoing not given in not given in lungs
(+cisplatin) DNA syntheses and lungs
blocks progression
through G1/S
prostate leuprolide desensitizes LH-RH 7.5 mg im, survival favored for
receptors and reduces 1× month leuprolide/flutamide
release of hormones combination
goseralin down regulates LH-RH 3.6 mg s.c., with flutamide 70%
acetate receptor, medical 1× month
castration, reduces
flutamide nonsteroid antiandrogen, 250 mg, 70% combination
used with LH-RH every 8 h, therapy
analogue orally
diethylestilbestrol synthetic estrogen 1-3 mg, 65%
In other embodiments, two or more anticancer agents are included in the composition. Certain combination therapies have been identified as particularly effective and are found in Table 2. The amount of anticancer agent that is present in the cement will generally range from about 0.01 to 10, usually from about 0.01 to 5.0 and more usually from about 0.01 to 3.0% by weight of the dry ingredients of the cement.
Cancer combination therapy
breast 5-fluorouracil, doxorubicin (>60
mg/m2), cyclophophamide
cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin (<60
mg/m2), 5-fluorouracil
cyclophosphamide, methotrexate,
5-fluorouracil
doxorubicin, paclitaxol
small cell lung cisplatin, etoposide
non-small cell lung cisplatin, paclitaxol
cisplatin, vinorelbine
cisplatin, gemcitabin
prostate leuprolide, flutamide
goseraline acetate, flutamide
Also provided are kits comprising the subject chemotherapeutic delivery vehicle, where the dry and liquid components may be present in separate containers in the kit, or some of the components may be combined into one container, such as a kit wherein the dry nanocrystalline or poorly crystalline calcium phosphate components are present in a first container and the liquid components are present in a second container. Instructions for use may also be included. The kit preferably includes dry ingredients comprising amorphous calcium phosphate, nanocrystalline or PCA calcium phosphate and a second calcium phosphate in a proportion of about 1:10 to 10:1 by weight, and preferably about 50:50 by weight; a physiologically acceptable aqueous lubricant (liquid component) in an amount sufficient to produce a flowable product upon combination with said dry ingredients; and an anticancer agent in an amount sufficient to produce the desired pharmaceutical effect and typically ranging from about 0.01 to 10 wt. % of said dry ingredients. Due to the need to carefully titrate the amount of anti-cancer agent based upon patient body mass and tumor size, the agent may be added separately. The agent may be added to the liquid component prior to mixing with the dry component, or it may be added to the injectable paste, once formed.
In preparing the subject calcium phosphate cements for use in the treatment of cancer, the dry components and the liquid components will be combined using any suitable means to produce a homogeneous, flowable paste-like material having the characteristics described above. One suitable means of combining the dry and liquid components is a mortar and pestle, with which the liquid and solid components are mixed to produce the flowable paste. Alternatively, one may employ an automated mixing device. See, U.S. Pat. No. 5,980,482, hereby incorporated by reference, for further description of a suitable mixing device.
Generally, the calcium phosphate composition is formed into an injectable gel or solid nanoparticle paste by the addition of a liquid component or lubricant. The liquid component is a physiologically acceptable liquid, such as but not limited to, water, saline, sodium phosphates, buffer solutions, serum, or tissue culture media. The liquid component may include one or more solutes, selected to buffer the liquid, stabilize the anti-cancer agent, or otherwise modify the properties of the calcium phosphate composition, e.g., modify reaction and hardening times or modify the composition or crystallinity of the product calcium phosphate. For example, sodium phosphate is typically used to accelerate the hardening of the calcium phosphate paste. The preferred calcium phosphate paste may be designed to absorb, bind, entrap or otherwise contain the anticancer agent.
The calcium phosphate cements, paste-like compositions and products are combined with an anticancer agent for its local delivery to a physiological site of interest. The calcium phosphate paste containing the anticancer agent remains formable and injectable at room temperature, facilitating the administration of the composition to a tumor site by injection or by cannula.
The calcium phosphate cement may be selected to set rapidly or slowly at room temperatures. In many instances it will be advantageous to have the calcium phosphate paste set slowly at room temperature, for example, to allow the medical professional adequate time to administer the therapeutic composition to the tumor site. For example, the calcium phosphate paste may remain flowable and injectable at room temperatures for a significant time, e.g., more than 5 minutes, more than 10 minutes, more than 20 minutes, and up to an hour. The calcium phosphate paste should nonetheless set rapidly under physiological conditions, e.g., less than 20 minutes, less than 10 minutes and preferably within 5 minutes. Thus, preferred calcium phosphate compositions exhibit a "dual setting" characteristic in that they are slow to set at about room temperature, e.g., 20-25 C, yet set rapidly at physiological temperatures e.g., 35-40 C. In such instances, a composition including PCA calcium phosphate as one of the components may be used.
In those instances where a more rapidly setting cement is desired, accelerators may be added to the composition. Exemplary accelerators include water-soluble sodium salts, such as sodium phosphate, sodium succinate, sodium lactate, sodium chloride, sodium acetate and the like.
Setting times may be determined using well-established standards, such as the Gillmore needle test (ASTM C 266-89 Standard Test Method of Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by Gillmore Needles) and the needle penetration test C 403/C 403M-95 Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance. The effect of the anticancer agent on the setting times may be determined using these tests as well.
Once in place, the paste hardens and releases the anticancer agent into the tumor environment over an extended period of time, relying on a combination of drug solubility and bioerosion of the calcium phosphate delivery vehicle. The calcium phosphate composition may be formulated to be resorbable over a preselected period of time. Calcium phosphate cements may be prepared which resorb within at least about 1 week, within about one month, within about one month and preferably within a year, so that the calcium phosphate cement may release the anticancer agent into their local environment for as long as is needed, depending on the specific cement from which the composition is prepared. Thus, the subject compositions find use as anticancer agent delivery vehicles, i.e. as anticancer agent depots, in which the local delivery of an anticancer agent for an extended period of time is desired. The subject compositions find particular use as local anticancer agent delivery vehicles for bone tissue, particularly cancellous bone tissue.
In most cases, the anticancer compositions are resorbable. Resorbable calcium phosphate cements biodegrade over time, ultimately leaving little or no residual material in the body. Resorbability generally eliminates the need for surgical removal of the delivery vehicle, after completion of chemotherapy.
Resorbable calcium phosphate cements also allow the controlled delivery of active agents to a the tumor site at a specific rate. The anticancer agent typically is delivered to a tumor site at a rate comparable to the resorption rate. Custom designed resorbability characteristics of the anticancer composition provides for selected delivery rates. In preferred embodiments, weakly resorbing calcium phosphate cements will be used to provide a slow release delivery of the anticancer agent to the tumor site. In other embodiments, the calcium phosphate cement will be strongly resorbable and provide a means to deliver a fast, quick dose of the anticancer agent to the tumor site. In yet other embodiments, a combination of weakly and strongly resorbable calcium phosphates will be used to produce a variable or pulsatile kinetic release. The resorption rate, and therefore the delivery rate, can be adjusted to hours, days, weeks, months, and even years by varying the preparations of the variously resorbing components.
A strongly resorbing calcium phosphate is characterized as follows: when at least 0.1 gram (preferably 0.1-0.5 g) is implanted in an osseous, subcutaneous or intramuscular site, at least 80% of the material is resorbed within one year. In more preferred embodiments, 0.5 gram of the calcium phosphate will be resorbed within nine months, six months, three months, and ideally one month or less, depending of the desired delivery profile desired at the tumor site. Weakly resorbable means that less than 80% of 0.1 gram of starting calcium phosphate is resorbed after one year. Resorption, as used herein, encompasses solubility based dissolution processes, as well as active cellular or enzyme based processes. Preferred materials are resorbed through active cellular or enzymatic processes. By controlling the rate of active degradation of the calcium phosphate cement, the inventive calcium phosphate cements can be tailored to have linear resorption rates, and can be tailored to avoid initial high concentration spikes where undesirable.
Resorbability of the calcium phosphate vehicles also may be varied through the adjustment of one or more physical parameters including vehicle size, vehicle particle size, porosity, density, and/or crystallinity. For example, monolithic devices, on the order of one gram will resorb more slowly than one gram of the same material when in particulate form. Two or more of these parameters will generally be adjusted in concert to fine-tune the final resorption rate.
For precipitated calcium phosphates, particle sizes may be controlled by careful control of the precipitation rate. Rapid precipitation, followed by rapid harvesting of the precipitate, is useful in the production of small particle sizes (e.g. particle size ranging from 5 nm to 150 nm) of low crystallinity. The use of standard milling processes known to the art (e.g. ball mills, roller mills, jet mills) followed by precise sieving, will also be useful in preparing vehicles of specific size particles. In other instances materials prepared from slurries, as described in the art, will produce useful particle size materials. Particle sizes of less than 1 mm, preferably less than 0.5 mm, are generally preferred for delivery vehicles intended to be resorbed within six months.
Cements can be induced to form particulates during hardening through the use of an emulsifying agent and injection of the cement as an emulsion. Emulsifying agents will be solubilized from the hardened material leaving a macropore matrix. Suitable emulsifying agents include lethicin, dimethicone, and the like.
Density of the hardened calcium phosphate composition also has a significant effect on resorption rates. Different calcium phosphate compositions result in different density and grain sizes. Higher density or larger grain size, of course, reduce resorption rates. Leachable or biodegradable materials may be incorporated into the paste that may be subsequently removed in vivo, e.g., by dissolution or cellular action, so that a porous vehicle results. Suitable additives should of course be biocompatible and physiologically acceptable at the doses required to induce porosity. Other methods of affecting calcium phosphate density are discussed in Driessens et al. in Enclyclopedic Handbook of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Chapter 31, "Calcium Phosphate Bone Cements", Wise (Ed.), Marcel Dekker (1995).
Selection of the particular calcium phosphates may be made to provide a desired resorption rate in the device. Control of the calcium phosphate cement degree of crystallinity and crystal size may be used to affect the overall vehicle resorption rate. For apatitic calcium phosphates with calcium to phosphorous ratios of 1.3-1.75, poorly crystalline forms are believed to resorb more slowly than less crystalline forms, e.g., amorphous calcium phosphates. This may be an advantage in some applications where sustained release over long time periods is desired. For example, in a comparable in vivo site, calcium phosphate cements prepared with nanocrystalline calcium phosphate, and in particular with nanocrystalline calcium phosphate and dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, resorb slowly, e.g., over the course of more than one month. Increased resorption rates may be achieved through the production of apatitic calcium phosphates containing lattice defects, such as ionic vacancies or substitutions. Preferred embodiments include carbonated or otherwise calcium deficient apatites, i.e., Ca/P<1.67, all of which tend to have increased in vivo resorption rates. Each type of calcium phosphate cement may be preferred in specific therapeutic settings.
Further guidance for the production of similar such apatitic calcium phosphates can be found in Structure and Chemistry of the Apatites and Other Calcium Orthophosphates, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1994, by J. C. Elliott), and the references contained therein, all incorporated herein by reference.
The inventive delivery vehicle can be of any porosity that provides the desirable characteristics for anticancer drug delivery. Porosity facilitates both the diffusion of substances to and from the inventive material and, in certain applications, the penetration of cells and cell processes into the material matrix. Accordingly, calcium phosphate cements of lower porosity tend to resorb more is slowly in vivo than those of higher porosity; therefore, the greater the porosity, the greater the rate of resorption. In one embodiment of the invention, porosity is increased through the use of a dry mixture of controlled particle size reactants. For example, a reactant with a larger particle size (e.g. 300-500 μm) will produce a more porous material. Soluble porogens may also be used to control the porosity of the calcium phosphate material.
Additionally, certain molecular factors may be incorporated into the vehicle that can be used to affect its resorption rate by influencing the cellular or enzymatic processes that ordinarily mediate vehicle resorption in the body. These incorporated factors are often biologically active molecules or collections thereof, which affect bone metabolic processes, such as the activity of osteoclasts and/or osteoblasts. In other instances the incorporated factors attract or otherwise affect the activity of one or more of macrophages, monocytes, or foreign body giant cells. Such useful factors include: growth factors, enzyme inhibitors, extracellular matrix components, cytokines and the like.
Incorporation of factors, which attract or inhibit osteogenic cells and/or macrophages, can have a significant effect on calcium phosphate cement resorption rate. Thus, incorporation of bone morphogenetic protein into the inventive calcium phosphate cements will lead to more rapid resorption of the vehicle, particularly in soft tissue implant sites. Additionally, factors that attract osteoclasts (e.g. interleukin-1, lymphotoxin, calcitonin) may be used to promote degradation of the vehicle. Osteoclast or macrophage activity inhibitors (e.g. neutral phosphate, glucocorticoids, plicamycin, gallium nitrate) may be used to prolong the resorption process. Extracellular matrix components, such as laminen, RDG peptides, collagen, fibronectin may also be included with the calcium phosphate cements. Further guidance regarding specific factors useful in the regulation of calcium phosphate resorption rates can be found in PCT/US97/18528, incorporated by reference herein. Generally, these factors will be incorporated into the inventive calcium phosphate cements as a concentration of less than 20% wt/wt preferably less than 10% and in most embodiments, less than 5%.
In many instances, calcium phosphate cement resorbability is preferred; however, it is not always required or desired. In some embodiments, a calcium phosphate cement that is either weakly resorbable or substantially non-resorbable may be used. A non-resorbable calcium phosphate cement may be used when prolonged chemotherapy is required over a matter of several years. A non-resorbable calcium phosphate cement may also be desirable in cases when the calcium phosphate cement is used additionally as a support matrix for tissue repair or growth, as a treatment for a disease. Non-resorbable calcium phosphate calcium phosphate cements can remain in the body without detrimental effects to the host due to their excellent biocompatibility. Alternatively, non-resorbable calcium phosphate cements may be surgically removed following the desired delivery period. Suitable non-resorbable or weakly resorbable calcium phosphate calcium phosphate cements include those prepared from sintered hydroxyapatite.
Ultimately, resorption rates may be established empirically by using intramuscular or subcutaneous implantation of the calcium phosphate cement in one or more small animal models to assess the exact effect of formulation adjustments on calcium phosphate cement resorption rates. In these model systems, a variety of candidate formulations may be tested simultaneously and resorption rates can be compared at various time points using standard histological, radiographic or other methods know to the art.
The calcium phosphate paste may also be formulated in a manner which enhances its receptiveness to the cancer cells. For example, the pH of the delivery vehicle may be tailored to be particularly receptive to cancer cells. Cancer cells typically produce an environment that is of lower pH (more acidic) than that associated with healthy host cells. The composition of the calcium phosphate paste may be selected to provide a resultant hardened calcium phosphate having a pH which enhances the effectiveness of the anticancer therapy. Practitioners of calcium phosphate chemistry will know to use those calcium phosphates having the least solubility (for longer release times) at the expected pH at physiological temperatures. In most embodiments, the composition is selected for pH stability at neutrality or under slightly acidic conditions. Guidance for preparations of calcium phosphate cements of differing pHs can be found in the solubility isotherm data such as that provided by Brown in "Phase relationships in the ternary system CaO—P2O5—H2O at 25 C," Amer. Ceram. Soc. 75:17(1992) and by J. C. Elliot in "Structure and Chemistry of the Apatites and Other Calcium Orthophosphates," supra.
The invention also provides a method for the treatment of cancer. The method includes administering an anticancer composition to a tumor site of a patient. The anticancer composition includes a mixture of an anticancer agent in a calcium phosphate paste delivery vehicle. The paste is made up of two or more calcium phosphates and a physiologically acceptable fluid, each calcium phosphate having a Ca/P ratio of less than or equal to 1.7. The paste is injectable or formable at the time of administration which allows the paste to be introduced directly at and into the tumor. The paste then hardens rapidly at the tumor site.
The method of the invention has been investigated for the treatment of breast and prostate cancer, although the methods and compositions described herein may be readily adapted for the treatment of many kinds of cancer.
This example illustrates the typical formation of a nanocrystalline calcium phosphate (NCP) gel for use in a drug delivery preparation for delivery of a chemotherapeutic.
A solution of 218 g of disodium Na2HPO4.12 H2O in 1.2 liters of distilled water and a solution of 70 g of Ca(NO3)2.4H2O in 0.5 liters of distilled water were prepared. The calcium solution was quickly poured into the phosphate solution at room temperature with stirring. Precipitation was immediate and substantially complete. The precipitate was adjusted to pH 6.4 by the addition of sodium hydroxide solution in order to avoid the formation of acidic calcium phosphates. The precipitate was aged at room temperature for 5 minutes prior to filtration. The precipitate was then filtered through a Buchner filter (with a total surface about 0.1 m2), and was washed by about 3 liters of distilled water. A gel cake of nanocrystalline calcium phosphate obtained on the filter paper.
This example illustrates the typical formation of a nanocrystalline calcium phosphate (NCP) powder for use in a drug delivery preparation for delivery of a chemotherapeutic.
The calcium phosphate apatite material was prepared according to example 3 but with the following modifications. The washed precipitate was collected using a spatula and immersed into liquid nitrogen in a 2.5 L container. Following freezing, the container was transferred into a vacuum chamber for 24 hours (10−1-10−2 torr), until a fine and dry powder was obtained.
This example illustrates the preparation of an apatitic calcium phosphate drug delivery agent for delivery of a chemotherapeutic using NCP powder.
NCP was made by combining two solutions at room temperature. Solution A contained 87.6 g calcium nitrate tetrahydrate in 624 mL of distilled water (pH 5.45). Solution B contained 203.7 g dibasic sodium phosphate heptahydrate and 100.0 g sodium bicarbonate in 2000 mL of distilled water. After mixing together for two minutes at room temperature (pH 6.60), 42 mL of 10% wt/wt NaOH solution was added to the reaction mixture over 11 minutes to bring the pH to 7.29. The mixture was filtered by vacuum filtration (650 mL per funnel) and washed four times with 1000 mL of distilled water. After the last wash, the material was covered in liquid nitrogen and lyophilized for 24 hours. After lyophilization, the powder was pushed through a 500 μm sieve.
Dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD) was prepared at room temperature by the rapid addition of solution B (17.1 g Ca(NO3)2.4H2O; 0.250 liters distilled water; pH 5.5-60 to a stirred solution A (10 g H9N2O4P; 0.5 liters distilled water; pH 7.8). Immediately thereafter, the sample was filtered using filter paper (0.05 sq. m) with medium filter speed and a vacuum pressure of about 10−2 torr. The material formed a thin cake which was washed with about 2 liters of distilled water and then dried at room temperature for 24-72 hours.
The nanocrystalline calcium phosphate material was physically dry-mixed with DCPD at 50:50 weight percent using a mortar and pestle for 3-5 minutes. Water (1 ml/g of mixed material) was then added to the powder mixture to yield a hydrated precursor of paste-like consistency. The amount of H2O added varied, depending on whether a thick or thin paste was desired. The paste material was then placed in a moist tissue environment where upon reaching body temperature (37° C.), it hardened into a solid mass. The hardening process could be delayed for several hours by placing it into a refrigerating temperature of 4° C.
The goal of this study was to use a calcium phosphate material as a delivery vehicle for cisplatin at a mammary tumor site and to evaluate the effectiveness of cisplatin-calcium phosphate delivery system in treating MTGB Mouse cancer tumors in C3H mice.
A protocol was established to administer a two component calcium phosphate delivery vehicle using the material of Example 6 to a tumor interior. The material was tested at two different cisplatin dosage levels and compared against a systemically delivered control. Table 4 includes the protocol used for the mice study (total of 80 athymic nude mice).
Group 1: Positive control (Dose 1 - 25 mg/kg IV systemic control); n = 12
Group 3: Negative control (no treatment); n = 11
Group 4: Dose 1 - 25 mg/kg 50:50 NCP/DCPD inside tumor; n = 11
Group 6: Negative control (50:50 NCP/DCPD only inside tumor); n = 12
The mice were C3H mice (approx. 20 g). They were housed in solid bottom mouse cages maintained within a semi-rigid isolator. They were fed an 18% protein, 5% fat rodent laboratory chow fed ad-lib, gamma-irradiated prior to use. Water was sterile filtered and provided in water bottles. Ambient temperature is 72 degrees F ±5 degrees with a relative humidity of 50%±20%.
Mice were innoculated subcutaneously in the flank area with 1×106 tumor cell in 0.1 mL of RPMI culture medium. After tumors had grown to 8-10 mm, 0.1 cc of treatment or control materials (except for positive systemic controls which were administered by IV) were injected directly into the tumor with an 18-gauge needle. The positive control cisplatin solution was prepared by dissolving a specified amount of cisplatin in sterile saline for injection through a 25 gauge needle directly into the tumor. The appropriate calcium phosphate delivery vehicle was supplied as a sterile powder in a preweighed package. At the time of injection, each powder was hydrated with the appropriate amount of saline and loaded into a 0.1 cc syringe for injection through a 16 gauge needle. Each material was mixed on site and immediately injected at the tumor site using a 1 cc syringe with a Luer-Lok® tip and a 16-gauge needle. At the study site, each animal was weighed and its tumor size was recorded, using hand-held calipers for the measurements. Mice were sacrificed when tumor mass was greater than 10% of body weight.
Animals were monitored over a 20-day period for changes in body weight and tumor mass. Tumor shrinkage accompanied by the absence of toxic side effects (as determined by loss of body weight) was considered an indication of successful treatment.
FIG. 1 is a plot of the % tumor mass change over time for 25 mg/kg cisplatin dose in calcium phosphate delivery vehicle (▴), calcium phosphate delivery vehicle alone (*), no treatment (+), and systemic IV administration of 25 mg/kg cisplatin (−). As is clearly shown, negative control animals (curves (*) and (+)), which received no chemotherapy, demonstrated rapid and excessive tumor is growth. The animals were sacrificed on Day 7 due to excessive tumor load. The plot clearly demonstrates that the cisplatin locally delivered to the tumor in a calcium phosphate delivery vehicle based on NCP/DCPD matched the ability of intravenous delivery of cisplatin (positive control); however, positive control animals died on Day 5 due to excessive weight loss. See, FIG. 2. Positive control animals, however, remained active and apparently healthy over the 20 day observation period.
The goal of this study was to use a calcium phosphate material as a delivery vehicle for cisplatin at a prostate cancer tumor site and to evaluate the effectiveness of cisplatin-calcium phosphate delivery system in treating DU-145 human cancer tumors in nude mice.
A protocol was established to administer a two component calcium phosphate delivery vehicle using the material of Example 6 to a tumor interior. The material was tested at two different cisplatin dosage levels and compared against a systemically delivered control. Table 5 includes the protocol used for the mice study (total of 36 NU/NU-nuBR nude mice).
Group 1: Positive control (Dose 1 - 25 mg/kg IV systemic control); n = 6
Group 3: Negative control (no treatment); n = 6
Group 4: Dose 1 - 25 mg/kg 50:50 NCP/DCPD inside tumor; n = 6
Group 6: Negative control (50:50 NCP/DCPD only, inside tumor); n = 6
The mice were female 5-6 week old Crl:NU/NU-nuBR, which are nude outbred mice. mice (approx. 17-21 g). They were housed in solid bottom mouse cages maintained within a semi-rigid isolator. They were fed a 18% protein, 5% fat rodent laboratory chow fed ad-lib, gamma-irradiated prior to use. Water was sterile filtered and provided in water bottles. Ambient temperature is 72 degrees F. ±5 degrees with a relative humidity of 50% ±20%.
Mice were innoculated subcutaneously in the flank area with 2×106 tumor cell in 0.1 mL of RPMI culture medium with 30% Matrigel. After tumors had grown to 100±35 mg, 0.1 cc of treatment or control materials (except for positive systemic controls which were administered by IV) were injected directly into the tumor with an 18-gauge needle. The positive control cisplatin solution was prepared by dissolving a specified amount of cisplatin in sterile saline for injection through a 25 gauge needle directly into the tumor. The appropriate calcium phosphate delivery vehicle was supplied as a sterile powder in a preweighed package. At the time of injection, each powder was hydrated with the appropriate amount of saline and loaded into a 0.1 cc syringe for injection through a 16 gauge needle. Each material was mixed on site and immediately injected at the tumor site using a 1 cc syringe with a Luer-Lok® tip and a 16-gauge needle. At the study site, each animal was weighed and its tumor size was recorded, using hand-held calipers for the measurements. Mice were sacrificed when two consecutive tumor mass measurements greater than 1000 mg were recorded.
Animals were monitored over a 20-plus day period for changes in body weight and tumor mass. Tumor shrinkage accompanied by the absence of toxic side effects (as determined by loss of body weight) was considered an indication of successful treatment.
FIG. 3 is a plot of the % tumor mass change over time for (a) 25 is mg/kg cisplatin dose in calcium phosphate delivery vehicle, (b) calcium phosphate delivery vehicle alone, (c) no treatment and (d) systemic IV administration of 25 mg/kg cisplatin. As is clearly shown, negative control animals (curve (b)), which received no chemotherapy, demonstrated rapid and excessive tumor growth. The animals were sacrificed on Day 14 due to excessive tumor load. The plot clearly demonstrates that the cisplatin locally delivered to the tumor in a calcium phosphate delivery vehicle based on NCP/DCPD matched the ability of intravenous delivery of cisplatin (positive control) to contain tumor growth; however, positive control animals died on Day 4 due to excessive weight loss. See, FIG. 4. Positive control animals, however, remained active and apparently healthy over the 21 day observation period.
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text:
Bartenders' Choice Awards brings the Nordic bar scene together
The yearly Nordic bar gala Bartenders' Choice Award is celebrating its decade long work in highlighting local bars, bartenders and drinks. Joel Katzenstein and Jakob Sundin, co-founders of the event, have followed the growing confidence and appreciation of local bar craft with joy.
Teksti ja kuvat Laura Hujanen
Bartenders' Choice Awards was founded in 2010 in Sweden and it expanded to Finland, Norway and Denmark in 2017. Iceland joins the party this year, completing the Nordic family. It makes Joel Katzenstein and Jakob Sundin, co-founders of BCA, very happy. I interviewed them in Helsinki before the announcement of the Finnish BCA nominees. Why was the gala founded in the first place?
– We wanted to create the most prestigious price for bars to strive for. Not a competition where one specific drink decides a winner but a price that celebrates the day to day grind and the importance of consistency that goes into running a great and successful bar, Katzenstein tells.
Bringing the Nordic cocktail family together was the reason to expand from the comfortable Swedish home market into other Nordic countries.
– From my perspective there has been a strong connection between the Nordic countries and the community for quite some time but I also think that perhaps there is not enough focus or interest from the international bar scene since we are small countries and fairly small cities, Sundin explains.
According to Sundin, it has been pretty hard for Nordic bars to make themselves seen on a bigger global perspective. There are exceptions of course: Ruby in Copenhagen was perhaps the first poster bar for Scandinavia when BCA was founded.
– But there are so many bars doing really good work and they are getting recognized on some level but if we can work as an united front, the attention we get is bigger and so is the impact.
Ten years of inspiration
Besides giving a spotlight for local bars and bartenders, Sundin and Katzenstein also wanted to give inspiration for their local colleagues. One way of doing this was to invite international superstars into the gala.
– This was before bars did guest shifts every other weekend. It was very unique, you did not see it all the time back then. We had bartenders coming in from all over Europe, Los Angeles, Australia, San Francisco and so on. It was our way of inspiring Swedish bartenders and also to show the international stars the local bars.
Now that the BCA has expanded to the other Nordic countries also, sharing the whole scene with the international guests is the next goal.
– In the dream world we would like to take the international bartenders on a Nordic tour but that would take two weeks. One way of showcasing the whole scene was to launch the BCA week last year. This year we have around 24 events on the BCA week before the gala.
Sundin hopes that they have created a platform where craft, knowledge and creativity has a place to shine and a way to show and express the beautiful things that the Nordic bar scene has to offer.
Growing confidence
When asking how BCA has affected the local bar scene, Katzenstein and Sundin find it hard to answer. They are so within the whole project that it is difficult to look at it from outside. But one thing is for sure: they have definitely seen the growth of confidence in local bartenders.
– When we founded BCA, everyone in Stockholm took themselves and drinks a bit more seriously. We had to take things more seriously and that was because bartending craft was looked upon as something very unserious. So we kind of had to convince ourselves and also our guests that it is actually a profession that you can make a living from. Now, after a couple of years people are more confident and it is more obvious that it is an actual craft and that we don't need to take ourselves that seriously anymore.
Katzenstein thinks that this is a good change for bartenders and guests alike.
– We have gone from super serious and almost pretentious if you will to more fun vibes. Maybe that seriousness was a phase we had to take to be taken more seriously. Now we are in a very good place both for ourselves and for consumers also.
Even though BCA is focused on the views of bartenders on their own craft, Sundin and Katzenstein have not wanted to leave out consumers from the voting. That is why they created a category called People's Choice, where regulars, friends and family get to vote for their favourite bars.
– Idea of having that category is not to exclude everyone else, it is called Bartenders' Choice Awards for a reason, but we don't want to leave others outside of it. It is always fun to see people engage with their customers and regulars on this category.
BCA is highly appreciated amongst bartenders, especially in Sweden. This year BCA was actually nominated by Swedish bartenders in their own gala as the Improver of the Industry. The team behind BCA was honoured for the recognition, but decided to lift other people instead and declined the nomination to make room for others.
– We hope that people see BCA as a good initiative. We don't need the spotlight for ourselves anymore, Sundin sums up.
The winners of Bartenders' Choice Awards will be announced in a gala on 8th of December in Stockholm.
Aromi, Shaker, Evento
(09) 273 00 200
etunimi.sukunimi@aromilehti.fi
Shaker ilmestyy 4 kertaa vuodessa.
© Shaker 2020


text:
Troubling times off the field for A&M, UT
Sports // College Sports
Brent Zwerneman , Houston Chronicle Aug. 2, 2014 Updated: Aug. 2, 2014 7:29 p.m.
Kevin Sumlin's Texas A&M Aggies opened fall practice Friday, moving away from a troubling offseason marred by arrests and dismissals that thrust the program into the national headlines for the wrong reasons.
Since January, 10 A&M football players have been arrested, matching Tennessee for the second most in the country in that time period. Only Georgia, with 12, has more, according to watchdog website arrestnation.com.
Two University of Texas players were arrested two weeks ago, receivers Kendall Sanders and Montrel Meander, on charges of felony sexual assault.
"There's a greater disparity in the behavioral culture of our young people now when they come to college — some people refer to it as maturity — than there has ever been in the past," said Alabama coach Nick Saban, six of whose players were arrested during the offseason.
In the two years before Sumlin's arrival, A&M had five known arrests under coach Mike Sherman. In the past two years under Sumlin, who is entering his third season at A&M, at least 15 players have been arrested and/or dismissed from the program.
Arrest blotter
Known arrests (18) since coach Kevin Sumlin's arrival in January 2012:
QB Johnny Manziel (fighting, failing to identify, fake license)
LB Jordan Richmond (marijuana possession)
DB Kenneth Marshall (marijuana possession)
DL Kirby Ennis (discharging/displaying a firearm/disorderly conduct)
DB Floyd Raven (assault)
DB Deshazor Everett (assault)
DB Kenneth Marshall (marijuana possession, prescription pills)
LB Darian Claiborne (marijuana possession)
LB Darian Claiborne (noise violation)
DL Isaiah Golden (marijuana possession)
QB Kenny Hill (public intoxication)
WR Ricky Seals-Jones (disorderly conduct)
DL Gavin Stansbury (assault)
WR Edward Pope (failure to appear in court)
DB Howard Matthews Jr. (failure to appear in court)
LB Darian Claiborne (felony, armed robbery)
DL Isaiah Golden (felony, armed robbery)
DB Victor Davis (shoplifting)
Known arrests (eight) in same span under coaches Mack Brown and Charlie Strong:
DB Kenny Vaccaro (failure to obey)
DL Alex Okafor (failure to obey)
TE Barrett Matthews (failure to obey)
WR Cayleb Jones (felony, aggravated assault)
WR Kendall Sanders (DWI)
QB Connor Brewer (minor in possession, public intoxication)
WR Kendall Sanders (felony, sexual assault)
WR Montrel Meander (felony, sexual assault)
Two of the players, defensive starters Darian Claiborne and Isaiah Golden, were arrested twice this year before their June dismissal by Sumlin after charges of armed robbery.
Last week, new UT coach Charlie Strong dismissed or suspended six Longhorns, including Sanders and Meander. That made eight UT players dismissed or suspended since Strong was hired in January to replace Mack Brown.
Sumlin said the arrests have prompted his program to "look at our (recruiting) process and reform it — there's merit to that."
"In our first year here, we had about a month to recruit guys, and the second year we had a year," he said. "This is Year 3, and a lot of these guys we're recruiting now we've known about since they were freshmen or sophomores in high school. We've changed a lot of our process, internally, in terms of what we're looking for. What are those? It's not for anybody to know.
"But we've had some very serious meetings about that. We've talked to different people and talked about our process, and I like the direction we're headed."
That process includes the hiring of Mikado Hinson, who worked with Sumlin at Houston as the team's chaplain and director of player development.
While Sumlin has only been on the A&M campus a little more than two years, a majority of the players making negative headlines are his recruits. With Strong only arriving in January, the players in question all come from the Brown era.
"When we recruit these guys, we invest in them and talk to mothers and fathers," Sumlin told a group of Aggie supporters recently. "... The parents turn them over to us, and we try to fix sometimes in 16 months what maybe a mother couldn't fix in 16 years."
Nonetheless, Sumlin says discipline is not a major problem in his program.
Strong feels the same way.
"Guys want to do right," Strong said. "You just have to lead them the right way."
Rod Babers, a UT defensive back from 1999-2002, said some former Longhorns players don't agree with blanket dismissals for the violation of team rules — which covered the exits of four UT players recently.
"Some guys have said, 'That's a little too harsh. Maybe they should be given second chances,'" said Babers, now an Austin sports radio talk show host. "But I think (Strong) is winning the perception battle. ... Everybody's talking about how Charlie Strong is cleaning house."
Sumlin, lately, appears to have adopted a harder stance with regard to disciplinary matters. A handful of players have been dismissed, including touted safety Kam Miles last spring for what was reported as a violation of team rules.
Despite the off-field troubles, Sumlin's Aggies have impressed on the field in their first two years in the SEC, compiling a 20-6 record.
"You don't want to have a reputation as a university better known for its mug shots than its pictures in the media guide," said Dat Nguyen, A&M's all-time leading tackler and the 1998 Lombardi Award winner who is now the host of a radio show in San Antonio.
"A&M has long been considered unique because of trying to stand for what's right. But are we still considered unique? Maybe when you win, though, nobody really cares whether you are."
brent.zwerneman@chron.com
Twitter: @brentzwerneman
Staff writer Mike Finger contributed to this report.
Follow Brent on:
BrentZwerneman
Brent Zwerneman is a staff writer for the Houston Chronicle covering Texas A&M athletics. He is a graduate of Oak Ridge High School and Sam Houston State University, where he played baseball.
Brent is the author of four published books about Texas A&M, three related to A&M athletics. He's a four-time winner of APSE National Top 10 writing awards for the San Antonio Express-News, including a second-place finish for breaking the Dennis Franchione "secret newsletter" scandal in 2007.
His coverage of Texas A&M's move to the SEC from the Big 12 also netted a third-place finish nationally in 2012. Brent met his wife, KBTX-TV news anchor Crystal Galny, in the Dixie Chicken before an A&M-Texas Tech football game in 2002, and the couple has three children: Will, Zoe and Brady.
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How Could States' Wiretapping Laws Affect Your Right to Film Law Enforcement?
This post is part of WITNESS' global Right to Record initiative. Visit the Right to Record project page to learn about our work and how human rights activists around the world are exercising and defending their right to record.
Read about the case of Kianga Mwamba who was arrested for filming the police in Baltimore.
Recently there has been a drastic increase in the use of video, primarily by cellphone, to record police activity. Cell phone video has not only helped expose unlawful use of force and juxtaposed false reports made by officers, but it has also served as a useful tool for civilians monitoring police behavior and in some cases it's even helped de-escalate tense situations. However, in several cases police have interfered with people recording video of arrests and traffic stops. This interference has ranged from yelling, taking the filmer's phone, and even arresting people for recording.
The police often use a variety of different rationales to detain or arrest people who are filming police actions. In many cases, police claim that just filming counts as "interfering" with their duties and use this as justification for an arrest. "Interfering" is not clearly defined. Often officers will claim that someone did not back up after being ordered to.
One-party consent means that the person recording either needs to be in a place where they could naturally overhear the conversation (like in a public space), or be a party to the conversation, or have consent from at least one party of the conversation.
Two-party consent laws, more accurately known as "all-party consent laws", require consent from every participant in the recording. These laws only apply to audio recordings or videos filmed with audio capability. Without audio, a video does not fall under the wiretap laws.
Forty states have one-party consent laws. Ten states have all-party consent laws: California, Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Montana, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania and Washington.
Visit our "Profiling the Police" project to see how activists in New York document the police interfering with their Right to Record.
But over the years there have been a handful of cases in all-party consent states where people have been arrested for recording audio without the officer's consent. As discussed below not all circuit courts have ruled on this issue and some circuits have found that the 1st Amendment does not give everyone the right to record police.
For example, in 2010 in Maryland, Anthony Graber was pulled over while on his motorcycle and he secretly recorded his interaction with the police. Following the incident, Graber uploaded the video to Youtube and shortly afterwards police obtained and executed a warrant to search his home, camera and computers. He was then arrested for violating wiretapping laws that prohibit audio recording without consent and disclosing the recording to others. He was charged with four felonies and could have faced 16 years in prison if convicted. This case was later thrown out because the court determined the police had no reasonable expectation of privacy during a traffic stop. According to the Maryland wiretapping law, it is legal to film a police officer in places where there is no expectation of privacy. You can read the judge's ruling in this case here.
The right to record is determined by jurisprudence, meaning decisions made by judges, rather than legislation. However California (SB-411), Connecticut (SB-1109) and Colorado (HB 15-1290) have enacted further laws addressing filming the police. In 2015, California enacted into law SB-411 which codified that a civilian taking a photo or video of an officer in a public place cannot be detained or arrested for obstructing police duties. A recent Connecticut law allows people who are harassed by police for the act of filming officers to sue for damages in state court. This law is unique in that it allows a civilian to go directly to state court for damages, instead of the usual process of suing in federal court. This law does include a restriction stipulating that if you actively interfere with police activity while filming, you will not be able to file a lawsuit. And unfortunately, whether or not you are "interfering" is determined by the police officer. It's likely that in coming years Connecticut's law will be the subject of lawsuits that will clarify how far police officers can push this provision.
Regardless of whether you're in a one-party or all-party state, it's important to keep in mind the privacy and dignity of the person being targeted by law enforcement. They may not want to be recorded or have the video shared publicly. When possible, make eye contact or communicate with the person being detained to let them know that you are there to observe and document the cops' behavior. Always respect their wishes if they ask you to stop filming. Find tips on filming the police here.
Below is a map of the states that includes the wiretapping laws for each, so you know your rights in your state. Click on states with two-party consent laws to learn more about specific cases. Both Alaska and Hawaii (not pictured) have one-party consent laws.


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How Technology Might Spare You A Long Wait To See Your Doctor
Jay KimContributor
Fitbit's Alta HR, the world's slimmest fitness wristband with continuous heart rate monitoring and... [+] sleep tracking (Photo by Dave Kotinsky/Getty Images for Fitbit)
From FitBits you use to track your daily activity and exercise, to Jawbones used to monitor your sleeping patterns, the health and fitness industry is littered with wearable technology or "wearables" that are supposed to enhance our health, improve our lifestyle and ultimately allow us to all live longer.
Health tech is around us and deeply embedded in our everyday lives whether we realize it or not. There's no price to good for health and as such, a huge amount of money has been invested (and generated) in this area.
So what exactly is health tech? As defined by the World Health Organization, health tech is the "application of organized knowledge and skills in the form of devices, medicines, vaccines, procedures and systems developed to solve a health problem and improve quality of lives." Healthcare has traditionally been the industry requiring the most advanced technology at its core particularly in diagnosis, monitoring and treatment of medical conditions. Recently, during the StartmeupHK 2017 festival, I had the opportunity to speak with Lee Dentith of Now Healthcare Group about the future of health tech and the next game-changing technologies.
Solving a personal problem by building a company
Do you ever wonder why it takes so long to see a general practitioner as you sit in a waiting room full of sick people, coughing children and crying babies? You already know what the end result will be: a five-minute (or less) consultation after which you'll be required to line up again just to pick up your prescription. Why is it that in one of most sophisticated and well-funded industries such as healthcare, there still exists these simple pain points that so negatively affect our livelihood?
Those were the sentiments Dentith experienced during a frustrating four-hour wait his sick child had to endure before they could consult with a GP a few years ago. Dentith knew exactly what his child needed (simple prescription medication) but the long queues and waiting to get there was intolerable.
"When I started thinking about what it is I needed, and I needed to speak with a GP because that GP was the conduit to me being treated with a prescription and me getting on the road to recovery, it was a case of 'what was the boundary to see the GP?' Did I physically need to leave my location? Did I physically need to travel? And I started thinking about technology," recalls Dentith.
Dentith envisioned a dream scenario that would cut out all the waiting time to see a doctor and pharmacist. He realized that his pain point was not unique but rather standard industry practice. Realizing the value that our on-the-go society places on convenience and time, Dentith founded Now Healthcare Group. It provides encrypted technology (via a mobile app) that allows patients to directly and confidentially consult with a vetted physician. That doctor prescribes their medication and the app then helps to source a pharmacy and sync up with a courier for delivery. Healthcare Group's fastest consultation to date (from inquiry to delivery) is a blistering 27 minutes, they say.
Self diagnosis and artificial intelligence
What Dentith is really excited about is the future of self-diagnosis and the use of AI and machine learning to further streamline and automate the self-prescription process. Dentith plans to develop his technology so a patient can directly input or self diagnose problems, which are then forwarded directly to a GP (or clinical nurse) to prescribe medication, or to a fully automated AI machine able to prescribe under the supervision of the company's chief medical officer.
The final part of this system is what Dentith calls "medicine adherence," which is essentially using technology and machine learning (via chat bots and auto responders) to ensure you've taken your daily medication and finish your prescribed course. Suffice to say Dentith is extremely excited about the future of health tech.
"We're gonna move away from a wearable technology into a non-evasive … There's an amazing technology in the UK that's just been trialled which will effectively, through radio frequencies, read pulses as people are sitting there from cameras," he says. "So when you think about the connected home in the next three to five years, we will be able to effectively pre-diagnose any ailments that you may not even know that you've got by giving you a friendly text saying, 'We've detected something. We'd like to have a chat with you. When is convenient?' And that to me is what our real goal is."
Jay Kim
Jay Kim is a full-time investor and the host of the popular podcast The Jay Kim Show, Hong Kong's first dedicated podcast on entrepreneurship and investing in Asia. Inc.
Jay Kim is a full-time investor and the host of the popular podcast The Jay Kim Show, Hong Kong's first dedicated podcast on entrepreneurship and investing in Asia. Inc. Magazine has named The Jay Kim Show one of the top three podcasts from Asia which are inspirational and useful to entrepreneurs. Jay is an avid supporter of the start-up ecosystem in Asia and frequently consults with leaders in local government on topics related to technology, entrepreneurship, early-stage investing and startups


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Reuters, November 20, 2007
Too much aid to Afghanistan wasted: Oxfam
Spending on development is dwarfed by that spent on fighting the Taliban. The US military is spending 65,000 Dollars a minute in Afghanistan, Oxfam said.
By Jon Hemming
KABUL - Too much aid to Afghanistan is wasted -- soaked up in contractors' profits, spent on expensive expatriate consultants or squandered on small-scale, quick-fix projects, a leading British charity said on Tuesday.
Despite more than $15 billion of aid pumped into Afghanistan since U.S.-led and Afghan forces toppled the Taliban in 2001, many Afghans still suffer levels of poverty rarely seen outside sub-Saharan Africa.
( http://www.rawa.org/images/h_kabul.htm )
"Afghanistan has received 12 billion $ in aid but there aren't any signs of serious reconstruction. Our people have not benefited from the billions of reconstruction dollars due to theft by the warlords or misuse by NGOs. Even a fraction of this aid has not been used for the benefit and welfare of our people. Government corruption and fraud directs billions of dollars into the pockets of high-ranking officials. It is such a big shame that the government still cannot provide electricity, food and water for its people."
Zoya's Speech ( http://www.rawa.org/zoya_oct7-06.htm ), Oct.7, 2006
"The development process has to date been too centralized, top-heavy and insufficient," said a report by Oxfam.
By far the biggest donor, the United States approved a further $6.4 billion in Afghan aid this year, but the funds are spent in ways that are "ineffective or inefficient," Oxfam said.
The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) allocates close to half its funds to the five largest U.S. contractors in Afghanistan.
"Too much aid is absorbed by profits of companies and sub-contractors, on non-Afghan resources and on high expatriate salaries and living costs," the report said.
A full-time expatriate consultant can cost up to $500,000 a year, Oxfam said.
More money needed to be channeled through the Afghan government, strengthening its influence and institutions.
Aid also needed to be better coordinated to avoid duplication, it said.
Only 10 percent of technical assistance to Afghanistan is coordinated either with the government or among donors.
SECURITY DETERIORATES
Spending on development is dwarfed by that spent on fighting the Taliban. The U.S. military is spending $65,000 a minute in Afghanistan, Oxfam said.
The report called for the 25 provincial reconstruction teams (PRTs) run by the armies of 13 different nations across the country to withdraw where the security situation is stable enough and carry out relief work only where there is a critical need.
The PRTs, Oxfam said, "being nation-led are often driven more by available funding or the political interests of the nation involved rather than development considerations." The result was "a large number of small-scale, short-term projects."
Afghans say corruption is worse now than at any time in the past nearly 30 years, including under Taliban and Soviet rule. About 60 per cent of 1,250 Afghans questioned for the survey by Integrity Watch Afghanistan thought his administration was more corrupt than any since 1970s. Around 93 per cent believed more than half the public services required a bribe.
Zee News, Mar.19, 2007
"Given the historic suspicion of foreign intervention, such efforts to win 'hearts and minds' are naive. It is unsurprising that the huge expansion of PRT activities has not prevented the deterioration of security."
Violent incidents are up at least 20 percent since last year, according to U.N. estimates, and have spread northwards to many areas previously considered safe.
More than 200 civilians have been killed in at least 130 Taliban suicide bombs and at least 1,200 civilians have been killed overall this year -- about half of them in operations by Afghan and international troops.
Oxfam called on the 50,000 foreign troops in Afghanistan to take greater care not to hurt civilians, particularly in air strikes. The lower number of troops in Afghanistan than in Iraq -- less than a third as many in a much bigger country with a larger population -- leads to a greater reliance on air power.
There are four times as many air strikes in Afghanistan as in Iraq, Oxfam said.
The NATO-led force in Afghanistan says it takes every effort to avoid civilian casualties and has already modified procedures for launching air strikes resulting in fewer civilian deaths.
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URL for news «Too much aid to Afghanistan wasted: Oxfam»
http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2007/11/20/too-much-aid-to-afghanistan-wasted-oxfam.html
News Archive of the «Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan» (RAWA)