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Windows 7 Preactivated SP1 7601.26221 November 2022
Free Download Microsoft Windows 7 Preactivated SP1 7601.26221 November 2022
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FEATURES OF WINDOWS 7
WHAT'S NEXT FOR WINDOWS 7 USERS
IS IT REALLY DANGEROUS?
WILL THE SOFTWARE CONTINUE TO RUN ON WINDOWS 7?
ASSEMBLY FEATURES
LIST OF AVAILABLE WINDOWS EDITIONS
Free Download Microsoft Windows 7 Preactivated ISO November 2022 Update Google Drive Download Link. Windows 7 SP1 Ultimate Preactivated makes your life easier. Get a sleek, streamlined operating system from industry leader Microsoft. The search is faster, the connection is easier, and the interface has never been user-friendly. Your operating system should be designed to support your work and work with your lifestyle. This is the perfect choice for business people and game lovers.
Your computer will run faster, smoother, and more efficiently in 32- and 64-bit versions. Windows 7 is designed to improve the performance and security of your computer. Use Windows 7 Pro to make your computer feel at home.
On January 14, Windows 7 Ultimate, Professional & Home Prime expired and the operating system stopped receiving other security updates. The final security update of this operating system is Windows 7 KB4534310, and the latest security update is KB4534314 only.
Windows 7 EOL (End of Life) means that the operating system no longer receives security updates and patches from Microsoft, and KB4534310 is the final update. Windows 7 Ultimate and Home users can't wait for updates and important fixes from Microsoft after January 14th.
To download the latest update for Windows 7, just open the Control Panel and select Windows Update. If you do not see this patch listed on the screen, select 'Check for Updates to see if it has been updated.
Depending on the Windows Update settings you are using, you may need to install the patch with the Install update button. You can always download the Windows 7 KB4534310 offline installer and update your computer manually.
New features, great feel – this is an operating system that feels comfortable to use. With the release of Windows 7 Preactivated, Microsoft has improved its computing capabilities. Their previous version, Windows Vista, was less well-received by critics and the general public. Microsoft has released Windows 7 Preactivated, which decided not to repeat this error. It is the result of the hard work of an exceptionally talented team.
The taskbar you know and love is back. You can easily log in by calling your favorite apps and programs. Share and easily manage your files using Homegroup thanks to the updated user registration system. The shows you know and love are still here. Internet Explorer 8, Windows Media Player, and Windows Media Center are preloaded. This is the OS you've been waiting for.
Business and Pleasure – Once Windows 7 is installed, your computer will be an efficient business machine. Supporting up to 192 GB of RAM, Remote Desktop functionality, location recognition printing, network backup, secure file encryption system, Windows XP mode, and presentation mode make this operating system perfect for big businesses, small businesses and even students. Windows 7 Preactivated is especially for business professionals, but that doesn't mean it can't be used during business hours. Play games up to DirectX 10 with multimedia and even 3D support! Your computer is a powerful tool, and you can unlock all its features by purchasing this product today.
Most Popular Operating Systems – Microsoft is looking to introduce newer operating systems, such as Windows 10, and offer the most convenient computing experience, but Windows 7 Pro remains the best choice for millions of computer users around the world. Despite the rapid pace of technological change that is a hallmark of the modern age, it still has amazing performance. Nearly half of all operating systems installed on computers worldwide are reported to have Windows 7 operating systems, according to NetMarketShare. Be a part of the world sensation. Get an OS that millions of people trust and use. Buy Windows 7 Pro now.
The British intelligence service is advising users to stop using Windows 7 Ultimate and switch to a supported operating system. If you don't want to install Windows 10, you don't need to connect your Windows 7 machine to the Internet and access sensitive data such as web browsing, payment gateways, and email.
With Windows 7 Preactivated support reaching EOL and the latest quality update coming out, Microsoft really wants users to know it's time to upgrade.
Microsoft has been pushing user-friendly warnings about the product's EOL on Windows 7 computers. Starting January 15, Microsoft will be a little more aggressive, with full-screen warning messages appearing on Windows 7 devices.
From the screenshot above, a full-screen notification identifies the risk of using Windows 7 Preactivated after January 14th. Unlike the 2015 marketing aggression, the latest announcement is temporary and users can easily block it.
According to Microsoft, the improved version of Windows 7 will appear in most versions of Windows 7, Home, and Ultimate.
As mentioned last year, users will still be able to upgrade to Windows 10 for free. Or you can buy a new desktop computer, laptop, or 2-in-1 device from Microsoft and its partners.
Is it dangerous to continue using Windows 7 Preactivated? It depends. It is unlikely to be so dangerous on January 15, 2020. But over time, you will use a version of Windows with security vulnerabilities known to intruders. Eventually, the browsers and other applications you use will lose the support of your operating system. You will get stuck without using an outdated browser, which is especially dangerous. A malicious website without a browser security patch may damage your system after you open the website.
The Internet is a dangerous place that is increasingly vulnerable to attacks, and we always recommend using the latest software with the latest security patches. Recommend upgrading to Windows 7 quickly.
Most applications will continue to run on Windows 7 Preactivated in the near future. But over the next few years, I hope the applications will gradually stop working.
For example, Valve's Steam game service stopped supporting Windows XP and Vista on January 1, 2019. A few years later, we were hoping that Windows 7 would support Steam.
In Windows 7 SP1 Ultimate Preactivated dropped support some applications have already. For example, Microsoft Office 2019 only supports Windows 10, not Windows 7 or 8.
Security Updates are integrated until Nov 19th, 2022;
Integrated .Net Framework 3.5 (including 2.0 and 3.0);
Windows 7 Ultimate X64
Processor: 1 gigahertz (GHz)* or faster 32-bit (x86)
RAM: 1 gigabyte (GB) (32-bit)
Hard disk space: 16 GB (32-bit)
Graphics card: DirectX 9 graphics device with WDDM 1.0 or higher driver
Product Name Microsoft Windows 7
Created By Microsoft Corporation
Version SP1
OS Build 7601.26221
CPUs Architecture x64 (64-bit)
License Type Digital License
SP1 7601.26221 x64 [Pre-Activated] / Torrent – (5.63 GB)
Windows 10 Preactivated 22H2 Build 19045.2364 Dec 2022
Windows 11 Preactivated 21H2 Build 22000.1281 Nov 2022
Windows 10 Preactivated 22H2 19045.2311 Nov 2022
Windows 8.1 U3 9600.20625 ISO File October 2022
Windows 7 SP1 7601.26176 ISO File October 2022
Windows 8.1 Preactivated U3 9600.20571 September 2022
A.K.Lenka says:
Please give any other link instead of G drive.
Google blocks it
Raj Raja says:
Same Issue google blocks it
Didy says:
is there a usb 3.0 driver in this iso file?
WinTrex says:
yes available


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Eden Brent
Jerry Dugger
Swing Club Big Band
Fiona Boyes
Kayla Brox
Matt Pascale Band
Laura Fedele e the Nite Life
Afro Blues Project
Lakeetra Knowles & Music Train Band
Russell Jackson
Born in Memphis and starting his career in 1974, Russell Jackson moved to Chicago in 1976 and gained his blues 'stripes' working with Otis Clay, Buddy Guy, Bobby Rush and more. He also played with greats Luther Tucker, Matt Murphy, Kenny Neal, Lucky Peterson, Katie Webster, Charlie Musselwhite and Willie Nelson. From 1979 – 1986 Russell toured exclusively with B.B. King. He was the first artist to put slap bass onto a lives blues recording (Live at Ole Miss (1979)).
In 1990 he relocated to Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), joining the Powder Blues Band and recoding with Long John Baldry (It still Ain't Easy) and Kenny "Blues Boss" Wayne on his Juno award winning CD and continues to record and perform with Kenny Wayne to date.
The birth of the Russell Jackson Band came in 1992 where he released three CD's of his own material. From 1994-1997 he was a regular opening act for the Kansas City Blues Society at the infamous Grand Emporium for acts such as Son Seals, Five Blind Boys of Alabama, The Holmes Brothers, etc. From 2003 to present, Russell is the Musical Director for The New Generations of the Blues European tours formerly named The Chicago Blues Festival.
Recently relocating to Austin, Texas after living in Canada for 22 years, Russell is regaining his reputation on the stand up bass, Russell recently joined and tours with Shawn Holt and the Teardrops.
http://www.musictrain.it/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/RUSSEL-LOOP.m4v
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Music Train
Pablo Leoni
Studio Ottanta di Leoni Romano e c. Snc
admin | Sito web realizzato da Manuel Rossoni Webmaster

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Agreement between the Board of Regents and United Faculty of Florida, Articles 14 and 15 for faculty members in the Collective Bargaining Unit.
A computer listing is enclosed for those units/departments that have tenure and permanent status accruing faculty. The listing has the date a faculty member began accruing time towards tenure/permanent status. The previous tenure service area shows the months and/or years which have been approved by Academic Affairs to count toward time normally needed to be considered for tenure/permanent status. Please notify Rita Cowan at 392-1251 of any necessary corrections. Effective May 1, 1995, the contractual language of the Collective Bargaining Agreement and the University rules (6C1-7.019 FAC) specify that any time a faculty member spends on leave of absence or reduced FTE will not count toward eligibility for tenure except by mutual agreement between the administration and the faculty member.
The last attachment to this memorandum is to serve as the cover sheet for all packets.
If a college and/or department disseminates written information to explain how the University's criteria apply, it must be clear that the document is intended to clarify the department's and/or college's application of the University's criteria and not to change or modify it. Faculty should receive a copy of the document.
The tenure and/or promotion packet must be completed, except for the administrators' letters, and signed and dated by the nominee before the departmental review and secret ballot to indicate the packet is complete and ready for review. Departments have the option of using the form provided or retyping it in a word processor as long as the format and wording remain the same.
All recommendations must be in the Academic Personnel Office, Room 29, Tigert Hall, by January 15, 1999. IFAS extension agents will be due January 22, 1999. Please schedule college/unit meetings to ensure the meeting of this deadline. College/department deadlines should be communicated to the faculty as soon as possible.


LIKE SHOPPING? LOVE OUTLETCITY! OVER 60 HIGH-QUALITY FLAGSHIP OUTLET STORES, OFFERING SAVINGS OF UP TO 70%!
Only 10 km from the town of Bad Urach, the Swabian Alb offers fantastic shopping opportunities in our award-winning flagship outlet city. Metzingen offers a genuine urban shopping experience nestled inbetween a picturesque old town and modern award-winning architecture.
Benefiting from over 60 international premium brands and year-round discounts of up to 70%* you'll be able to find everything for the perfect outfit for every occasion. Style your own look: from streetwear to cool trends, outdoor and sportswear, successful business wear to must-have lifestyle accessories.
Metzingen also offers exclusive events and themed special offer months, to round off the shopping experience and invite you to stay.
Not only is Metzingen known as Outlet City, but also as a wine city and town of the seven winepresses. Take time to stop by the Metzinger wine museum, wine shop, or stroll down to the Kelternplatz and enjoy the ambience with a wonderful glass of wine direct from hills surrounding Metzingen.
* 70% off the manufactures recommended retail price.


CHILLICOTHE, Ohio, March 11, 2019 – The "Everyday Heroes" Kenworth T680 recently returned to the Kenworth Chillicothe (Ohio) plant, where it was built, for a two-day event to raise awareness among public officials and plant employees about the crime of human trafficking and the Truckers Against Trafficking (TAT) national program to help combat it.
More than 25 dignitaries and guests, including Jamie Barker, Southeast District director for U.S. Senator Rob Portman; Pike County (Ohio) Sheriff Charles Reader; and Chillicothe Mayor Luke Feeney, attended the event. A representative from the office of Ohio Governor Mike DeWine, state representatives, judges, sheriffs, police officers, and child advocate professionals were also in attendance. The event was covered by the ABC and NBC television affiliates in Columbus, and the local Chillicothe Gazette.
Visitors watched a TAT training video that focused on the stories of two Ohio human trafficking survivors, who have gone on to experience enriching lives and careers. "The two women were saved by people who saw suspicious activity and were courageous enough to pick up the phone and call the National Human Trafficking Hotline (1-888-3737-888). It really goes to show how one call can save someone's life," said Rod Spencer, Kenworth Chillicothe plant manager.
Human trafficking is a $32 billion industry in the United States alone, and the national hotline receives calls from all 50 states, according to Helen Van Dam, TAT's director of the Freedom Drivers Project, a mobile display featuring artifacts and video from human trafficking survivors. The guests toured the Freedom Drivers Project and received a close up look at the Everyday Heroes Kenworth T680. A plant tour also was available.
The second day of the TAT event was exclusively for Kenworth Chillicothe employees, and saw 140 employees tour the Drivers Freedom Project trailer, watch an informational video, and learn about the efforts of Truckers Against Trafficking.
The Kenworth T680 Everyday Heroes truck is fully loaded with a 76-inch sleeper, and features the PACCAR Powertrain with a PACCAR MX-13 485-hp engine, PACCAR 12-speed automated transmission, and PACCAR tandem rear axles. The truck will be auctioned on May 17 at Ritchie Bros. in Phoenix. Proceeds from the sale of the T680, which has a retail value of $162,000, will go directly to TAT, a 501(c)3 non-profit devoted to stopping human trafficking by educating, mobilizing, and empowering the nation's truck drivers and rest stop employees.
The Kenworth T680 will be exhibited at the TMC Annual Meeting in Atlanta (March 18-21) and the Mid-America Trucking Show in Louisville (March 28-30) before it is auctioned.


ISHS and Bologna University are pleased to announce the XI Symposium on "Integrating Canopy, Rootstockand Environmental Physiology in Orchard Systems" which will be held in Bologna, Aug. 28 – Sept. 2, 2016.
Bologna University is the oldest, still running University in the world, located in one of the world's most advanced fruit growing regions. This provides the perfect background for a meeting where knowledge will be exchanged about all facets of fruit growing: from root/scion interactions, to management, to ecophysiology of orchards, in the continuing effort to improve sustainability and efficiency of fruit production.
The Symposium will take place at the "Belmeloro Complex"- Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna. This location within the heart of the city will allow more housing and dining options for the participants. In addition to its addiction to science, Bologna is an attractive food and artistic hub in the heart of the Po Valley of Northern Italy, easy to reach by plane, train or car.
The Symposium will last 5 days and follows the very successful previous ones in Geneva (2008) and Stellenbosch (2012) and will strive to keep up with the tradition of these excellent gatherings, both for the scientific standards and for the professional and personal interactions.
Oral/poster presentations will cover two full days and two half days. A full day technical visit will take place on Wednesday: participants will have the option between one more focused on pome fruit, heading to Ferrara, and one on stone fruit, heading to Cesena. The meeting will end at lunch time on Friday.
A Post-Tour is planned, heading Westwards to Cuneo (Piedmont Region), before returning East and North,to the Trentino and Alto Adige fruit districts.
Please, stay tuned for further details.
We look forward to seeing you in Bologna in 2016!


Once a candidate has made and paid for a booking, course materials are sent out for home study.
The candidate only has to attend for the examination.
If a candidate cannot attend a full day's training course, they now have the opportunity to study at leisure at home and attend the training centre for one hour to take the examination.
Includes all course materials, registration fees and certification.
Supply of all forms needed to make application for a personal licence together with instructions on how and when to complete these.
Direct telephone access to tutor to discuss those difficult problems.
In addition to our published course dates, we are now offering distance learning candidates the choice of two examination days every week at 2.30pm in Manchester City Centre.
Once payment for the course material is made, the APLH handbook together with practice examination papers will be sent out and candidates can study in their own time and pop along to the examination centre to take their exam when it is convenient.


On this day in 2004 Arsenal lost in the Champions League and were knocked out. The headlines included statements to the effect that the season was in ruins. But as the headline above reminds us, Arsenal went on not only to win the league at White Hart Lane but also to win the league unbeaten – the only team ever to do so.
It was a prime example of the media's insane insistence on the notion that judgements can and should be made on the basis of just one match, rather than anything more substantial. As far as I know, none of the journalists or editorial staff at the papers who proclaimed Arsenal's season to be over on this day were then replaced on the grounds of being too dopey even for football reporting's modest standards.
6 April 1895: For the second time in one season Arsenal scored seven beating Crewe 7-0. The club then beat Walsall 6-1 just six days later. By the end of the season Arsenal had scored 75 goals in 30 league games. In only three games did they fail to score.
6 April 1896: Encouraged by the scoring of seven goals in the previous home match, a record crowd of 14,000 turned out to see Arsenal beat Newcastle 2-1.
6 April 1907: Sunderland 2 Arsenal 3 made it four wins in a row as Arsenal headed for their highest end of the season position thus far: seventh in the first division.
6 April 1910: First meeting of the group that wanted to buy out Woolwich Arsenal FC They made their bid on 9 April, and the liquidator and George Levey (who had a say in such matters as he was lead creditor) accepted the deal.
6 April 1914: The Islington Gazette reported (not completely accurately) that "Woolwich Arsenal" had become "The Arsenal". The club publically changed its name on 23 April, but the board did not formally approve the change until 10 May 1915.
6 April 1917: Arsenal played Tottenham "away". With Tottenham's ground taken over by the War Office Tottenham normally played at Highbury. However clearly not wanting to give Arsenal too much of an advantage this game was played at Clapton Orient's ground. 9,000 were present which was not bad given the continuance of the very bad weather.
6 April 1918: Arsenal played their final match of a disappointing wartime season losing 1-2 away to Fulham in front of 2000. Arsenal finished fifth in the league of 10, having won 16 and lost 15 games.
6 April 1920: Tom Whittaker's debut. He joined Arsenal (his only club) after being demobbed in 1919, and played 64 league games over six seasons. It was Chapman who saw in him the ability to become a powerful trainer and coach – and ultimately league winning manager. He also achieved fame across Europe as a healer of injuries that others could not resolve. For the context of the match click here.
6 April 1927: Andy Young's final game. He was a centre forward and half back who had joined from Aston Villa and played 68 games and scored nine goals. We have no details as to what happened to him after he left Arsenal.
6 April 1928: Arsenal 3 Cardiff 0. Arsenal won for the last time in the 1927/8 season. After this the club played 8 drawing 6 and losing 2.
6 April 1932: Sunderland 2 Arsenal 0. Last game for Ted Pat Beasley after 79 league games and 19 league goals, before moving on to Huddersfield.
6 April 1965: Tommy Baldwin's first Arsenal game. He played just 17 league games for Arsenal before being transferred to Chelsea in 1966.
6 April 1971: Arsenal 1 Coventry 0. Ray Kennedy's 25th of the season. Leeds drew with Newcastle meaning Arsenal were just four points behind with two games in hand – the first time Arsenal were in this position since mid-January. Arsenal's goal difference was 0.03 goals better than Leeds'.
6 April 1993: Middlesbrough 1 Arsenal 0 symbolised the plight of Arsenal. Middlesbrough were relegated but Arsenal could not manage a goal as they headed to just 40 league goals all season in 42 games – fewer than any other club in the division.
6 April 1995: Arsenal 3 Sampdoria 2 Cup Winners Cup semi final 1st leg. Two from Bould (rather extraordinarily) and one from Wright gave Arsenal a narrow win.
6 April 2000: Arsenal 1 Lens 0; Uefa cup semi final. Arsenal won this first leg through a goal from Bergkamp in the 2nd minute and the opinion from the media was that this was nowhere near enough. (See 20 April).
6 April 2002: Arsenal 2 Tottenham 1. League match 33 of the 3rd Double season, the 8th game of 13 consecutive wins to the end of the season. Ljungberg and Lauren scored.
6 April 2004: Arsenal 1 Chelsea 2: Champions League Quarter Final second leg. Reyes gave Arsenal the lead, but Lehmann gifted the equaliser and Bridge scored with three minutes to go. The press headlines were "It's all Gun wrong" and "Arsenal season in ruins". The ruins included winning the Premier League unbeaten just 39 days later.


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Govt's FSI response: what it means for mortgages
By James Mitchell
It's been 10 months since the FSI published its final report. Now the government has made its decision on recommendations that will reshape the Australian mortgage market.
The government accepted all but one of the FSI's 44 recommendations – a ban on SMSF lending.
Yesterday morning the government announced that it does not agree with the FSI's recommendation to prohibit limited recourse borrowing arrangements (LRBAs) by superannuation funds.
"While the government notes that there are anecdotal concerns about limited recourse borrowing arrangements, at this time the government does not consider the data sufficient to justify significant policy intervention," the government's official response stated.
The government announced it will, however, commission the Council of Financial Regulators and the ATO to monitor leverage and risk in the superannuation system and report back to government after three years.
"This timing allows recent improvements in ATO data collection to wash through the system. The agencies' analysis will be used to inform any consideration of whether changes to the borrowing regulations might be appropriate," the government said.
Murray's final report recommended supporting industry efforts to expand credit data sharing under the new voluntary comprehensive credit reporting (CCR) regime.
The important part of this recommendation was its suggestion that if, over time, industry participation of CCR is inadequate, government should consider legislating mandatory participation.
The government yesterday agreed to support industry efforts to implement the CCR regime, but said it will not legislate for mandatory participation at this stage.
"The CCR regime has been in place for a little over a year and authorised deposit-taking institutions are still in the process of working to participate in the regime," it said.
Murray sparked a fierce debate when he released the FSI interim report last year, which found that vertical integration may have the potential to distort the way in which mortgage brokers direct borrowers to lenders. The final report called for greater disclosure.
The Coalition government yesterday agreed with the FSI recommendation that mortgage brokers and financial advisers must disclose their ownership structures.
The government said it will develop legislative amendments to ensure that financial advisers and mortgage brokers adequately disclose their relationships with associated entities.
The government also agreed to rename 'general advice' to improve consumer understanding. "We will consult with a wide range of stakeholders and conduct consumer testing before finalising the new term," it said.
The FSI recommended that competition be considered in ASIC's mandate. The government yesterday agreed with this recommendation.
"We support inclusion of competition in ASIC's mandate and we will develop legislation to introduce an explicit reference to consideration of competition in ASIC's mandate in the second half of 2016," the government said.
"We will also be clear in the Statements of Expectations that regulators should explain in each annual report how they have balanced competition with other elements of their mandates."
Bank resilience
The government believes that the capital ratios of Australian banks should be unquestionably strong and said this will ensure the financial system remains resilient during difficult times and will maintain investor confidence.
"We support and endorse APRA as Australia's prudential regulator to implement this recommendation and will continue to closely monitor the resilience of our banks."
The government noted that APRA released an international capital comparison study on 13 July this year, which found that Australia's major banks' capital levels are currently below the top quartile of internationally active banks (the baseline target proposed by the Financial System Inquiry), even after adjusting for APRA's conservative approach to measuring capital.
Given that Westpac's recent 20-basis-point rate rise was billed as a reaction to increased capital requirements, the government's support for more capital could lead to higher rates over time.
Finally, the government agrees that the gap between average mortgage risk weights should be narrowed, highlighting the benefits to competition in the banking sector.
"We support and endorse APRA as Australia's prudential regulator and its initial actions announced on 20 July 2015 to raise the average IRB mortgage risk weights to at least 25 per cent from 1 July 2016 to implement this recommendation.
"The major banks have subsequently undertaken capital raisings to increase their capital levels."
The government said it will take an active and ongoing role in monitoring developments as a result of these changes.


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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Thanh Nien Daily welcomes readers' responses and publishes them in its Monday edition.
Please be succinct, brief and to the topic. We reserve the right to edit comments to fit space.
I've just read Gia Binh's article about the Crocodile Lake in Cat Tien National Park [The crocs of Cat Tien, March 12]. I have visited the park and the lake several times. It is very beautiful to experience the forest and the lake very early in the morning. Tourism, however, will not increase if the quality of the accommodation and amenities does not improve. The prices for access, accommodation, food and transport inside the park have been pushed high recently, but I regret to say that the standard is getting worse.
A liberating ritual or needless suffering?
I am a European who became a Buddhist three years ago, and I must say that I have never understood this practice of releasing caged birds. I first saw it done in Thailand, where I also saw signs at one 'wat' (pagoda) saying "Don't pay to release birds - It only encourages the captors." And so it does.
Vietnamese pagodas would do well to follow this example. Surely the heart of Buddhism, as the Buddha taught it, is compassion, the wish to remove suffering.
Yet the capture and caging of wild birds causes unnecessary suffering: clearly these sensitive creatures are extremely distressed in the cramped conditions of a cage and often attack each other. If it is true that their wings are clipped, then the practice is even more abhorrent.
Buying and releasing fish that have been brought to market and are destined for the frying pan is quite another matter. This is preventing the act of killing, saving lives, and carries true merit in the Buddhist sense. Not so with releasing birds, whose "imprisonment" is purely for monetary gain.
In order to eradicate this cruel practice, I think the initiative must come from Buddhist monks and nuns to discourage it outside the pagodas.
The organization Education for Nature in Vietnam (ENV), based in Hanoi, is working hard to raise awareness and understanding about the environment, and the need to protect nature and wildlife throughout the country.


Please choose a committee and provide your contact information in the form below.
Sponsorship Committee secures sponsors for the Star of Life.
Awards Committee reviews all nominations and selects award winners.
Planning Committee plans the Star of Life event.
Logistics Committee oversees the setup, run-of-show and breakdown of Star of Life on the day of the event.


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Tina Tombs
5'8 ', blond hair, hazel eyes...Credits her parents and Phil Friel as individuals most influencing her career... Married, husband's name is Joey Rodolfo...Played as Tina Purtzer from 1988-92; Has two daughters, Sarah and Heidi...Hobbies include traveling and all outdoor sports.
In 2001, played just two events due to illness.
In 2000, missed the season after undergoing major surgery.
In 1999, played in 15 events after having major surgery.
In 1997, best finish was a tie for 14th at the Sara Lee Classic.
In 1996, had major surgery in the spring and competed in 15 events prior to the operation.
In 1995, top finish was a tie for 30th at the First Bank Presents the Edina Realty Classic.
In 1994, best finish was a tie for 28th at the Nabisco Dinah Shore.
In 1993, finished second at the Sara Lee Classic, where she posted a career-low 64 during the final round but lost to Meg Mallon on the third hole of a sudden-death playoff.
In 1992, season-best finish was a tie for 28th at the Standard Register PING.
In 1990, became a Rolex First-Time Winner at the Jamie Farr Toledo Classic.
In 1989, played just five events due to the birth of her second child, Heidi, on Feb. 14.
In 1988, her rookie season, best finish was a tie for 15th at the USX Golf Classic.
In 1987, prior to joining the Tour, played the Women Professional Golfers 'European Tour (WPGET) and the Futures Tour; gave birth to first daughter, Sarah, on March 4.
Amateur Tombs won the New Hampshire Junior Golf Championship in 1979 and followed that with the New Hampshire State Championship in 1981. She captured the 1982 New England Amateur Championship title and in 1984 became the Eastern Amateur champion. Tombs was ranked among Golf Digest's top-10 amateur golfers in 1984. As a collegiate player at Arizona State University, she captured two tournament titles and was a two-time All-American.


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You are here Home › Directory › Satellite Missions › I › IceCube
IceCube — 874 GHz submillimeter wave radiometer mission on a 3U CubeSat
IceCube Radiometer Spacecraft Launch Mission Status Ground Segment References
IceCube is a NASA/GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) nanosatellite mission with the objective to validate a new 874 GHz submillimeter wave radiometer for cloud ice observations. The measurements of ice clouds and their processes are important for climate models and for cloud precipitation processes. - In July 2014, NASA's SMD (Science Mission Directorate) selected a team at GSFC, led by PI Dong L. Wu, to build its first Earth science-related CubeSat mission. The IceCube project is being managed and co-funded by ESTO (Earth Science Technology Office) of NASA. 1) 2) 3) 4)
Background: Ice clouds play a key role in Earth's climate system, primarily through regulating atmospheric radiation and interacting with dynamic, energetic and precipitation processes. Sub-millimeter wave remote sensing offers a unique capability for improving cloud ice measurements from space, due to its great depth of cloud penetration and volumetric sensitivity to cloud ice mass. At 874 GHz, ice cloud scattering produces a larger brightness temperature depression than at lower frequencies, which can be used to retrieve vertically-integrated cloud IWP (Ice Water Path) and ice particle size. This effect was measured with the CoSSIR (Compact Scanning Sub millimeter wave Imaging Radiometer), an airborne instrument developed at NASA/GSFC. CoSSIR is a conical and cross-track imager with six receivers and eleven channels centered at 183, 220, 380, 640 V&H, and 874 GHz (Figure 1). CoSSIR measurements from NASA's ER-2 aircraft showed that the selected channel set is capable of accurately retrieving IWP in a wide dynamic range between ~10 g/m2 and 10,000 g/m2 after validation against cloud radar and lidar, with large brightness temperature depression centered at 874 GHz (Figure 2).
Figure 1: CoSSIR has been flown in several NASA airborne field campaigns (image credit: NASA)
The objective of the IceCube project is to retire risks of the 874 GHz receiver technology for future Earth and space remote sensing instruments by raising its TRL (Technology Readiness Level) from 5 to 7. The project will demonstrate, on a 3U CubeSat in a LEO (Low Earth Orbit) environment, a receiver system with a NEDT (Noise Equivalent Differential Temperature) of ~0.15 K over 1 second integration, and <2 K calibration uncertainty.
IceCube is scheduled for launch and subsequently release from the ISS (International Space Station) in mid-2016 for a nominal operation of 28+ days. In addition to its technology demonstration, IceCube will acquire the first 874 GHz cloud map from cloud-induced scattering radiance, thereby accelerating scientific exploration through efficient and frequent access to space using CubeSats. The receiver technology used here was initially developed by VDI (Virginia Diodes Inc.), under NASA's SBIR Phase II program. Communication with the CubeSat will be through NASA's WFF (Wallops Flight Facility) UHF station. Mission Operations and data processing and validation will be conducted at GSFC.
Figure 2: Brightness temperature vs frequency spectrum: CoSSIR measurements of ice clouds were used to successfully demonstrate retrieval of IWP (Ice Water Path) and the ice particle Dme (median mass-equivalent diameter). The 874 GHz data proved to have the greatest sensitivity to ice (image credit: NASA)
Figure 3: The first ever 874 GHz cloud measurements acquired by CoSSIR in 2008 (image credit: NASA)
The new 874 GHz radiometer of IceCube is based on a previous design for the airborne instrument CoSSIR ( Compact Scanning Submillimeter-wave Imaging Radiometer), a 12 channel (183 - 874 GHz) total power imaging radiometer that was mainly developed for the measurements of ice clouds.
Figure 4: Schematic view of sub-mm wave wave radiometry for ice cloud remote sensing in the upper atmosphere (image credit: NASA, Ref. 1)
Ice cloud scattering at sub-mm waves:
• Higher sensitivity to cloud scattering at sub-mm waves
• Cloud-induced radiance, Tcir, is proportional to CIWP (Cloud Ice Water Path)
• Cloud microphysical properties (i.e., particle size) from different frequencies
• Simultaneous retrievals with T, H2O.
Figure 5: Schematic of cloud-induce radiance (image credit: NASA)
ICIR (IceCube Cloud–Ice Radiometer)
Key performance parameters of the IceCube radiometer are shown in Table 1. The RF (Radio Frequency) receiver is comprised of an offset parabola reflector with feedhorn, mixer, stable oscillator, RF multiplier chain, IF (Intermediate Frequency) chain, video amplifier, and detector. There are also supporting circuit boards including the iPDU (instrument Power Distribution Unit) and C&DH (Command and Data Handling), which is shared with the spacecraft. The radiometer will have a noise figure of 15 dB with an NEDT of ~0.15 K for a 1 second dwell time. The instrument is both externally and internally calibrated using views of deep space and an internal IF noise source and reference state. 5)
Functional requirement
862-886 GHz with fc at 874 GHz
Input RF channel
V polarization
NEDT (Noise Equivalent Differential Temperature)
Calibration sources
Noise Diode/Reference Load (internal)
IF (Intermediate Frequency) band
6-12 GHz
IF gain
50-55 dB
A/D Sampling
Integration time
Instrument mass, power
≤ 1 kg, 11.2 W including 30% contingency
Table 1: Key IceCube Radiometer parameters
Figure 6: Simplified radiometer block diagram (image credit: NASA)
The radiometer simplified block diagram is shown in Figure 6 and the instrument layout is illustrated in Figure 7 . The radiometer front-end is comprised of an 874 GHz LO (Local Oscillator). Intermediate frequency (6-12 GHz) calibration by noise injection provides the means of discriminating the calibration state of front-end components, referenced to extended observations of space. The RF input to the mixer is a GSFC-designed antenna, which is a straightforward offset-fed paraboloid yielding a 1.7º half-power beam-width. At nadir, the main beam will cover a ~10 to 20 km 3 dB footprint for an orbital altitude in the range of 400-800 km, respectively. With a ground track velocity of approximately 7 km/s, a 1 second output sampling period will provide 0.7 to 1.4 times the Nyquist sampling rate of the antenna mainbeam.
Figure 7: IceCube radiometer layout (image credit: NASA)
Calibration of the radiometer is achieved by both internal electronic and external natural target means. Externally, the primary target is space, which is viewable by pointing the antenna beam above the Earth's limb and provides the absolute offset of the system. Internal calibration of the receiver is carried out by the IF stage, which is used during and between external views of space. The noise source coupled into the IF path is used to estimate IF section gain. An illustration of the vehicle observations over an orbit is shown in Figure 8.
Mission requirements:
• In-flight operation 28 days
• Periodical views of Earth (science) and space (calibration) within an orbit
• Science data 30+% (8+h /day)
• Pointing knowledge < 25 km.
Figure 8: Typical operations over one orbit, with alternate Earth/Space views for calibration (image credit: NASA)
Figure 9: IceCube challenge No 1: 874-GHz radiometric calibration (image credit: NASA)
Figure 10: Spinning CubeSat: In-flight calibration (image credit: NASA)
IceCube challenge No 2: Large orbital thermal variations
- Preferred instrument operations temperatures: 20-30ºC
- Low CubeSat/instrument mass, or thermal inertia, for thermal stability
- Wide range of β-angles: ±75°
- Day-on and night-off operations
- Spin around the Sun-pointing axis.
Figure 11: Daily average temperature variations as measured by the CSSWE (Colorado Student Space Weather Experiment) mission (image credit: Colorado University, NASA)
The IceCube mission is to demonstrate and space-qualify a commercially available 874 GHz submillimeter-wave receiver developed by VDI (Virginia Diodes Inc.), of Charlottesville, Virginia. This instrument is capable of providing an accurate assessment of the distribution of atmospheric ice.
Spacecraft:
The 1.3U instrument is accommodated within a 3U CubeSat, with internal volume and mass margins adequate to fit within the required CubeSat specifications standards (CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 12, Cal Poly SLO). The CubeSat bus uses COTS components with proven flight heritage (Figure 12). The ADCS (Attitude Determination and Control Subsystem) and UHF antenna are attached to the end opposite the radiometer. The overall system length is 340.5 mm, including 6.5 mm posts on both ends, with a 100 mm by 100 mm body frame. The mass of the nanosatellite is ~4 kg.
IceCube is a 3U customized CubeSat based on the model built by Pumpkin Inc. (with solar panels and batteries from Clyde Space and ADCS and GPS from Blue Canyon). Only one bus system card will be custom manufactured at GSFC, and is necessary to provide a data interface to the instrument and other bus components. The electrical block diagram in shown in Figure 13.
Figure 12: Illustration of the IceCube nanosatellite in flight configuration (image credit: NASA)
Figure 13: Block diagram with custom payload and spacecraft interface card (image credit: NASA)
Structure and Mechanisms:The primary structure of the spacecraft is comprised of custom machined aluminum walls, cross plates, and closeout panels. The bus electronics stack uses a threaded rod and spacer combination to tie the various printed circuit boards together. Interface brackets are used to join the science payload to the spacecraft bus. Mechanisms include two double deployable solar arrays and a deployable Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) antenna with two elements. Detailed assembly procedures helped guide the integration process and the system went together mechanically without any significant issues (Ref. 13).
Thermal Design: IceCube implements a passive thermal control system (except for heaters). The instrument is power-cycled to keep it from running too warm, and the spacecraft makes use of operational heaters on the battery pack, since it has the tightest temperature limits of all components. The spacecraft has two thermal control zones: the first zone consists of the bus plus the instrument electronics, and the second zone consists of the Mixer LO Assembly (MLA) / Intermediate Frequency Assembly (IFA) part of the instrument. The MLA/IFA zone is isolated from the rest of the spacecraft with the use of ULTEM™ spacers and low emissivity coatings such as iridite and gold plating. The MLA/IFA components are thermally coupled to dedicated radiators that use a tailorable emittance coating to reject heat to space. The spacecraft uses the +Y panel coated with Composite Coating Silver (CCAg), and the uncoated solar array mounting panels as radiators.
Electrical Systems: The electrical system on IceCube consists of power, C&DH, communications, and attitude control subsystems. All spacecraft bus subsystem components are COTS with the exception of the Science Interface Card (SIC), which is a GSFC-designed card that provides level translation, analog-to-digital conversion for the instrument health sensors, and an interface to the instrument radiometer digital counts. Figure 14 shows the general layout of the electrical system components.
The SIC, Pumpkin flight computer, and Clyde Space EPS (Electrical Power Subsystem) and battery are all mated via the CubeSat Kit Bus 100-pin header interface for passing nonregulated and regulated voltages, as well as data and clock signals. Due to some inconsistent bus pin use with the COTS components discovered during detailed ICD document review, some pins had to be removed to avoid routing a voltage source from one card to a signal on another card. A custom interface harness was constructed to mate to the Cubesat Kit Bus interface to allow power and data connection to the Cadet-U, GPS receiver, BCT (Blue Canyon Technologies) XACT (Attitude Determination & Control System Technology) ACS unit, and UHF antenna. Additional connections requiring custom cables include those between the SIC and the instrument components, solar panels and battery, and power inhibits and battery.
Three mechanical switches (deployment switches) with connection to the battery were mounted to the longitudinal rail of the spacecraft, such that when installed in the deployer, the switches would be closed and prevent power delivery from the battery to the spacecraft components (referred to as power inhibits). An external umbilical interface was accommodated in the mechanical layout to be used during I&T and ground testing. The umbilical interface allowed access to the release switch (deployment switch) inputs by bypassing the mechanical switches. The interface also provided external spacecraft power input and battery charge, a data interface to the flight computer, as well as coaxial disconnects for the GPS and UHF links which allowed for bypass of the antennas to provide direct access to the GPS receiver and Cadet-U.
EPS (Electrical Power Subsystem): The IceCube power subsystem consists of two 3U double deployable solar arrays and a 2U body-mounted array for power generation. A 40 Wh battery is used during eclipse operations. The electrical power subsystem is responsible for performing required voltage conversions, charging the batteries, completing power switching activities, and health monitoring for anomaly discovery and diagnosis. Eclipses last 37 minutes maximum out of a 93 minute orbit. The 1U communications antenna has a built-in solar panel which does not regularly see the sun and is not normally required, except for detecting the sun during a contingency. The battery charge regulators of the EPS condition the power generated from the arrays into suitable levels for battery charge and subsystem feed.
Figure 14: General IceCube component layout showing the individual electrical system components (image credit: NASA)
Subsystem
Power distribution, Interface Card, Instrument
GNC/C&DH
ADACS
Battery Board
TCS (Thermal Control Subsystem)
Battery Heater
Note: During data downlink times the science instrument is switched off, and the transmitter is switched on for about 9 minutes (max.).
Table 2: IceCube power
For an orbit period of about 1.55 hours and eclipse of 0.62 hours, the battery stored energy requirement is about 15 Wh. Hence a 40 Wh. battery provides more than twice the needed capacity. On the other hand, the solar panel was required to provide at least 24 W of power at EOL (End-of-Life). The solar panels yielded 30 W at BOL (Beginning-of-Life), which provided more than enough power to account for degradation effects.
GNC (Guidance, Navigation, and Control): The IceCube GNC system consists of a XACT Attitude Determination and Control Subsystem (ADCS), and a Novatel OEM615 GPS receiver for position and velocity determination. The XACT is a 0.5U ACS consisting of a Star Tracker (ST), two axis Sun sensor, MEMS Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), 3 reaction wheels, 3 magnetic torquer rods and a processor for control. For IceCube, attitude control is not as difficult to achieve as attitude knowledge. The attitude control requirement is driven by the need to hold the solar panels to the sun within 5º, and to spin about the sun line at 1º/s for instrument calibration. Attitude knowledge on the other hand is driven by the need to determine the location of the instrument FOV (Field-of-View) to within 25 km on the ground. To that end, the GNC system needs to have sufficient pointing knowledge of the instrument aperture (spacecraft attitude) and sufficient knowledge of the spacecraft position (altitude and location). In combination with other factors and errors the attitude must then be known to ~ 0.4º, which requires the use of the ST(Star Tracker).
The ACS has two functionally similar modes, using two different set of sensor inputs: a safe mode called SPM (Sun Point Mode) which consists of pointing the solar panels to the sun and rotating about the sun vector at 1º/s during the day, and similarly, a FRM (Fine Reference Mode) which consists of pointing the solar panels to the sun and rotating about the sun vector at 1.2º/s degree per second day and night. The difference between SPM and FRM is that SPM uses the two axis sun sensor for control during the day spinning about the Y axis, and otherwise during nighttime spins about the Z axis at ~1.5 degrees per second, with the Z-axis aligned along the magnetic field lines. FRM on the other hand uses the estimated attitude from the IMU and ST to spin about the sun line and maintains its orientation in eclipse.
The ACS has operated well from the beginning and has met science needs. The only area of concern has been with the GPS. The GPS receiver has been power-cycled twice due to SEUs (Single-Event Upsets), generally when entering the SAA (South Atlantic Anomaly). Another issue has had to do with erroneous packets (noise) coming from the GPS receiver, which causes the XACT orbit ephemeris to be invalid. This in turn causes the orbit propagator to lock-up and malfunction, to the point where the XACT automatically exits FRM mode, nominally an hour later after the event. This problem has made it hard to keep the ACS in FRM mode for more than a day or two. After some trouble-shooting, BCT provided a software fix that would essentially filter the GPS noisy data, but this fix required commands that had not been implemented in flight software (in order to save time and cost on software testing), so the XACT continues to exhibit the same problem. Ultimately, the science team determined that spinning faster about the magnetic field line in eclipse was actually useful from a science perspective and decided to stay in SPM rather than transitioning back and forth. In hindsight, a more complete XACT command set capability, rather than the bare minimum, could have been implemented in flight software, thus allowing the full benefit of its operation. Similarly, diagnostics are slightly more difficult given that only a limited set of XACT housekeeping parameters are being downlinked in order to save space. Again, in hindsight it would have been preferable to reduce the XACT telemetry rate in exchange for adding the full set of data.
One area of performance that is not met to the required level is geolocation of the radiometer FOV (within 25 km on the ground). Although the orbit position can be determined accurately from the on-board GPS receiver, the attitude cannot be determined to the required accuracy. The location of the XACT and orientation of the ST within the spacecraft is constrained by several factors: the radiometer occupies the top of the spacecraft (+Z axis), the antenna occupies the opposite end (-Z axis), and on either side (±X), the deployed solar panels obstruct and may reflect sunlight into the ST's field of view (FOV). The only remaining option is to orient the ST to point opposite the sun (FOV toward the +Y direction), with the XACT between the UHF antenna and the rest of the spacecraft. In this location, and given vehicle dynamics, at low beta angles the ST is obscured for half of the orbit due to Earth occultation. At high beta angles, the ST works for almost the entire orbit, but the science instrument is normally turned off due to thermal considerations (short eclipse times, hot instrument, and unusable data). To compound the issue, the IMU in this first-generation XACT has an unexpectedly large thermal drift-rate, on the order of several degrees per second over the range of temperatures seen in a single orbit, which presents problems when trying to extrapolate the attitude through periods of ST FOV occultation lasting up to 45 minutes. This results in less than optimal geolocation using the ST and IMU alone, as was originally expected. Nonetheless, with accurate knowledge of the spin rate derived from instrument observations, the sun sensor, magnetometer data, and on-board GPS, geolocation can be determined to be about 31 km on the ground, which is sufficient to meet instrument verification objectives.
Overall, the IceCube ACS has performed very well and has only required some minor post-processing adjustments, with little maintenance after commissioning (Ref. 13).
Launch: IceCube was launched as a secondary payload on the ISS logistics mission of Orbital ATK (Cygnus OA-7 , also known as CRS-7) on April 18, 2017 for later deployment with a NRCSD (NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer) from the ISS. The launch vehicle was Atlas-5 401 of ULA and the launch site was Cape Canaveral (SLC-41), FL. 6) 7)
Orbit: Near-circular orbit, altitude of ~ 400 km, inclination of 51.6º (β angle variation: 0-75º).
Secondary payloads (CubeSats): 8)
• Altair-1, a 6U CubeSat technology demonstration mission of Millennium Space Systems, El Segundo, CA, USA.
• IceCube, a NASA/GSFC 3U CubeSat technology demonstration mission.
• HARP (HyperAngular Rainbow Polarimeter), a 3U CubeSat of UMBC (University of Maryland, Baltimore County)
• CSUNSat-1, a 2U CSUN (CubeSat of California State University Northridge).
• CXBN-2 (Cosmic X-Ray Background-2), a 2U CubeSat of Morehead State University, Morehead, Kentucky.
• OPEN (Open Prototype for Educational NanoSats), a 1U CubeSat of UND (University of North Dakota).
• Violet, a 1U CubeSat of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
• Biarri-Point, a 3U CubeSat technology mission, a four nation defence related project involving Australia, the US, the UK and Canada. Biaari is an RF signal collection mission that can be related to the spot beam mapping mission through mutual use of GPS signals. 9) 10)
• QB50 x 28. Twentyeight CubeSats of the international QB50 constellation, a European FP7 (7th Framework Program) Project for Facilitating Access to Space and managed by the Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics in Brussels, Belgium, will be flown to the ISS for subsequent deployment (atmospheric research). The 28 CubeSats of the QB50 constellation were integrated into 11 NanoRacks 6U deployers. 11) 12)
Note: The satellites will eventually be deployed into LEO over a period of 30 to 60 days as the ISS orbits the Earth.
In addition, four Lemur-2 satellites, operated by Spire Global Inc. of San Francisco, were launched aboard the Cygnus OA-7 cargo craft to replenish and expand the company's constellation dedicated to obtaining global atmospheric measurements for operational meteorology and tracking ship traffic across the planet for various commercial applications. The four Lemur-2 CubeSats are mounted externally to the cargo ship. After Cygnus departs the station in July, it will climb to a higher altitude, around 500 km, and eject them into space.
Figure 15: IceCube communication system at NASA/GSFC Wallops Flight Facility (WFF), image credit: NASA, Brian Corbin
Figure 16: IceCube operations (image credit: NASA)
Figure 17: An artist's rendition of the IceCube small satellite in orbit (image credit: NASA)
Mission status:
• August 2018: IceCube entered its commissioning phase upon release from a NanoRacks dispenser onboard the International Space Station on 16 May 2017, and began its technology demonstration mission about a month later. The spacecraft continues to operate as of the summer 2018, although the primary mission was only slated to last for one month. It continues to provide valuable data on technology performance and global ice cloud content. 13)
- IceCube successfully demonstrated retrieval of ice water path, generating the first ever global cloud ice map at 883 GHz. Its success provides valuable lessons on how to approach a severely resource-limited space mission and provides great insight into how this experience can be applied to future high-risk, "non-class" missions for NASA and others. IceCube marks the first official NASA Earth Science CubeSat technology demonstration mission.
Technology and science results:
- The spinning CubeSat allows the 883-GHz cloud radiometer to view the Earth's atmosphere and cold space periodically. Frequent space views provide the measurements critical for radiometric calibration of the receiver system. Figure 18 is the first 883-GHz cloud ice map obtained shortly after IceCube became operational. The 883-GHz radiance, sensitive to ice particle scattering, is proportional to cloud ice column amount above ~8 km. The cloud map acquired from June-July 2017 shows a clear distribution of the intertropical convergence zone, as well as the classic Gill-model pattern over the Western Pacific and Indian monsoon regions. After release from ISS, IceCube has been flying on an orbit similar to ISS, but its orbital height has decreased from 410 km in May 2017 to ~340 km in May 2018. Given its orbit inclination, the coverage of IceCube cloud observations is limited to 52 S – 52 N latitudes.
- Although IceCube was intended as a technology demonstration spacecraft, it has proven that even miniaturized instruments such as this can yield "good enough" science, and that CubeSats serve as excellent platforms from which larger, more complex instruments can be designed and implemented in the future. Even though IceCube's radiometer is in flight and acquiring technology and (bonus) science data, its TRL (Technology Readiness Level) stands at 7 as was the original objective: a prototype demonstration carried out in the space environment. A higher TRL instrument however, would not only observe in the 883 GHz frequency, as now demonstrated on orbit, but also concurrently in other frequencies in order to provide the full-range of measurements needed to probe the Earth's atmosphere.
Figure 18: IceCube Cloud ice map acquired from measurements during June 6-July 19, 2017. The ice water path, in g/m2, is the integrated cloud ice mass above ~8 km in the troposphere (image credit: NASA)
- Lifetime prediction: IceCube EOL activities will involve a series of experiments to gather instrument and engineering data to determine operational limits, e.g., faster spin rate performance. Between about 300 and 250 km, it is expected that aerodynamic forces will prevent the ACS from effectively controlling the vehicle. At the same time, power from the arrays will become unpredictable, and the battery will no longer provide adequate power for the spacecraft. Once the battery voltage limit is violated, the operations team will command SHM (Safe Hold Mode) and gather as much engineering data as possible prior to ending spacecraft operations.
Figure 19: IceCube reentry predictions. Reentry dates range from July through September, 2018 (image credit: NASA)
- Programmatic lessons learned: Although IceCube's approach was to use as many COTS components as practical, it became apparent that COTS parts are not always "off the shelf". Many COTS subsystems had lead times greater than six months and at least one key subsystem was delivered 8 months later than contracted. This reality was an important contributor to the longer than (originally) anticipated 24-month end-to-end development schedule. Adding to delays, none of the COTS components would "plug and play," and nearly all components had to be modified by the IceCube team and/or returned to the vendor for modification. Finally, the product documentation for the majority of components was found to be incomplete and it was difficult to obtain timely responses from some vendors, particularly those located in separate continents.
- It was quickly learned that staffing IceCube would be challenging. Developing a custom instrument and one of a kind spacecraft would require support from numerous highly skilled engineers and technicians. Originally, it was thought that dedicated multi-skilled software, hardware, and systems engineers would be sufficient if supplemented by subject-matter experts in specific areas. This premise failed to work, and skill-sets had to be split among numerous individuals. Consequently, due to the relatively low-level of funding allocated to IceCube, each team member could only support IceCube for a small fraction of their time, with some subsystems seeing a revolving door of engineers as higher priority projects demanded their full attention. This made it very difficult to obtain support in a timely fashion. It was also learned that some implementation approaches, such as software, do not necessarily scale from previous missions, unless designed as such a priori, and require significant changes.
- At the start of IceCube's development several key requirements were not known and many more depended upon the launch manifest, which was not itself known until two years after ATP (Authority to Proceed), and 6 months prior to launch. This caused a great deal of uncertainty in the design and increased costs for both manpower and procurements. For example, the batteries increased in cost by nearly an order of magnitude to make them compliant with ISS man-rated safety requirements.
- IceCube was delivered to the launch vehicle provider 32 months after ATP. Technology development is an inherently risky proposition and any successful endeavor, no matter the roadblocks along the way, is to be commended. Given this experience, there is no doubt the GSFC/WFF (Wallops Flight Facility) team can build high-risk small spacecraft and have them contribute in important ways to the advancement of science and technology.
• May 16, 2018: During a year in orbit, the IceCube ICIR (IceCube Cloud–Ice Radiometer) instrumentation has created a global map of ice clouds around the planet, which could someday help improve models and forecasts. 14)
- Deployed from the ISS in May 2017, IceCube is testing instruments for their ability to make space-based measurements of the small, frozen crystals that make up ice clouds. "Heavy downpours originate from ice clouds," said Dong Wu, IceCube principal investigator at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.
- Ice clouds start as tiny particles high in the atmosphere. Absorbing moisture, the ice crystals grow and become heavier, causing them to fall to lower altitudes. Eventually, the particles get so heavy, they fall and melt to form rain drops. The ice crystals may also just stay in the air.
- Like other clouds, ice clouds affect Earth's energy budget by either reflecting or absorbing the Sun's energy and by affecting the emission of heat from Earth into space. Thus, ice clouds are key variables in weather and climate models.
- Measuring atmospheric ice on a global scale remains highly uncertain because satellites have been unable to detect the amount of small ice particles inside the clouds, as these particles are too opaque for infrared and visible sensors to penetrate. To overcome that limitation, IceCube was outfitted with a submillimeter radiometer that bridges the missing sensitivity between infrared and microwave wavelengths (Ref. 15).
- Despite its mass of ~ 4 kg and being about size of a loaf of bread, IceCube is a bona fide spacecraft, complete with three-axis attitude control, deployable solar arrays and a deployable UHF communications antenna. The CubeSat spins around its axis, like a plate spinning on a pole. It points at Earth to take a measurement then looks at the cold space to calibrate.
- Originally a 30-day technology-demonstration mission, IceCube is still fully operational in low-Earth orbit just about a year later, measuring ice clouds and providing data that's "good enough to do some real science," Wu said.
- "The hard part about developing the CubeSat is making the commercial parts durable in space," said Tom Johnson, Goddard's Small Satellite manager stationed at NASA's Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia. "We bought commercial components for IceCube and spent a lot of time testing the components making sure each part worked."
- Over the past year, engineers tested the satellite's limits while on orbit. They wanted to see if the instrument's batteries stored enough power to run 24 hours. IceCube charges its batteries when the Sun shines on its solar arrays. During the test, safeguards prevented the satellite from losing all its power and ending the mission; however, the test was successful. The batteries operated the IceCube all night and recharged during the day. This change made the CubeSat more valuable for science data collection.
- While the IceCube team planned for the mission to operate for 30 days in space, "It does not cost very much to keep it going," Johnson said, "so we extended the mission due to the outstanding science that IceCube is performing. We download data eight to 10 times a week. Even if we miss a week, the CubeSat can hold a couple of weeks of data."
- The IceCube team built the spacecraft using funding from NASA's Earth Science Technology Office's (ESTO) In-Space Validation of Earth Science Technologies (InVEST) program and NASA's Science Mission Directorate CubeSat Initiative.
- Small satellites, including CubeSats, are playing an increasingly larger role in exploration, technology demonstration, scientific research and educational investigations at NASA. They have been used in planetary space exploration, fundamental Earth and space science, and developing precursor science instruments like cutting-edge laser communications, satellite-to-satellite communications and autonomous movement capabilities.
• January 30, 2018: The IceCube 3U CubeSat has produced the world's first map of the global distribution of atmospheric ice in the 883 GHz band, an important frequency in the submillimeter wavelength for studying cloud ice and its effect on Earth's climate. 15) 16)
- IceCube has demonstrated-in-space a commercial 883 GHz radiometer developed by VDI (Virginia Diodes Inc.) of Charlottesville, Virginia, under a NASA Small Business Innovative Research contract. It is capable of measuring critical atmospheric cloud ice properties at altitudes between 5 -15 km.
- NASA scientists pioneered the use of submillimeter wavelength bands, which fall between the microwave and infrared on the electromagnetic spectrum, to sense ice clouds. However, until IceCube, these instruments had flown only aboard high-altitude research aircraft. This meant scientists could gather data only in areas over which the aircraft flew.
- "With IceCube, scientists now have a working submillimeter radiometer system in space at a commercial price," said Dong Wu, a scientist and IceCube principal investigator at NASA/GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) in Greenbelt, Maryland. "More importantly, it provides a global view on Earth's cloud-ice distribution."
Figure 20: IceCube Principal Investigator Dong Wu set out to demonstrate a commercial 883 GHz radiometer in space, but ended up getting much more: the world's first ice-cloud map in that frequency. Here he is pictured holding the instrument (image credit: NASA)
- Sensing atmospheric cloud ice requires scientists deploy instruments tuned to a broad range of frequency bands. However, it's particularly important to fly submillimeter sensors. This wavelength fills a significant data gap in the middle and upper troposphere where ice clouds are often too opaque for infrared and visible sensors to penetrate. It also reveals data about the tiniest ice particles that can't be detected clearly in other microwave bands.
- The Technical Challenge: "IceCube's map is a first of its kind and bodes well for future space-based observations of global ice clouds using submillimeter-wave technology," said Wu, whose team built the spacecraft using funding from NASA's ESTO (Earth Science Technology Office) In-Space Validation of Earth Science Technologies (InVEST) program and NASA's Science Mission Directorate. The team's challenge was making sure the commercial receiver was sensitive enough to detect and measure atmospheric cloud ice using as little power as possible.
- Ultimately, the agency wants to infuse this type of receiver into an ice-cloud imaging radiometer for NASA's proposed ACE (Aerosol-Cloud-Ecosystems) mission. Recommended by the National Research Council, ACE would assess on a daily basis the global distribution of ice clouds, which affect the Earth's emission of infrared energy into space and its reflection and absorption of the Sun's energy over broad areas. Before IceCube, this value was highly uncertain.
- "It speaks volumes that our scientists are doing science with a mission that primarily was supposed to demonstrate technology," said Jared Lucey, one of IceCube's instrument engineers. Lucey, along with a handful of scientists and engineers at Goddard and the Wallops Flight Facility, developed IceCube in just two years with a limited budget. "We met our mission goals and now everything else is bonus."
- Multiple Lessons Learned: In addition to demonstrating submillimeter-wave observations from space using a commercially available instrument and producing the ice-cloud map, the team gained important insights into how to efficiently develop a CubeSat mission, determining which systems to make redundant and which tests to forgo because of limited funds and a short schedule, said Jaime Esper, IceCube's mission systems designer and technical project manager at Goddard.
- To keep down costs, the team used commercial off-the-shelf components, including, of course, VDI's radiometer. The components came from multiple commercial providers and didn't always work together harmoniously, requiring engineering rework on the part of team members. The team not only integrated the radiometer to the spacecraft, but also built spacecraft ground-support systems and conducted thermal-vacuum, vibration, and antenna testing at Goddard's Greenbelt campus and Wallops' facilities in Virginia.
- "IceCube isn't perfect," Wu conceded, referring to noise or slight errors in the radiometer's data. "However, we can make a scientifically useful measurement. We came away with a lot of lessons learned from this CubeSat project, and next time engineers can build it much more quickly. But under this program, we had to complete the project within a limited budget and schedule, and therefore, we had to take and balance the risks."
- "This is a different mission model for NASA," Wu continued. "Our principal goal was to show that this small mission could be done at NASA. The question was, could we get useful science and advance space technology with a low-cost CubeSat developed under an effective government-commercial partnership? I believe the answer is yes."
- Small satellites, including CubeSats, are playing an increasingly larger role in exploration, technology demonstration, scientific research and educational investigations at NASA, including: planetary space exploration; Earth observations; fundamental Earth and space science; and developing precursor science instruments like cutting-edge laser communications, satellite-to-satellite communications and autonomous movement capabilities.
• August 2017: First-light measurements from ICIR were obtained on June 6 with a regular technology-demonstration mode starting on June 16 for daytime-only observations. The first 883-GHz cloud radiance map from IceCube (Figure 21) covers the period from June 20 through July 2. As of this writing, IceCube continues to operate normally with the CubeSat spinning around the sun vector in daytime. The spin produces periodical views between Earth and space, allowing radiometric calibration of ICIR. 17)
Figure 21: The first map of 883-GHz cloud-induced radiance (Tcir) from the ICIR (IceCube Cloud–Ice Radiometer). Tcir is defined as the difference between observed and modeled clear-sky radiances, and it is roughly proportional to cloud ice amount above ~11 km (Tcir is negative because cloud scattering acts to reduce the upwelling radiation at submm-wave frequencies), image credit: NASA's ICECube team
• On May 16-17, 2017, NanoRacks began the first of two airlock cycles for the 11th and 12th NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer Missions (NRCSD-11, NRCSD-12). NRCSD-11 and NRCSD-12 were brought to the International Space Station on the Orbital ATK-7 mission, which launched on April 18, 2017 from the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida. This launch was the largest CubeSat mission of NanoRacks to date, bringing 34 satellites into the Space Station, plus four CubeSats mounted on externally on the Cygnus spacecraft. 18)
A total of 17 CubeSats were deployed on NRCSD-11 by the NanoRacks Team:
- 11 CubeSats of the QB50 mission were deployed in this first airlock cycle:
SOMP2 – TU Dresden, Germany
HAVELSAT – Havelsan, Turkey
Columbia – University of Michigan, USA
PHOENIX – National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
X-CubeSat – Ècole Polytechnique, France
QBEE – Open Cosmos Ltd. & University of Lulea, Sweden
ZA-AEROSAT – Stellenbosch University, South Africa
LINK – Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea
UPSat – University of Patras and Libre Space Foundation, Greece
SpaceCube – Ècole des Mines Paristech, France
Hoopoe – Herzliya Science Center, Israel
- 3 CubeSats were deployed of the NASA ELaNa XVII Sponsored CubeSats:
CXBN-2 of Morehead State University, Morehead, KY
IceCube of NASA/GSFC
CSUNSat-1 of California State University Northridge, NASA/JPL
- Additionally, 3 CubeSats were deployed:
Altair-1 of Millennium Space Systems
SHARC of AFRL (Air Force Research Laboratory)
SG-Sat (Stellar Gyroscope Satellite) of the University of Kentucky.
Figure 22: In this photo taken by NASA astronaut Peggy Whitson from inside the International Space Station cupola, the NanoRacks deployer (foreground) is clearly visible as the CXBN-2 and IceCube CubeSats deploy (image credit: NASA)
The deployment sequence started about 5 minutes into orbit night, after the prerequisite 30-minute wait time. About 1hr 17min after release, the WFF 18 meter antenna acquired IceCube's beacon telemetry for the first time (Ref. 13).
All systems showed nominal performance. The telemetry also indicated the UHF antenna was deployed on first attempt, and solar panels deployed after second attempt (redundant circuit). The ACS was controlling the vehicle in SPM, and spin about the sun-line was at a nominal rate of ~1º/s. Commissioning phase included a thorough check of all subsystems, and accurate determination of the spacecraft's orbit. The latter turned out to be the most challenging aspect of commissioning. After about 31 orbits (2 days after release), IceCube had drifted far enough from the ISS that predicting its position within the narrow 3º ground antenna beam became uncertain. Therefore, telemetry was lost and was not acquired until a NORAD TLE (Two-Line Element) became available and IceCube was identified among the cluster of CubeSats deployed from the ISS at the same time.
In order to determine the spacecraft's fate after initial telemetry loss, a crude "ground system" was set-up to receive beacon signals. A 7.5 dBi, 45º beam Yagi antenna connected to a portable spectrum analyzer was trained in the general direction of the predicted position of IceCube. A beacon signal with a signature similar to IceCube's last known transmission was detected after a several tries, and 7 days after contact was lost. This was soon confirmed by NORAD's TLE, and the commissioning phase could begin in earnest. Figure 23 shows the crude set-up used. The low gain antenna and imprecise tracking was sufficient to detect at least one beacon per pass, and points to the use of greater beam ground systems for initial acquisition and tracking of LEO CubeSats in the future, or for contingency searches.
Figure 23: Crude "Ground System" used to detect IceCube signals after loss of communications (image credit: NASA)
The IceCube 883-GHz cloud radiometer was powered-on for two orbits on June 6 2017, or about three weeks after initial release. The instrument showed good sensitivity to Earth and space scenes (Figure 24). All data indicated that both spacecraft and instrument were healthy, and the cloud radiometer could begin technology validation.
Figure 24:
The IceCube ground station consists of a single computer located in the MOC (Mission Operations Center) that uses L3's InControl Software, and a SDL (Space Dynamics Lab) Titan system located at the UHF antenna site. This system is designed to allow the MOC computer to connect to Titan and establish communication between the MOC, UHF antenna, and the IceCube spacecraft (Figure 25). Once this connection is made commanding and telemetry downlinks are possible.
Figure 25: IceCube Ground Station Configuration (image credit: NASA)
Command and telemetry databases were created to define command and telemetry formats. Information pages provide users with the commands available and display downlinked telemetry data received (Figure 26). The IceCube ground station was configured such that the integration and test teams could perform RF communications with the Cadet Radio along with internet access to the IceCube umbilical during development. All downlinked data is archived on the MOC computer, and a data extraction application allows archived pass data to be extracted and distributed to PDLs (Project Design Leads) and the science team.
Figure 26: IceCube Ground Station display screen (image credit: NASA)
1) D. L. Wu, J. Esper, N. Ehsan, T. E. Johnson, W. R. Mast, J. R. Piepmeier, P. E. Racette, "IceCube: Spaceflight Validation of an 874 GHz Submillimeter Wave Radiometer for Cloud Ice Remote Sensing," ESTF 2014 (Earth Science Technology Forum), Leesburg, VA, USA, Oct. 28-30, 2014, URL: http://esto.nasa.gov/forum/estf2014/presentations/B1P5_Wu.pdf
2) Lori Keesey, "NASA's IceCube No Longer On Ice," NASA, July 30, 2014, URL: http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard
/nasas-icecube-no-longer-on-ice/#.VMpRnC7-b-Y
3) Jaime Esper, Dong Wu, Jeffrey Piepmeier, Negar Ehsan, Paul Racette, "Ice-Cube: Spaceflight Validation of an 874 GHz Sub-millimeter Wave Radiometer for Ice Cloud Remote Sensing," 10th IAA Symposium on Small Satellites for Earth Observation, Berlin, Germany, April 20-24, 2015, paper: IAA-B10-0303, URL of presentation: http://www.dlr.de/iaa.symp/Portaldata/49
/Resources/dokumente/archiv10/pdf/0303.pdf
4) K. Franklin Evans, James R. Wang, Paul E. Racette, Gerald Heymsfield, Lihua Li, "Ice Cloud Retrievals and Analysis with the Compact Scanning Submillimeter Imaging Radiometer and the Cloud Radar System during CRYSTAL FACE," Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, Volume 44, Issue 6,June 2005), pp: 839–859, URL: http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/JAM2250.1
5) D. L. Wu, J. Esper, N. Ehsan, T. E. Johnson, W. R. Mast, J. R. Piepmeier and P. E. Racette, "IceCube: CubeSat883-GHz Radiometry for Future Cloud Ice Remote Sensing," Earth Science Technology Forum, Pasadena, CA, June 25, 2015, URL:
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20150021071.pdf
6) "NASA Space Station Cargo Launches aboard Orbital ATK Resupply Mission," NASA, Release 17-029, April 18, 2017, URL: https://www.nasa.gov/press-release
/nasa-space-station-cargo-launches-aboard-orbital-atk-resupply-mission
7) Jeff Foust, "Orbital to launch next Cygnus mission on Atlas 5," Space News, Nov. 4, 2016, URL: http://spacenews.com/orbital-to-launch-next-cygnus-mission-on-atlas-5/
8) "United States Commercial ELV Launch Manifest," Dec. 28, 2016, URL: http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/uscom-man.txt
9) Eamonn P. Glennon, Joseph P. Gauthier, Mazher Choudhury, Kevin Parkinson, Andrew G. Dempster, "Project Biarri and the Namuru V3.2 Spaceborne GPS Receiver," IGNSS (International Global Navigation Satellite Systems Society) Symposium 2013, Outrigger Gold Coast, Australia, 16 – 18 July 2013, URL: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3d15
/3f47ef0f39f21acb3649ab92afef72b53aea.pdf
10) Jacob A. LaSarge, "A CubeSat mission for mapping spot beams of geostationary communication satellites," Thesis, March 2015, URL: http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA617698
11) Davide Masutti, "QB50-ISS CubeSats ready to be launched," Dec. 9, 2016, URL: https://www.qb50.eu/index.php/news/78-qb50-iss-ready-to-be-launched
12) US Commercial ELV Launch Manifest, March 5, 2017, URL: http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/uscom-man.txt
13) Jaime Esper, Dong Wu, Brian Abresch, Brooks Flaherty, Chris Purdy, John Hudeck, Juan Rodriguez, Ted Daisey, Scott Heatwole, Robert Stancil, Thomas Johnson, Alexander Coleman, Negar Ehsan, Kevin Horgan, Jeffrey Piepmeier, "NASA IceCube: CubeSat Demonstration of a Commercial 883-GHz Cloud Radiometer," Proceedings of the 32nd Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan UT, USA, Aug. 4-9, 2018, paper: SSC18-I-02, URL:
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/tiny-satellites-first-global-map-of-ice-clouds
15) Lori Keesey, "NASA's Small Spacecraft Produces First 883-Gigahertz Global Ice-Cloud Map," NASA, 30 Jan. 2018, URL: https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2018
/nasa-s-small-spacecraft-produces-first-883-gigahertz-global-ice-cloud-map
16) "Bread Loaf-Sized Spacecraft Exceeds Expectations — Produces First 883-Gigahertz Global Ice-Cloud Map," cutting edge, Vol. 14, Issue 2, Winter 2018, pp: 10-11, URL:
https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/winter_2018_final_lowrez.pdf
17) Steve Platnick, "Editor's Corner," The Earth Observer. July - August 2017. Volume 29, Issue 4., pp: 1-2, " URL: https://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/sites/default
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18) "NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer Mission 11 Status Update: Good Deploy!," NanoRacks, May 17, 2017, URL: http://nanoracks.com/cubesat-deployer-mission-11-update/
The information compiled and edited in this article was provided by Herbert J. Kramer from his documentation of: "Observation of the Earth and Its Environment: Survey of Missions and Sensors" (Springer Verlag) as well as many other sources after the publication of the 4th edition in 2002. - Comments and corrections to this article are always welcome for further updates.
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Home / Research / Former Projects / International Law and Multinormativity
International Law and Multinormativity
The powerful and complex system of norms we nowadays refer to as international law originated from the European Law of Nations. Today, it provides the framework for relations between a multiplicity of actors. Since its emergence, however, it is not only the terminology that has changed (Ius Publicum Europaeum à International Law/Droit International/Völkerrecht), but also its underlying concepts, such as statehood, sovereignty, and political legitimacy. In the last decades, the steady increase of international legal norms in the context of globalization has led to the juridification of ever more aspects of inter-state relations.
Despite these momentous changes, clear and strong lines of continuity run between past and present international law, both in state practice and in doctrine. Critical approaches in legal history and legal scholarship, which are featured in this project, aim to identify and analyze these continuities, and seek to challenge established narratives on institutions, actors, and legal structures. Important impulses for such approaches derive from postcolonial studies, global history and related disciplines, which open up new perspectives on both the history and the present form of international relations and international law. Critical legal scholars and historians thus argue that narratives like those of "progress" and "civilization" were used to legitimize Western hegemony also in terms of international law, and that these persist in international law discourses, having merely been rephrased in terms of economic and social development policies.
This research engages these issues through conferences and publications. International law is only one system of rules alongside other normative fields: its manifold and complex interactions with other normativities are analyzed from the perspective of "multi-normativity". This term describes the cooperation, conflict and coexistence of law with non-legal norms, such as morality, religious law, social conventions and technical standards. The relations of these different normativities produce the complex and often contradictory regulatory regimes which shape today's global order, mirroring the ambivalence and fragmentation of modern societies.
2019 marked the centenary of the Paris Peace Treaties of 1919 – an international global order that particularly shaped Central and Eastern Europe but which remains contested not only among legal scholars until today. Several talks on these treaties were given by Milos Vec in Frankfurt, Stockholm, Vienna, and Paris in the course of an international conference at the German Historical Institute (DHI). In January, his research on outlaw weapons was concluded with a talk in Vienna as a monthly lecture at the IWM, which will be published by a Japanese publishing house in 2020.
A new book project was launched as part of The Cambridge History series on the history of international law with the working title "Western International Law, 1776 – ca. 1870", co-edited by Milos Vec and Paulina Starski (Heidelberg/Hamburg), was launched. This period covers the heyday of the so-called European Law of Nations, a normative order based on treaties, customs as well as on natural law and spreading all over the world, fueled by ideas of constitutionalism and international rule of law as well as industrial revolution, imperialism, colonialism and also racism. A first meeting with potential book authors as well as representatives of the CUP publishing house took place at beginning of October 2019 in Cambridge. Already in September 2019, the IWM hosted an author's workshop, bringing together chapter authors with discussants from various disciplines to discuss methodological and substantive issues.
Publications and Events
Head of Program
Miloš Vec
IWM Permanent Fellow
Professor of European Legal and Constitutional History, University of Vienna
Former Fellows & Guests
Andrew Brandel
PhD in Anthropology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore
Filipe Calvao
Assistant Professor , Department of Anthropology and Sociology of Development, Graduate Institute, Geneva
Till van Rahden
Canada Research Chair in German and European Studies, Centre Canadien D'Études Allemandes et Européennes, Université de Montréal