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Asplenium ayopayense är en svartbräkenväxtart som beskrevs av Michael Kessler och Alan Reid Smith.

Asplenium ayopayense ingår i släktet Asplenium och familjen Aspleniaceae. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

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ayopayense


Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) is richly endowed with natural resources including petroleum and natural gas but is still recovering from a civil war that lasted ten years and ended in 2011. The country has experienced one of the highest growth rates in Africa in recent years with the economy more than doubling over the past decade to a value of US$36.1bn in 2016. Despite this, an estimated 46% of the population still lives in poverty and the informal sector, which includes local markets, numerous informal kiosks and tabletop sellers, accounts for more than 80% of food wholesale and retail activity.
The International Monetary Fund believes the country's current positive macro-economic outlook is supported by "sustained strong domestic demand" and in the next five years per capita grocery retail spend is expected to increase by 24.6%. Formal retailers, especially Francophone retailers, have stated their intention of taking advantage of the economic recovery, the emergence of a middle class, and a market still characterised by the low penetration of modern retail. Although there has been progress in many respects, the Ivorian business operating environment is still regarded as challenging given regulatory constraints, a shortage of skilled labour and the corruption that exists in the country.
The report on the Wholesale and Retail of Food in Côte d'Ivoire examines current conditions and developments as well as factors that influence the success of the sector. Profiles are provided for four retailers including the largest player, Prosuma which employs approximately 3,600 people in a total of 56 stores situated mainly in densely populated urban areas. Six stores are currently under construction, four in the capital Abidjan, and one wholesale and one retail store situated further inland. Prosuma is also looking to bolster its low-end offering of discount mini-markets, with plans to open new Bonprix and Miniprix stores in small towns across the country.


Going to dive straight into it and start with the Soap & Glory Foam Call Body Wash. Before picking this up, I must admit I hadn't heard anything about it. I'm a huge fan of the Sugar Crush scent, so was originally going to pick that one up again, but then I spotted this. I personally think its a very unisex scent, its not fruity or floral at all. More musky but also very fresh. To be honest I can't really explain, I just recommend you pick this up for yourself haha!
Second up, shampoo. I've tried so many shampoos and I can never find one I really love. So to switch it up a bit, I decided to pick up the LUSH Honey I Washed My Hair Shampoo Bar. I'd heard great things about the Lush shampoo bars but always thought they weren't for me and they were a bit of a strange concept. But I decided to bite the bullet and give one a chance. The girl in the Lush store recommend this one to me once I told her my hair type, and I think she did quite a good job. This smells incredible, as you can imagine and works really well. For conditioner, I use the L'Oreal Elvive Extraordinary Clay Conditioner. I saw quite a lot of bloggers raving about this range when it was first launched a few months ago, so decided to try it out for myself. So far so good, it smells amazing and makes me hair feel incredibly soft.
What shower products are you loving at the moment?


St. Cloud, Minn. – Translated into real life, Barbie would be 5'9" tall, have a 39" bust, an 18" waist, 33" hips and wear a size 3 shoe. This common unrealistic beauty ideal can contribute to body dissatisfaction and contribute to risk factors for eating disorders. Nearly 1 in 11 women and men will suffer from an eating disorder in their lifetime. St. Cloud Hospital Eating Disorders Program, located at CentraCare Health Plaza, includes an experienced team — dietitian and psychologist — who specialize in treating patients with disordered eating.
If someone is exhibiting signs of struggling with an eating disorder, intervening in the early stages may help prevent the onset of a full-blown eating disorder. It also leads to greater chances of a full recovery. It can prevent years of struggle and can even save lives.
For more ways to encourage healthy body image or for additional questions, call St. Cloud Hospital Eating Disorders Program at 320-229-4918.


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Q: Applying meta-learning for neural machine translation Does anyone have any idea of how to apply meta-learning for neural machine translation?
I have read some papers that consider multiple language pairs as different tasks for meta-learning. Is it possible to do it just with one pair of language? for example translation from English to a low-resource language by using meta-learning.
I am not a specialist in this domain. Is there any public code that I can use?
Thank you in advance for your help.
I don't want to implement the code from scratch. I am looking for a public and open-source code to use and then modify for my specific problem.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Atopic eczema affects 1 in 5 children and 1 in 12 adults, making it the most common form of eczema and one of the most common skin conditions. Its red and dry appearance accompanied by an intense itch makes for a very painful and chronic condition.
Unfortunately, there can be many triggers associated with eczema, which are common and abundant such as: washing detergents, stress, temperature changes, and allergens. When the eczema flares up, it's important to treat at the first sign of symptoms to prevent any worsening that could potentially end up in bleeding or infection.
Emollients are the mainstay of all treatment for eczema and products include creams, ointments, lotions, bath additives and soap substitutes. Emollients can help soothe and repair the skin while also reducing the requirement for topical steroids (i.e. medicated creams/ointments) and can also increase the effectiveness of prescribed treatments. Sometimes you may need more than one type, and often people prefer to use a lotion during the day and an ointment at night due their textures. Ideally they should be applied at least twice a day and adults should use approximately 500g while children should use approximately 250g of emollient per week.
Don't stop moisturising when your skin is eczema free – prevention is better than cure!
Avoid soap and harsh chemicals in cleaning products.
Shampoo that is fragrance free and pH neutral should be chosen (avoid Sodium Lauryl Sulphate).
Emollients are best applied straight after a bath/shower.
Cotton clothing is the most preferred to avoid irritation.
Do not limit your diet if you believe some foods may be causing it before talking to your GP.
Aqueous cream should not be used as a leave-on emollient as it has been proven to cause irritation. Instead, it is better as a soap substitute.
For those with severe eczema, "wet wrapping" should be considered. This involved applying a generous layer of emollient, which is then covered with a wet cotton bandage.
Take extra care during these cool winter months as often, the cold can cause dry skin to become worse.
Aveeno® and La Roche Posay™Lipikar/Cicaplast range are my top recommended emollient products (available from the LloydsPharmacy website-subject to availability) and Doublebase Emollient Gel (available from LloydsPharmacies nationwide- subject to availability).
Always contact your GP or local LloydsPharmacist should you find your eczema difficult to manage or if you have any questions regarding your treatment.


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Old Fashion Service - Modern Community Dentist If her name, Beverly Rose, seems a bit cinematic, then the smiles she creates for her clients can be thought of in the same way: dazzling and bright. Really though, it's the customer...
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Ahh, the unofficial launch of Summer: Fourth of July, outdoor barbecues and nights lit up with fireflies and sizzly sparkler sticks. If you can, beat the heat with these festive foods that can be combined for a feast among friends or...
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Luxury Real Estate Auctions Return to the Space Coast When it comes to marketing and selling luxury residential properties, there are two options. The first is the traditional real estate listing, an industry standard that most people use and are...
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For centuries, yoga enthusiasts have boasted about the physical and mental health benefits of the discipline. Now, more than ever, people are using yoga as a way to relax, de-stress and even as a way to combat stiff and achy...
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MI-BOX
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The recent pandemic may have stalled or stopped business operations across many cities in the U.S. and abroad, but not all plans have been abandoned: people are still retiring, houses are still being listed for sale, employees are still being...
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Children, From the Editor, Holidays, People & Business, Special Section
As a child growing up in Melbourne, Matt Williams was fascinated by growth in the area. He watched his dad, Mike, founder of MH Williams Construction, raise building after building, and witnessed his dad's passion for seeing a project through...
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There is one particular way of life that is very different from most others. Mostly. Not everything is different, but in some ways, nothing is really the same as when you're the child of a career military servant. You move...
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Since he was young boy, Dan Carter of Palm Bay has been surrounded by people of faith: his own father was a volunteer with the Fellowship of Christian Athletes (FCA) – and he vividly recalls spending evenings with football players...
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By the time the cycle of life had closed in on his daughter, Brad Curtsinger of Palm Bay had learned a thing or two. His first child, a girl named Morgan, was born with a host of medical ailments so...
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Brevard Construction Company: Expertise and Vast Experience Drive Customer Experience
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Each year, America's seniors and their doctors wait and watch while a flawed formula passed by Congress more than a decade ago threatens double-digit cuts to Medicare physicians. This Sustainable Growth Rate (SGR) formula is clearly inadequate, and today's House and Senate Committee votes to repeal it mark an important first step to improve Medicare payments to doctors while preserving seniors' access to their trusted physicians. Replacing the current volume-based payment system with one that bases payments on the quality and efficiency of care is good news for seniors and for the Medicare program overall.
The National Committee's letter to the Senate Finance Committee is here.


INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.
I would like to thank the faculty who served on my graduate committee, Drs. Charles A. Wilson, Robert P. Romaire, James W. Avault Jr., Mark K. Johnson, and Jerrold T. Haldiman for their guidance and assistance.
Special gratitude is extended to my major professor, Dr.
William R. Wolters, who provided advice and support throughout my work at Louisiana State University.
who provided assistance, friendship, and exchange of ideas; especially Joe Craig, Mike Pursley, Cindy Chritton-Meeker, Simon Ellis, Eileen Peppard Ellis, Richard DeMay, Deb Kelly, Dave Edmonson, Ralph Laprarie, and Mark Schexnayder.
ABSTRACT Experiments with red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. were conducted to assess environmental requirements and culture characteristics. Pond trials were used to evaluate the effects of salinity, chloride source, predator control, acclimation procedure, stocking density, and size at stocking on production.
ranged from 0-92%; average daily weight gain from 0.46-2.22g; and feed conversion ratio from 2.30-4.90.
conversion ratio did not differ significantly between equivalent treatments in saltwater and freshwater ponds.
concentration necessary for acceptable production of red drum in freshwater ponds (250-300 mg/1) was at least 100% higher than the concentrations reported to support high survival and growth in some laboratory experiments.
hypoxia, handling and stocking stresses, and vertebrate predators.
laboratory experiment was designed to determine the dissolved oxygen tolerance of juvenile red drum in relation to temperature and salinity.
5 ppt salinity and 25 and 30 C survived to low dissolved oxygen concentration (0.34 mg/1) when concentration was reduced over several hours, as might occur in culture ponds.
temperature or salinity was detected in resistance to hypoxia. Red drum survived to significantly lower mean dissolved oxygen concentration when rate of deoxygenation was reduced.
these experiments indicate that red drum can be successfully cultured if water quality, predation, and handling stesses are controlled.
Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus. family Sciaenidae) is a popular game and food fish along the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic coasts, with high consumer demand throughout the United States because of the popularity of South Louisiana cuisine.
landings of red drum increased dramatically during the 1980's; 1.3 million kg were reported nationwide in 1983 (Mercer 1984) and 3.6 million kg were harvested in Louisiana waters alone in 1986 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1986).
exceeded commercial landings, but this trend has reversed in the last 5 years.
inshore Louisiana sportfishing catch (1.28 million kg) decreased 40% since 1980 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1986). Conflict between commercial and recreational harvests of red drum has become an issue in the depletion of stocks in Gulf states. The Scientific and Statistical Committee of the Gulf of Mexico Fisheries Management Council recently concluded that overfishing was threatening recruitment of spawning age red drum to offshore habitats.
drum were surviving to sexual maturity and approximately 20% escapement is needed to maintain reproductive rates necessary for continued maximum sustained yield (Condrey 1986).
and (2) a ban on possession of red drum on boats carrying a purse seine.
commercial and recreational harvests of red drum were suspended for 6 months.
the commercial harvest and sale of wild stocks of red drum.
size and creel limits were also imposed on recreational fishermen. However, mariculture of red drum is still permitted under separate legislation, and inland aquaculture is permitted under fish farming regulations. Legislative restriction on commercial capture of red drum will necessitate that red drum sold in fish markets and restaurants be imported or commercially cultivated.
cultured red drum, promising early results from aquaculture studies, and relatively high market value have created considerable interest in commercial aquaculture ventures.
Louisiana doubled between 1977 and 1981, and then tripled between 1981 and 1987.
1989 in Louisiana for $5.0/kg whole-fish.1 Successes with large-scale spawning and fingerling production at stock-enhancement hatcheries in Florida and Texas have provided a fundamental knowledge base on the husbandry of red drum and have enhanced the potential for pond culture (Colura et al. 1976, Arnold et al. 1977, Roberts et al. 1978, Crocker et al. 1981, Hysmith et al. 1983).
earthen ponds or recirculating systems is limited, and further information is necessary before commercial culture is feasible. Investigations into red drum culture began in South Carolina in 1947 (Lunz 1951,1956).
1 Danny Dupree, Purchasing Agent, Cajun Bayou Seafood Distributors, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, January 1991, personal communication.
monitored in extensive saltwater ponds.
from natural forage and yield was low (52 kg/ha/yr), but red drum attained marketable sizes of over 1.0 kg in one year.
in these ponds red drum survived water temperatures as low as 1 C (Bearden 1967). Replicated pond studies utilizing formulated diets were conducted in Alabama in the mid-1970's in brackishwater ponds. Diverse stocking densities, stocking dates, growout periods, and fingerling sizes were investigated, and red drum were reared to marketable sizes on formulated diets.
were variable, growth was reduced by pathogens, and feed prices limited economic feasibility (Trimble 1979). A recent grow-out experiment with red drum was conducted in plastic-lined saltwater ponds in South Carolina (Sandifer et al. 1988).
essentially continuous aeration with paddlewheel aerators were used to produce 7,251 - 15,011 kg/ha in 18 months.
parasitic dinoflagellate Amvloodinium and oxygen depletion caused mortalitys in some ponds, but survival of 94.6% was attained in one pond. In the late 1970's, research was conducted on spawning tech niques and fingerling production, and food habits (Colura et al. 1976, Arnold et al. 1977, Roberts et al. 1978, Holt et al. 1981, Hysmith et al. 1982, Overstreet 1983, Lee et al. 1984, Reagan 1985). Red drum broodstock collected from natural sources were acclimated in indoor tanks equipped with biological filters, and temperature and photoperiod control.
the potential for red drum culture in ponds.
euryhaline, little comparative information exists on pond culture in different salinities.
greater growth for fingerling red drum in saltwater (35 ppt) than in freshwater (unspecified ion content) in flow-through raceways.
and Stickney (1986) reported growth and survival of fingerling red drum in freshwater channel catfish ponds was reduced when compared to fingerlings held in low salinity (4 ppt) raceways.
experiments by Wurts and Stickney (1989) indicated that adequate environmental calcium ion concentration is critical to survival of fingerling red drum, and minimum levels differ between fresh (25 mg/1) and saltwater (340 mg/1).
fluctuations common to pond environments, satisfactory conditions for red drum culture in ponds may be expected to differ from environmental minima defined in the laboratory. Controlled studies utilizing different stocking densities, stocking sizes, or salinities have been inconclusive.
scope of previous studies limits the conclusions that can be drawn regarding economic feasibility of red drum culture.
such as the effects of low dissolved oxygen on red drum growth and survival are not known.
limiting fish production in ponds (Swingle 1969), and low dissolved oxygen levels commonly cause mortality in intensive fish culture ponds when feeding rates and water temperatures are high (Stickney 1986).
results from this study will provide information about optimal stocking rates, stocking sizes, and environmental requirements necessary for commercial culture.
LITERATURE CITED APHA (American Public Health Association), American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation. 1981. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 15th ed. APHA, Washington, D.C. 1193pp. Arnold, C.R., W.H. Bailey, T.D. Williams, A. Johnson, and J.L. Lasswell. 1977. Laboratory spawning and larval rearing of red drum and southern flounder. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies 31:437-440. Bearden, C.M. 1967. Salt-water impoundments for game fish in South Carolina. Prog. Fish-Cult. 29(3):123-128. Bonn, E.W., W.M. Bailey, J.D. Bayless, K.E. Erickson, and R.E. Stevenson (Editors). 1976. Guidelines for Striped Bass Culture. Striped Bass Committee, Southern Div., Amer. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, MD. 103pp. Campbell, L. 1982. Suggested procedures for transporting red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus} fingerlings. Proc. 1982 Texas Fish Farming Conf. 1982: 42-45. Colura, R.L., B.T. Hysmith, and R.E. Stevens. 1976. Fingerling production of striped bass (Morone saxatilis), spotted sea trout (Cvnoscion nebulosus. and red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus} saltwater ponds. Proc. World Maricult. Soc. 7:79-92. Condrey, R. 1986. Blackened redfish. Amer. Fish. Soc. News., La. Newsletter Sept., 1986. Crocker, P.A., C.R. Arnold, J. A. DeBoer, and J. Holt. 1981. Preliminary evaluation of survival and growth of juvenile red drum Sciaenops ocellata. in fresh and salt water. J. World Maricult. Soc. 12:122-134. Davis, S. and R. Stickney. Growth and survival of fingerling redfish (Sciaenops ocellatus} in low salinity and freshwater systems. 1986. Proc. 1986 Texas Fish Farming Conf. and Ann. Conv. Fish Farmers of Texas. 36-41. Holt, J., A.G. Johnson, C.R. Arnold, W.A. Fable, Jr., and T.D. Williams. 1981. Description of eggs and larvae of laboratory reared red drum, Sciaenops ocellata. Copeia 1981(4): 751-756. Hysmith, B.T., G.C. Matlock, and R.L. Colura. 1982. Effects of stocking rate and food type on growth and survival of finger ling red drum. Pages 133-144 in Proc. Warmwater Fish Culture Workshop. World Maricult. Soc. Spec. Pub. #3. Baton Rouge, LA. 190 p. Luebke, R.W. and K. Strawn. 1973. The growth, survival, and feeding behavior of redfish (Sciaenops ocellata} in ponds receiving heated discharge water from a power plant. Proc. World Maricult. Soc. 4:143-154. Lunz, G.R. 1951. A saltwater fish pond. Bears Bluff Lab., Wadmalaw Island. S.C. Rept #12:12 p.
7 Lunz, G.R. 1956. Harvest from an experimental one-acre saltwater pond at Bears Bluff Lab., S.C. Prog. Fish Cult. 18:92-94. Mercer, L.P. 1984. A biological and fisheries profile of red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. Spec. Sci. Rept. #41. North Carolina Dept. Nat. Res. and Comm. Dev., Div. Mar. Fish. Morehead City, N.C. 89 p. Miranda, L.E., and A.J. Sonski. 1985. Survival of red drum fingerlings in fresh water: dissolved solids and thermal minima. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies 39:228-237. Mount, D.I. 1961. Development of a system for controlling dis solved oxygen content of water. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90:323-327. Mount, D.I. 1964. Additional information on a system for controlling the dissolved oxygen content of water. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93:100-103. Overstreet, R.M. 1983. Aspects of the biology of the red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. in Mississippi. Gulf Res. Rept. Supplement 1:45-68. Ocean Springs, MS. Reagan, R.E. 1985. Species profiles: life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (Gulf of Mexico): Red drum. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4, Vicksburg, MS, 16 p. Roberts, D.E.,Jr., B.V. Harpster, and G.E. Henderson. 1978. Conditioning and induced spawning of the red drum, Sciaenops ocellata. under varied conditions of photoperiod and tempera ture. Proc. World Maricult. Soc. 9:311-332. Robinson, E.H. 1988. Nutritional requirements of red drum: a review. Contr. Mar. Sci. Suppl. 30: 11-20. Sandifer, P.A., J.S. Hopkins, A.D. Stokes, and R.A. Smiley. 1988. Experimental pond grow-out of the red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. in South Carolina. Abstr., 19th Ann. Meet. World Aquacult. Soc., publ. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 19:1:62A. Stickney, R.R. (Editor). 1986. Culture of Nonsalmonid Freshwater Fishes. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL, 201 p. Swingle, H.S. 1969. Methods of analysis for waters, organic matter, and pond bottom soils used in fisheries research. Auburn Univ., Auburn, Ala. 119 p. Theiling, D.L. and H.A. Loycano. 1976. Age and growth of red drum from a saltwater marsh impoundment in South Carolina. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 105:41-44. Trimble, W.C. 1979. Yield trials for red drum in brackish water ponds, 1976-1979. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies. 33:432-441. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. 1986. Fisheries Statistics of the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Wurts, W. A., and R. R. Stickney. 1989. Responses of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) to calcium and magnesium concentrations in fresh and salt water. Aquaculture 76:21-35.
Red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. commonly known as redfish, is popular among Louisiana recreational and commercial fishermen and has recently attracted culinary acclaim throughout the United States. Popularity of Cajun cuisine, particularly blackened redfish, has led to a substantial increase in red drum demand and value.
prices for fresh red drum fillets of more than $5 per pound are common in Louisiana.
tripled in the last ten years, and commercial fishermen currently receive wholesale prices of $.80 to $1.50 per pound. In 1983, 2.8 million pounds of red drum were commercially captured, and the recreational catch might have exceeded this amount. Many experts feel this yield cannot be sustained, and several states bordering the Gulf of Mexico have begun to regulate or ban the catch and sale of red drum.
a renewed emphasis on the commercial culture of red drum to market size.
fast-growing, able to tolerate a wide range of salinities, and readily trainable to accept formulated fish feeds.
10 Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries and the Gulf Coast Conservation Association have focused on growth rate, survival, and feed conversion at different stocking densities in saltwater and freshwater ponds.
METHODS Six 0.33-acre freshwater ponds at the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station's Ben Hur Research Farm at Baton Rouge and eight 0.25-acre saltwater ponds at the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries' Lyle S. St. Amant Marine Laboratory near Grand Isle were stocked with 0.25 gram red drum fingerlings obtained from the Gulf Coast Conservation Association and Texas Parks and Wildlife Department.
fingerlings on 14 June 1986 (3 ponds at 2,000 per acre, 3 ponds at 4,000 per acre), and eight saltwater ponds were stocked on 29 May 1986 (4 ponds at 2,000 per acre, 4 ponds at 4,000). Fish were fed five days per week starting with a finely ground salmon ration (49% protein) at 5 pounds/acre/day and terminating with satiation feeding of pelleted floating catfish chow (32% protein). Maximum feeding rates were 30 pounds/acre/day.
oxygen, temperature, and salinities were recorded daily.
aeration with centrifugal pumps or paddlewheels was required when dissolved oxygen levels declined below 2.0 mg/liter, and an automatic pumping system was installed to deliver ambient Barataria Bay water daily into saltwater ponds to control water levels from pond seepage and increase dissolved oxygen levels. Fish were harvested after 188 days.
were weighed and measured for calculation of length-weight relationships (Table 1).
performed to determine if significant differences existed in harvest weight due to stocking density.
11 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Complete mortality of red drum occurred in four out of six freshwater ponds from oxygen depletion, and survival in the two remaining ponds ranged from 5 to 10%.
as low as 1.0 mg/liter during early morning hours on many occasions. Other factors that may have contributed to low survival were low salinity or chloride levels, and small fish size at stocking. Chloride levels in freshwater ponds in this study were 160 mg/liter, and well above the minimum level for successful stocking of red drum at 125 mg/liter.
freshwater ponds, no data analysis was performed. Survival in saltwater ponds was much higher and averaged 62% (Table 2).
also encountered in saltwater ponds during early morning hours, and complete fish mortality from oxygen depletion occurred in two out of eight ponds.
temperature ranged from 11.0 to 34.5 C. No significant difference in growth due to density was observed at harvest (Table 2 and 3).
at harvest were low due to small size at stocking and low stocking rates.
wastage during the early part of the study when fish were small. Higher yields and lower feed conversion ratios common to commercial culture with other species such as catfish might be expected with larger fingerlings, better feeding practices, and higher feeding rates during the peak of the growing season.
12 noticeable disease or parasite problems.
relatively rapid in this study (approximately 1.0 mm/day), it is unlikely that red drum can be raised to marketable sizes in less than one year. Spring-spawned fingerlings used in this study averaged approximately 150 grams at harvest, well below the marketable size of 1.5-4.0 pounds.
cultured for an additional growing season in order to reach market size.
catfish production with first year fingerling growth in nursery ponds followed by second year growout at lower densities in production ponds.
overwintered and may be of such a small size that considerable mortality could occur during the winter months. Overwintering of fingerlings or submarketable fish could result in problems with mortality associated with low temperature tolerance.
high mortality has been reported during abrupt temperature drops associated with passages of winter cold fronts.
conducted by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department determined that red drum held in freshwater (150 ppm chlorides) ceased feeding at 5-9C, and that considerable mortality is likely below 4 C in freshwater. More research is needed before conclusions regarding the feasibility of red drum culture can be made.
is needed on stocking rates, feeding rates, and the length of time required to raise red drum to marketable sizes.
13 performance, survival, and economic viability.
red drum culture will be most feasible in brackish water southern Louisiana.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funds for this study were obtained through the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station and a private grant from J. Wayne Plaisance, Inc., Galliano, LA.
inland leveed ponds has increased because of restrictions on the commercial fishery.
drum in freshwater ponds has been erratic.
chloride level, salt or chloride source, and predator controls were evaluated as factors expected to affect survival of fingerling red drum stocked in freshwater ponds. Two 30-day trials were conducted in 0.04-ha ponds stocked at 2,500 fish/ha.
of two chloride levels (150 ppm and 300 ppm) and two acclimation rates (2 hours and 6 hours).
and only 2.3% survived at 300 ppm. significantly affect survival.
to evaluate two higher chloride levels (250 ppm and 400 ppm), two salt or chloride sources (sodium chloride and calcium chloride), and predator control treatments (insecticide treatment and net enclosures).
ppm chlorides (49.3% vs 15.0 %) and with sodium chloride rather than calcium chloride (76.0% vs 28.7%). not signficantly affect survival.
as 90% can be obtained in inland freshwater ponds with the proper water quality parameters.
16 INTRODUCTION Interest in red drum culture has increased in recent years. Market popularity has contributed to overexploitation of natural populations and subsequent restrictions on commercial red drum fisheries.
states along the Gulf of Mexico to enhance coastal populations or establish fisheries in natural freshwater systems (Lasswell et al. 1977; Dolman 1983).
salinity or freshwater ponds has increased because of possible legal constraints on pond construction in coastal zones.
underlying the Gulf Coast Salt Basin yield water with suitable ionic concentrations for red drum culture (Lefond 1969) in inland areas. Addition of bulk-grade salt to raise chloride levels in freshwater ponds has also been proposed as a method to provide suitable water quality for red drum culture. Initial research on survival of red drum fingerlings in freshwater has focused on minimum ion requirements and acclimation rates.
been 80-85% at chloride levels of 125-130 ppm and survival did not differ between 2, 4, or 8 hours of acclimation (Dolman 1983; Miranda and Sonski 1985).
at low levels of water hardness (Davis and Stickney 1986; Wurts and Stickney 1989).
survival rates in waters of similar chemistry in freshwater and brackishwater ponds has been inconsistent (Lasswell et al. 1977; Trimble 1979). Our preliminary studies also indicated survival rates obtained from laboratory studies were often different from pond trials.
pond trials were conducted to evaluate effects of water quality variables such as chloride level and source, acclimation rate, and predator control on fingerling survival in freshwater ponds.
17 Evaluation of these effects in replicated ponds will be critical to successful culture of red drum in inland ponds.
METHODS Two 30-day pond trials were conducted to evaluate how factors such as chloride level, acclimation rate, salt or chloride source, and predator controls affected the survival of red drum fingerlings in freshwater ponds. Trial 1 The first 30-day trial evaluated effects of two chloride levels, two acclimation rates, and their interaction in a 2 x 2 factorial with three replicate 0.04-ha ponds for each treatment combination.
through additions of coarse rock salt to freshwater ponds that had been filled with wellwater at 20 ppm chlorides.
rates, fast and slow, were used to lower the salinity from approximately 22.2 ppt in transport water to the same chloride level as the ponds.
transport water with pond water to reduce salinity from 22.2 to 5.0 ppt in 1 hour followed by 1.0 ppt decreases every 10 minutes down to the pond levels.
salinity decrease below 5.0 ppt was followed by a 1-hour stabilization interval. Red drum fingerlings (mean weight = 6.0 g) were reared in laboratory conditions and held in fiberglass tanks equipped with biological filtration prior to stocking into outdoor ponds.
were fed a 45% protein salmon diet (Rangen Inc.) to satiation daily and transported to ponds in fiberglass tanks at 22.2 ppt salinity and 24.1 C. Replicate ponds were stocked at 2,500 fish/ha. 5.6 kg/ha/day of 45% protein salmon diet daily.
18 total hardness were measured at the beginning and end of the pond trial by mercuric nitrate titrations for chlorides and EDTA titrations for hardness (APHA 1980).
dissolved oxygen were measured each morning before dawn with electronic meters (Yellow Springs Instruments). Ponds were drained after 30 days and survival rates calculated. A two-way analysis of variance was used to determine significant differences in survival at different treatment combinations.
square-root transformation was used to correct for skewness produced by low survival values in comparison of means by analysis of variance (Steel and Torrie 1980). Trial 2 The second 30-day trial evaluated effects of two higher chloride levels, 250 and 400 ppm, in 0.04-ha earthen ponds with three replicate ponds at each chloride level.
adjusted to desired levels as described in trial 1.
series of twelve ponds was used to compare effects of chloride source (sodium or calcium chloride) and predator control methods (insecticide or net enclosure) on survival in a 2 x 2 factorial with three replicate ponds for each treatment combination.
adjusted to 300 ppm chlorides with either sodium chloride or calcium chloride.
0.5- mm nylon mesh were placed in three sodium chloride ponds not treated with insecticide. Fingerlings (mean weight = 8 . 5 grams) were from the same source as in trial 1 and acclimated at the slow rate to pond conditions prior to stocking.
enclosure was stocked with 20 additional fish. measurements were taken as described in trial 1.
19 fed 5.6 kg/ha on alternate days and those in nets O.lkg/net on alternate days.
significant differences in survival between 250 and 400 ppm chlorides and between net enclosures and open ponds.
variance was used to test for differences in survival between chloride sources (sodium and calcium chloride), insecticide pretreatment, and their interaction.
RESULTS Trial 1 Water temperature at stocking was 24.1 C and morning temperatures ranged from 18.5 to 29.0 C during trial 1. dissolved oxygen levels ranged from 2.6 to 12.4 ppm.
aeration with centrifugal pumps was used on two occasions when the dissolved oxygen level fell below 3.0 ppm.
within 15% of target levels (175 and 300 ppm) during the 30-day trial.
determined from titrations were 177.5 ppm and 284.2 ppm, respectively.
and 183.3 ppm. No significant differences in survival were found between treatment combinations (Table 1). treatment combinations.
only 2.3% survived at 300 ppm chlorides.
acclimation had 1.0% survival while slow acclimation yielded 1.3% survival. Trial 2 Water temperature at stocking was 22.0 C and morning temperatures ranged from 10.5 to 20.0 C. Morning dissolved oxygen levels remained above 5.8 ppm during the entire 30-day trial.
20 Because of leakage, one of the ponds had to be deleted from the analysis. Chloride levels determined from titrations were within 6% of target values (250 and 400 ppm). 425.6 ppm, respectively.
found between the two chloride levels (Table 2).
9.0% at 250 ppm and 49.3% at 400 ppm. A significant difference in survival was found for chloride source, but not for insecticide pretreatment (Table 3).
chloride level for both sources was 296.5 ppm and was within 1% of the target value (300 ppm).
adjusted with sodium chloride was 76.0%, whereas survival in ponds adjusted with calcium chloride was 28.7%.
622.5 and 329.3 ppm, respectively.
Survival in ponds pretreated with insecticide (40.0%) was not signficantly different than in nontreated ponds (55.0%).
fingerlings into net enclosures had no signficant effect on survival. Survival in net enclosures was 66.7+23.6% while survival in the open ponds in which nets were placed was 82.7+8.3%.
DISCUSSION Overall survival among treatments and ponds varied considerably and was similar to previous studies (Lasswell et al. 1977; Trimble 1979).
trials by Pursley and Wolters (1989) in which significant variations in growth, survival, and feed conversion of 3- to 6-gram red drum was found among 100, 200, and 400 ppm total hardness and 125, 150, 250, and 500 ppm chlorides.
on survival, growth, and feed conversion than higher hardness levels. Minimum chloride concentration for acceptable and consistent freshwater pond culture is probably 250-300 ppm based on the results of the laboratory study by Pursley and Wolters (1989) and these pond trials.
yielded inconsistent and low survival.
fluctuations in oxygen, temperature, pH, and handling stress may contribute to the higher minimum chloride concentration required for pond culture. Fewer red drum fingerlings survived in ponds supplemented with calcium chloride than in ponds supplemented with sodium chloride. Both treatments had the same chloride levels, but the calcium chloride ponds had higher water hardness (622.5 vs. 329.3 ppm) and might have been expected to yield higher survival.
rates in calcium chloride supplemented ponds may be due to relatively low sodium levels (approximately 22 ppm).
calcium has been shown to inhibit the sodium efflux rate in seawater acclimated fishes transferred to freshwater (Pickford et al. 1966; Potts and Fleming 1971; Carrier and Evans 1976; Pic and Maetz 1981), there may be a minimum sodium requirement for marine fish in freshwater.
fish to thrive in markedly hypo-osmotic solution to which calcium had been added, but freshwater used in the study contained sodium concentrations of at least 150 ppm.
22 calcium and 1,526 ppm sodium.
sodium ions have not been established, water containing low sodium concentrations are probably not suitable for red drum culture. Minimum sodium requirements need to be established for rearing red drum in freshwater of varied ionic content. Predaceous insects were evidently not a source of mortality for fingerling red drum (6.0-8.5 g; 76-102 mm) used in this study.
insect larvae are often found in the stomachs of fingerling red drum raised in earthen ponds, insecticide treatment may actually reduce a desirable food source.
after stocking also did not improve fish survival.
in this study were probably large enough to avoid invertebrate predators common to pond systems. Results of this study indicate that acceptable pond survival can be obtained in inland freshwater ponds with the proper ion content.
containing suitable chloride, water hardness, and sodium levels would minimize concern over ecological impacts from pond construction in coastal regions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Partial funding for this project was obtained from the Louisiana Board of Regents through the Louisiana Education Quality Support Fund (Contract Number LEQSF(1986-1989)-RD-B-07.
24 LITERATURE CITED APHA (American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation). 1980. Standards for the examination of water and wastewater, 14th ed. American Public Health Association Inc., N.Y. Carrier, J. C., and D. H. Evans. 1976. The role of environmental calcium in freshwater survival of the marine teleost, Laaodon rhomboides. J. Exp. Biol. 65:529-538. Davis, S., and R. Stickney. 1986. Growth and survival of fingerling redfish (Sciaenops ocellatusI in low salinity and freshwater systems. Proc 1986 Texas Fish Farming Conf. 1986:36-41. Dolman, W. B. 1983. Red drum freshwater stocking evaluation: Federal Aid Project F-31-R-9 Performance Report, 5 p. Hulet, W. H., S. J. Masel, L. H. Jodrey, and R. G. Wehy. 1967. The role of calcium in the survival of marine teleosts in dilute seawater. Bull. Mar. Sci. 17:677-688. Lasswell, J. L., G. Garza, and W. H. Bailey. 1977. Status of marine fish introductions into the fresh waters of Texas. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies 31:399-403. Lefond, S. J. 1969. Handbook of world salt resources. Press, N.Y., 384 p.
Miranda, L. E., and A. J. Sonski. 1985. Survival of red drum fingerlings in freshwater: dissolved solids and thermal minima. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies 39:228-237. Pic, P., and J. Maetz. 1981. Role of external calcium in sodium and chloride transport in the gills of seawater-adapted Muqil capito. J. Comp. Physiol. 141:511-521. Pickford, G. E., P. K. T. Pang, J. G. Stanley, and W. R. Fleming. 1966. Calcium and freshwater survival in the euryhaline cyprinodonts, Fundulus kansae and Fundulus heteroclitus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 18:503-509. Potts, W. T. W., and W. R. Fleming. 1971. Theeffect of environmental calcium and ovine prolactin on sodium balance in Fundulus kansae. J. Exper. Biol. 55:63-75. Pursley, M. G., and W., R. Wolters. 1989. Water quality affects growth of young redfish. La. Agriculture32:14-15. Steel, R. G. D., and J. H. Torrie.1980. Principles and procedures of statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, N.Y. 633p. Trimble, W. C. 1979. Yield trials for red drum in brackish-water ponds, 1976-1979. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies 33:432-441. Wurts, W. A., and R. R. Stickney. 1989. Responses of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) to calcium and magnesium concentrations in fresh and salt water. Aquaculture 76:21-35.
ABSTRACT Fingerling red drum of two sizes (7 and 27 g) were stocked at two densities (4,075 and 8,150/ha) into replicate freshwater ponds adjusted to 400 mg/1 chlorides.
was conducted with 27 g fish at 4,075/ha in saltwater ponds.
150 days, average daily weight gain of small fingerlings was 0.73 g, and of large fingerlings 2.00 g (freshwater) and 2.22 g (saltwater). Mean specific growth rate was higher for small fingerlings.
significant differences (P> 0.95) in survival (33.3-43.1%) or feed conversion ratio (2.99-4.11) were found between stocking rates or stocking sizes in freshwater.
weight (360.4 g), pond yield (706.3 kg/ha) and feed conversion (2.16) were not significantly different in red drum grown in saltwater ponds from those in the comparable freshwater treatment.
encountered with post-stocking mortality and predation.
are that large-scale freshwater culture of red drum is technically feasible with proper water quality, predation control, and minimal handling of fish.
As the harvest of wild populations of red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus.
than one part per thousand (ppt) (Crocker et al. 1981, Miranda and Sonski 1985, Pursley and Wolters 1989) to more than 45 ppt (Simmons 1957).
conducted with water of appreciable salinity: 3-19 ppt (Trimble 1979), 20-34 ppt (Hopkins et al. 1986), 26-32 ppt (Sandifer et al. 1988).
in non-coastal areas, we previously looked at short term (30 day) survival of juvenile red drum in freshwater ponds having chloride concentrations of 100-400 mg/1 (Thomas and Wolters, in review).
current study evaluates longer term (150 day) performance of two fingerling sizes stocked at two densities into freshwater ponds adjusted to chloride levels at the upper range of the previous trials.
ponds in which one stocking treatment combination was repeated, for comparison of freshwater and saltwater production.
Freshwater Ponds Twelve replicate 0.04-ha ponds were filled with wellwater having 40 mg/1 chloride. Each was adjusted to 400 mg/1 chloride with coarse rock salt and fertilized with 1.5 kg superphosphate.
later, ponds were stocked at night with pond-reared red drum fingerlings which were produced from captive broodstock.
salinity with 10 mg/1 nitrofurazone added to hauling water. Acclimation to pond conditions was accomplished by water exchange, reducing salinity to 5 ppt in the first hour with continued reduction of 1 ppt at hourly intervals.
floating pellets of 35% protein red drum diet (Table 1) to satiation daily.
floating pellets of 35% protein red drum diet at 7% initial weight per day until surface feeding became apparent, after which floating pellets were fed to satiation.
electric aerators which operated automatically for 6 hours each night. Dissolved oxygen and water temperature were measured daily before dawn with an electronic meter (Yellow Springs Instuments Model 51B). Additional aeration with a tractor-powered paddlewheel was provided when when dissolved oxygen concentration dropped to less than 3.0 mg/1.
meters (Yellow Springs Instruments Model 33 and Orion Research Model 701 A). Total hardness and chloride measurements were by EDTA and mercuric nitrate titrations (APHA 1980).
was made with an electronic colorimeter (Hach Model DR200). Alkalinity and nitrite concentrations were measured with Hach (Model FF1-A) titrations, and chlorophyll-a concentrations were determined with a Turner Model 112 fluorometer. Ponds were drained and fish harvested after 150 days.
evaluate the relative contributions of water quality parameters to survival, specific growth rate, and feed conversion.
Saltwater Ponds A concurrent 150-day trial was conducted in three 0.1-ha saltwater ponds at the Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Lyle St. Amant Marine Laboratory on Grande Terre Island. with 27.4 g red drum fingerlings at 4,075/ha.
satiation four or five days per week with the same diet used in the freshwater trial.
with bay water at 90 1/min/pond for eight hours each night. were harvested after 150 days.
used to compare survival, yield, mean individual weights with the equivalent freshwater treatment.
Freshwater Ponds Changing levels of rainfall, evaporation, and pond seepage, along with the need to add water and salt separately caused wide variation in chloride concentration (201-612 mg/1) and conductivity (1,100-2,300 micromhos).
significantly (P> 0.95), Duncans New Multiple Range Test, Table 2) between treatments for conductivity, chloride concentration, total hardness, alkalinity, pH, total ammonia, or dissolved oxygen.
one non-zero nitrite value was recorded during the study; 0.165 mg/1 nitrite was present in the pond having highest fish biomass on the final date tested.
29 significantly higher in the large fingerling/low density ponds than in other treatments, and was significantly lower in the small fingerling/low density treatment (0.00068 mg/1).
in ponds stocked with large fingerlings were significantly warmer than temperatures of small fingerling ponds. Principal component analysis produced three main factors which together explained 84.2% of total variance in water quality parameters (Table 3).
conductivity, chloride, total hardness, alkalinity, chlorophyll a, dissolved oxygen, and temperature to occur together.
indicated that low pH values occurred with high values of alkalinity and hardness, and in factor 3 lower temperatures were related to higher total ammonia concentrations.
rate, or size/rate interaction were not significant (Table 6). Small fingerlings averaged 116.8 g after 150 days; large fingerlings grew to a significantly larger average weight (342.5 g). Final mean individual weight did not differ between fingerlings of the same size stocked at 4,075 or 8,150 fish/ha.
growth rate was higher for fingerlings stocked at 6.7 g (mean 2.85; Table 4) than for those stocked at 27.4 g (mean = 2.52).
conversion did not differ significantly due to stocking size or stocking rate.
Saltwater Ponds Salinity ranged from 19-24 ppt during the trial. saltwater ponds was 26.4%, 66.3%, and 73.9%.
performance of red drum at equivalent treatments in freshwater and saltwater ponds by one-way analyses of variance showed no significant differences in survival, final weight, yield, or feed conversion ratio (Table 7).
In freshwater ponds maximum and minimum values of temperature (11.8-30.5 C), chloride concentration (201-612 mg/1), ammonia concentration (0.0016-0.0205 mg/1 as unionized ammonia), and total hardness (161-361 mg/1) remained within what are generally believed to be acceptable levels for red drum (Neill 1987).
325 mg/1) was adequate to prevent excessive pH fluctuation (Stickney 1979). On six occasions in freshwater ponds morning dissolved oxygen concentrations of individual ponds were below 3.0 mg/1, and additional aeration was provided.
oxygen concentration was 1.2 mg/1, which is above the acute lethal level for juvenile red drum at similar temperature and salinity (Thomas and Wolters 1990, publ. abstract). Temperature differences between freshwater ponds stocked with small and large fingerlings may have been due in part to increased absorption of solar radiation from increased turbidity in the ponds stocked with large fingerlings.
probably higher in ponds with higher fish biomass due to suspension of sediments by fish activity.
31 have caused the reduced chlorophyll a concentrations seen in the large fingerling/high density ponds. Principal component analysis of mean water quality parameters produced three factors which were each responsible for explaining more than 10% of the total variance. factor patterns can be varied.
conductivity, chloride, total hardness, alkalinity, chlorophyll a, dissolved oxygen, and temperature were correlated.
salt and wellwater, and normal physiochemical variation between ponds (affecting especially conductivity, chloride, total hardness, and alkalinity) contribute to biological cycles (influencing chlorophyll a/dissolved oxygen/temperature cycles) which in turn affect water chemistry.
would be expected to prevent rises in pH (factor 2), and nitrification rates could be slowed with lower temperatures (factor 3). The regression models which demonstrated the most significant relationship of water quality parameters to survival rate and feed conversion ratio included only factor 1 (Table 3).
and lower feed conversion ratios were found to be related most significantly to higher levels of conductivity, chloride, total hardness, alkalinity, chlorophyll a, dissolved oxygen, and temperature. Specific or instantaneous growth rate has been used to compare growth of a species at different ages (Brown 1957) or during different seasons (Brett 1944).
for the young of many fish species, and declines with age therafter (Ricker 1975), and may decline to zero after the onset of sexual maturity in some species (Brown 1957).
specific growth rate between fish of two size groups in the present study follows this trend.
fingerlings stocked at 0.4 g and cultured for 149 days, while Trimble (1979) reported 1.1 g/day growth for 11.5 g fish over 290 days. Hopkins et al. (1986) found 1.1 g/day growth for 0.3 g fish over 270 days, but 2.2 g/day gain for these fish (beginning at 304 g) for days 270-630.
trial (0.73 g/day for 150 days) is between the rates reported by Clark and Linton (1986) and Trimble (1979) for smaller and larger fingerlings.
(saltwater) for red drum stocked at 27.4 g in our study is better than might be expected from the reports from previous research using appreciable fish densities and formulated diets.
(1986) reported 2.8 g/day growth over 290 days for fingerlings <1 g stocked into a freshwater pond containing hybrid tilapia for forage. No differences in final mean individual weight were seen between stocking rates of 4,075 or 8,150 fish/ha for fish stocked at either 7 g or 27 g.
similar mean fish weights (0.9-1.3 kg) at harvest for red drum stocked at 7,500, 15,000, and 22,500 per hectare.
stocked into saltwater ponds at 1.7-3.0 g and fed for about 540 days. Fish in high and medium density ponds died from Amvloodinium infestation and oxygen depletion.
red drum did not appear to inhibit growth, but may have increased risk of mortality due to poor water quality and parasitism. Predation by birds was a cause of mortality of red drum in the freshwater ponds.
often seen schooling in shoreline areas.
33 and especially great blue herons (Ardea herodias) were seen preying on the fish.
the study, harvest revealed fish carcasses in most ponds, and many of the red drum from some ponds had fresh or healed wounds.
ponds had walled sides which effectively excluded wading birds.
addition to reducing survival in the freshwater trial, predation increased feed conversion ratios.
in the study after considerable feed consumption and growth produced higher calculated conversion ratios than were expected for surviving fish.
in freshwater ponds and 1.57 to 2.52 (mean=2.16) in saltwater; these data compare favorably with others reported for first-year red drum held in ponds: 4.6 (Trimble 1979), and 5.2 (Hopkins et al. 1986).
the current study, care was taken to feed only the amount consumed readily at each feeding.
accurate, and probably lower, feed conversion ratios.
conversion ratios for red drum can also be expected to improve as ongoing research in red drum nutrition provides the information required for optimal diet formulations. First-year pond grow-out of red drum has in the past produced reports of survival of 68% (Clark and Lintdn 1986) to 98.2% (Hopkins et al. 1986).
freshwater ponds and 55.5% in saltwater) may have been due to handling and transport as well as to predation.
individually counted for stocking, and fish stocked in saltwater ponds underwent both road and boat transport with the necessary transfer handling between tanks.
mortality (4.2-39.1%) occurred in freshwater ponds during three days post-stocking.
be accomplished by minimizing net handling of fish; Flagg and Harrell (1990) found that water-to-water transfer of salmon smolts produced higher survival (85%) than did dip-net handling (48%). The results of these trials indicate that use of freshwater ponds of suitable ionic profile can be an option for the culture of red drum.
and opportunities for predation will be necessary if expanded efforts at pond culture of red drum are to be profitable.
37 Table 3.3. Principal component loadings extracted from 9 environmental variables from freshwater red drum culture ponds: proportion of total variance explained by each of three main factors, and factor pattern values > ±0.45.
38 Table 3.5. Mean values (± standard deviations) for percent survival, individual weight, specific growth rate, and feed conversion ratio for red drum stocked into freshwater ponds at two sizes (SM=6.7 g, LG=27.4 g) and two densities (LOW=4,075/ha, HIGH=3,150/ha).
39 LITERATURE CITED Brett, J.R. 1944. Some lethal temperature relations of Algonquin Park fishes. Publ. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab., 63: 1-49. Brown, M.E. 1957. Experimental studies on growth, p361-400 in The physiology of fishes, vol. 1, M.E. Brown, ed. Academic Press, N.Y., N.Y. 447p. Clark, J.H., and T.L. Linton. 1986. Overwintering and grow-out of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) on the Texas coast. Proc. 1986 Fish Farm. Conf. and Ann. Convent. Fish Farm, of Texas. 21-25. Crocker, P.A., C.R. Arnold, J.A. DeBoer, and J.D. Holt. 1981. Preliminary evaluation of survival and growth of juvenile red drum (Sciaenops qcellata) in fresh and salt water. J. World Maricult. Soc. 12(1):122-134. Flagg, T.A. and L.W. Harrell. 1990. Use of water-to-water transfers to maximize survival of salmonids stocked directly into seawater. Prog. Fish-Cult. 52(2):127-129. Hopkins, J.S., A.D. Stokes, P.A. Sandifer, R.A. Smiley, and T.R. McTeer. 1986. Spawning and grow-out trials with red drum in South Carolina. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish, and Wildl. Agencies 40:178-186. Neal, W.H. 1987. Environmental requirements of red drum, pIVl-8 in Manual on red drum aquaculture, conference draft, Red Drum Aquacult. Conf., 1987. Chamberlain, G.W., R.J. Miget, and M.G. Haby, eds. Texas Ag. Ext. Serv., Corpus Christi,TX. 395p. Pursley, M.G., and W.R. Wolters. 1989. Water quality affects growth of young redfish. La. Agricult. 32:14-15. Ricker, W.E. 1975. Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations. Fish. Res. Board Canada Bull. 191. 382 p. Sandifer, P.A., J.S. Hopkins, A.D. Stokes, and R.A. Smiley. 1988. Experimental pond grow-out of the red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. in South Carolina. Abstr., 19th Ann. Meet. World Aquacult. Soc., publ. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 19:1:62A. Simmons, E.G. 1957. An ecological survey of the Upper Laguna Madre of Texas. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex. 4(2):156-200. Stickney, R.R. 1979. Principles of warmwater aquaculture. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y., N.Y. 375p. Thomas, R.G., and W.R. Wolters. 1990. Dissolved oxygen tolerance of juvenile red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. in relation to temperature and salinity. Abstr., 21st Ann. Meet. World Aquacult. Soc. Thomas, R.G., and W.R. Wolters. Factors affecting the survival of fingerling red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. in freshwater ponds. In review.
W.C. 1979. Yield trials for red drum in brackish-water ponds, 1976-1979. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies 33:432-441.
Dissolved Oxygen Tolerance of Juvenile Red Drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. in Relation to Temperature and Salinity.
The lower lethal dissolved oxygen concentration for juvenile red drum, (Sciaenops ocellatus), was determined in a recirculating vacuum degassing system.
acclimated for 10 days at treatment combinations of 25 and 30 C and 0.5 and 5.0 ppt salinity.
and water at acclimation temperature and salinity was recirculated through each tank at 4 1/min.
from 8.0 mg/1 by increasing the vacuum in the degasser at 1/2-hour intervals.
for each fish with four replicates at each temperature/salinity combination.
vacuum rate at 1-hour intervals to assess the effect of rate of oxygen decrease on lethal concentration.
dissolved oxygen level was 0.355 mg/1 when the vacuum rate was reduced at 1/2-hour intervals, and juveniles survived to lower dissolved oxygen levels (0.289 mg/1) by increasing vacuum level at 1-hour instead of 1/2-hour intervals (P>T=0.002).
significant effects of of temperature or salinity (P>F>0.05) on lethal dissolved oxygen concentration, but interaction between these factors was significant (PR>F= 0.0001).
The red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) is a euryhaline marine sciaenid common to the Gulf of Mexico and the Mid- and South Atlantic coasts of the United States.
heavy pressure on natural stocks, capture fisheries have been limited or curtailed in many areas, and interest in culture of the species has expanded.
coastal locations for the culture of red drum.
areas in states bordering the Gulf of Mexico which have saline groundwaters (Lefond 1969) suitable for red drum culture.
inland locations avoids the wetland-use problems associated with coastal sites. One of the most critical environmental factors in fish culture is dissolved oxygen concentration (Stickney 1979).
dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in ponds are highest in the afternoon, after maximum algal photosynthesis.
pond organisms consumes dissolved oxygen reserves, sometimes at high rates and to the point of complete anoxia.
ability of a cultured species to tolerate this phenomenon will help to evaluate its general culture potential, and to outline its need for supplemental aeration. In order to evaluate the response of juvenile red drum to hypoxia in brackish water conditions, laboratory experiments were conducted at combinations of 0.5 and 5 ppt salinity and 25 and 30 C. The specific objective was to approximate the conditions of oxygen depletion as they might occur in a culture pond during the warmer months, when oxygen depletions occur most often.
A vacuum degassing device was constructed based on the design described by Mount (1961, 1964).
30.5 cm diameter schedule 80 PVC pipe, 213 cm in length (Figure 1). Vacuum was provided with a 1/3 horsepower vacuum pump capable of 1 x 1CT4 Torr ultimate vacuum (Precision Scientific, Model D-75).
level was controlled with a mechanical regulator (Squire-Cogswell Model VR3600). Water was recirculated through the vacuum chamber, through heating and cooling units, and through four sealed 24-1 tanks with a 3/4 hp magnetic-drive pump (Tecumseh Products Model TE-7-MD-HC).
provide 4 1/min exchange through each tank.
maintained by heating to experimental level during set-up, when thermostatic control of the cooling unit would prevent further rise in temperature.
electronic meter (YSI Model 58) equipped with a probe stirrer and connected to a graph recorder. Red drum fingerlings (mean weight 16.65 g) were placed in four 300 1 acclimation tanks equipped with biological filters and maintained at either 25 or 30 C and 0.5 or 5.0 ppt salinity for at least 10 days.
protein salmon feed (Rangen, Inc.).
prior to each experimental trial. In each trial, two fish were placed into each of the four experimental tanks at the conditions to which they were acclimated. Initial water pH and ammonia were recorded (Sargent Welch Model PH8000 and Hach Colorimeter Model DR100, respectively).
sealed with tops of clear acrylic seated on gaskets below the water surface to eliminate uptake of atmospheric gasses and allow observation of test animals.
44 reduced from an initial level of 8.0 mg/1 by increasing the vacuum level by 12.7 cm Hg vacuum at 30-min intervals; 76.2 cm Hg.
recorded at the death of each fish (defined for this experiment as the point when opercular movement ceased).
each was weighed and the pH and ammonia concentration of system water were measured. Four trials were conducted at each of the four combinations of temperature and salinity.
and 5.0 ppt with 1-hour intervals between successive increases in vacuum level to evaluate the effect of reduced deoxygenation rate. Order of the trials at each condition of temperature, salinity, and oxygen depletion rate was random. lethal dissolved oxygen level arrangement of treatments.
lethal concentration at 25 C and 5.0 ppt was tested by t-test.
Graphs of deoxygenation curves showed little variation between trials at the different temperatures and salinities.
rates of deoxygenation were achieved by careful maintenance of vacuum level and water flow rate.
during deoxygenation trials. As dissolved oxygen concentration was reduced, fish typically went from resting or slow swimming to what appeared to be searching behavior at about 3 mg/1 dissolved oxygen (Fig. 2).
2 mg/1, fish moved up in the water column and swam throughout the tank.
At 1.5 mg/1, searching behavior became much more rapid.
45 orient vertically in the water column to accesss the water surface. Loss of equilibrium followed, with cessation of buccal/opercular ventilation occurring at between 1.5 and 0.2 mg/1. lethal concentration was 0.34 mg/1.
cm Hg/30 min produced mean lethal dissolved oxygen concentration (0.379 mg/1) in 166 minutes, while vacuum increases of 12.7 cm Hg/h produced lethal dissolved oxygen concentration (0.289 mg/1) in 291 minutes.
rates differed significantly (PR> T = 0.002). Water quality parameters remained acceptable through the trials. Initial pH ranged from 8.32 to 8.61 (Table 1), with maximum pH shift over the course of a trial of 0.05 units.
concentration rose by 0.04 mg/1 during each trial. Red drum subjected to the standard deoxygenation rate survived to a mean dissolved oxygen concentration of 0.36 mg/1.
concentration for treatment combinations ranged from 0.28 mg/1 at 25 C and 0.5 ppt, to 0.44 mg/1 at 30 C and 0.5 ppt (Table 2).
of variance indicated that interaction of main effects contributed significant variance (Table 3), masking the contributions of temperature and salinity.
each treatment combination was apparent (P = 0.0007).
on lethal DO concentration demonstrated low correlation (r = 0.14). Orthogonal contrasts were calculated to identify differences within main effect comparisons (Table 4).
longer at 25 C than at 30 C when salinity was 0.5 ppt, but no temperature effect was detected at 5.0 ppt.
on resistance to reduced DO was different at the two temperatures: fish survived to a lower level at 0.5 ppt when temperature was 25 C, and to a lower level at 5.0 ppt when temperature was 30 C.
Two types of regimes may be used for the determination of dissolved oxygen tolerance limits; continuous decline or constant level.
included nitrogen stripping, mixing with boiled water, mixing with naturally anoxic water, and sealed vessel assay.
produces a different set of experimental difficulties.
in sealed vessel assays, free CC>> can reach levels at which blood oxygen affinity is reduced.
testing is that the rate of deoxygenation is not controllable. While these problems were avoided with a recirculating vacuum degassing apparatus, the limitation of each trial to include only a single temperature/salinity combination and limited numbers of experimental animals probably contributed to variance due to trial, and the inability to differentiate between main effects. In a survey of oxygen tolerance studies, Doudoroff and Shumway (1970) reported that methodology unquestionably affects findings, with "threshold" levels reported by some researchers several times those reported by others, using the same species.
seal of tank covers at low dissolved oxygen levels caused an immediate rise in dissolved oxygen concentration within the tanks in the apparatus used in the present study.
which dissolved oxygen could not be monitored without physical access to experimental vessels may have produced reports of higher DO levels than fish actually experienced.
47 stripping, average 24-hr minimum tolerance, Moss and Scott 1961). Red drum in our trials resisted hypoxia longer when rate of deoxygenation was reduced.
1961; Downing and Merkens 1957) also showed that tolerance of low dissolved oxygen concentrations was improved when rate of decline was reduced. Generally, larger individuals of a species are more resistant to oxygen deficiency than are smaller animals (Eccles 1985; Beamish 1964).
ranging from 6-34 g which had been reared together.
(1961) reported decreasing per-gram oxygen consumption for largemouth bass and bluegill up to 15 g, but no further variation beyond this size, and no differences due to size in 20-105 g channel catfish. Doudoroff and Shumway (1970) summarized that temperature effects on lower limits have been found to be extremely variable, but lethal level often rises with temperature (Moss and Scott, 1961). This was the case for juvenile red drum acclimated and tested at 0.5 ppt and 25 and 30 C, but not for those at 5.0 ppt. The effect of salinity on resistance to hypoxia in red drum differed between treatments of 25 C and 30 C.
at the lowest DO concentration of any treatment (0.28 mg/1) at 25 C, and at the highest concentration at 30 C (0.44 mg/1).
hypo-osmotic water, the physiological optimum temperature for young red drum may be closer to 25 C than 30 C.
was particularly high at the combination of 0.5 ppt and 30 C, indicating some degree of difference in the responses of individual fish.
may have affected fish held in separate acclimation tanks.
30 C and 0.5 and 5.0 ppt seems to indicate that no combination of these factors induced significant metabolic stress in red drum acclimated to each combination.
hypoxia at conditions which are likely to occur in low-salinity culture in the Southeast.
Figure 4.1. Diagram of vacuum degassing system used in dissolved oxygen tolerance testing of juvenile red drum.
Figure 4.2. Representative deoxygenation curve following vacuum increases of 12.7 cm/30 min, with typical responses of juvenile red drum.
53 LITERATURE CITED Beamish, F.W.H. 1964. Respiration of fishes with special emphasis on standard oxygen consumption. II. Influence of weight and temperature on respiration of several species. Can. J. Zool. 42, 161-175. Carmichael, G.J., Williamson, J.H., Woodward, C.A.C., and Tomasso, J. R. 1988. Responses of northern, Florida, and hybrid largemouth bass to low temperature and low dissolved oxygen. Prog. Fish Cult. 50:225-231. Doudoroff, P. and S.L. Shumway. 1970. Dissolved oxygen requirements of freshwater fishes. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 17-6B031:86:291p. Downing, K.M., and J. C. Merkens.The influence of temperature survival of several species of fish in low tensions of dissolved oxygen. Ann. Appl. Biol. 45(2):261-267.
Eccles, D.H. 1985. The efffect of temperature and mass on routine oxygen consumption in the South African cyprinid fish Barbus aenus Burchell. J. Fish Biol. 27:155-165. Lefond, S.J. 1969. Handbook of world salt resources. Plenum Press, N.Y., 384 p. Moss, D.D., and D.C. Scott. 1961. Dissolved oxygen requirements of three species of fish. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 90(4):377-393. Mount, D.I. 1961. Development of a system for controlling dissolvedoxygen content of water. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 90(3): 323-327. Mount, D.I. 1964. Additional information on a system for controlling the dissolved oxygen content of water. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 93(1):100-103. Stickney, R.R. 1979. Principles of warmwater aquaculture. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y., N.Y. 375p.
Two series of short term trials (30 d) were conducted in freshwater ponds to assess factors expected to effect post-stocking survival of juvenile red drum (mean wt. 6.0 g).
acclimation rate (2 h vs. 6 h), chloride concentration (175, 250, 300, and 400 ppm), chloride source (sodium chloride vs. calcium chloride) and predator controls (insecticide pretreatment of ponds and stocking into net enclosures).
freshwater and saltwater ponds involved stocking of 0.25-27.4 g fingerlings at densities of 4,075-9,880/ha. diets for 150-188 days.
growth, and feed conversion ratios were compared between treatments of salinity, stocking density, and size at stocking. A laboratory experiment defined the dissolved oxygen tolerance of juvenile red drum at combinations of two temperatures (25 & 30 C) and two salinities (0.5 & 5.0 ppt).
which can occur in pond systems, a high-vacuum degassing device was employed to deoxygenate circulating water at a controlled rate.
effects of salinity, temperature, and deoxygenation rate were evaluated by determination of mean lethal dissolved oxygen concentration for red drum at combinations of these treatment conditions.
In the first 30-day pond trial, no red drum fingerlings survived in freshwater adjusted to 175 mg/1 chloride, and only 2.3% survived in water adjusted to 300 mg/1.
two and six hour acclimation regimes.
55 significantly higher at 400 mg/1 chloride (49.3%) than at 250 mg/1 (9.0%).
stocked into ponds treated with insecticide prior to stocking and those stocked into untreated ponds. significantly affect survival.
the chloride source was sodium chloride (76.0%) than in ponds containing calcium chloride (28.7%). During the first series of growout trials, mortality from oxygen depletion in freshwater ponds prevented comparison with results from saltwater ponds.
hypoxia, but survival at 188 days averaged 62% in the remaining six ponds.
individual weight (148 vs 104 g), or feed conversion ratio (4.05 vs 3.40) for 0.25 g red drum stocked into saltwater ponds at 5,000 or 10,000/ha.
regression: lo% (weight) = -11.7 + 3.04(10% length); r2 = 0.99 Improved aeration techniques used during the second series of growout trials prevented losses due to oxygen depletion. Red drum stocked at 27.4 g and 4,075/ha grew to mean individual weight of 327.8 g (freshwater) and 360.4 g (saltwater) in 150 days.
of performance in freshwater and saltwater differed at the 0.05 significance level with ANOVA, fish grown in saltwater performed relatively well in terms of survival (55.5% vs 42.0% in freshwater), feed conversion ratio (2.16 vs 2.99), and mean yield (706.3 vs 532.1 kg/ha). Overall mean lethal dissolved oxygen concentration for juvenile red drum was 0.34 mg/1.
56 cm Hg/h produced lethal dissolved oxygen concentration (0.29 mg/1) in 291 minutes. Mean lethal concentration for treatment combinations ranged from 0.28 mg/1 at 25 C and 0.5 ppt, to 0.44 mg/1 at 30 C and 0.5 ppt. Interaction of main effects contributed significant variance, masking the contributions of temperature and salinity. Orthogonal contrasts demonstrated inconstant trends within main effects.
salinity was 0.5 ppt, but no temperature effect was detected at 5.0 ppt. The effect of salinity on resistance to reduced DO differed with temperature: fish survived to lower DO concentrations at 0.5 ppt when temperature was 25 C, but at 5.0 ppt lived longest when temperature was 30 C.
While some laboratory studies have shown high survival (80-85%) of red drum at 125-130 mg/1 chloride (Dolman 1983; Miranda and Sonski 1985), survival at similar levels in outdoor ponds in these studies was unacceptable for successful aquaculture production.
chloride concentration for acceptable and consistent freshwater pond culture is probably 250-300 mg/1 based on the results of the laboratory study by Pursley and Wolters (1989) and these pond trials. Factors such as the fluctuations in oxygen, temperature, pH, and handling stress may contribute to the higher minimum chloride concentration required for pond culture. Survival of red drum in freshwater ponds supplemented with calcium chloride alone was significantly less than in ponds with sodium chloride supplementation, though both treatments produced essentially the same chloride levels.
57 efflux will not support high survival rates in red drum transferred to freshwater with very low sodium concentration (22 mg/1).
sodium requirements need to be established for the culture of red drum in freshwater of varied ionic content. Insecticide pretreatment of ponds used for fingerling red drum culture is probably unnecessary.
not a source of mortality for fingerling red drum (6.0-8.5 g; 76-102 mm) used in this study.
stomachs of fingerling red drum raised in earthen ponds, insecticide treatment may actually reduce a desirable food source.
fingerling red drum in net enclosures after stocking also did not improve fish survival.
mortality of red drum fingerlings in the first month after stocking. Low dissolved oxygen concentrations in culture ponds during the first grow-out trials caused reduced survival and growth, and increased feed conversion ratios.
some ponds due to anoxia, and partial losses occurred in others.
drum fed poorly or not at all on days in which pre-dawn d.o. concentrations fell below 1.5 mg/1.
the last grow-out trial produced survival and growth rates which reflect more favorably on the potential for large-scale culture of red drum. The absolute growth rate for 6.7 g fish seen in the final growth trial (0.73 g/day for 150 days) is similar to growth reported by other researchers for similar-sized fingerlings raised in ponds. Growth of 2.00 g/day (freshwater) and 2.22 g/day (saltwater) for red drum stocked at 27.4g in our study is better than might be expected from the reports from previous research using appreciable fish densities and formulated diets. Bird depredation was a cause of mortality of red drum in freshwater ponds during the last grow-out trial.
part of the trial, red drum schooled in shoreline areas.
some ponds had fresh or healed wounds.
sides which effectively excluded wading birds.
reducing survival in the freshwater trial, predation increased apparent feed conversion ratios.
ranged from 2.30 to 5.32 (mean=2.99) in freshwater ponds and 1.57 to 2.52 (mean=2.16) in saltwater; these data compare favorably with others reported for first-year red drum held in ponds: 4.6 (Trimble 1979), and 5.2 (Hopkins et al. 1986).
red drum diets should help improve feed conversion ratios in the future. Growth of red drum did not differ significantly due to any of the stocking densities tested (4,075 - 10,000/ha).
rates should be feasible without growth inhibition. Mortality in the final growth study (61.6% overall in freshwater ponds and 44.5% in saltwater) may have been due to extensive handling and transport as well as to predation.
observed mortality (4.2-39.1%) occurred in freshwater ponds during three days post-stocking.
to mortality in previous pond trials as well. In laboratory tests, red drum reduced deoxygenation rate.
tolerance of hypoxia for sibling red drum ranging from 6-34 g which had been reared together.
salinity (0.5 vs 5.0 ppt) on dissolved oxygen tolerance were not clear due to significant interaction of effects.
59 significant metabolic stress in red drum acclimated to each combination.
which are likely to occur in low-salinity culture in the Southeast, especially when deoxygenation rate could be mitigated. The results of these experiments indicate that red drum culture merits continued investigation.
be a viable option, with production similar to that in saltwater ponds, but probably with fewer siting problems.
water quality management, optimization of feed formulations, and use of techniques which minimize both handling stress and opportunities for predation will be necessary if expanded efforts at pond culture of red drum are to be profitable.
Rowland Glenn Thomas was born on July 3, 1954, in Kinston, North Carolina.
College, Georgia, in 1979, and M.S. in Wildlife and Fisheries Science from the University of Tennessee in Knoxville in 1983.
employed as a fisheries researcher at Southeastern Louisiana University before becoming a PhD candidate in the School of Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.


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