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Welcome_to_CargoHandbook
Find products you are looking for by clicking a category or use the alphabetical index.
Seeds and agricultural products, fertilisers
Machinery and rolling stock
Minerals and rocks/ores
Metals and steel products
Perishables and temperature sensitive cargoes
Oils, fats, acids, chemicals and petroleum products
Other organic materials, such as rubber, leather, wool etc.
From Cargo Handbook - the world's largest cargo transport guidelines website
Infobox on Grain
Example of Grain
Origin Various regions in the world
Stowage factor (in m3/t) Ranging between approx. 1,3 and 1,8 cbm/t
Angle of repose Average approx. 25°
Humidity / moisture Around 13%-14%
Oil content -
Ventilation See text
Risk factors See text
1 Grain
1.1 Description
1.3 Storage / Transport
1.4 Risk Factors
GRAIN (Barley, Maize, Oats, Rye, Sorghum, Wheat)
Cereals are grasses (members of the monocot family Poaceae, also known as Gramineae) cultivated for the edible components of their grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop; they are therefore staple crops.
In their natural form (as in whole grain), they are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein. However, when refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate and lacks the majority of the other nutrients. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, or maize constitutes a majority of daily sustenance. In developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial.
Grain is the seeds of some special kinds of grass. These grains are also called cereals. People grow different kinds of grain as food. The different kinds of grain are perhaps one of the most important foods in the world. Some kinds of grain are Barley, Maize or American Corn, Oats, Rice, Rye, Wheat.
87% of all grain grown by farmers around the world is maize. Grains contain carbohydrates that people can eat. In poorer countries, grains are a large part of the food supply. In richer countries, they are still important as food, but not as important as in poorer countries. Growing grain uses a lot of water. About 1,000 tons of water is needed to grow one ton of grain.
Many different foods are made from different types of grain. Grain is often ground into a powder called flour. Flour can be made into breads, cakes, or noodles.
Different kinds of beer are made from barley malt, wheat, and other grains.
Grain is usually shipped in bulk, but also in bags, especially seed grain. Grain is liable to damage by heating, infestation, sweat and contact with water. When grain gets wet, growth immediately starts, not only in the grain itself, but in the mould spores, yeast cells and bacteria, which are always present, causing respectively germination, fermentation and putrefaction.
Treatment for water damage is somewhat theoretical because of the necessity to apply treatment before deterioration sets in, and this is usually impossible, but when the condition of the grain is such that the cost of drying would be justified by the result, this is the only manner in which damage of this nature can be minimized.
If wetting is caused by salt water, drying out to recover the grain would not prove to be a financially viable exercise. Contamination by water causes deterioration and local heating, but general heating in grain is due to inherent vice as a result of the moisture content in the grain being too high or the period in the ship's hold being excessive. Moisture levels for grain should be between 10% and 16%, but not exceeding 13% for maize.
Heating in dry materials may also be caused by the activity of bacteria. As a result of the feeding of bacteria, together with breathing in of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour are emitted into the air. In the process, heat is produced and the temperature of the commodity rises. The higher the temperature, the more active the bacteria is in breaking down the food material into carbon dioxide and water vapour and thus more heat is produced. This may continue until the temperature reached is harmful to the bacteria and this moves outwards from the 'hot spot'. Thus the heating and the damage become widespread in the commodity.
When heating within a bulk of a commodity takes place, due to bacteria activity, air convection currents carry water vapour upwards from the hot spot, this then condenses in the colder surface layer, raising its moisture content. This process may be carried far enough to cause the growth of moulds and bacteria and, in the case of grain, to cause sprouting. This type of water damage is essentially a surface phenomenon and is confined to the top few centimeters of a stack or bulk.
Delay in transit may of itself give rise to heating and so cause the grain to have the appearance of damage arising out of insufficient ventilation, but this condition may have arisen entirely as a result of delay. High temperatures in stowage can activate and cause infestation to develop. Grain in process of fermenting may give the appearance of having been in contact with oil, especially by reason of the odour.
Weevils impair the quality of grain, especially in the case of maize to be used for the manufacture of breakfast cereals.
Damaged grains should be disposed of as quickly as possible to avoid further deterioration. Apart from damage from an external cause, there is also the possibility of heat-damaged grain which occasionally occurs in grain stored against engine room bulkheads.
Potential for loss
There is potential for loss throughout the grain harvesting and marketing chains. During stripping of maize grain from the cob, known as shelling, losses can occur when mechanical shelling is not followed up by hand-stripping of the grains that are missed. Certain shellers can damage the grain, making insect penetration easier. For crops other than maize, threshing losses occur as a result of spillage, incomplete removal of the grain or by damage to grain during the threshing. They can also occur after threshing due to poor separation of grain from the chaff during cleaning or winnowing. Incomplete threshing usually occurs in regions with high labour costs, particularly at harvest time, when labour is too scarce and expensive to justify hand-stripping after an initial mechanical thresh. Certain mechanical threshers are designed only for dry grain.
A wet season's paddy harvest may clog the screens and grain will be lost. Cleaning is essential before milling. On the farm, cleaning is usually a combination of winnowing and removal by hand of heavier items such as stones. Losses can be low when the operation is done carefully but high with carelessness. With correct equipment, cleaning losses should be low in mills, but grain may be separated together with dirt or, alternatively, dirt may be carried forward into the milling stages. In drying, grain that is dried in yards or on roads, as is common in parts of Asia, may be partially consumed by birds and rodents. Wind, either natural or from passing vehicles in the case of road drying, can blow grain away.
The main cause of loss during drying is the cracking of grain kernels that are eaten whole, such as rice. Some grains may also be lost during the drying process. However, failure to dry crops adequately can lead to much higher levels of loss than poor-quality drying, and may result in the entire harvest becoming inedible. Adequate drying by farmers is essential if grains are to be stored on-farm and poorly dried grains for the market need to be sold quickly to enable the marketing-processing chain to carry out adequate drying before the grains become spoilt. With a high moisture content, grain is susceptible to mould, heating, discoloration and a variety of chemical changes. Ideally, most grains should be dried to acceptable levels within 2–3 days of harvest. One of the problems in assessing levels of post-harvest loss is in separating weight loss caused by the very necessary drying operations from weight loss caused by other, controllable, factors.
Milling to remove the outer coats from a grain may take place in one or more stages. For paddy rice considerable mechanical effort is needed to remove these layers. Any weakness in the kernel will be apparent at this stage. Even with grain in perfect condition, correctly set milling and polishing machinery is essential to yield high processing outturns. Complete separation of edible from less-desired products is always difficult to achieve but, even so, there are significant differences in milling efficiency. In the case of rice, milling outturns can vary from 60% or less to around 67%, depending on the efficiency of the mill. Even a 1% increase in yield of whole grain rice can thus result in huge increases in national food resources.
Grains are produced on a seasonal basis. In many places there is only one harvest a year. Thus most production of maize, wheat, rice, sorghum, millet, etc. must be held in storage for periods varying from a few days up to more than a year. Storage therefore plays a vital role in grain supply chains. For all grains, storage losses can be considerable but the greatest losses appear to be of maize, particularly in Africa. Losses in stored grain are determined by the interaction between the grain, the storage environment and a variety of organisms.
Contamination by moulds is mainly determined by the temperature of the grain and the availability of water and oxygen. Moulds can grow over a wide range of temperatures, but the rate of growth is lower with lower temperature and less water availability. The interaction between moisture and temperature is important. Maize, for example, can be stored for one year at a moisture level of 15 per cent and a temperature of 15 °C. However, the same maize stored at 30 °C will be substantially damaged by moulds within three months. Insects and mites (arthropods) can, of course, make a significant contribution towards the deterioration of grain, through the physical damage and nutrient losses caused by their activity.
They can also influence mould colonisation as carriers of mould spores and because their faecal material can be utilised as a food source by moulds. In general, grain is not infested by insects below 17 °C whereas mite infestations can occur between 3 and 30 °C and above 12 per cent moisture content. The metabolic activity of insects and mites causes an increase in both the moisture content and temperature of infested grain. Another important factor that can affect mould growth is the proportion of broken kernels. There are about 1,700 rodents in the world, but only a few species contribute significantly to post-harvest losses. Three species are found throughout the world: the house mouse (Mus musculus), the black rat (Rattus rattus) and the brown rat while a few other species are important in Africa and Asia.
An attempt should be made to approximate the magnitude of the value of losses before time is spent on trying to reduce them. If this value proves to be low, expenditure of appreciable resources on reducing losses may not be justified. However, despite efforts over the years to develop acceptable techniques for measuring grain losses, this remains an imperfect science. A particular problem with measurement is that grain does not follow a uniform sequence from producer to consumer. Harvested grain can be specially dried and treated for a family's consumption or for use as seed. Some of any harvest may be held for short-term storage, some more for long-term storage, and the rest may be sold either in one go or over a period of time, through a variety of different marketing channels. There are particular difficulties associated with accurately measuring on-farm storage losses over a long period when farmers are continually removing grain from stores to meet their own consumption needs. Further, the surplus generated by a farmer at any one harvest will dictate the quantity stored and the quantity sold, which, in turn, may influence loss levels. Given the lack of a consistent chain, care must be taken to avoid generalizing from particular measurements. "Inordinately high- and low-loss situations must be put into perspective rather than giving them overemphasis as has been the case in some instances."
The origin and justification of grain-loss estimates has thus never been particularly well- founded and attempts to measure losses suffer from the fact that it is an extremely complex exercise to do well. The costs of developing accurate measurements may simply not justify the cost and time involved in doing the work. In an attempt to get round some of these problems the African Post Harvest Losses Information System (APHLIS), which was established in 2009, plans to develop a picture of losses over time as information becomes available, drawing on a network of local experts who contribute the latest data. It aims to provide data that are transparent in the way they are calculated; adjustable year by year according to circumstances and upgradeable as more (reliable) data become available.
There have been numerous attempts by donors, governments and technical assistance agencies over the years to reduce post-harvest losses in developing countries. Despite these efforts, losses are generally considered to remain high although, as noted, there are significant measurement difficulties. One problem is that while engineers have been successful in developing innovations in drying and storage these innovations are often not adopted by small farmers. This may be because farmers are not convinced of the benefits of using the technology. The costs may outweigh the perceived benefits and even if the benefits are significant the investment required from farmers may present them with a risk they are not prepared to take. Alternatively, the marketing chains may not reward farmers for introducing improvements. While good on-farm drying will lead to higher milling yields or reduced mycotoxin levels this means nothing to farmers unless they receive a premium for selling dry grains to traders and mills. This is often not the case.
Thus part of the problem with uptake may have been an overemphasis on technology, to the exclusion of socio-economic considerations. In the case of drying, it may be a more appropriate solution to strengthen the capacity of mills and traders to dry than attempt village-level improvements. There is thus a continual need to balance and blend technically ideal procedures and approaches with social, cultural, and political realities. Past on-farm storage interventions that have proved less than successful have included the promotion of costly driers in W. Africa that fell victim to termites when made with local wood or bamboo and were too expensive when constructed with sawn wood. In the 1980s, there was considerable enthusiasm for the introduction of ferro-cement and brick bins throughout Africa, but these were often found to be too complicated for farmers to construct, and too costly. Small Breeze block silos also experienced construction difficulties and were found to be not economically feasible. Storage cribs made of wood and chicken-wire were introduced by donors but rejected by farmers because sides made of chicken wire showed others the size of each farmer's harvest.
The properties of grain
Grain has a comparatively low moisture content and a protective outer skin which is relatively impermeable to water. Normally in the grain trade, from harvesting to the discharge of cargo, there is a tendency for grain to lose moisture to the surrounding atmosphere. Air currents can carry moisture more rapidly through a less compact cargo such as pellets than through a powdered cargo. It is possible to transport unventilated grain without damage in tankers and to store it safely for long periods in unventilated silos. Grain possesses low thermal conductivity – heat moves slowly through grain.
Moisture in grain
All biological materials normally contain a certain amount of water. When a material is put in contact with dry air it will tend to lose a certain amount of its water to the air in the form of water vapour. This process will continue until equilibrium is reached between the material with that particular moisture content and the surrounding air at that particular temperature. In cargoes such as bulk grain, when air movement within the cargo is very restricted, the moisture content of the air within the cargo is, under normal conditions, completely controlled by the moisture content and temperature of the cargo.
If the initial moisture content of the grain is lower the difference will be less and a much greater quantity of water can be absorbed by the cooler grain before water content is raised to a level at which spoilage will begin to occur.
To quote a typical example: in a cargo of bulk maize with a moisture content of 14% and a temperature of 25°C the vapour pressure of the atmosphere within the cargo, which occupies 40% of the volume of the cargo, will quickly reach equilibrium with the maize. A relative humidity of 68% will be reached and the water vapour pressure in the air at that time will be 16,3 mm Hg. A change in the temperature of the maize will result in a change in the equilibrium relative humidity and the vapour pressure.
Moisture migration
When a temperature difference exists within a grain cargo moisture moves slowly through the cargo in a process known as moisture migration. Regardless of what causes the temperature difference, when the moisture content is uniform, moisture always moves from areas of higher temperature to areas of lower temperature. Moisture migration is an important factor in cargo care because too much moisture in a particular area can damage the cargo. It is important to avoid any actions which will encourage moisture migration within the cargo. Moisture migration will be greater when temperatures are higher and when the sites of the different temperatures are closer together. The lower the thermal conductivity of the cargo the slower heat will move through the cargo and the less the opportunity for moisture migration. Under normal conditions the rate of moisture migration in grain is low.
For grain loaded warm and subjected to boundary cooling the major amount of moisture migration will be upwards because of the tendency for hot air to rise. More moisture will pass to the top of the cargo than to the sides. In cases where damage from sweat occurs more damage can be expected at the top of the cargo than at the sides.
A bulk cargo of grain, if stowed in accordance with Solas regulations, cannot be significantly affected by surface ventilation or by lack of it. An objective of the grain regulations is to eliminate or minimize space over the grain: this makes surface ventilation difficult or impossible.
Surface ventilation of grain cannot affect heating which is occurring more than one meter below the surface, because the transfer of heat is so slow.
Surface ventilation can do nothing to reduce or eliminate moisture migration in bulk grain. Continual surface ventilation will maintain the temperature differential and encourage moisture migration to the surface. Because of the many factors involved it would be unwise to attempt to formulate any general rules for the ventilation of cargo to minimize the effect of moisture migration. However, in most instances moisture migration within a healthy cargo is slow and is therefore not a problem.
If ship's sweat would occur without ventilation then cargo sweat is likely if ventilation is used! Without ventilation ship's sweat will occur only if the ship's steelwork becomes cold enough to cool the air over the cargo to the dew point. With ventilation the surface of the cargo is cooled and warm air rising through the cargo may condense just below the surface layers causing caking and/or encouraging microbiological activity.
Grains, Oilseeds & Pulses
Whatever the methods of carriage and the problems inherent in the trade, the movement of grains comprises a considerable and versatile part of seaborne commerce. The variety of grains can be increased considerably when including their by-products.
Flour for example, is a major commodity, being the finely ground product of grain, usually of wheat. Another important cargo, bran, is formed from the husks of grains separated from flour during the milling process. Meals are the result of grains being ground less finely than when producing flour, whilst the term feed grain applies to low quality but still valuable grain or grain by-products used in the feeding of animals and poultry eg: Feed-wheat or corn gluten feed-pellets, grain unfit for human consumption may be termed de-natured.
Oilseeds from a variety of plants, are normally crushed mechanically or treated by a solvent process to remove valuable oils, and include: sunflowerseed; rapeseed; mustardseed; linseed; and lupineseed.
Seeds in bulk form are a dangerous cargo, being particularly prone to shifting at sea. It is also possible to 'drown' in a hold of such a commodity. For these reasons, adequate securing of seed cargoes in non self-trimming vessels is vital, whilst seaman and shore labour must exercise extreme caution when engaged in associated cargo work.
The residue husks (or hulls) remaining after the oils have been extracted are termed expellers, which since these remain rich in nutrient, are valued for such as cattlefodder or fertiliser.
Expellers may be shipped as they are, but are often pressed into cakes, termed oilcake or seedcake, and shipped in bulk or in bags. These cakes vary considerably in their precise carriage requirements, depending on type, origin, and oil-extraction process, but all are extensively covered in the IMO Dangerous Goods Code and/or International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code (inflammable solids). All require aging before shipment, are liable to lose wieght on passage as oil content dries out, to overheat, perhaps to spontaneously combust, to become infested by insects, to taint from other goods, and to emit strong odour.
Pellets are manufactured from grains or seeds themselves, or from residues produced in the milling process. Like oilcakes, after production they should be left for some time to cool prior to shipment. If pellets are loaded at a high temperature or with an excessive moisture content, or are adversely influenced by climatic changes during the voyage, the cargo can overheat and/or sweat. In certain circumstances moreover, pellets can emit carbon dioxide gas, with resulting danger to anyone entering cargo spaces.
Certainly ships engaged to carry expellers, oilseed cake or pellets, should be fitted with a fire smothering system, eg: a CO2 system, so as to control possible outbreaks of spontaneous combustion.
Principal grains, seeds and pulses, together with certain by-products involved in seaborne trade are amongst others:
Alfalfa: A deep-rooted plant of the pea family valued as fodder, particularly in the Americas.
Barley: A generally light stowing grain exported extensively in bulk and in bags from Canada, the EC and Australasia, and used in malt-making, bread and cattlefood, as well as for brewing and distilling. Imported in large quantities into Red Sea and Arabian Gulf countries, usually in bags.
Corn: Also known as Indian corn and widely-grown in Southern Africa, the Far East, South America and the USA. Apart from its value as foodstuff, corn has various industrial applications eg: for starch, and is rich in glucose. Corn-gluten feed pellets being a by-product are used as an animal feed which is highly regarded for its gluten protein. Corn is particularly liable to heat and to sweat, especially as a result of poor handling prior to shipment.
Durrah: A kind of millet much cultivated in Asia and in Africa as a substitute for rice, being moved in bags over relatively short sea distances.
HSS: A shipping term covering (H) Heavy Grains, (S) Soybeans and (S) Sorghums, and used in chartering/grain trading, the approximate stowage factor in bulk being 50 cubic feet per tonne.
Linseed: The versatile and widespread seed of the Flax plant, its oil being used in the manufacture of linoleum; for putty; as a preser4vative for wood; for liniments; and in mixing pigments.
Lupin: An increasingly popular, heavy stowing seed crop with a high protein content, useful as animal feed and capable of commercial growing throughout the arable world, a principal exporter being Australia.
Malt: Barley (or other grain) steeped in water until it germinates when it is dried in a kiln and used in the brewing or distilling processes, being shipped generally in small bagged quantities.
Mustard: Most of the World's commercial mustard is grown in Canada, its seed used in the preparation of a wide range of food products, including salad cream and sauces as well as mustards themselves.
Oats: A light stowing grain, particularly hardy and thus widespread, exported largely from Australia and the northern parts of Europe and America.
Pollards: A mixture of bran and meal liable to heat and to sweat, thus requiring good ventilation and dry stowage. Commonly pelletised.
Self-heating / Spontaneous combustion
Mechanical influences
Toxicity / Hazards to health
Shrinkage / Shortage
Insect infestation / Disease
The carriage of grain in bulk is subject to the regulations of the Shipping Law.
Regulations dealing with the carriage of grain in bulk can be found in the relevant IMO publications of hazardous cargo.
See also: http://bulkcarrierguide.com/carriage-of-grain.html
http://journeytoforever.org/farm_library/AD31.pdf
Retrieved from 'https://www.cargohandbook.com/index.php?title=Grain&oldid=15545'
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Kineski kalendar je lunisolarni kalendar koji se koristi u Kini, a sa izvesnim modifikacijama, i još nekim zemljama Dalekog istoka. U današnjoj Kini se za većinu svakodnevnih aktivnosti koristi gregorijanski kalendar, ali se kineski još koristi za obeležavanje tradicionalnih kineskih praznika poput Kineske nove godine (tj. Prolećnog festivala), Duan Vu festivala i Festivala sredine jeseni, kao i u astrologiji, za biranje povoljnog datuma za venčanje ili otvaranje neke zgrade. Pošto svaki kalendarski mesec prati Mesečev ciklus, iz njega je moguće odrediti Mesečevu menu (npr. svaki 15. je pun Mesec).

U Kini je tradicionalni kalendar poznat kao "poljoprivredni kalendar" (pojednostavljeni kineski: 农历, pinjin: nónglì) a gregorijanski kao "obični" ili "opšti" kalendar (公历, -{gōnglì}-). Kineski kalendar se još naziva i "Jin kalendar" (阴历, -{yīnlì}-) zbog svojih lunarnih aspekata, a čisto solarni gregorijanski kalendar se onda naziva "Jang kalendar" (阳历, -{yánglì}-). Kineski kalendar je takođe nazivan "stari kalendar" (-{jìulì}-), nakon što je usvojen gregorijanski kao "novi kalendar" (-{xīnlì}-). Na kraju, kalendar je nazivan "Sja kalendar" po dinastiji Sja po navodu da je u to vreme godina počinjala drugim mladim mesecom posle zimske kratkodnevice (kao i danas).

Kineska godina u periodu 28. 1. 2017 - 15. 2. 2018. je (Nebesko Stablo) Vatra i (Zemaljska Grana) Petao.

Kalendarska pravila
Sledeća pravila ocrtavaju kineski kalendar od 104. p. n. e. Obratite pažnju da pravila dozvoljavaju upotrebu bilo srednjih ili realnih kretanja Sunca i Meseca, zavisno od istorijskog perioda.
 Meseci su lunarni meseci. Ovo znači da je prvi dan svakog meseca, koji počinje u ponoć, dan astronomskog mladog meseca (mladine) ili koukcije. (ali treba imati u vidu da "dan" u kineskom kalendaru počinje u 23 sata, a ne u ponoć)
 Svaka godina ima 12 redovnih meseci, koji se nabrajaju po redu (1 do 12) i imaju alternativna imena. Svaka druga ili treća godina ima interkalirani mesec (閏月 -{rùnyuè}-), koji može pasti posle bilo kog redovnog meseca. Ima isti broj kao i taj prethodni mesec, ali je označen kao interkalirani.
 Svaki drugi -{jiéqì}- (solarni termin ili period) kineske solarne godine je ekvivalentan ulasku Sunca u neki od znakova tropskog zodijaka (glavni termin ili vrh znaka tj. početna tačka znaka).
 Sunce uvek prolazi zimski solsticij, tj. kratkodnevicu, (ulazi u znak Jarca) tokom 11. meseca.
 Ako ima 12 meseci između dva nastupanja 11. meseca, bar jedan od ovih 12 meseci mora biti mesec tokom kojeg Sunce ostaje neprekidno u istom zodijačkom znaku (u njemu se ne događaju glavni termin ili vrh znaka). Ako se javlja samo jedan takav mesec, on je označen kao umetnuti, ali ako se javljaju dva takva meseca, samo je prvi tako označen.
 Vremena astronomskih mladina i ulaska Sunca u zodijački znak u Kineskoj časovnoj zoni (UTC+8) određuje opservatorija na Purpurnoj planini (紫金山天文台 -{Zǐjīnshān Tiānwéntái}-) kod Nankinga korišćenjem modernih astronomskih proračuna. Kineski Amerikanci takođe koriste ovaj Nankinški kalendar, umesto definisanja nekog lokalnog. Zato za njih mlad Mesec može biti poslednjeg dana prethodnog meseca po njihovom lokalnom vremenu u SAD. Pored toga, oni definišu granice dana prema lokalnoj zoni u SAD, čime se ne sledi pravilo 1.

Zodijački znak u koji Sunce ulazi tokom meseca i ekliptička longituda ulazne tačke obično određuju redni broj redovnog meseca. Mesec 1, -{zhēngyuè}-, doslovno znači "glavni mesec". Svi drugi meseci su doslovno numerisani, "drugi mesec", "treći", "četvrti" itd.

Postoje izuzeci koji sprečavaju da Kineska nova godina bude uvek na drugi mlad Mesec posle kratkodnevice, ili koji dovode do toga da taj praznik bude posle solarnog termina "Kišna voda" (ili "prolećne kiše"). Izuzetak će se dogoditi 2033-34, kada će kratkodnevica biti drugi solarni termin u 11. mesecu. Sledeći mesec je bez ulazaka, čime postaje umetnuti; sledi 12. mesec koji sadrži solarne termine i Vodolije i Riba ("velika studen" i "kišna voda"). Tako ta godina Tigra počinje na treću mladinu od kratkodnevice i posle Ribe, 19. februara. Drugi izuzetak je bio 1984-85, nakon što je Sunce tokom 11. meseca ušlo i u Jarca na 270° i Vodoliju na 300°, pa u sledećem mesecu ušlo u Ribe na 330°, što bi trebalo dovesti da to bude 1. mesec. U sledećem mesecu nije ušlo ni u jedan znak. Kako bi se zimski solsticij zadržao u 11. mesecu, nesuđeni 1. mesec je postao 12. mesec, a mesec posle njega je postao 1. mesec, zbog čega je Kineska nova godina bila 20. februara 1985. nakon što je Sunce već ušlo u Ribe tokom prethodnog meseca, umesto tokom meseca koji je počeo tim danom.

Kada se dogodi mesec sa dva ulaska, to je uvek negde između dva meseca bez ijednog ulaska (bezulazni meseci). Obično je sam, ili uključuje kratkodnevicu ili je u njenoj blizini, čime je ona u 11. mesecu (pravilo 4) i kada se bira koji od dva bezulazna meseca postaje interkalirani mesec. U 1984-85. mesec pred dvoulazni 11. mesec je bio bezulazni mesec označen kao umetnuti 10. mesec. Svi meseci od dvoulaznog do bezulaznog meseca koji neće biti interkalirani (umetnuti) su po redu pobrojani sa susednim redovnim mesecima (pravilo 2). Što se tiče zadnjeg iskaza u pravilu 5, odabiranja prvog od dva bezulazna meseca između dva 11. meseca, to nije bilo potrebno od poslednje kalendarske reforme i neće biti do slučaja 2033-34., kada će se dva dvoulazna meseca nalaziti izmešana među tri bezulazna meseca, od kojih će dva biti s jedne strane meseca 11. Proizvedeni prestupni 11. mesec je vrlo redak slučaj.

Ovakvi izuzeci su retki. Punih 96,6% svih meseci sadrže samo jedan ulazak u zodijački znak (tj. imaju jedan glavni termin ili vrh znaka) i povinuju se pravilu numerisanja iz tabele solarnih termina, 3,0% svih meseci su interkalarni meseci (uvek bezulazni meseci između glavnih termina ili vrhova znakova). Svega 0,4% svih meseci su ili dvoulazni meseci (imaju dva glavna termina ili vrha) ili su susedni meseci koji se renumerišu.

Takva situacija je nastala tek posle reforme iz 1645. Tada je postalo neophodno da se jedan od meseci fiksira tako da uvek sadrži svoj glavni termin i dozvoli bilo kom drugom da povremeno ne sadrži svoj glavni termin. Za taj jedan mesec je izabran 11. mesec, zato što njegov glavni termin (zimski solsticij) čini početak Kineske solarne godine ("sui").

Kineski lunarni kalendar i gregorijanski kalendar se često sinhronizuju svakih 19 godina (Metonski ciklus). Većina Kineza primećuje da njihovi kineski i zapadni rođendani često padaju na isti dan prigodom 19, 38. itd. rođendana. Ipak, 19-godišnji ciklus je samo aproksimacija, tako da će obrazac posle nekog umnoška od 19 godina preći na neki drugi 19-godišnji ciklus.

Kineski zodijak (Dvanaest životinja) se koristi samo u imenovanju godina—ne koristi se u računanju kalendara. Zapravo, Kinezi imaju prilično drugačiji sistem sazvežđa.

Meseci
Dvanaest meseci je blisko povezano sa poljoprivredom, pa mogu biti alternativno nazvani po biljkama - evo jednog načina imenovanja, na latinskom.

Oznake godina

Vladarske godine
Tradicionalne kineske godine nisu bile kontinualno brojane, kako je slučaj kod nas sa "našom erom". Zvanično brojanje godina je češće koristilo neki oblik vladarske godine. Ovaj sistem je započeo 841. p. n. e. tokom dinastije Džou. Pre ovoga, godine uopšte nisu bile označavane, pa se istorijski događaji ne mogu precizno datirati. Onda je navedene godine kralj Li od Čoua (周厲王胡) zbačen ustankom (國人暴動), nakon čega je sledećih 14 godina zemljom vladalo veće viših ministara, period je poznat kao Namesništvo. U ovom periodu, godine su označavane kao Prva, druga, treća... godina Namesništva. Kasnije su godine bile označavane kao vladarske godine, npr. 825. p. n. e. je bila označena kao 3. godina kralja Sjuena od Čoua (Xuan od Zhou-a, 周宣王三年). Ovaj sistem je korišćen do rane dinastije Han kada je car Ven (漢文帝劉恒, 180-157. p. n. e.) uveo vladarska imena (-{nian hao}-). Nakon ovoga, većina careva je koristila jedno ili više vladarskih imena da označe svoju vladavinu. Obično bi car uveo novo ime po dolasku na presto, a zatim uzimao nova imena da označi značajne događaje ili da prekine zlu sreću. Ali za vreme dinastije Ming (1368-1644) carevi su obično imali samo jedno vladarsko ime tokom vladavine. Za vreme naredne dinastije Đing to je postalo pravilo. Ovaj sistem se nastavio do uvođenja republike, koja je brojala godine republike, počevši od 1912. To znači da je 1912. bila 1. Godina Republike, a 1949. je bila 38. Te godine je proglašena Narodna Republika Kina koja je odabrala sistem Naše ere, u skladu sa međunarodnim standardima. Stari sistem se još koristi na Tajvanu (zvanično Republika Kina) kojima je godina 2007. ekvivalentna 96. Godini republike.

Ciklus Stablo-Grana

Drugi sistem kojim su se tokom istorije u Kini označavale godine je stablo-grana ili seksagenarni ciklus. Ovaj sistem počiva na dva oblika brojanja: ciklus od 10 Nebeskih stabala i ciklus od 12 Zemaljskih grana. Svaka godina je imenovana parom od jednog stabla i jedne grane koji se zove Stablo-Grana (干支 -{gānzhī}-). Nebeska Stabla su povezana sa Jin Jangom i Pet elemenata. Tekući 10-godišnji period je počeo 2004, a pre toga 1994, 1984, itd. Zemaljske Grane su povezane sa dvanaest znakova Zodijaka. Svaka Zemaljska Grana je takođe povezana sa životinjom, poznatim kao Dvanaest životinja. Jedan 12-godišnji ciklus počinje 2008, a pre toga 1996, 1984 itd. Pošto 10 Nebeskih Stabala i 12 Zemaljskih grana imaju zajednički delitelj 2, događa se samo polovina od mogućih 120 kombinacija stablo-grana (odn. Jin i Jang se ne pominju u oznaci godine). Tako nastaje 60-godišnji (seksagesimalni) ciklus koji se naziva -{jiǎzǐ}- (甲子) po prvoj godini u ciklusu: Nebesko Stablo -{jiǎ}- i Zemaljska Grana -{zǐ}-. Pojam -{jiǎzǐ}- se figurativno koristi u značenju -{punog životnog veka}- — onaj koji je živeo duže od jedno đacea je očigledno blagosloven.

U početku su se ovim sistemom označavali dani a ne godine. Prvi dokaz za ovo je nađen na proročišnim kostima iz 14. veka p. n. e (dinastija Šang). Ovaj sistem označavanja datuma se i danas koristi i može se naći u današnjim kineskim kalendarima. Mada se sistem stablo-grana ne može upotrebiti da bi se utvrdio konkretan dan istorijskih događaja, može pomoći u tačnijem pretvaranju kineskih datuma u druge kalendare. Od vremena dinastije Han, ciklus se koristi i za označavanje godina. Ovaj 60-godišnji ciklus neprekidno kruži i određuje životinju ili znak pod kojim je osoba rođena (videti Kineski zodijak). Ovi ciklusi nisu bili imenovani i korišćeni su zajedno sa vladarskim imenima koje je imperator proglašavao. Npr. 康熙壬寅 (-{Kāngxī rényín}-) (1662) je prva godina 壬寅 (-{rényín}-) tokom vladavine Kāngxī imperatora, što je bilo vladarsko ime jednog od careva iz dinastije Đing.

Meseci i sati se takođe mogu označavati Nebeskim Stablima i Zemaljskim Granama, mada se to uglavnom čini kineskim brojevima. U kineskoj astrologiji, četiri para Stablo-Grana (za godinu, mesec, dan i čas) čine Osam Znakova (八字 -{bāzì}-).

Neprekidno brojane godine
Ne postoji univerzalno prihvaćena epoha (početna tačka kineskog kalendara). Po tradiciji, kalendar je izmislio legendarni vladar Huang Di (黄帝) u 61. godini vladavine, što bi odgovaralo 2637. p. n. e. proleptičkog gregorijanskog kalendara. Ovu godinu su mnogi koristili kao prvu godinu prvog 60-godišnjeg ciklusa kineskog kalendara, ali neki drugi su kao takvu smatrali prvu godinu njegove vladavine, 2697. p. n. e. Pošto dve tačke razdvaja tačno 60 godina, nije važno koja se koristi za utvrđivanje redosleda stablo/grana ili astrološkog znaka u bilo kojoj sledećoj godini. To znači da je 2008. godina, godina -{wùzǐ}- (Zemlje Pacova) bez obzira da li brojimo godine od 2637. ili 2697. p. n. e.. Uprkos tradicionalne identifikacije 2637. p. n. e. kao epohe kalendara, većina danas daje prednost 2697. p. n. e. Uvođenje kontinualnog numerisanja u kineski kalendar je uglavnom bilo od interesa Jezuitima i drugim zapadnjacima koji su navikli da kalendar bude neprekidan.

Ali, početkom 20. veka i neki kineski republikanci su počeli da zastupaju široku upotrebu kontinualno numerisanih stablo-grana ciklusa, kako bi oznake godina bile nezavisne od carevog vladarskog imena (što je bilo deo njihovih napora da delegitimizuju dinastiju Ćing). Zato je Suen Jatsen identifikovao 2698. p. n. e. kao početak kineskog kalendara, ovaj izbor su prihvatili mnogi prekomorski Kinezi van jugoistočne Azije poput Kineske četvrti u San Fransisku. Ipak, ovo je bila greška iz sledećeg razloga: ako je godina koja je počela 1984. bila -{jiazi}- (甲子 Drvo Pacov), onda bi godine 2637. p. n. e., koja je 77×60=4620 i 2697. p. n. e., koja je 78×60=4680 godina pre 1984, bile takođe godine -{jiazi}-, ali ne i 2698. p. n. e. pa je ne treba uzeti kao epohu. Greška je verovatno potekla iz previda činjenice da u našoj eri nema 0. godine. Ipak, neka referentna dela na engleskom, poput -{Encyclopedia Britannica Almanac 2006}- prihvataju 2698. p. n. e. kao epohu.

Ako bi smo uzeli 2637. p. n. e. kao epohu, 2008. je 4645. godina. Uz epohu 2697. p. n. e., 2008. je 4705. godina. Ipak, moderni Kinezi identifikuju godine samo po Našoj Eri, pa se 2008. neće nazivati ni 4645-tom ni 4705-tom.

Korespondencija između sistema
U tablici su prikazana imena godina po stablo/grana sistemu i kojim to zapadnim (gregorijanskim) godinama odgovara. Godine su deo 79. seksagenarnog ciklusa (odn. 78. ako prihvatate kasniju epohu).

[Primedba 1: Početak svake zodijačke godine bi trebao odgovarati prvom danu lunarne godine.]

[Primedba 2: Kako je iznad rečeno, značajne su teškoće u ustanovljenju osnove za kontinualnu hronologiju. Ovde navedeni brojevi su previsoki za 60 ako se prihvati epoha 2637. p. n. e. odn. preniski za 1 ako se uzme epoha 2698. p. n. e. To znači da bi 2008. mogla biti i 4645. ili možda 4706.]

[Primedba 3: U svakom slučaju, korespondencija između lunisolarne kineske i solarne gregorijanske godine ne može biti potpuna, jer im se Nove godine razlikuju. Prvi mesec, ili mesec i po, gregorijanske godine, pre Kineske Nove godine, pripadaju prethodnoj kineskoj godini. Tako bi bilo preciznije reći da 2008. odgovara 4704-05. kineskoj, odnosno da 4705. kineska odgovara 2008-09.]

Odnos solarne i lunarne godine
Pošto je kineski kalendar lunisolaran, postoji razlika između lunarne i solarne godine. Lunarna godina (年 -{nián}-) traje od jedne Kineske nove godine do sledeće. Za solarnu godinu (歲 -{suì}-) se može smatrati bilo period između jedne prolećne ravnodnevice i druge, ili period između dve kratkodnevice (zimska solsticija). Za datume/nadnevke se isključivo koristi lunarna godina, dok se solarna godina, naročito ona između kratkodnevica, koristi za brojanje meseci.

Časovi dana
Po tradicionalnom sistemu označavanja sati, svaki dan je podeljen na 12 jedinica (時辰). Svaka ova jedinica odgovara dvama satima našeg uobičajenog vremena. Svaka je nazvana po jednoj od 12 Zemaljskih Grana. Prvi jedinica, Čas -{Zi}- (子時), počinje u 23:00 sata prethodnog dana i završava se u 01:00. Pogubljenja osuđenih su se tradicionalno odigravali na pola Časa -{Wu}- (正午時), tj. u podne.

Drugi sistem je delio dan u 100 jednakih delova, Keova; svaki je trajao 14 minuta i 24 sekunde (14,4 minuta), što je blizu "četvrti" ili "kvaratu" zapadnjačkog sata. Ovo je bilo na snazi vekovima, što znači da su Kinezi prvi primenili decimalno vreme - mnogo pre pokušaja tokom Francuske revolucije. Ali, pošto 100 nije deljivo sa 12 "časova", broj keova je bio menjan u 96, 108 ili 120 keova u danu. Tokom dinastije Ćing, broj je zvanično utvrđen na 96, što znači da je svaki ke trajao tačno četvrt zapadnog sata. I danas se ke često koristi sa značenjem "četvrt sata".

Kineski zodijak
Dvanaest životinja (十二生肖 -{shí'èr shēngxiào}-, ili kolokvijalno 十二屬相 -{shí'èr shǔxiàng}-), koje predstavljaju dvanaest Zemaljskih grana, su po redu: pacov (ili miš), vo(l), tigar, zec, zmaj, zmija, konj, ovca (ili koza), majmun, petao, pas, svinja (ili vepar).

Jedna legenda opisuje ovaj redosled. Navodno, dvanaest životinja se sporilo oko toga ko će imati prednost u ciklusu godina, pa su kineski bogovi odlučili da se to reši takmičenjem. Sve životinje su se poređale na obali reke koju je trebalo da preplivaju, tako da će poredak u kalendaru biti određen redosledom kojim budu stizali na drugu obalu. Mačak se pitao kako će preći, kad se plaši vode, a vo se brinuo zbog slabog vida. Lukavi pacov je predložio da on i mačak skoče na volova leđa i navode ga preko. Vo je bio uporan i vredan tako da nije primetio komešanje na svojim leđima. Naime, pacov se mačku, koji ništa nije slutio, prišunjao iza leđa i bacio ga u vodu. Baš kad je vo stigao do obale, pacov je odskočio i tako završio trku prvi. Lenja svinja je stigla dvanaesta. Tako je prva godina nazvana po pacovu, druga po volu, a svinja je dobila poslednju godinu. Mačak je stigao prekasno da dobije ijednu godinu (u vijetnamskoj varijanti kalendara mačka ipak ima godinu, umesto zeca) i zakleo se da će doveka biti neprijatelj pacova (miševa).

Solarni termin
Kineski meseci slede Mesečeve mene. Zbog toga oni ne slede tačno godišnja doba. Kako bi se farmerima pomoglo u odluci kada da seju ili žanju useve, sastavljači kalendara su ubacili 24 sezonska markera, koji slede sunčevu godinu i nazivaju se -{jiéqì}- 節氣. Reč -{Jiéqì}- doslovno znači "Čvor vremena", u meteorološkom smislu i može se prevesti kao "Solarni termin". Svaki čvor je trenutak kada Sunce dostigne jednu od 24 podjednako raspoređene tačke duž ekliptike, uključujući solsticije i ekvinokse, postavljene u intervalima od 15°. Pošto su oni solarnog porekla, ovi -{jiéqì}- padaju na približno isti datum po gregorijanskom kalendaru, ali u kineskom kalendaru ne prave neki očigledan obrazac. U tablici su dati približni datumi, koji se mogu razlikovati za jedan dan od godine do godine, zavisno od uticaja prestupnih godina u gregorijanskom kalendaru. -{Jiéqì}- se objavljuju svake godine u farmerskim almanasima. Kineska nova godina je obično mladina najbliža -{jiéqì lìchūn}- ("početak proleća", oko 4. februara). U tablici su ove mere date po standardnoj astronomskoj konvenciji ekliptičke longitude, nula stepeni je tačka prolećne ravnodnevice. Termin može označavati period ili granicu, ovo drugo u slučaju da označava "glavni termin", ulazak u zodijački znak.

Kod nas se smatra da kalendarsko godišnje doba počinje solsticijem ili ekvinoksom, npr. proleće oko 21. marta, ali Kinezi smatraju da su te tačke središta god. doba, pa bi početak proleća bio pomenutog 4. februara. Tako termin "početak proleća" i bliski Prolećni festival padaju u februaru, kada je još hladno u umerenim širinama severne hemisfere.

Praznici/Blagdani
U godini kineskog kalendara ima devet važnijih festivala, sedam je određeno lunisolarnim kalendarom, ostala dva potiču iz solarnog poljoprivrednog kalendara (obratite pažnju da farmeri zapravo koriste solarni kalendar, sa 24 perioda, da bi odredili kada saditi i sejati, zbog nepreciznosti lunisolarnog tradicionalnog kalendara. Ipak i taj tradicionalni kalendar je poznat kao poljoprivredni).

Dva posebna praznika su Festival Čišćenja grobova (-{Festival Qingming}-) i Festival Zimske kratkodnevice, koji padaju na odgovarajuće solarne termine, prvi je pri ekliptičkoj longitudi 15° a drugi je na 270°. Što se ostalih kalendarskih proračuna tiče, u njima se koristi građansko kinesko vreme - UTC+8.

Kineska Nova godina pada na (skoro uvek) na drugi mladi Mesec posle kratkodnevice, još od vremena dinastije Han (-{Taichu}- kalendar).

Istorija kalendara
Najstariji dokaz kineskog kalendara se naći na kostima za proricanje (ili proročišnim kostima) iz dinastije Šang (kasni drugi milenijum p. n. e.), na kojima je izgleda opisana lunisolarna godina od 12 meseci, s mogućim interkalarnim 13-tim, ili čak 14-tim, koji su dodavani otprilike, kako bi se sprečilo odstupanje kalendara. Seksagenarni ciklus za beleženje dana je već bio u upotrebi. Po tradiciji, u to vreme godina je počinjala na prvu mladinu posle kratkodnevice.

Rani tekstovi iz Istočnog Čoua, poput Anala proleća i jeseni, pružaju bolje razumevanje kalendara iz perioda dinastije Džou. Godina je obično imala 12 meseci, naizmenično dužine 29 i 30 dana (povremeno je dodavan još jedan dan, kako bi se kalendar uskladio sa realnim Mesečevim ciklusom) a prestupni meseci su dodavani arbitrarno, na kraju godine.

Ova arbitrarna pravila za umetanje dana i meseca su dovela do toga da se kalendari različitih država pomalo razlikuju. Tako će tekstovi poput Anala često navesti da li je kalendar koji koriste (kalendar Lua) u fazi sa Kraljevskim kalendarom (koji koriste kraljevi od Džoua).

Iako tradicija tvrdi da je tokom Džoua godina počinjala mladim Mesecom pred kratkodnevicu, Anali Proleća i Jeseni kao da ukazuju da je (u Luu barem) Jin kalendar (kalendar korišćen u dinastiji Šang, sa godinama koje počinju prvim mladim Mesecom posle kratkodnevice) korišćen do oko 650. p. n. e. kada je početak godine pomeren unazad za jedan mesec.

Početkom perioda Zaraćenih država, napredak u astronomiji i matematici je omogućio stvaranje računskih kalendara (gde se interkalarni meseci i dani određuju pravilom a ne od prilike do prilike). Prvi računski kineski kalendar je bio kalendar sìfēn 四分 (podsetnik na četvrtine), koji je započeo oko 484. p. n. e., a nazvan je po tome što je koristio solarnu godinu od 365¼ dana, pored tzv. Ciklusa pravila od 19 godina (235 meseci), na zapadu poznatom kao Metonski ciklus. Godina je počinjala na mladinu pred kratkodnevicu, interkalarni meseci su umetani na kraju godine.

Poslednji kralj od Džoua je predao teritoriju Ćinu, nakon čega je u upotrebu ušao novi kalendar (Ćin kalendar). Sledio je iste principe kao i Sifen kalendar, osim što je godina počinjala još jedan mesec ranije (na drugi mladi Mesec pre kratkodnevice, koja je sada padala u drugom mesecu godine). Ćin kalendar je korišćen za vreme dinastije Ćin i početkom zapadne dinastije Han.

Kalendar Tajču
Car Vu (vl. 140-87. p. n. e.) iz zapadne dinastije Han je uveo reforme koje od tada do danas upravljaju kineskim kalendarom. Njegov kalendar Tàichū 太初 ("Veliki Početak") iz 104. p. n. e. je imao godinu sa kratkodnevicom u 11-tom mesecu a kao umetnuti mesec je bio označavan svaki kalendarski mesec (mesec sa 29 ili 30 celih dana) tokom kojeg Sunce ne prođe glavni termin (tj. ostane u istom zodijačkom znaku). Pošto je za računanje -{jiéqì}- (節氣/节气) (sezonskih oznaka) do 1645. korišćeno srednje kretanje Sunca, ovaj interkalirani mesec se mogao dogoditi posle bilo kojeg meseca u godini. Kounkcija Sunca i Meseca (astronomski mladi Mesec) je računata korišćenjem srednjih gibanja oba nebeska tela do 619. druge godine dinastije Tang, kada su hronolozi počeli da koriste realna kretanja, modelirana na osnovu računa sa parabolama (sa malim linearnim i kubnim komponentama). Nažalost, parabole se nisu glatko sretale pri srednjem kretanju, već sa diskontinuitetom ili skokom.

Pravi Sunce i Mesec
Uvođenjem zapadne astronomije u Kinu preko Jezuita, kretanja Sunca i Meseca se počinju računati sinusoidama, počevši od -{Shíxiàn}- kalendara (時憲書, "Knjiga Usklađenosti Vremena") iz dinastije Ćing, koji je napravio jezuita Adam Šal. Sada je za računanje jiéqì-ja korišćeno realno kretanje Sunca, zbog čega je interkalarni mesec češće bio od drugog do devetog meseca (proleće-leto, kada se Zemlja kreće sporije na orbiti).

Nedelja
Dani u nedelji su uglavnom poznati po rednom broju, pri čemu je ponedeljak prvi dan, subota šesti, a nedelja, kao dan posvećen Suncu, nije numerisana. Ponedeljak kao prvi dan je logično jer tada počinje radna nedelja, a brojevi dana su istovetni kao u ISO 8601. Ipak, mnogi kineski kalendari pokazuju nedelju kao prvi dan sedmice.

Gregorijanska reforma i promena 1929
Mlada Republika Kina je 1. 1. 1912. u zvanične svrhe usvojila gregorijanski kalendar. Stanovništvo je, ipak, nastavilo da koristi tradicionalni kalendar. Status gregorijanskog k. je bio nejasan između 1916. i 1921. dok je Kina bila pod kontrolom nekoliko suprotstavljenih gospodara rata, uz podršku kolonijalnih sila. Oni su nastavili da se tuku oko severne Kine do 1928. a na jugu je vladao Kuomintang (nacionalistička vlada) i koristio gregorijanski kalendar. Nakon što je Kuomintang obnovio Republiku Kinu 10.10. 1928, gregorijanski kalendar je i zvanično usvojen, efektivno od 1. 1. 1929. Pored ovoga, za časovnu zonu cele zemlje je usvojena priobalna časovna zona korišćena u evropskim ugovornim lukama na kineskoj obali od 1904. Ovim je promenjen početak svakog kalendarskog dana, i za tradicionalni i za gregorijanski kalendar, za plus 14 minuta i 26 sekundi, od pekinške ponoći, na ponoć 120-tog stepena istok. Ovo je izazvalo neke diskrepancije, npr. kao sa Jesenjim festivalom 1978. Mladina je bila 3.9. 1978. u 00:07 po kineskom standardnom vremenu. Po staroj pekinškoj zoni, mladina je bila 2-gog septembra/rujna, pa je osmi mesec počeo u različite dane u kalendarima. Tako su u Hongkongu (koji koristi tradicionalni kalendar) proslavili festival 16. 9. a na kopnu 17. 9.<ref>-{The Mathematics of the Chinese Calendar, page 18}-<ref>

Značaj kalendara danas
Stručnjaci u Kini su skorijih godina pozivali na reformu, zbog sve veće nebitnosti kineskog kalendara u modernom životu. Oni ukazuju na primer Japana, gde je tokom Meiđi restauracije usvojen zapadni kalendar a tradicionalne svetkovine jednostavno premeštene na ekvivalentan datum. Ipak, kineski kalendar ostaje važan kao element kulturne tradicije i za neke kulturne aktivnosti.

Praktična upotreba
Prvobitni smisao lunisolarnog kalendara za označavanje datuma je uglavnom nestao. Prvo, lakše je raditi sa gregorijanskim kalendarom i više je u skladu sa međunarodnim standardima i astronomskom godinom. Pošto je g. k. zvanično usvojen, tradicionalni kalendar se retko koristi za označavanje datuma, pa je npr. lakše pamtiti značajne događaje, poput rođendana, po gregorijanskom kalendaru. Drugo, 24 solarna termina su bila značajna zemljoradnicima za planiranje poljoprivrednih aktivnosti, ali i oni su predvidljiviji po gregorijanskom k. nego lunisolarnom; kineskom farmeru je uz gregorijanski kalendar lakše organizovati setvu i žetvu.

Kulturalna pitanja
Ipak, kineski kalendar ostaje od suštinskog značaja u kulturi. Npr. većina tradicionalnih festivala, popu Kineske nove godine i Jesenjeg festivala, se tradicionalno slave uz mlad ili pun Mesec. Pored toga, kineski kalendar, kao element tradicionalne kulture, nosi sa sobom mnogo kulturalnih i nacionalističkih osećanja.

U tradicionalnijim kineskim domaćinstvima širom sveta, kalendar se koristi za biranje "srećnih dana" za važne događaje (venčanja, pogrebe i poslove). Za ovo se koristi posebni kalendar, Huang Li ("Carski kalendar"), u kome su za svaki dan navedene pogodne aktivnosti. Taj kalendar je naveden po gregorijanskim datumima, ali su navedeni i odgovarajući kineski datumi.

Iako tradicionalni kalendar nema mnogo praktičnog efekta, njegov sentimentalni i kulturni značaj znači da će ostati još neko vreme.

Uticaj
Drugi tradicionalni kalendari u istočnoj Aziji su vrlo slični ako ne i identični kineskom. Korejski kalendar je identičan; u vijetnamskom je mačka zamenila zeca među 12 životinja; tibetanski kalendar se razlikuje po nekim imenima životinja a tradicionalni japanski kalendar koristi drugačiji metod izračunavanja, zbog čega ima razlika u nekim godinama.

Ciklus od 12 godina, sa prevedenim imenima životinja, su usvojili -{Gök Turci}- (prvi pomen 584.) i zatim se proširio među mnoge turkičke narode, a takođe i Mongole. Izgleda da su ga koristili Bugari, o čemu svedoči Nominalija bugarskih kanova.

Kinesko-ujgurski kalendar
Hulagu kan je 1258, kada su i Kina i Islamski svet bili deo mongolske imperije, ustanovio opservatoriju u Maraghehu za astronoma Nasir al-Din al-Tusi-ja u kojoj je bilo prisutno i nekoliko kineskih astronoma, što je dalo kinesko-ujgurski kalendar. Dvanaestogodišnji ciklus je sa turskim i mongolskim prevodima naziva životinja ostao u upotrebi (za hronološke, istoriografske i birokratske svrhe) u persijskom i turskom svetu od Male Azije do Indije do ranog modernog perioda. U Iranu se koristio (u poljoprivrednim registrima i poreskim procenama) do 1925. (vidi Iranski kalendar).

Vidi još
 Kineska nova godina
 Kineski zodijak
 Kineska kultura
 Seksagezimalni ciklus

Reference

Literatura

 -{van Dalen, Benno; Kennedy, E.S.; Saiyid, Mustafa K., «The Chinese-Uighur Calendar in Tusi's Zij-i Ilkhani», Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften 11 (1997) 111-151.}-

 -{Ho, Kai-Lung (何凱龍) (2006). "The Political Power and the Mongolian Translation of the Chinese Calendar During the Yuan Dynasty". Central Asiatic Journal 50 (1). Harrassowitz Verlag: 57–69. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41928409.}-

Spoljašnje veze

 -{Kineski kalendar}-
 -{Kalendar trudnoće - određivanje spola djeteta}-
 -{Rules for the Chinese Calendar}-
 -{Chinese Zodiac Chart Find your Chinese Zodiac sign based on your date of birth.}-
 -{Calendar Conversion}-
 -{Gregorian-Chinese calendar converter Online: only for the republican age (after 1912)}-
 -{Two-Thousand-Year Chinese Calendar Converter (in Chinese) - works for all dates from the Han Dynasty until 2100}-
 -{Convert Gregorian to Chinese Lunar and Solar Dates}-
 -{Pages from the Hong Kong Observatory website}-
 -{The 24 Solar Terms of Jieqi }-
 -{Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches }-
 -{Gender Prediction}-
 -{Chinese Pregnancy Calendar}-
 -{Gregorian-Lunar Calendar Conversion Table }-
 -{Chinese Lunar Calendar 2007}-
 -{exact Chinese Zodiac Calculator}-
 -{Chinese Calendar & Chronology}-
 -{Tooltip Chinese Calendar}-

Календари
Кина

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
New Africa wealth report sees SA still on top – just
The average South African is still the richest in Africa, but oil and mining wealth mean that other countries are in hot pursuit – while once-bustling Zimbabwe still bleeds wealth. This was the outcome of a major report on the wealth of Africa's citizens released this week
by Brett Petzer
Sandton remains Africa's key concentration of wealth
The average South African is still the richest in Africa, but oil and mining wealth mean that other countries are in hot pursuit. This was the outcome of a major report on the wealth of Africa's citizens released by the consultancy New World Wealth this week.
The Wealth Statistics in Africa report shows that the spread of multiparty democracy in the late 1990s and the commodity booms of the 2000s have transformed the fortunes of ordinary people in countries like Angola, even if this wealth remains concentrated. While 'trickle-down economics' is now widely disproven as an economic theory, and while almost all the countries surveyed are marked by extreme inequality, an indication of average wealth does signal a steady accumulation of capital in almost every African country.
South Africa's average wealth has leapt up from a mere USD 4200 in 2000 (about ZAR 45 000, close to that of the average Egyptian at present) to USD 11 310, or ZAR 121 046 at current rates.
Despite years of steady growth, relative economic stability and several peaceful transfers of power, East and Southern African states like Tanzania, Mozambique and Uganda range around the USD 400 mark.
Even East African regional power Ethiopia, which has grown and diversified rapidly, has a mere USD 260 in capital per person. But, if the total wealth – which includes real estate, commercial interests, cash and all other assets – is still low in this region, the trajectory is still upwards; the same cannot be said of Zimbabwe.
South Africa's neighbour to the north has fallen from its place among Africa's wealthiest countries before the start of Robert Mugabe's land-reform program in the 2000s to a place near the bottom in 2013. Even the partial macro-economic stabilisation of 2009 has barely staunched the outflow and destruction of wealth, and the 89-year old Mugabe's indigenisation policy risks plunging the economy back into freefall. Current wealth in Zimbabwe stands at USD 570, and declining steadily.
Wealth and development in Africa have long clustered at the northern and southern extremes, and North Africa continues to benefit from well-developed trade and economic links with wealthy European and Middle Eastern markets, as well as the ease of maritime trade with these markets. Wealth in this region ranges from USD 11 040 in oil-rich Libya to USD 4350 in Egypt. Political reconstruction in this area in the wake of the Arab Spring should accelerate wealth production.
Angola launches $5bn sovereign wealth fund
Numsa calls for nationalisation of Sexwale, Motsepe's wealth
South Africa's black middle class has doubled in last decade
noinofo

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text:
Boston Society of Film Critics (BSFC): 'Nomadland' named Best Film of 2020, first-timer Sidney Flanigan wins Best Actress
Critics Awards (Film)
Frances McDormand in NOMADLAND (Courtesy of Searchlight Pictures
The Boston Society of Film Critics (BSFC) announced their 41st awards today, naming Chloé Zhao's Nomadland the Best Film of 2020. Kelly Reichardt's First Cow was the runner up and the two also placed 1st and 2nd in Best Director.
This year, Boston leap-frogged over National Board of Review and the New York Film Critics Circle as the first major group to announce its winners. Boston adopted a calendar year eligibility (like LA and NY) so any film that did not receive a qualifying release in December (like Judas and the Black Messiah, Supernova and The United States vs. Billie Holiday) was not eligible. Every film or performance chosen came from an indie studio or streamer with the majors shut out.
Veteran actor Anthony Hopkins took Best Actor for The Father, playing a man suffering from dementia. First-time actor Sidney Flanigan came out on top as Best Actress for her riveting turn as a teen who crosses state lines in order to have an abortion in Never Rarely Sometimes Always. The last time a winner here wasn't nominated for the Oscar was Sally Hawkins for 2008's Happy-Go-Lucky.
In the supporting acting races, Minari's Youn Yuh-Jung was named Best Supporting Actress. The last three winners here have been nominated for the supporting actress Oscar with the last two, Laura Dern (Marriage Story) and Regina King (If Beale Street Could Talk), winning. In Supporting Actor, Paul Raci (Sound of Metal) in a category that has had incredible alignment with Oscar. 4/6 of the most recent winners have won here and their other two winners have been the likely Oscar runner-up. In 2013 and 2012, eventual Oscar winners Jared Leto and Christoph Waltz were their runner-ups. Only two years in the last 13 has the eventual Oscar winner not at least been the runner-up here.
In an outstanding year of debut features, the Best First Film award went to Florian Zeller for The Father, from his own play of the same name. Autumn de Wilde's Emma. was runner-up, impressive in a year that included Emerald Fennell's Promising Young Woman, Darius Marder's Sound of Metal and Regina King's One Night in Miami. Emile Mosseri's compositions for Minari won him the original score prize, an award that's gone to Alexandre Desplat and Nicholas Britell in recent years on their way to Oscar nominations.
Best Animated Film was a double dose of lupine love as the stop-motion Chilean film The Wolf House was the top pick, while the traditionally animated 2D Wolfwalkers was the runner-up. I'm Thinking of Ending Things was the film editing winner, with the award given in memory of Karen Schmeer, a film editor who passed away in 2010 and frequently collaborated with filmmaker Errol Morris.
The org dedicated their pre-vote meeting to "solidarity with and support of local cinemas, cinema workers and all those persevering to uphold the film exhibition industry during these difficult times."
Here is the full list of winners and runners-up for the Boston Society of Film Critics 2020 awards:
Best Picture: Nomadland (runner-up: First Cow)
Best Director: Chloé Zhao – Nomadland (runner-up: Kelly Reichardt – First Cow)
Best Actor: Anthony Hopkins – The Father (runner-up: Riz Ahmed – Sound of Metal)
Best Actress: Sidney Flanigan – Never Rarely Sometimes Always (runner-up: Julia Garner – The Assistant)
Best Supporting Actor: Paul Raci – Sound of Metal (runner-up: Brian Dennehy – Driveways)
Best Supporting Actress: Youn Yuh-Jung – Minari (runner-up: Amanda Seyfried – Mank)
Best Screenplay: Charlie Kaufman – I'm Thinking of Ending Things (runner-up: Kelly Reichardt – First Cow)
Best Cinematography: Joshua James Richards – Nomadland (runner-up: Shabier Kirchner for Lovers Rock)
Best Documentary: Alexander Nanau – Collective (runner-up: Benjamin Ree – The Painter and the Thief)
Best Non-English Language Film: La Llorona (runner-up: The Painted Bird)
Best Animated Film: Wolf House – Cristóbal León and Joaquín Cociña (runner-up: Wolfwalkers – Tomm Moore and Ross Stewart)
Best Editing: Robert Frazen – I'm Thinking of Ending Things (runner-up: Chloé Zhao – Nomadland)
Best First Film: Florian Zeller – The Father (runner-up: Autumn de Wilde – Emma.)
Best Ensemble Cast: Ma Rainey's Black Bottom (runner-up: Minari)
Best Original Score: Emile Mosseri – Minari (runner-up: Trent Reznor & Atticus Ross – Mank)
Tags: boston society of film critics bsfc minari nomadland sound of metal
Previous: Thomas Vinterberg's 'Another Round' sweeps European Film Awards (EFA)
Next: Focus Features to give Robin Wright's 'Land' an Oscar-qualifying release in February


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As Long As Trees Last among noted 2012 books at Poets.org.
This entry was posted on Tuesday, December 4th, 2012 at 11:18 pm	and is filed under Review, Uncategorized. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a response, or trackback from your own site.


text:
BAS > Data > Explore polar data > Our publications > A new bathymetric compilation for the South Orkney Islands, Antarctic Peninsula (49°-39°W to 64°-59°S): insights into the glacial development of the continental shelf
A new bathymetric compilation for the South Orkney Islands, Antarctic Peninsula (49°-39°W to 64°-59°S): insights into the glacial development of the continental shelf
We present a new, high resolution (300 m) bathymetric grid of the continental shelf surrounding the South Orkney Islands, northeast of the Antarctic Peninsula. The new grid, derived from a compilation of marine echo-sounding data, improves previous regional bathymetric representations and helps to visualize the morphology of the shelf in unrivalled detail. The compilation forms important baseline information for a range of scientific applications and end users including oceanographers, glacial modelers, biologists, and geologists. In particular, due to the limited understanding of glacial history in this region, the bathymetry provides the first detailed insights into past glacial regimes. The continental shelf is dominated by seven glacially eroded troughs, marking the pathways of glacial outlets that once drained a former ice cap centered on the South Orkney Islands. During previous glacial periods, grounded ice extended to the shelf edge north of the islands. A large, ∼250 km long sediment depocenter, interpreted as a maximum former ice limit of one or more Cenozoic glaciations, suggests that ice was only grounded to the ∼300–350 m contour in the south. Hypsometric analyses support this interpretation, indicating that a significant proportion of the shelf has been unaffected by glacial erosion. Using these observations, we propose a preliminary ice cap reconstruction for maximum glaciation of the South Orkney plateau, suggesting an ice coverage of about ∼19,000 km2. The timing of maximum ice extent, number of past advances and pattern of subsequent deglaciation(s) remain uncertain and will require further targeted marine geological and geophysical investigations to resolve.
Authors: Dickens, William A., Graham, Alastair G. C., Smith, James A. ORCIDORCID record for James A. Smith, Dowdeswell, Julian A., Larter, Robert D. ORCIDORCID record for Robert D. Larter, Hillenbrand, Claus-Dieter ORCIDORCID record for Claus-Dieter Hillenbrand, Trathan, Phil N., Arndt, Jan Erik, Kuhn, Gerard
On this site: Claus-Dieter Hillenbrand, James Smith, Phil Trathan, Robert Larter, William Dickens
Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems / 15
https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GC005323
Past ice sheet-seabed interactions in the northeastern Weddell Sea Embayment, Antarctica
Enhanced glacial discharge from the eastern Antarctic Peninsula since the 1700s associated with a positive Southern Annular Mode
A community-based geological reconstruction of Antarctic Ice Sheet deglaciation since the Last Glacial Maximum
Deglacial history of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet in the western Amundsen Sea Embayment
Subglacial bedforms reveal complex basal regime in a zone of paleo-ice stream convergence, Amundsen Sea embayment, West Antarctica


LOS ANGELES (AP) — Lou Williams hit the game-winning three-pointer from the top of the key at the final buzzer to give the Los Angeles Clippers a 119-116 victory over the Brooklyn Nets on Sunday night (Monday, PHL time).
D'Angelo Russell led the Nets with 32 points, and DeMarre Carroll added 22.
The game was tied at 87 at the end of the third quarter when the Clippers went on an 18-4 run the first five minutes of the fourth, shooting 7-of-9 from the field. Brooklyn scored 10 straight to draw within 105-101 with 5:23 remaining before the Clippers answered with six consecutive points.
The Nets dominated the early part of the game and led 46-27 with 8:07 left in the second quarter before the Clippers took over, going on a 33-9 run over the final eight minutes to take a 60-55 lead at halftime. Gallinari scored 13 and Harrell added 12 during the run as Los Angeles went 11-of-14 from the field and was 3-of-4 on three-pointers.
Brooklyn started the game making nearly half its shots from the field, but was 3-of-17 during the Clippers' run.
A three-pointer by Landry Shamet gave the Clippers an 11-point lead four minutes into the third quarter before the Nets fought back. Harris and Russell each had six points during a 19-4 run that saw them hold an 82-77 advantage with 3:23 remaining in the quarter. Los Angeles rallied though to knot it up going into the fourth.
Nets: This is the first time in seven games that Brooklyn's bench had been outscored. They had a 298-187 advantage in bench points over the first six games.
Clippers: Rivers, who was ejected during the third quarter of Friday night's (Saturday, PHL time) win against Chicago, received another technical with 4:35 remaining in the second quarter. ... This was Shamet's 10th game with four or more three-ponters. He leads NBA rookies with 144 triples.
It is the second straight game the Nets have had a big second-quarter lead against the Clippers and were unable to maintain it. Brooklyn led 51-36 with 7:43 left in the second on Nov. 17 (Nov. 18, PHL time) at Barclays Center before the Clippers rallied in the fourth for a 127-119 victory.
Nets: Travel to Sacramento on Tuesday (Wednesday, PHL time). The Nets beat the Kings by 29 in the first meeting.
Clippers: Host Indiana on Tuesday (Wednesday, PHL time). The Pacers have won the last five in the series.


The FCSI is a professional association which sets the highest standards for foodservice consultants. Our members offer the most professional, independent catering and foodservice consultancy.
FCSI offers consultancy to all types of caterer large or small, from restaurants, cafes, golf and sports clubs, retail units and hotels, to hospitals, food manufacturing units, staff, student and public feeding facilities for government and private sector.


text:
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