What is particle pollution and what types of particles are a health concern?
Where and when is particle pollution a problem?
Particle pollution, also known as particulate matter or PM, is a general term for a mixture of solid and liquid droplets suspended in the air. Particle pollution comes in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of a number of different components, including acids (such as sulfuric acid), inorganic compounds (such as ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, and sodium chloride), organic chemicals, soot, metals, soil or dust particles, and biological materials (such as pollen and mold spores).
The air we breathe indoors and outdoors always contains particle pollution. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be detected using an electron microscope (Figure 1).
Figure 1. How big is particle pollution?
Particles that are 10 micrometers (µm) in diameter or smaller pose the greatest problems. These smaller particles generally pass through the nose and throat and enter the lungs. Once inhaled, these particles can affect the lungs and heart and cause serious health effects in individuals at greatest risk, such as people with heart or lung disease, people with diabetes, older adults and children (up to 18 years of age). Larger particles (> 10 µm) are generally of less concern because they usually do not enter the lungs, although they can still irritate the eyes, nose, and throat.
Coarse particles (also known as PM10-2.5): particles with diameters generally larger than 2.5 µm and smaller than, or equal to, 10 µm in diameter. Note that the term large coarse particles in this course refers to particles greater than 10 µm in diameter.
Fine particles (also known as PM2.5): particles generally 2.5 µm in diameter or smaller. This group of particles also encompasses ultrafine and nanoparticles which are generally classified as having diameters less than 0.1 µm.
Note that PM10 is a term that encompasses coarse, fine and ultrafine particle fractions.
Fine and coarse particles differ by their sources, composition, dosimetry (deposition and retention in the respiratory system), and health effects as observed in scientific studies. Though it is often hypothesized that specific components or sources may be responsible for particle pollution-related mortality and morbidity, the available evidence is not sufficient to allow differentiation of those components or sources that are more closely related to specific health outcomes. Rather, the overall evidence indicates that many particle pollution components can be linked with such effects. This course will mainly focus on the health effects of fine particles because the scientific evidence of health effects is much stronger than for other size fractions.
Some particles, known as primary particles, are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads, smokestacks or fires. Other particles, known as secondary particles, form in complicated atmospheric reactions involving chemicals such as sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides that are emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles. Secondary particles make up most of the fine particle pollution in the United States.
Cooking, smoking, dusting, and vacuuming can also produce particle pollution, particularly in indoor settings. Particles produced by combustion are more likely to be fine particles, while particles of crustal (earth) and biological origin are more likely to be coarse particles.
Particle pollution is found everywhere - not just in haze, smoke, and dust, but also in air that looks clean. Particle pollution can occur year-round and presents air quality problems at concentrations found in many major cities throughout the United States.
Some particles can remain in the atmosphere for days to weeks. Consequently, particle pollution generated in one area can travel hundreds or thousands of miles and influence the air quality of regions far from the original source.
Near busy roads, in urban areas (especially during rush hour), and in industrial areas.
When there is smoke in the air from wood stoves, fireplaces, campfires, or wildfires.
When the weather is calm, allowing air pollution to build up. For example, hot humid days with stagnant air have much higher particle concentrations than days with air partially "scrubbed" by rain or snow.
Because of their small size, fine particles outdoors can penetrate into homes and buildings. Therefore, high outdoor particle pollution levels can elevate indoor particle pollution concentrations.
Based on 2015 data, Figure 2 and 3 show how likely it may be for a particular area to experience air quality advisories for fine particle pollution based on short-term (Figure 2) and annual (Figure 3) averaging.
Figure 2. U.S counties with high 24-hour average particle pollution concentrations in 2015. This map depicts fine particle pollution concentrations by U.S. county for 2015 based on short-term (24-hour) average concentrations. The map's color key is based on categories of the Air Quality Index (AQI) (see Patient Exposure and the Air Quality Index). All orange and red areas exceeded the 24-hour ambient air quality standards for fine particle pollution during 2015. The map illustrates how likely it may be for a particular area to experience air quality advisories for particle pollution based on short-term averaging. Figure 3. U.S counties with high annual mean particle pollution concentrations in 2015. This map depicts fine particle pollution concentrations by U.S. county for 2015 based on long-term (annual) average concentrations. The map's color key is based on categories of the Air Quality Index (AQI) (see Patient Exposure and the Air Quality Index). All orange and red areas exceeded the annual ambient air quality standards for fine particle pollution during 2015. The map illustrates how likely it may be for a particular area to experience air quality advisories for particle pollution based on annual averaging.
Fine particle pollution often has a seasonal pattern. Fine particle concentrations in the eastern half of the United States are typically higher from July through September, when sulfates are more readily formed from sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions from power plants in that region and contribute to the formation of fine particles.
Fine particle concentrations tend to be higher from October through December in many areas of the West, in part because fine particle nitrates are more readily formed in cooler weather and due to wood stove and fireplace use.
In some locations, such as mountainous areas where wood is burned for heat, particle pollution levels can be especially high during wintertime inversions (Figure 4). An inversion traps the smoke close to the ground, allowing particle pollution levels to increase before the inversion lifts.
Figure 4. Inversions. Sometimes a layer of cooler air is trapped near the ground by a layer of warmer air above. This is called an inversion and can last all day, or even for several days. When the air cannot rise, pollution at the surface also is trapped and can accumulate, leading to higher concentrations of ozone and particle pollution. A variety of conditions can cause inversions to form. The most common is a nighttime inversion, in which clear skies allow air at the surface to cool faster than the air above.
This situation is exacerbated by complex terrain. Inversions are more likely to occur in valleys where pollution is trapped both vertically (by the warmer air above) and horizontally (by the valley walls).
To find out more about particle pollution patterns in your area, visit EPA's AirData website.


text:
New Orleans Artist Marty Mard Drops 'Luxury' EP With Production From Scott Storch and G Fresh
Marty Mard is a rising artist out of L.A. by way of New Orleans, with a captivating sound, signature flashy style, and a new project 'Luxury' EP that dropped on Christmas Day.
Marty Mard is what you get when you take New Orleans bayou and you mix it with the Hollywood Hills and Paris Fashion Week. Marty's hood luxury style is an interesting mix of southern charm, New Orleans grit, and high-end fashion – perfectly summed up by "Bayou Baller," the first track off the EP with the chorus: "Bet you ain't know they had ballers in the bayou."
The 'Luxury' EP features top-notch production from G Fresh and legendary super-producer, Scott Storch – featuring some of the crispest beats and the biggest, cinematic instrumentation available. In the visuals accompanying this project, as the project's name suggests, we see Marty Mard draped in top quality designer – some of which we can only assume came courtesy of his friend, celebrity jacket designer Jeff Hamilton.
After spending 2019 in Paris ensconced in fashion, honing his sound, and introducing his brand to international audiences – we hear a developed Marty Mard ready to bring his sound to the masses. The two singles off the project, "Authentic" and "Karate" premiered on Worldstar Hip Hop in the months leading up to the release – accompanied by big-budget music videos featuring flashy drip, big racks, and lavish houses in the hills.
Overall, 'Luxury' is a tightly executed project made up of ten, well-crafted tracks. For anyone not familiar, this is a great introduction to Marty Mard's signature style and sound. And for anyone that gets through the project and is looking for more Marty Mard, "Luxury" Deluxe is set to drop early January.
Check out the video for "Karate" off Marty Mard's new project, streaming on Worldstar now – and check out the 'Luxury' EP on all platforms.
Court TV to Air George Floyd Special Called 'I Can't Breathe'
D1 Bobby Drops 'I'm Gone Slide' Music Video
Loui Shares Lil Jay & DJ Chose-Featured "Talk N Bout" Visual
Archangel Drops 'VI'
Slym B Links Up With Mystikal, and King Draino To Give You 'Whatchu Want'
Meet Certified Counseling Professional Portia Smith & The Book That's Inspiring African American Children Everywhere
Kris Woods & ZU Go Viral With "Go With It" Visuals
New Orleans Rapper T10 Musical Artist Drops His Latest Single "Big Foot"
Cleveland's Lil Cray Goes Viral With "Locked In The Safe"
Toxxx Bursts Into the New Year With "2021"
Q SHARES AN INTIMATE LOVE STORY IN NEW "GARAGE ROOFTOP" SHORT FILM
Keri Hilson Receives Backlash for Seemingly Defending Donald Trump's Freedom of Speech

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


That was odd because earlier it was formatted with FAT32 and seemed to be working normally (copied files to it). Luckily, I didn't have anything important stored on it, clicked Format disk and was the presented with the format options and selected Start.
Now we can format the USB stick with with a file system from the GUI or with diskpart using the format command.
This entry was posted on June 11, 2012 at 5:08 pm	and is filed under Troubleshooting, Troubleshooting Tools. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a response, or trackback from your own site.
hi i have done as said but how do i select the usb +it comes as volume 4 G REMOVEABLE with 0 on size ,it it a 16gb so any ideas wld greatly used .
Thanx a lot I'm a final year I.T student but this I ddnt knew.
Can you help me with my problem? I already followed all the steps,..and in the end can finally see the file system from the GUI of it,..but then I actually got a little excited, coz I thought I have finally fixed it and then I plug off the external hard drive I'm fixing and I forgot to format it before removing it,..so I plug it in again and my problems got worse,..it all comes back to zero so I started trying to do the steps again, but I never saw the file system from the GUI again so I tried to format it using the cmd command prompt but it didn't work so I tried to use the command CLEAN in the cmd after using CLEAN command it say's that the hard drive is now UNINITIALIZED,..i tried to do everything i could but it didn't work. whenever I am plugging in my hard drive in every laptop or computers it didn't show up or even pop up a notification that it is already installing a new hardware,..i can't even find my hard drive in "my computer" folder,..the computer is not reading it. why?
I'm sorry I just got a little confused at some point,..can you help me please,..Thanks!
hey looked i have a kingston data traveler 111 32 gb and it has somehow lost its partitions but everytime i try following your guide when i get to creating the partition i get an error and that i can look in the log to figure out more,?? it won't let me create a new partition? can you help?
Hi, Nice writeup. I have 1 problem. Hope you can give me some hints.
same is the problem with mine too. please help me.
While checking the partition as "D: list partition" the list of index is showing of Diskpart eq:- ADD – Add a mirror to a simple volume, ACTIVE – Marks the current basic partition as an active boot partition….etc….
it says "the parameter is incorrect" what do i do?
first guess is the file system is borked. Verify it is formatted, if not, format it (you will loose any data on it but that may already be a given).
I couldn't get it to delete the volume or the partition. Once I selected the disk, however, I was able to use the "clean" command and voila! You must be in elevated command prompt before you go into diskpart also.
You are really good at it! Thank you so much, my disk is now fully recovered.
Thank you so much for this article. I have been searching for answers and can't believe it was this easy.
I tried to follow your steps in repairing my usb drive, but instead of the status presenting itself as unusable, it is healthy. However, the file system is listed as RAW. When I attempted to create a partition primary, the cmd said that I couldn't because no free space could be found. Some background regarding the usb, it was originally FAT32 but I formatted it to NTFS so that I could put a 4.15 GB video on it. Everything went smoothly, and I played the video on my television, but then when I turned the tv off and on the usb could not be found. When I plugged it back into my computer, it had changed to a RAW system and displays 0 bytes of room. I'm unable to format or do anything to it. I've tried checking it for errors and not had any success. I was wondering if you might be able to help me as you put together this great guide for a similar situation!
Volume 7 is the selected volume.
DiskPart has encountered an error: Incorrect function.
Thank you! I was doing everything right except I didn't know I needed to make the partition first. I was about to give up on my 128gb stick!
DiskPart has encountered an error: The parameter is incorrect.
I don't know what to do next?
wow i just followed your guide, excellent by the way, but I still cant confirm it worked for me because i used diskpart for formatting also, but wow that way is slow… I guess its writing ceros all over my usb drive..
I'm an idiot that though I destroyed my new 128 GB stick by messing around with it. Thank you for negating my idiocy.
thank you so much.nice work.


text:
Everything In Its Place
The River of Consciousness
Musicophilia
Oaxaca Journal
Seeing Voices
The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat
A Leg to Stand On
Inspired by Sacks
Oliver Sacks Foundation
A New Oliver Sacks Book and Photos From the Archive
April 22, 2019 / Kate Edgar / News
Everything in Its Place, the final collection of essays by Oliver Sacks, will be available on April 23, 2019.
Publishers Weekly calls it "a treat for the chronically curious."
They write: "In this lovely collection of previously unpublished essays, the late, celebrated author and neurologist Oliver Sacks muses on his career, his youth, the mental health field, and much more. . . ."
"Sacks's gentle, ruminative voice is a salve when investigating difficult subject matter, but there are plenty of lighter moments as well. . . . Piercingly insightful and delightfully strange, Sacks' final collection is a treat for the chronically curious."
An early excerpt from the book, in which Dr. Sacks writes about the neurological effects of our digital devices, appears in The New Yorker's February 11, 2019 issue. Another excerpt, about Alzheimer's and identity, will be in the New Yorker's March 4 issue (available February 25).
We've been finding lots of intriguing journals, photos, and letters in Dr. Sacks's huge archive, and we will be sharing some of these with you on our social media, including our new Instagram account. Follow us for updates on new projects, photos from the archive, and more.
Dr. Sacks was recently the subject of a BBC Great Lives program. Hear his partner, Bill Hayes, and neurologist Suzanne O'Sullivan sharing stories of his life and work.
The Oliver Sacks Foundation is dedicated to honoring and continuing the legacy of Dr. Oliver Sacks and reducing the stigma of mental and neurological illness. We thank you for your support.
Best wishes from The Sacks Team!
"We are not given the world: we make our world"
Happy holidays from the Oliver Sacks Foundation!
"My predominant feeling is one of gratitude"
A book, a film, and a voting plan
A Less Remembered Pandemic
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Vitiligo is a chronic skin condition characterized by areas of the skin that have lost their natural color. About 1% of people worldwide have the condition. Vitiligo affects all races and skin colors equally, but it is more noticeable in people with darker skin.


Every salad-eater has the same struggle.
Salad without dressing is – let's be honest – just boring old vegetables. You need something to flavor it up. But putting a common dressing on your salad usually takes the healthy right out of it, defeating the point of eating a salad in the first place. You might as well be eating a burger and fries.
Mixing your own salad dressings actually turns out to be a lot cheaper than buying any of your grocery store regulars. And compared to the options at a whole-foods market? Please! You're basically paying for a fancy label and disposable bottle.
Another great thing about making your own salad dressings is that YOU control the ingredients. Have you checked a salad dressing label recently? Almost every single one will have way too much sugar, salt, random artificial flavorings and colors and let's not even talk about the ingredients you can't pronounce. Making a dressing at home gives you freedom to put in just as much as is necessary and personalize it to your taste buds.
And lastly, mixing your own dressings is a useful skill when you're in a pinch. Most dressings can be made in less than 5 minutes! And once you find the recipes you love (and your family loves!), you can whip them up any time you want. You'll make them so often you won't even need the recipes!
Before I reveal the incredibly delicious salad dressing that will make you LOSE IT, let's talk about the generic vinaigrette.
The simplest way to add just the right amount of flavor to your salad is to lightly toss it with olive oil, drizzle on a little lemon or balsamic vinegar and add a pinch of salt and pepper. And there you have it. Just enough healthy flavor to make your salad interesting.
Adding the extra herbs will only boost the flavor and give you added benefits.
Check out these benefits that you can get from the ingredients in our Lose It Salad Dressing!
Without further ado, I present you with an easy, delicious salad dressing for any occasion!
Add all ingredients into a medium sized bowl. Whisk together. Then move to a smaller bowl or container if desired.
In most cases, the dressing is what makes the salad. And this dressing is just what you need to enhance your salad without taking the healthy out of the equation. So grab your whisk and try it out!


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charcoal shower curtain grey octopus ships.


If you have a pond on your farm, community or business, make sure it receives the proper retention pond maintenance so it stays beautiful and working. A clogged pond causes damage to everything around it. Proper detention pond cleanup keeps the water flowing properly, so it can distribute water to your fields or into the drainage ditches and sewers in town.
Our Lincoln NE retention pond maintenance company is the place to start for information on your type of pond. Retention ponds and detention ponds are different, even though they sometimes look the same. You need detention pond cleanup for either type of pond. Retention ponds hold water permanently for factories and farms who have a high level of waste to dispose of. Retention pond maintenance on a farm keeps waste breaking down properly so it can be turned into valuable fertilizer for fields. Detention ponds are more often used in communities or near living areas on farms to keep watershed from rainfall or melting snow away from structures where it could cause serious damage.
One very important reason to make sure you have the best Lincoln NE retention pond maintenance is public health safety. This is especially true of detention pond cleanup requirements. Retention pond maintenance controls buildup of bacteria from the waste products so they do not contribute to outbreaks of E. coli and other illnesses in the surrounding area. Although retention ponds are more likely to develop those problems, a blocked detention pond can cause equal trouble for urban areas.
Contact our Lincoln NE retention pond maintenance company whenever ponds show signs of overflow, blockage or sour water. We will perform regular detention pond cleanup so that the pond will perform the way it should.


When we imagine the vital elements of church life, discipline might not be our first thought. We weaken the church, though, when we fail to call others to repentance. Discipline is a profitable practice—one that Alistair Begg describes as bringing greater purity and clarity to a church's shining light. Scripture's instructions on the practice and process of church discipline bring out this luminous clarity as they lead us toward restoration.
5"Whoever receives one such child in my name receives me, 6but whoever causes one of these little ones who believe in me to sin,1 it would be better for him to have a great millstone fastened around his neck and to be drowned in the depth of the sea.
7"Woe to the world for temptations to sin!2 For it is necessary that temptations come, but woe to the one by whom the temptation comes! 8And if your hand or your foot causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to enter life crippled or lame than with two hands or two feet to be thrown into the eternal fire. 9And if your eye causes you to sin, tear it out and throw it away. It is better for you to enter life with one eye than with two eyes to be thrown into the hell3 of fire.
10"See that you do not despise one of these little ones. For I tell you that in heaven their angels always see the face of my Father who is in heaven.4 12What do you think? If a man has a hundred sheep, and one of them has gone astray, does he not leave the ninety-nine on the mountains and go in search of the one that went astray? 13And if he finds it, truly, I say to you, he rejoices over it more than over the ninety-nine that never went astray. 14So it is not the will of my5 Father who is in heaven that one of these little ones should perish.
21Then Peter came up and said to him, "Lord, how often will my brother sin against me, and I forgive him? As many as seven times?" 22Jesus said to him, "I do not say to you seven times, but seventy-seven times.


text:
Megan Wooding
Creating Spaces of Sisterhood
Looking Back to Look Ahead
Woman Up Wednesday
Woman Up Wednesday with Cali Wolf
So I told you I would be featuring some fantastic Indigenous women this month, and I'm so excited to introduce you to the first one! Cali is Sičháŋǧu Lakȟóta from the Rosebud Sioux Tribe. She is a trauma nurse, blogger, and ambassador for Native Women's Wilderness.
Cali details her journey to embracing her heritage on her blog, Through Her Native Eyes. Cali and I originally connected on Instagram. Her posts are beautiful, educational, and heartfelt. Her blog shares her story, Indigenous history, and how to be an ally to Indigenous peoples. I also loved her guest post discussing what it's like traveling as a Native woman, and how we can be respectful of Indigenous peoples and the history of Native lands.
Cali's love for nature and hiking has been essential as she has been called back to her heritage. Now she advocates for diversity and representation in outdoor and hiking industries, and is an ambassador for Native Women's Wilderness.
You may remember Native Women's Wilderness from last weeks post introducing the unique challenges Native Women face, and the fantastic organizations rising to meet those challenges. They are a Native run initiative that inspires and raises the voices of Native Women in the Outdoor Realm. They encourage a healthy lifestyle grounded in the Wilderness, and educate Natives and non-Natives on the rich beauty and heritage of the Ancestral Lands beneath our feet. (adapted from Native Womens Wilderness mission statement.)
Cali has become a strong advocate for her people, and justice for missing and murdered Indigenous women. I love her story so much. I'm inspired by her concentrated intention and determination to reconnect with and uncover her heritage and cultural traditions. I'm challenged by her calls to action and equity. I relate strongly to her love for the wilderness, and I'm galvanized by her hope.
I was so honored to have Cali answer a few questions for this post!
I loved your post "Being Native in a White World" and how shared so beautifully about your personal history. What has it been like for you more recently as you've been embracing your heritage? Do you feel like it has been a homecoming in a way?
"I feel like I have finally had the honor of truly getting to know myself. There were parts of me that were covered, hidden and ignored for so long. I've had a few moments recently where I'm like… "everything makes so much sense now." I lived a lot of my life unhappy, with no true identity. So growing into my newly reclaimed identity has been life changing for me."
Tell us a little bit about your ambassadorship with Native Womens Wilderness.  "When I was contacted about becoming an ambassador for NWW, it was an obvious yes. I had been growing into my Lakota identity and finding my voice, while simultaneously reconnecting to the outdoors. So to be able to embrace both as they intersect is a huge honor for me. NWW is applying for it's 501c3 status this year, and we have been focusing on obtaining sponsors so we can provide gear and funding to Native girls and women, sending Native girls and women to outdoor camps and participating in DEI (diversity, equity, inclusion) work within the outdoor industry. We have some really exciting and big plans for next year!"
If you could recommend a few resources for my readers and myself to become better educated on Indigenous peoples and their history, what would those be?
"The entire #TravelingWhileNative series on HNTTLABB. An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States by Roxanne Dunbar Ortiz. Be sure that you are reading books and articles from Native authors."
What does decolonizing mean to you?
"For me, decolonizing has been learning Lakhotiyapi (Lakota language), returning to ceremony and fully embracing my identity as a Lakota winyan (woman)."
How do you and / or the native communities that you're part of generally feel about the Thanksgiving holiday?  "I can't speak for the entire Native community, but my family has always used this as a time to be together and enjoy good food. I would never want anyone to miss out on family time, but I do think it is important to acknowledge the truth surrounding the day and how it came to be."
The Call Is Coming From Inside The House
Constantinian or Christian?
Why Millennials Are Leaving the Church
A video recently came across my feed about how churches can better appeal to millennials. This interested me because I am a millennial...
I know you already get twenty million more emails than you want, but here is why you should still subscribe to mine:
I only send them when I have something important to share, that you'll want to hear. (like every month, maybe.)
As fun as social media can be, it's increasingly difficult to share information and community the more these platforms tamper with the algorithms. Giving me your email means we can't lose touch because of a third party.
It makes my entire day when someone signs up to keep tabs on the work I'm doing here.
©2019 by Megan Wooding. Proudly created with Wix.com


Ever since we started Zeenya Clothing, we've wanted our company to be more than kick-arse activewear. Not only did we want to ensure we do our best ethically when producing our clothing but we wanted a way to pay it forward and give back in other ways.
Enter: The Good Moves Collaboration. A partnership opportunity where we dedicate one of the beautiful prints in our New Zealand Made Collection to a chosen charitable organisation, raising profile and funds for an epic cause.
We are extremely delighted to announce PINC & STEEL Cancer Rehabilitation as our very first partnership for the Good Moves Collaboration. PINC & STEEL aims to help more people worldwide live as fully and actively as possible after a cancer diagnosis. In New Zealand, cancer rehabilitation receives no government funding. We all know the importance of being active and feeling good about ourselves. We felt a strong connection with PINC & STEEL and the work that they do training physiotherapists and occupational therapists to supportpeople throughout their cancer treatment, and provide specialised rehabilitation for years afterwards. They aim to give hope and build confidence in everyone they work with.
Often as a result of cancer treatment people's understanding of their own physical abilities changes, with exercise generally been undersubscribed when it comes to their rehabilitation. But PINC & STEEL get it. They know that being part of a program with their worldwide team of trained specialists helps people feel back in control of their bodies. One of the great things we have learnt since starting this project is that this service exists at any time in a persons life after diagnosis. How amazing is that?
PINC & STEEL Physiotherapists and Staff modelling the gorgeous Feroz print!
We have dedicated the gorgeous Feroz/Fierce print so that 10% of the sales for this print will go to them. Totally nailed the branding colours for them too if we do say so ourselves. We want to help PINC & STEEL in their goal of inspiring more people to go out, move, and be themselves after a cancer diagnosis. We hope that this print spreads joy, confidence and happiness.
P.s. Feroz Print will be part of the Pre-sale starting on the 23rd of April.


text:
\section{Introduction}

A central concept of modern biology is that of the genetic material, the carrier of hereditary information, and important issues present in the foundations of biology can be explored through a specific investigation of this concept. It is known today that hereditary information has a material basis made of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. Why is DNA such as it is and not otherwise? We examine this question through a theoretical construction of the genetic material, using the language and the methods introduced in a previous article \cite{Sikorav2014foundations} in order to build the foundations of biology. A similar construction is used to better understand the structure of amino acids and proteins.\par

\section{The genetic material}

It is common to introduce the genetic material following the work of Watson and Crick describing first the structure of the DNA double helix and then its replication process. \cite{Watson1953a,Watson1953c} Here we present an approach that is constructive rather than descriptive, being both deductive and inductive, and proceeds from the replication process to the structure. We deduce from universal biological phenomena the necessary asymmetries that the genetic material should possess. This genetic material is not elemental but compound. The construction incorporates as many compatible symmetry elements as possible and, therefore, ends with an ideal, Platonic final structure, which is compared with that of DNA. From this emerges a better understanding of the necessary asymmetries and of the symmetries compatible with it. We conclude that DNA appears to be both unique and ideal.\par
The first steps of the construction apply equally well to polymeric nucleic acids as to proteins. The underlying reason is that both types of informational biopolymers, though different, share the same fundamental asymmetries. We can construct proteins, starting with their monomers the amino acids, using a similar approach, again leading to a better intuitive understanding of these polymers.\par

\subsection{A list of requirements}

Our goal is to build a device that contains genetic information. The properties that the genetic material should possess can be extracted from the four fundamental theories of life: \cite{Sikorav2014foundations}
\begin{itemize*}
\item
Both the theory of natural selection and informational theory of life require a transmission of hereditary information, a certain set of instructions. The minimal number of information bits contained in this set can be inferred from the large number of hereditary traits (or genes) always present in a living organism (estimated at about one thousand or more) and from the large number of bits contained in each of them (much larger than unity, about one hundred or more). This indicates that the set should contain at least $10^5$ bits of information.
\item
The universal existence of cells and of cell replication indicates that the transmission of genetic information is related to the physical process of cell division. This implies not only the existence, but also the replication and the segregation of a material entity through an appropriate transport process. The segregation of the genetic material during cell division could possibly rely on Brownian motion alone. However, this process is far more efficient when assisted by molecular motors. We therefore conclude that there must exist such motors, translocating the genetic material during cell division. It is, in turn, necessary that the structure of the genetic material be such as to allow it to interact most efficiently with these molecular motors.
\item
Hereditary information is stably conserved in cryptobiosis, during which metabolism is fully suspended. The permanence of the genetic material and the maintenance of information cannot be solely based on a continuous dissipation of energy and must be understood through the stability of an isolated system. Since the inclusion of symmetry elements increases the stability of conservative systems, this provides a strong argument to incorporate as many symmetry elements as possible in the structure to be built.
\item
The genetic material must be parsimonious in terms of amount of matter used and space occupied. This means that considerations of miniaturization and dense packing will constantly be present in the construction.
\item
Lastly, the presence of chiral compounds in living organisms raises an additional question as to the chirality of this material element. The genetic material could be chiral or else achiral, the chirality of living matter being transmitted in an epigenetic manner. The construction will clarify this issue, showing that molecular chirality is a necessary feature of the genetic material.
\end{itemize*}

\subsection{The construction}

We now present step-by-step a theoretical construction of the genetic material.

\subsubsection{Stability and information: a heteropolymer, both long and flexible}

Matter is made of atoms, and this leads to the building of a discrete structure made of a finite number of components. In order to increase the stability of an structure built of atoms, we must use the strongest chemical bonds, which are covalent (as also suggested by Schr{\"o}dinger \cite{Schroedinger1944}). The genetic material is thus, at first, a molecule. A small molecule contains little information; Therefore, to carry genetic information, the desired structure must be a macromolecule. By simplicity we shall consider a single, linear, unbranched polymer containing all the hereditary information, corresponding to the case of a unique linkage group.\par
A polymer made of identical monomers (a homopolymer) does not contain information. We thus need a heteropolymer made of at least two types of monomers. A simple binary code results from the use of two types of monomers, a higher order code if the number of distinct monomers is greater. The sequence of the monomers encodes the genetic information, which is of digital nature. This discrete structure of the monomers reflects the principle of atomicity and is compatible with the necessity of a random, quantum mechanical process involving particulate changes in the sequence as the basis of mutations. The polymeric character of the genetic material may be viewed as an expression of the principle of continuity, through the covalent bonds connecting the monomers, a molecular transposition of the concept of a linkage group. Yet, the universal process of genetic recombination in which the order of genes in a linkage group can altered implies that the continuity of the chain can be transiently interrupted. This points to the necessary existence of cut and paste devices (catalysts and motors) operating on the heteropolymer to move a portion of the chain from one place to another.\par
Assuming that each monomer contains one bit of information leads to envision a polymeric chain with a large number of monomers ($\sim 10^5$). Furthermore, as each monomer is minimally of atomic size which yields a contour length of at least 10~micrometers for this polymer. An extended conformation of this chain is incompatible with the size of a small cell or single-cell prokaryotic organism (less than one micrometer) which implies that the polymer must be flexible. Flexibility is also associated with the possibility of filling space in a parsimonious manner, thus adopting a dense, globular conformation (further described below).\par
The polymeric nature of the genetic material implies that heredity must also be understood in the language of polymer science, using the concepts of polymer physics: static conformations as well as chain dynamics. The very large degree of polymerization of the genetic material, in particular, has consequences that can be approached through scaling concepts reflecting the symmetry of scale invariance. \cite{deGennes1979}\par

\subsubsection{Fine structure of the monomers: helicity, homochirality and isotacticity}

The heteropolymer carrying the genetic information must be transported efficiently to the two daughter cells during cell division. Brownian motion alone is not be sufficient for that goal, as it can be stalled be the presence of obstacles. The requirement of transport leads to assert the existence of molecular motors, called translocases, able to translocate along the chain (or to translocate the chain if the motor remains immobile).\par
Any arbitrary displacement in space can be decomposed into a combination of a rotation around an axis and a translation. The displacement of the motor relative to the heteropolymer will be most efficient if it occurs in a regular manner, through a repetition of identical steps of translation and rotation. The polymer, as seen by the motor, must be able to adopt, at least transiently, a regular structure. As a general rule, the construction of an object permitting such regular steps leads naturally to a circular helix. \cite{Coxeter1961} A regular, chiral helix is thus the most general structure (an achiral, degenerate helix being a singular case).\par
The requirement of interaction of a motor with a regular structure implies that each monomer must contain an identical chemical group used for the interaction with the motor. We call this group a vertebra. To the vertebra is attached one of two possible side-chains, specific for the two monomers, separated from the vertebra by a chemical group used as a spacer so as not to interfere with the action of the translocase. The existence of this spacer is required to offer a regular, periodic landscape to the translocases. The vertebra is used to connect the monomers between themselves to form the polymeric chain; This chemical group is therefore trifunctional.\par
The chain of vertebrae is called the backbone of the heteropolymer. The motor must also be able to move in a constant direction along the backbone, thus to dissipate energy anisotropically when it interacts with a vertebra which must have a polar (directional) structure. To the polarity of the vertebrae is associated a polarity of the backbone, and, thus, a polarity of the genetic information encoded by the sequence of the monomers. This polarity appears as an expression of the principle of fine division: the mechanical efficiency of the translocase is based on a fine, one-dimensional orientation of the heteropolymer.\par
Each monomer thus contains a trifunctional, chiral vertebra: two of the functions are present in a polar, oriented backbone and the third connects this backbone to specific achiral side chains or residues, held outside of the reach of the motor.\par
The trifunctional vertebra need not be chiral but only prochiral. However, the simplest trifunctional vertebra contains a carbon atom with a double bond, and the resulting planar chemical structure is less flexible than a carbon atom having four sigma bounds. As we require the chain to be flexible, we are thus led to choose as a minimal vertebra a compound with a general formula HC$X_1X_2X_3$, where the three $X_i$ groups differ from one another and also from the hydrogen atom. One group contains the spacer connecting to the specific side chains and the two remaining groups are used for the polymerization of the backbone. Each vertebra is, therefore, chiral. The monomers are homochiral compounds and the polymers are isotactic chains. We can again understand this result as a consequence of the principle of fine division: a complete, three-dimensional orientation of the vertebra contributes to the mechanical efficiency of the motors through a narrow channeling of the dissipation of the chemical energy.\par
We can further assume, by simplicity, that the side groups are achiral in the absence of other specific requirements. Additional arguments in favor of the chiral character of the heteropolymer come from considerations of dense packing (not detailed in the present work).\par

\subsubsection{The replication process and its consequences: semi-conservative duplication and double helical structure}

The process of duplication of the genetic material must minimize space and maximize efficiency and economy. It must then be a local process, relying on the concept of molecular complementary recognition, following the ideas presented by Friedrich-Freksa \cite{Friedrich-Freksa1940} and by Pauling and Delbr{\"u}ck. \cite{Pauling1940,Muller1947} This concept can be seen as yet another illustration of the principle of fine division (as shown for biological catalysis by Fischer, Pauling and others). As a general rule, a mechanical copy of an object based on a molding process does not lead to a copy of the object itself, but to an object with a complementary structure. The only exception of this rule occurs if the object to be copied contains its own complement. \cite{Pauling1948} In this case, the replication process is semi-conservative. Starting from a parental structure to be replicated made of two complementary parts, one obtains two copies, each of which contains one of the two parental parts. Each complementary part of the parental structure has been used as a template for the production of the other part. The parental complementary parts end up separated at the completion of the process. Thus, replication is a duplication process, leading to an efficient exponential amplification of the initial structure as a function of the number of replication rounds. We thus conclude that in order to be copied efficiently, the genetic material must contain its own complement and is replicated through a semi-conservative process. The helical structure built so far is only half the desired structure. The complete structure is to be made of two complementary helical molecules (heteropolymers) with identical backbones.\par

\subsubsection{Fine structure of the double helix: complementary side groups held by non-covalent interactions}

During replication, each of the two chains act as template for the copy of the complementary strand. The complementariness between the two helices results from a complementariness of the specific side groups of the monomers. Assuming the existence of only two side groups in one helix forming a sequence, and of two corresponding complementary side groups, leads to the employment of a total of four different side groups, except for the particular situation where the two side groups of one helix are complementary to each other, in which case only two types of side groups would be sufficient. As this particular case is the simplest choice, we shall retain it in the following with no loss of generality.\par
Due to the complementariness rule, the two complementary monomers are to be found in equal amount in the double helical structure. In this double helix, the information is doubly present because of the complementary rules. We have seen that this redundancy can be understood not only in terms of a greater efficiency of the replication process (exponential amplification), but it is also a requirement due to the necessary imperfection of the replication process in order to fulfill the conditions of Shannon's theorem, as explained previously. Redundancy contributes to increase the stability of the genetic information in replication and in conservation.\par
The interactions between the complementary parts must be strongly attractive, yet the individual bonds are broken during the duplication process, in contrast with the covalent bonds that connect the monomers insuring the fidelity of each strand. This points to a complementariness between the side groups which relies exclusively on weak, non-covalent bonds. The two complementary strands are thus specifically held together through multiple weak (non covalent) bonds. The general role played by multiple weak attachments in the establishment of specificity had been foreseen by Pauling \cite{Pauling1948} and, more explicitly, by Crane. \cite{Crane1950} The resulting double helix is a supramolecular entity. The semi-conservative duplication process, with its need for a physical separation of the complementary parts (each of them ending up in a different daughter cell), also points to an obvious role for one of the translocases postulated to interact with the structure: to act as a strand helicase, assisting the mechanical disruption of the double helix by cleaving the weak bonds between the complementary parts.\par

\subsubsection{Temporal ordering along each strand and between strands}

The semi-conservative duplication process creates a temporal asymmetry between the two strands of the double helix: one older, that we call the $C$ strand, coming from the parental molecule, and one newly synthesized complementary strand, the $W$ strand. This asymmetry makes possible the labeling of either the parental or the daughter strand through certain chemical modifications (such as methylation). In addition, the synthesis of a complementary strand is a templated, out-of-equilibrium polymerization. This creates a temporal order of the monomers within each strand. Both temporal orderings, along each strand and between the two strands, make the structure fully oriented in time as expected from the principle of fine division.\par

\subsubsection{Geometry of the double helix: plectonemicity and antiparallel strands}

Because of the presence of complementary groups connecting the two backbones, the two polymer chains cannot be far apart from each other. Furthermore, the search for an economy of space also leads to require that the two polymers be held in close vicinity. The simplest such structure that can be envisioned of is a planar ladder, where the complementary side groups provide the rungs, but this degenerate helix is incompatible with the chiral nature of the monomers and can be rejected as singular.\
par
A simple thought experiment of the duplication of a chiral helical mathematical curve consists in copying and moving the curve by a small translation along the helical axis or rotation about this axis (meaning that the displacement is small with respect to the pitch of the helical curve). This is equivalent to the winding of two parallel lines on a cylinder and creates a pair of helices. A double helix made of two such identical chiral helices can be one of two types: a pair of helices side-by-side, called paranemic (\foreignlanguage{greek}{par\'a}
meaning side by side, and \foreignlanguage{greek}{n{\~h}ma}
meaning thread), or plectonemic (\foreignlanguage{greek}{plekt{\'o}c}
meaning intertwined). In the case of a plectonemic structure, it is possible to embed the two helices within a single cylinder in a regular manner, confounding their axes of symmetry, without deformation. This is impossible to do with a paranemic structure which is, therefore, irregular and is to be ruled out. We are left with a plectonemic double helix, also expected to be more stable and more compatible with efficient interactions with molecular motors.\par
Given the polarity of the backbone, the two strands of the double helix can have either a parallel $\uparrow\uparrow$ or antiparallel $\uparrow\downarrow$ orientation. We can increase the symmetry of the structure by relating the two backbones through an appropriate geometrical transformation, namely an isometry. A reflection is ruled out by the presence of chiral elements in the backbone which means that a parallel orientation of the two backbones does not add any new symmetry elements. The symmetry can be increased through the introduction of two-fold ($C_2$) rotation axes if the two strands are coupled with opposite polarities. We therefore retain an antiparallel structure.

\subsubsection{A cyclic chain}

The double helical structure could be linear, but the presence of ends of the double helix would destroy many of the symmetries introduced above (helical symmetry and two-fold rotation axes). Indeed, there are no exact symmetries in a finite, linear helical structure. In a linear, double-helix made of a finite number of monomers, there is, in fact, only one nearly-exact $C_2$ rotation axis in the structure (this central rotation axis is only exact if we ignore the temporal asymmetry between old and new strands).\par
We can increase the symmetry of this structure by requiring it to be cyclic, eliminating the asymmetries related to the ends. In doing so, we have to bend the helix and, therefore, formally to destroy the exact symmetries associated with the helical axis. However, as the polymer is very long and flexible, both the deformation and its the energetic cost should be very small. We therefore choose to circularize the structure resulting in a covalently-closed, cyclic double-helix. The helical symmetry and the two-fold axes are not exact, but approximate, plesiosymmetries.\par

\subsubsection{A strand passing catalytic activity is required to separate the complementary strands}

An objection can be raised against the cyclic structure. Indeed, the two complementary strands forming the double helical structure are separated to become fully segregated in the daughter cells. The plectonemic structure of the cyclic double helix creates a topological obstacle to this separation, as the two complementary strands are initially catenated. This problem can be solved by appropriate catalysts performing strand-passage reactions, that we call dianemases, operating through cycles of controlled breakage and reunion. The existence of similar cut-and-paste catalysts is, in fact, already required in order to explain the process of genetic recombination. The simplest dianemase catalyzes the passage of one strand through the other by the transient breakage of the backbone of one strand followed by its resealing after the passage of the other strand through the transient breach. In the presence of this strand passing activity, an insoluble topological problem is replaced by a soluble rheological one: the two closed complementary strands can now flow one through another on a finite time scale in a process which can be assisted by molecular motors such as the helicases described above. The most efficient manner for this catalyst to operate is to become transiently covalently bound to the broken strand.\par

\subsubsection{Scaling laws for the double helix: Economy of space and globularity}

We have now obtained a heteropolymer having a double helical structure. To a first approximation, the complementary paired chains can be viewed as a homopolymer, locally difficult to bend to a helical structure (and thus semi-flexible), but globally flexible in view of its large degree of polymerization. Modern polymer physics has taught that the static and dynamic properties of long flexible homopolymers have a universal character independent of the molecular details that can be expressed in terms of scaling laws reflecting a symmetry of scale invariance. \cite{deGennes1979}\par
Given the large degree of polymerization of the double helical structure, it is reasonable to attempt a scaling analysis of its packing law. A flexible polymer can exist in one of two extreme conformations: either fully stretched or densely packed. Other, intermediate conformations are possible, such as the swollen coil and the ideal, Gaussian or Brownian conformation. These four conformations can be described through scaling laws, universal relations between the degree of polymerization $N$ and the volume $V$ occupied by the polymer. The characteristic size of the polymer is given by $R(N) \propto N^{\nu}$, where $\nu$ is called the swelling exponent (its reciprocal is called the fractal or Hausdorff dimension of the chain \cite{Grosberg1997}). The value of the scaling exponent is $\nu = 1$ for a stretched chain, about $3/5$ for a swollen coil, $1/2$ for a Brownian chain and $1/3$ for a dense, globular state. In other words, a search for a dense occupation of space within the cell implies the volume $V(N) \propto R^3$ must scale linearly with the chain length. The scaling law applies to the chain taken as a whole; other regimes could apply at lower scales. This overall globular state is expected to be permanent in a cell (as opposed to the more transient double helical conformation, which only persists between two rounds of replication). There can exist, however, a great variety of such globular states and their density can vary throughout a cell gemination cycle or with different physiological conditions. For instance, we expect the density of the polymeric globule to be higher in a dehydrated dormant cell than in a similar cell that is metabolically active. At high enough densities, the structure of this globular semi-flexible chain is expected to be locally anisotropic due to excluded volume effects between chain segments \cite{Onsager1949,Khokhlov1981} and may exhibit a liquid crystalline (nematic) ordering. The chiral structure of the double helix will favor a twisted nematic (cholesteric) ordering if the packing density is not too high.\par

\subsection{Summary of the construction}

The final, transient, structure obtained is a semi-flexible, compact (globular), cyclic, two-stranded structure. The two cyclic strands are topologically linked. The separation of the two strands occurring during the replication process is assisted by motors (called helicases), disrupting the non-covalent bonds between them, and by enzymes performing strand-passage reactions through cut-and-paste operations which contribute to decrease their topological linking number to zero. We call these enzymes dianemases, following the recommended nomenclature for naming biological catalysts (those acting on DNA have been called topoisomerases).\par
The genetic material is an information carrying device fully oriented in time and in space (as shown by the construction and as expected from the principle of fine division). The structure is characterized by necessary asymmetries: it contains information and this information is encoded both spatially and temporally: The encoding is found in the sequence of monomers and in the fact that each strand is a fully oriented polymer, both spatially (through polarity and chirality) and temporally, as there exists a temporal order along each strand, albeit imperfect, the monomers being assembled by a directed, out-of-equilibrium polymerization. The temporal ordering is also found at the level of the double helix, where one strand, which we call the $C$ strand, used as a template in the previous round of duplication, is older than the complementary, younger $W$ strand. This last asymmetry is a consequence of the necessary semi-conservative nature of the replication process. The structure obtained is ideal, having been systematically saturated with compatible symmetries: helical symmetry, homochirality, isotacticity, plectonemicity, two-fold rotation axes, circularity, globularity, complementarity, parity and redundancy, achiral side groups. None of these symmetries are exact, but only nearly so. The efficiency of the interaction with motors results both from asymmetries (polarity and chirality) and symmetries (helical: homochirality, isotacticity; two-fold rotation axes).\par
Temporal asymmetries signal the historicity of the double helix. The asymmetry between the old and the new strand makes possible their labeling through certain chemical modifications, called epigenetic, used for example in error-correction processes. In a general manner, epigenetic phenomena result from necessary asymmetries, present not only in the genetic material but also in its environment (for instance in cell membranes, where the existence of new poles following cell division can be exploited similarly).\par
We have attempted to provide the simplest constructive approach based on our current understanding of biology, making use of ideas that were unknown in 1953. This is the case for the concept of molecular motors (such as RNA polymerase \cite{Yin1995}) acting on the genetic material which only emerged in the mid 1990s, and is crucial to our approach. Similarly, the reasoning by which one can reject a paranemic (side by side) double helical structure as being irregular \cite{Watson1953b} requires to be fully rigorous C\u{a}lug\u{a}reanu formula relating the linking number of closed curves to twist and writhe. \cite{Calugareanu1961,White1969,Fuller1971}

\subsection{Comparison with the structure of nucleotides and nucleic acids}

The theoretical construction allows one to better understand the structure of nucleic acids; we focus here on the primary structure of DNA and RNA, shown in Figures~\ref{fig:DNA} and \ref{fig:RNA}. DNA and RNA are heteropolymers made of four monomers (rather than the predicted, minimal number of two). The monomers, called nucleotides, consist of a trifunctional handle to which is attached one out of five planar, achiral nucleobases. The molecular vertebra contains a trifunctional deoxyribose or ribose, to which are attached the $5^{\prime}$ and $3^{\prime}$ phosphates: these two links account for the polarities of the vertebra and of the heteropolymeric chains. The vertebra is both polar and chiral as expected, but its structure is not minimal (that is consisting of a single stereogenic carbon): instead, the three stereogenic carbons located in the pentose ring are endowed each with one of the three specific functions of the vertebra, being associated to the $3^{\prime}$ end (for $\textrm{C}_3^{\prime}$), to the $5^{\prime}$ end (for $\textrm{C}_4^{\prime}$), or to the lateral base ($\textrm{C}_1^{\prime}$), as described by Natta. \cite{Natta1968} The planar side groups are always connected in the same manner, forming an isotactic chain. RNA contains a fourth chiral $\mathrm{C}_2^{\prime}$, lowering its symmetry, thus decreasing its stability. This additional asymmetry is associated with novel phenomena: the attached hydroxyl group is a catalytic component of several ribozymes. The phosphorus atom as well as all non-chiral carbon atoms are prochiral (with the exception of the methyl group of the thymine base of DNA). All atoms attached to tetravalent phosphorus and carbon atoms are thus discernible. Similarly, the two faces defined by (trigonal) trivalent carbons and their attached groups are distinct, illustrating again the principle of fine division. Lastly, both in DNA and RNA, the common vertebra extends, in fact, into the planar nucleobases. Indeed, four atoms are common in all bases, not only the nitrogen linked to the deoxyribose or ribose, but also two carbon atoms connected to this nitrogen and an additional hydrogen atom. (To emphasize this fact, we have drawn the structure in Figures~\ref{fig:DNA} and~\ref{fig:RNA} using different colors for the atoms belonging to the backbone, common to all monomers, shown in black, and for the atoms of the bases specific to each residue, colored in blue.) The geometry of the common atoms associated with the backbone only differ minimally by the angles of six- or five-atom heterocyclic ring structures of the purines and pyrimidines ($60^{\circ}$ versus $72^{\circ}$). The differences of chemical structure between the four nucleobases arise by specific substitutions of reactive groups in the pyrimidines cytosine, thymine (and uracil) as well as in the purines guanine and adenine.\par
The minimal number of monomers required to synthesize informational polymers is two. The existence of four bases, thus of two distinct types of complementary base pairs having different bond strengths (involving two hydrogen bonds for adenine with thymine versus three for guanine with cytosine), can be explained as follows: In the helix-coil denaturation of DNA, the secondary structure of the double helix shows a sequence-dependent stability, a phenomenon of central importance in replication, transcription and recombination. \cite{Yeramian2000} This would be impossible to observe in a double helical polymer made of only two types of monomers, thus of a single type of pair. Indeed, the stability of such a double helix would be that of a homopolymer. The additional asymmetry makes possible the orientation of the double helical structure of DNA as well as novel phenomena in the tertiary structure of chromosomes, for example, or in the interaction with catalysts.\par
An unreplicated chromosomal DNA molecule consists of a single double-helical polymer (this is also known as the mononeme hypothesis). The overall conformation of this extremely long polymer is indeed globular within cells. This general statement refers to a broad and complex field of investigation, that of DNA condensation to be discussed elsewhere. In contrast with globularity, circularity seems at first not to be universally observed. Circular chromosomal DNA appears widespread in prokaryotes and is probably universal. Eukaryotic chromosomes are usually linear (circularized versions of these chromosomes can also be observed in mutants, usually associated with genetic deficiencies). Furthermore, eukaroytic cells always contain cyclic DNA molecules as episomes (such as in mitochondrial DNA). We formulate the hypothesis that all cells contain a cyclic DNA molecule, either as a chromosomal chain or as an episome. Circular DNA and the process of DNA cyclization appears to be universal among living organisms.\par

\section{The structure of amino acids and proteins}

Proteins are heteropolymers that are assembled by a molecular motor called the ribosome which must translocate efficiently during the polymerization steps. This implies that one can apply the analysis leading to the conclusions reached above concerning the genetic material to understand the structure of amino acids and proteins.
\begin{enumerate*}
\item Proteins must be assembled from monomers containing trifunctional vertebrae that are polar, chiral and to which side groups are attached;
\item The side groups should be achiral, spatially separated by a spacer from the molecular vertebra (to avoid direct contact with the motor).
\item Polymers assembled from these monomers, polypeptides and proteins, must also be able to adopt, at least transiently, a helical conformation.
\item The tertiary structure of these polymers should be globular to minimize space occupation.
\end{enumerate*}
\par
The structure of the twenty proteinogenic amino acids \cite{Crick1958} obeys these basic rules. The standard representation of these amino acids and of the polypeptidic chain is due to Fischer. It is based on the concept of the side group, denoted $\mathrm{R}$, specific for each amino acid and attached to the asymmetric $\mathrm{C}_{\alpha}^{\ast}$ atom, as illustrated for the monomer in Figure~\ref{fig:aminoacids} (top, left) and written below for a two amino acid peptidic chain: \cite{Fischer1904}
$$ \mathrm{NH}_2.\mathrm{C}^{\ast}\mathrm{HR}.\mathrm{CO}.\mathrm{NH}.\mathrm{C}^{\ast}\mathrm{HR}.\mathrm{COOH} $$
We propose a refined representation of these amino acids, shown in Figure~\ref{fig:aminoacids} (top, right) which emphasizes the existence of a $\mathrm{C}_{\beta}\mathrm{H}$ spacer group. The structure minimizes the amount of matter required to build a vertebra: the three-point, chiral, handle consists of a single chiral carbon to which is attached a hydrogen atom and the constitution of the spacer consists of a single methyne group. These structures cannot be further reduced. One can describe this simplicity in terms of atom economy or biological perfection. This economy results from the high energetic cost of the synthesis of proteins (the cost of nucleic acid synthesis is in comparison much lower, and appears compatible with their more opulent sugar-phosphate-aromatic vertebra).\par
The molecular vertebra consists of a single, trifunctional asymmetric $\mathrm{C}_{\alpha}^{\ast}$ atom to which are also attached hydrogen, carboxyl and amino reactive groups. The description of the molecular vertebra now includes a methyne spacer, which can be removed from the conventional specific residues or side groups. The $\mathrm{C}_{\beta}$ atom of this spacer is predicted and observed to be achiral (isoleucine and threonine are exceptions to this prediction, and the absolute configuration is S for Ile and R for Thr in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog notation). Table~\ref{tab:aminoacids}, listing the twenty proteinogenic amino acids sorted by decreasing molecular weight, details the simpler residues that consist of two groups $\mathrm{R}^{\prime}$ and $\mathrm{R}^{\prime\prime}$. The second residue $\mathrm{R}^{\prime\prime}$ is a single hydrogen atom except for isoleucine, threonine and valine (where $\mathrm{R}^{\prime\prime}=\mathrm{CH}_3$). Glycine is special as it is achiral and lacks a methyne spacer group. However, the side group of glycine, being a simple H atom, causes no steric clash with a molecular motor and glycine often plays the role of a flexible junction in the construction of protein chains. Note that the carbon atom of glycine is prochiral and that the two hydrogen atoms attached to it are discernible.\par
Table~\ref{tab:aminoacids} also lists the molecules obtained when a hydrogen atom would be added to the separated active residue $\mathrm{R}^{\prime}$ in place of the spacer bond (in the case of proline, where the side group is cyclically attached to the backbone, a second terminating hydrogen atom is included). This permits to identify sixteen trimmed specific active side groups. The functional properties of the trimmed side groups are more readily grasped in this new representation than when the $\mathrm{C}_{\beta}\mathrm{H}$ spacer is included in the residue: the specific side group $\mathrm{H-R}^{\prime}$ of tryptophane is thus indole (instead of skatol), that of tyrosine is phenol, that of phenylanine is benzene, and that of histidine is imidazole. The structure of these amino acids appears minimal if one wants to employ the corresponding functional groups. In contrast, this is not the case for other amino acids: for instance, lysine with 1-propylamine or arginine with N-ethylguanidine, where the functional group (amine or guanidine) could be attached using a short spacer. Altogether, eleven out of the twenty amino acids appear to possess minimal side groups (Trp, Tyr, Phe, His, Met, Asp, Asn, Cys, Ala and Gly).\par
The novel representation that we present here does not aid our understanding in the case of short side chains (alanine, cysteine and serine), as the removal of the methylene group leaves the residue without a carbon atom. Here, it is be better to associate the spacer with the functional side group, leading to the molecules methane, methylmercaptan and methanol (instead of dihydrogen, hydrogen sulfide and water).\par
The major role of proteins as catalysts implies, in contrast to the relative simplicity of the genetic material, that proteins should contain the main functional groups of organic chemistry, such as acid and base, alcohol and thiol, or aromatic (benzene, indol and phenol). Proteins, furthermore, are to be produced in greater quantities then the genetic material itself and, therefore, must involve an economical use of matter (atoms).\par
The conclusion reached above that eleven out of the twenty proteinogenic amino acids possess minimal side groups implies that the necessary number of functional groups is greater than the number of strict minimal structures.\par
The analysis developed here permits to understand the polar (in the sense of a temporal and spatial, one-dimensional, orientation) and chiral structure of the backbone of proteins and their ability to adopt, at least transiently (during the elongation of the polypeptidic chain by the ribosome machinery), a helical configuration. In particular, the observation that the conformation of amino acids in polypeptides and proteins is very similar in Ramachandran plots \cite{Ramachandran1963,Hovmoeller2002} for all amino acids (except for the two exceptions glycine and proline, which are associated with a disruption of helical order) can be rationalized in terms of the requirement of an efficient, side chain independent, interaction with a molecular motor.\par
Many proteins, in particular enzymes, are folded in dense, globular structures in their native, functional state. As in DNA, densely packed structures are to be expected as a consequence of the constant search for miniaturization by natural selection. Also as for DNA, this overall dense conformation can be described by a universal scaling law relating the volume of a globular protein and its degree of polymerization. The fractal exponent determined experimentally for proteins ($1/v = 2.6$) is, in fact, slightly smaller than that of a completely compact, three-dimensional collapsed polymer, \cite{Enright2005} a result which can be viewed as a consequence of the small number of monomers that make enzymes in comparison with the much larger number of monomers present in chromosomal DNA.\par
Lastly we observe that proteins are usually linear. However, as for DNA, it is tempting to speculate that the existence of cyclic proteins is universal among living organisms. In support of this hypothesis, it can be observed that a growing number of cyclic proteins has been recently described. \cite{Trabi2002}\par
These investigations suggest that it will be eventually possible to explain why the proteinogenic amino acids, their common vertebra and their specific side groups are such as they are and not otherwise.\par

\section{Comparison of nucleic acids and proteins}

Both nucleic acid chains (DNA and RNA) and proteins are heteropolymers assembled out of equilibrium by molecular motors. They share common invariants, common asymmetries (presence of information, spatial orientation through polarity and chirality as well as temporal orientation) and common symmetries (helical symmetry, homochirality, isotacticity, globularity) and achiral side groups (except for two amino acids out of twenty). These common invariants possess the antiquity of life itself. However, they fulfill mostly different functions: nucleic acids forming the genetic material provide a memory having long-term stability and reliability and proteins hold structural roles or serve as biochemical catalysts.\par
The central tools used in the theoretical constructions, not only catalysts but also biological motors, must have been already present at a very early stage, raising a general question of the prebiotic evolution of such motors.\par
No more than four monomers are required in the constitution of nucleic acids, whereas at least eleven monomers are necessary in proteins. These functional as well as structural differences appear to reflect a certain division of labor between nucleic acids and proteins, the genetic material and catalysts. This suggests a plausible explanation for the necessary existence of the two types of biopolymers. It also points to the likely uniqueness of the logical solution offered by von~Neumann for self-reproduction.\par
The results of the constructions described above constrain the structures of biopolymers and their constituent monomers. This can contribute to the design of non-natural nucleotides or amino acids to be used in synthetic biology, to a better understanding of prebiotic chemistry, and in the search for extraterrestrial forms of life.\par

\paragraph*{Acknowledgements}
The present work summarizes an ongoing research program initiated a few years ago. Previous versions of it have been presented to various audiences: Carg{\`e}se summer school on DNA and Chromosomes, in 2004, 2006, and 2009; Gent Fantom Research School on Symmetries and symmetry violation in 2004 and 2007; Lectures on the Foundations of Molecular Biology, Evry in 2004; Lectures on Elements of Biology, Ecole Polytechnique F{\'e}d{\'e}rale de Lausanne in 2008; Lectures on Foundations of Biology, University Pierre and Marie Curie, Paris 2008-2013; 74th Cold Spring Harbor Symposium ``Evolution --- The Molecular Landscape'' in 2009 and Meeting ``From Base Pair to Body Plan'', Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in 2013. We have greatly benefited from the comments of their participants. We wish to thank for discussions and/or comments the manuscript Roger Balian, Sydney Brenner, George Church, Gregory Chaitin, Albert Libchaber, Marie-Claude Marsolier-Kergoat, Theo Odijk, Monica Olvera de la Cruz and Edouard Y{\'e}ramian.\par

\end{multicols}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


Welcome to the Employment Center for the Diocese of Palm Beach and the Catholic Charities of the Diocese of Palm Beach. To view any current job openings, please click here or "Job Listings" found on the left of this page.
The above forms are available by clicking on "Employment Applications" found on the left of this page.
Depending on the job responsibilities of the position you are applying, you may later be asked to permit a review of your driving record.
The Diocese of Palm Beach participates in the E-Verify program. Federal law requires all employers to verify the identity and employment eligibility of all persons hired to work in the United States.
If you are applying for a Teacher or Principal (Administrative) position in one of our schools, please complete the appropriate Employment Application also found on "Employment Applications." It is not necessary that you complete the Consent for Pre-Hire Reference Check form at this time.
*Note: Some job listings may request that applications be emailed to a different email address than the one listed above. Please read the job listing carefully so you can direct your application for employment to the correct person. Failure to do so may result in a delay of your application being received and/or reviewed by the appropriate employment contact.


text:
Print The East Pilbara Arts Centre officially opened 29 April 2016, signifying another important milestone in the revitalisation of Newman.
"This is a historic day for our Shire as the opening of the East Pilbara Arts Centre highlights just how far we have come in our aspirations to be a key regional centre in the Pilbara," said Shire President Lynne Craigie.
"It is also a great privilege to be able to celebrate the opening with We Don't Need a Map because this beautiful facility is an amalgamation of the Shire of East Pilbara and the success of Martumili Artists," she added.
The East Pilbara Arts Centre is designed to nurture a sense of ownership amongst the people of the East Pilbara and link the community through events, exhibitions, learning and engaging the whole community in active participation. The facility houses Martumili Artists and includes a gallery art storage space, a studio for artist development, a commercial kitchen and separate kitchenette, laundry, pump and camp storage room, office space and a caretakers residence. There is also a large open area that will be available for events and functions.
Funding for the facility was provided by BHP Billiton Iron Ore ($4.4million), the Pilbara Development Commission under the Pilbara Cities Initiative through the State Government's Royalties for Regions Program ($3.5 million), Lotterywest ($600,000) and the Shire of East Pilbara ($800,000).
Edgar Basto, Asset President Iron Ore, spoke at the opening of the new East Pilbara Arts Centre and highlighted the value BHP Billiton places on its partnerships with Aboriginal people and the opportunity such investments provide in improving Aboriginal outcomes.
"We wish the Martumili artists every success as they settle into their new home at the East Pilbara Arts Centre. We hope the provision of this centre allows them to grow as a group and inspires others to enjoy their creations while learning and understanding more about their culture. This centre will continue to help put Newman on the map as a town known for its creativity, culture and stories" Edgar said.
Pilbara Development Commission Acting Chief Executive Officer said the new arts centre breathed new life into the town, adding to the revitalisation of Newman from a mining town to a vibrant regional centre. "The innovative project ethically and literally placed Martu people at the centre of the design process. This is a great example of meaningful engagement and locally-driven decision making that sets a new standard for community infrastructure investment," Mr Hill said.
"With the completion of the East Pilbara Arts Centre, the local community will have access to significant artworks that until now have only been exhibited in large galleries outside of Newman. It will create a stronger sense of East Pilbara identity and nurture cultural expression and creativity," said Carly Day, Martumili Arts and Business Manager.
The new home for Martumili Artists has generated excitement among the artists. "It's good to have a new art centre, to have more space inside and out, for the artists to work and to hang all the canvas on the walls there," said Martumili Artist Judith Samson.
"That's our centre, for us, for anybody, and more people can come along and see what Martu are doing. I'm proud that we can show them.
Martumili Artists
Martumili Artists is the art enterprise of the Martu people whose communities span the Great Sandy, Little Sandy and Gibson Deserts in Western Australia's remote East Pilbara region. Art plays a particularly important role in the cultural and economic life of the Martu communities. Many of the Martu artists are senior custodians of Martu cultural heritage who use their arts practices as a conduit for passing on knowledge of country and culture to younger family members.
At the same time, managing the exhibition and sale of artworks is an important way in which Martu artists are carving out a contemporary, engaged and positive livelihood as well as winning new audiences with their beautiful desert country and culture.
Martu artwork can be purchased through Martumili Artists, located at the rear carpark of the Shire of East Pilbara Administration Buildings.
Email: mao@eastpilbara.wa.gov.au
Website: www.martumili.com.au
Facebook: www.facebook.com/martumiliartists
Enquires Phone: (08) 9175 1020
For all East Pilbara Arts Centre enquiries, or to book an event, contact Shire of East Pilbara, Teresa Southwell, Facilities Administration Officer, on (08) 9175 8000 or email FAO@eastpilbara.wa.gov.au.
All Martumili Art Gallery enquiries can be directed to Shire of East Pilbara, Manager Martumili, Carly Day on (08) 9175 1571 or email MAO@eastpilbara.wa.gov.au
Martumili Art Gallery Hours
Mon-Fri 10:00am to 4:00pm Saturday 10:00am to 2:00pm
The East Pilbara Art Centre is located on Newman Drive, Newman (next to the Shire of East Pilbara Administration Offices).


text:
Q: Instantiate a variable of type Interface I want to dynamically instantiate a class in Typescript
Here's a code sample
interface IHtmlField {
  name: string
}

class TextInput implements IHtmlField {
  public name: string
}

class FileInput implements IHtmlField {
  public name: string
}

const fields: {[type: string]: IHtmlField} = {
  text: TextInput,
  file: FileInput
}

const type = 'text' // dynamic variable
const fieldCls = fields[type]
new fieldCls()

I'm getting this error
Cannot use 'new' with an expression whose type lacks a call or construct signature.
It's because the variable that I want to Instantiate is of type IHtmlField
Is there a workaround or a better way to do it?

A: The property type of fields should be not an IHtmlField instance, but a constructor function that constructs a subclass of IHtmlField:
const fields: {[type: string]: {new(): IHtmlField}} = {
  text: TextInput,
  file: FileInput
}

A: Looks like it works in this way:
interface IHtmlField {
    name: string
}

class TextInput implements IHtmlField {
    public name: string
}

class FileInput implements IHtmlField {
    public name: string
}

const fields: { [type: string]: IHtmlField } = {
    text: new TextInput(),
    file: new FileInput()
}

const type = 'text' // dynamic variable
const fieldCls = fields[type]

console.log(fieldCls.name);
//   new fieldCls()

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Adirondack Diversity Advisory Council Announces Affiliate Organizations
Adirondack Diversity Advisory Council
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE, Monday, March 2, 2015
KEENE, N.Y. – The Adirondack Diversity Advisory Council (ADAC) today announced a new affiliate program and released its first list of affiliates. Initial ADAC affiliates include the Adirondack Council, Adirondack Foundation, Adirondack Futures, the Common Ground Alliance, John Brown Lives!, the Regional Office of Sustainable Tourism (ROOST), the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry (SUNY-ESF) Northern Forest Institute, and The Wild Center.
ADAC's mission is to develop and promote strategies to help the Adirondack Park become more welcoming and inclusive of all New Yorkers, both visitors and permanent residents. A more inclusive Adirondack Park will benefit not only the citizens of New York but the economic and political health of the Park as well. In order to fulfill this mission ADAC has begun to develop a series of initiatives in training and education, transportation, youth engagement, arts and culture, targeted outreach and best-practice consulting.
The role of ADAC affiliates is to offer advice and support, as well as engage and participate in those initiatives that fit their role in the Adirondack Park.
"We support this initiative and its significance to the continued expansion of tourism's economic impact in the park," said James McKenna, president of the ROOST, the destination marketing organization responsible for promoting Essex, Franklin and Hamilton Counties. "We recognize the need to not only embrace an increasingly diverse marketplace, but to understand that the product we offer must appeal to a more diverse demographic as well."
Added Cali Brooks, Executive Director of the Adirondack Foundation: "We need to embrace the value that people from all walks of life bring to the table to ensure that our communities -- and the environment -- can thrive."
"The great Adirondack legacy of pure water, wilderness and vibrant communities belongs to all New York residents, now and for the generations still to come," said Adirondack Council Executive Director William C. Janeway. "The freedom to celebrate our differences, not fear them, is an American birthright. As America's greatest park, the Adirondack Park is open to all and should always be welcoming to all, regardless of race, income, religion, sexual orientation, nationality, disability or any of the other personal characteristics that make each of us unique."
Encompassing 9,300 square miles, the Adirondack Park is as big as the State of Vermont. Unlike most parks, it is designed to incorporate dozens of rural communities as well as commercial timberlands, farms and homes, which sit alongside millions of acres of state-protected, "forever wild" public forests. It is one of the only parks in the world where society is designed to live in harmony with nature.
The Adirondack Park's year-round population is fewer than 135,000 people, or about one-quarter of Vermont's. More than 90 percent of the park's population is white, as are a vast majority of visitors. As both New York State and the United States continue to evolve rapidly toward a plurality population where no ethnic or racial group constitutes the majority, the Park's demographics are becoming more out of balance with the rest of the country.
Said Dave Mason, co-founder of Adirondack Futures: "Our region is unusually dependent on financial support from New York State taxpayers outside the area. As the State's demographics change, the demographics of our region's residents and visitors are likely to slowly change as well. We are less likely to find the support we require in Albany if we get way out of synch, apart from, and out of touch, with the population of the State."
Key to the future of both the Adirondack Park and New York State is to develop a synergy between diversity and environmental literacy, noted Paul B. Hai, Program Coordinator for SUNY-ESF's Northern Forest Institute, co-founded ADAC and the affiliate program.
"One of the foundational benefits of protecting natural and wild places is their value to society providing a place of wonder, respite and recreation," Hai said. "A parallel benefit is that access to natural places, at any scale, helps increase environmental literacy. If only one or a few segments of society are able to access or feel welcomed in these places we are betraying the public investment in preserving these spaces, and failing in our commitment to make the natural world an important thread of our society's cultural tapestry. This is especially critical as our climate shifts and society works to understand the implications and decide how to best respond."
The ADAC affiliate program is already active and producing results. The ADAC will soon announce a series of diversity training programs across the Adirondack region in conjunction with the Wild Center, SUNY-ESF and others.
ADAC was formed as an outcome of the symposium "Towards a More Diverse Adirondacks," held in Newcomb in August 2014. Pete Nelson (AdirondackDAC@gmail.com) is the current coordinator.
« Back to Press Releases


The operating room is a place where safety is of paramount importance. Strict protocols must be followed to eliminate preventable errors. One such process that can lead to favorable outcomes is sterile reprocessing of surgical instruments. Unfortunately, contaminated and inadequately processed surgical instruments still end up in the OR. When this happens, disruptions and delays can happen. This can throw off an entire day's surgical schedule. However, these are necessary steps since no one wants to put patients at risk of serious post-operative infections. Here is a little more information from USMS on how surgical instrument reprocessing affects safety in the operating room.
The number one solution to this problem remains ongoing staff training and assessment. With that being said, further measures can be taken to reduce human error. Clear guidelines with steps that are easy to follow along with the integration of several foolproof control points should be integrated into the standardized process. The introduction of computerized solutions should also guide technicians along the way.
As surgical instruments become more complex, it is becoming more and more difficult for reprocessing personnel to follow the meticulous instructions that are required to clean and disinfect the wide variety of advanced OR instruments. Add to that the constant pressure to shorten turnaround times and the fact that there is a limited supply of instruments and you can run into logistical issues. This problem can be overcome through a rational distribution of resources combined with good hospital management practices.
How can a medical instrument repair and service company like US Medical Systems help a healthcare facility with this crucial task? We offer education in-services designed for the operating room and sterile surgical instrument processing. We keep track of your surgical equipment repairs with our reporting tools to help your facility manage the instrumentation turnover. Most importantly, we are always available to offer advice on your surgical instruments. Let us help you take care of complex operating room instruments and while keeping your OR environment safe for everyone.


Tablets will become the primary computing device for college-age students and younger, supplanting laptops and desktops, agree 66% of agency leaders.
Senior marketers believe that their efforts are under more scrutiny these days, and consistent with that perception, count accountability as their top concern this year.
61% of large companies agree that their social strategy is connected to business goals and outcomes.
African Americans are 44% more likely to check in for a discount and 37% more likely to scan a QR code to get more information about a product.
Smart phone penetration reached 55% of the US mobile market during the 3-month period ending in January 2013.
Asked to identify the top-3 improvements to their online shopping experiences that would motivate them to shop more, 74% of consumers cited free delivery.
Nearly three out of five small businesses said they will spend more on social advertising, promoted postings and sponsored tweets.
More than 60% of small businesses lacked an address on their homepage, and nearly 50% did not provide a contact number.
Nearly 70% of small businesses said they had a website, which they primarily used to inform customers about products and services.


Thirty successful education efforts throughout Seattle and South King County have been selected to be honored at the 2016 Celebration of Success, an event co-hosted by the Road Map Project and the team from the Puget Sound Educational Service District, working on the region's Race to the Top grant. This event is aimed at highlighting important work being done to support racial equity, close the opportunity gap, and demonstrates promising results for low-income students, children of color and students who have historically been disadvantaged. The full list of selected "Success Exhibitors" is available below.
The event will be a unique opportunity for those who have successes to share results and key learnings, and for people and organizations interested in learning and spreading these efforts.
"The Celebration of Success is an opportunity for education partners, community leaders, and philanthropists to learn what's working in our region and explore ways to expand the successful work," said Mary Jean Ryan, executive director of the Community Center for Education Results (CCER).
Invitees include private and public funders; media; district and community partners who have led Race to the Top programs; superintendents, school board members and union presidents from the Road Map Project districts; state, local and federal elected officials; parent leaders; student advocates; higher education leaders; business leaders and community organizations and advocates.
This event is made possible by the generous support of The Boeing Company, BECU, Social Venture Partners, Pacifica Law Group and United Way. We are also excited to have media partnerships for this event with KCTS 9 and Sound Publishing.
The Road Map Project is a collective impact initiative aimed at dramatically improving student achievement from cradle to college and career in South King County and South Seattle. The goal is to double the number of students in South King County and South Seattle who are on track to graduate from college or earn a career credential by 2020. Project partners are committed to nothing less than closing the unacceptable achievement gaps for low-income students and children of color, and increasing achievement for all students.


Cicadas have a fascinating life cycle, but most of us only become aware of them in summer when they reach adulthood and begin their loud, drone-like call - and some cicadas, like the golden emperor, have complicated songs. The summertime call of the cicada is made by the adult male to attract females. Their eggs are laid usually in scratches cut through tree bark. Once breeding has been completed, the adults die.
When the eggs hatch, the larvae drop to the ground and burrow under the soil. The larvae attach themselves to tree roots and feed on the sap - this stage in their life cycle is called a nymph stage. This underground stage, periodically shedding their skin as they grow, can last as little as several months for some species or as long as several years for others.
When they have reached maturity, the cicada nymphs emerge from the soil as a group and climb onto a vertical surface. They shed their skin for the last time to become adult cicadas with their characteristic heavily-veined, transparent wings. Their empty nymph skin is commonly seen attached to trees and fence posts during summer and it is a diagnostic feature for cicada species identification. A few days after emerging from the soil, the males call for a mate and the cycle begins again.
The endemic golden emperor (Anapsaltoda pulchra) is one of Australia's biggest and prettiest cicadas. It only occurs in dense rainforests in a small area of the Wet Tropics extending from the southern tablelands to the Kirrama Range, northwest of Cardwell. The Nandroya Falls track in the Palmerston section of Wooroonoran National Park is a good place to hear the golden emperor, but only for a few weeks in January.
This particular cicada's call is very distinctive, starting with two notes and then raising pitch and intensity before it suddenly drops down to a machine-like whirr - a delight to listen hear. The golden emperor calls in groups, but getting to see one up close is very difficult as they fly away when approached. Also, as their breeding season progresses, they gradually move higher up the tree trunks, making their call the only sign they are still around.