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You are here: Home / Archive / Publications / Reviews of DNA Evidence for Book of Mormon Geography / Section 9: Nephite Structures
Section 9: Nephite Structures
Editor's Note: Due to the brevity of this paper, no executive summary is necessary. See our index page for more information. This paper was last updated 1 November 2008.
This document is a partial analysis of the scholarly merits of the evidence and research used by Rodney Meldrum1 in his firesides and DVD presentation, DNA Evidence for Book of Mormon Geography.2 Neither FAIR nor this document take any position on the geographic location of Book of Mormon events.3 It is important, however, that Meldrum's theories be analyzed according to the same standards by which other Book of Mormon geography theories are evaluated. To avoid confusion, this paper refers to Meldrum's geographic model as the Limited North American Model, or LNAM.4 This document is just one in a series of such analytical documents.
In this document we examine Meldrum's research and conclusions relative to chronological evidence. This examination addresses, specifically, Part 11 of the DVD presentation, which is titled "Nephite Structures: Hopewell Structures."
Stone Cities
In discussing Nephite structures, the DVD begins by laying a foundation for everything that will follow—that Nephite structures were built of wood, but Mesoamerican structures were all stone, therefore Nephites could not have been in Mesoamerica.
There is a problem with this foundation, however: it is built upon a profound misunderstanding of the extant knowledge about Mesoamerica. Note how the DVD starts to lay the foundation:
What was the primary building material used in the Book of Mormon? Because the cities down in Central America are primarily made out of what? Stone. OK?5
This is demonstrably untrue. There are certainly impressive stone cities and ruins in Mesoamerica, but it is a mistake to conclude that these made up the whole city. Regional centers tended to have a core of buildings made of more durable materials, such as brick, stone, and earth. Most of the rest of the city was made of wood and mud ("waddle and daub") construction.6 The majority of people would have lived in wood/mud structures, not the impressive stone monuments that exist to the present day.
One expert describes how even the important buildings were built of perishable materials in the area often suggested as the Book of Mormon lands:
Owing to the scarcity of suitable, easily worked building stone, even the largest and most elaborate southern Maya7 buildings were usually constructed of perishable materials, such as pole and thatch, wood, or adobe blocks.8
Most of us naturally pay more attention to the stone architecture of Mesoamerica for several reasons:
Cities built of wood are perishable, especially in the humid, warm climate of Central America.9 Thus, the stone portions of cities are more intact, but this does not mean that cities in Central America were "primarily made out of…stone," as the DVD asserts. Stone is primarily what we see today on superficial examination; it was not the major building material used historically.10
More archaeological work has been done on stone architecture than on the more common wooden structures and much more has been published about stone architecture. This does not mean, however, that wood architecture was rare or less common than stone.11
Stone buildings are simply more impressive than the subtler remains of wood construction, and so make better posters, tourist destinations, and magazine covers.
It is also important to note that many of the iconic Mesoamerican stone ruins date to after the Book of Mormon period, despite the unfortunate tendency of some graphic designers to use images of these ruins as if they were Nephite.
It is also well known that later cities in Mesoamerica were built upon the remains of earlier cities. Thus, many wooden buildings, if they have already not decayed, would be under later ruins and not visible without extensive archaeological work.
Despite what may be popularly thought (and promulgated in the DVD presentation), the remains of wooden buildings do exist in Mesoamerica, but they are less impressive or obvious than stone monuments. For example, wooden houses often take the form of "house mounds," meter-high elevations that appear to be earthen hills but actually contain the remains of an ancient dwelling.12 Only an expert's eye might detect them, and the DVD provides us with no such expertise.
The DVD also misrepresents the views of those with whom it disagrees (those who propose a Mesoamerican geography):
It is extremely clear from this scripture [Helaman 3:9] that they used wood. And if we're looking for temples made out of stone, then we're looking for the wrong kind of temples. Because these temples were made from timber.13
The problem with such a statement is the inference that Mesoamerican scholars insist on temples made of stone; they do not. Mesoamerican scholars such as Brant Gardner emphasize that,
Guatemala is blessed with extensive hardwood forests, and woodworking is archaeologically attested. In fact, woodworking was presumably more widespread than the surviving samples, since the Mesoamerican climate and the passage of millennia since Nephi's time would destroy most wooden items….it is more likely that Nephi would have used the various hardwoods that were locally available [for his temple].14
Burning Cities
The DVD presentation compounds the confusion by claiming:
If this was a Nephite city, made out of wood, what would be the easiest way to destroy it? Right; exactly—fire. So, are there any indications in the Book of Mormon itself for cities being burned with fire? And sure enough, there are. Third Nephi 8: "And many great notable cities were sunk and many were burned, and these cities…were caused to be burned with fire. And also the city of Lehman and Josh and Gad and Kishkuman." They were all burned with fire.
What about in Ether and the Jaredites? Sure enough, he says, "They did enslave both the women and children, they did burn the cities." These were not stone cities; these had to have been wooden cities.15
Remember that Meldrum is the only one claiming that those who posit a Mesoamerican geography require Book of Mormon cities to be made of stone. But, he's also wrong on the issue of fire—stone buildings and cities can and do burn. A stone city is not only made of stone. There are many other materials within buildings, used as part of the structures' construction and furnishings. Once fires are started, masonry can become unstable and stones can shatter from the heat, leading to further destabilization of the building.
There are many examples of such fires from around the world. European cathedrals are gigantic stone structures and yet they were repeatedly threatened by fire. The magnificent gothic cathedral in Chartres, France, has been the site of numerous churches. A wooden church from the fourth century A.D. was burned by the Duke of Aquitaine in 743; Danish pirates destroyed it by fire again in 858. The church was rebuilt in stone, only to be consumed by fire in 1020—something which the DVD suggests ought to be impossible. A Romanesque stone building was entirely destroyed by fire in 1194 A.D., save for one facade, the towers, the foundation, and crypt. Another fire threatened in 1836, but fortunately the stone and glass was unharmed.16 During the construction of the cathedral, it was also burned down once and narrowly escaped this fate a second time.
Closer to home, Latter-day Saints are well aware that after Brigham Young led the exodus to Salt Lake, arsonists burned the Nauvoo Temple. The temple was constructed of stone but was ravaged by fire just the same. Clearly, a stone building is not immune to fire.
In an ancient American environment, the classic Aztec symbol for a conquered city was a burning temple, and burning stone temples played an important role in Aztec warfare:
The initial objective, however, was to induce the city to submit, not to destroy it. Thus, except in raids by non-Aztecs, burning was largely restricted to temples and their associated buildings. Firing a town's main temple was the ultimate sign of victory and was a devastating blow, for several reasons. The temples were usually the most heavily fortified sites within the city, and burning them meant that the enemy had succeeded in penetrating and overcoming the strongest resistance. More pragmatically, the temple precincts also contained the city's armories. Thus, burning them deprived the embattled army of additional arms and war supplies, so the act was devastating even when it was accomplished by stealth or deception.
Burning a city to accomplish its defeat was not common. But depending on the town's willingness to negotiate, the city might be burned if it did not surrender once its main temple had been fired.17
Stone cities can be burned, and they were burned in Mesoamerica, as well as everywhere else in the world.
In conclusion, anyone who contents that Mesoamerican cities were primarily built of stone, that Mesoamerican scholars agree that they are primarily built of stone, or that stone structures cannot be burned betrays a limited knowledge of archaeology and history. The LNAM gains little by relying on such flawed arguments; it certainly doesn't gain advantage of those who prefer a Mesoamerican geography.
1 This paper follows the scholarly custom of referring to an individual, at first reference, by full name and then subsequently referring to the individual by last name only. We fully recognize Rodney as a brother in the gospel, but in discussing secular issues (such as scholarly research and geographic models) it was felt that continually prefacing his name or the name of any other referenced scholar or individual with "Brother" or "Sister," while accurate, would distract from the readability of the paper.
2 Rodney Meldrum, DNA Evidence for Book of Mormon Geography: New scientific support for the truthfulness of the Book of Mormon; Correlation and Verification through DNA, Prophetic, Scriptural, Historical, Climatological, Archaeological, Social, and Cultural Evidence (Rodney Meldrum, 2008). The DVD is in sections; citations in this paper reference the DVD's section number and title, followed by an approximate time stamp from the DVD.
3 FAIR recognizes that faithful individuals and scholars can honestly disagree on where Book of Mormon events took place; there is no revealed or officially accepted geography. FAIR provides an online reference to over 60 different geographic models at http://en.fairmormon.org/Book_of_Mormon_geography (click on Book of Mormon Geographical Models).
4 Meldrum's model places Book of Mormon peoples in an area roughly covering the Atlantic seaboard to the Rocky Mountains. This name was chosen as descriptive of the general model. We recognize that Meldrum may pick a different name at some point and would invite him to do so.
5 Meldrum, DNA Evidence, section 11, "Nephite Structures," 0:00-0:15.
6 One of the classic textbooks on the Maya says: "Throughout the Maya area the remains of most domestic buildings indicate that they were constructed in the same manner as are contemporary Maya houses. Typically, a pole framework supports a thatched roof; walls are usually wattle and daub, a woven lattice of sticks plastered with a thick coating of adobe (mud mixed with straw or other binder). In the hottest regions, house walls are often unplastered, allowing the passage of cooling breezes. More substantial houses may have foundations of stone, or rough stone walls smoothed with plaster." [Robert J. Sharer, The Ancient Maya, 5th edition (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1994), 631.]
7 The "southern Maya" is the area thought to be the cradle of Mayan civilization and culture. For a map and discussion, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Maya_area (last accessed 3 September 2008).
8 Sharer, The Ancient Maya, 631.
9 Of wooden artifacts, Sharer notes, "Only the hardest species of wood have survived the damp climate of the Maya lowlands, and the only wooden objects that have been recovered had been in situations protected from the weather." (Sharer, The Ancient Maya, 657.)
10 "Except for the masonry 'palaces' of the elite," notes Sharer, "the vast majority ofÖresidences in the Maya area are detected archaeologically as low earthen or rubble platforms." (Sharer, The Ancient Maya, 467.)
11 Sharer describes the difficulties in assessing this aspect of Maya life: "Öthere will at any site be an unknown proportion of residences that the [archaeologist] missed, either because they lacked platforms, have been completely destroyed, or are so deeply buried as to be undetectable. At Tikal, for example, it was estimated that the actual number of ancient residents was 10 percent greater than the mapped total of residence platforms. At Copan this factor was higher (between 39 and 50 percent), and at the badly disturbed site of Santa Rita Corozal, it was much greater (between 50 and 100 percent)." (Sharer, The Ancient Maya, 468.)
12 This has been known for decades. The first major study of low-status dwellings was Robert Wauchope, House Mounds of Uaxactun, Guatemala (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1934). For the practice of counting house mounds to estimate population, see Gordon R. Willey, "The Structure of Ancient Maya Society: Evidence from the Southern Lowlands," American Anthropologist 58/5 (October 1956): 777ñ782.
13 Meldrum, DNA Evidence, section 11, "Nephite Structures," 1:30-1:50.
14 Brant A. Gardner, Second Witness: Analytical and Contextual Commentary on the Book of Mormon, 6 volumes (Salt Lake City: Greg Kofford Books, 2007), 2:100, 102.
16 Etienne Houvet and Malcom B. Miller, Chartres Cathedral (Saint-DiÈ, France: Haute-Vosge Impressions, 1985), 16ñ20.
17 Ross Hassig, Aztec Warfare (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), 105.


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In the debate leading up to the passing of the new bankruptcy bill that became law early in 2005 and which made it more difficult to be cleared of debts when filing for bankruptcy, two broad positions were argued by proponents and opponents of the bill. Proponents maintained that many debtors were opting for bankruptcy out of irresponsibility and laziness. That is, they had the means to pay at least some of their debts but chose bankuptcy as an easy way of escape from their obligations. Their debts, it was implied, were the result of carelessness and overspending. Opponents, on the other hand, cited statistics which showed that the vast majority of debtors were driven into bankruptcy because of illness, divorce, loss of job, or some other event beyond their control. Individuals and families who otherwise could regularly make payments on their debt were pushed over the limit by some unexpected calamity.
Although I was opposed to the new law and consider it one-sided in favor of banks and credit card companies, nevertheless it must be said that the arguments of most of the opponents of the bill did neglect to take into account one important fact. This is, that part of the reason why for many people an illness or a job loss or even a natural disaster was just enough to push them over the limit was that they were spending too much - too much on their houses, their cars, their clothes, and on the numerous gadgets that Americans have come to feel they have a right to.
Now before anyone accuses me of favoring the rich banks over the poor or middle class, let me say, as will become clear below, that the persons I hold ultimately responsible for this state of affairs are the very bankers, advertisers and others who encourage us in our overspending. But still it is not wrong to point out that the image of a poor debtor in his small house and old car is not always correct. Sometimes it is the individual or family in a large house, with an interest-only mortgage, in an SUV, with the latest cell phone, large screen TV, stylish clothes, etc. For what has happened in the United States, and to one degree or another throughout much of the world, is that capitalism has corrupted the poor themselves, has corrupted us all, so that the picture of the virtuous poor man and the corrupt banker often should be a picture of the corrupted poor man and the corrupting banker.
Now before I go further, let me digress and discuss what I mean by capitalism. When I condemn capitalism, I am not advocating socialism or state ownership. Rather, when I speak of capitalism, I use the term as Pope Pius XI did in his great 1931 encyclical Quadragesimo Anno, namely, as the separation of ownership and work. That is, under capitalism most of us do not own the means of production but we work as hired hands for those who do. And those who do own the means of production are usually removed from the actual productive work of the firm, either entirely, as are shareholders, or partially, as are owner/managers.
Because of this separation of ownership and work there is a strong temptation for those who are the legal owners of the means of production to focus not on creating the goods or services which we humans need, but to look for any way to make a buck. Thus mergers and buyouts, stock deals, currency manipulation, and similar activities tend to replace real production as the chief preoccupation of the economy, even though these usually do not result in the creation of any real goods or services. The separation of ownership from work tends to turn the economy away from attention to real human needs to the notion of making money by any means which are legal - and frequently not even that. If a merger or stock manipulation will make more money for the managers or stockholders of a company than steady production of a reliable product, then there is every temptation to forget about production and devote oneself to the more lucrative task of fictitious economy activities, such as mergers and buyouts, which frequently result in job losses and even a reduction in the manufacture of real goods.
If we ask ourselves, however, why man needs an economy, the answer surely is because we need real goods and services in order to live. The economy exists so that we can supply each other's needs for legitimate goods and services and in the process earn our own living. It does not exist so that some can get rich no matter what harm they inflict on the common good by manipulation of surrogates for real wealth, such as stock certificates or currency.
We see the effects of the separation of ownership and work most perfectly in the corporation. The real owners of a corporation are, of course, the stockholders. But how many of these care about the actual product of their company? As long as the dividends keep coming or the stock price keeps rising, most of them are not concerned with how the company is actually run, with the quality of its product, its labor policies, or anything else that one might suppose should concern the actual owners of a firm. It might be argued that unless a firm produces something of value it will not be able to stay in business long, and thus the threat of ultimate bankruptcy will keep the managers focused on the task of production. But this is not the case. For in the short run, managers and directors can often find easier and more lucrative ways to make money, as I said above. If a company is run into the ground, but its directors bail out with large pensions and "golden parachutes," the company's bankruptcy is hardly a concern of theirs.
An economy that looks to the real purpose of economic activity, the supplying of our external needs so that we can devote ourselves to what is more important, to the things of God, to our families, to cultural and intellectual activity - such an economy will always tend to preserve the correct order among the variety of our earthly tasks and needs. But one in which moneymaking becomes an end in itself will corrupt every one of mankind's pursuits, not excluding the Church of God herself.
But to return to my argument, the shift from an economy focused on production for man's needs to an economy focused on any method for making money, has resulted in a commercialized culture in which money and goods have become the preoccupation of many people's lives.
Hardly anyone is exempt from this, and the fact that one does not have enough money to participate in the economy of greed does not deter many. Indeed, credit card companies and advertisers would be aghast if it did. For if people began saving and only bought what they truly needed, our economy would collapse. Over two-thirds of U.S. Gross Domestic Product consists of consumer spending. We are dependent on people always wanting the newer or the "better" or the bigger. We even see nothing wrong in this and think it is a natural way for man to live. We do not think, How large a house do I need for my family, but rather, How large a house can I afford the mortgage payments for? In fact, as average family size has fallen in the United States, average house size has increased. But do developers and builders build with an eye for what families need or do they build the biggest they think they can sell? I am sure that many will reply that no one is forced to buy McMansions or SUVs. Exactly. It is advertising, building on the fertile soil of our commercialized culture of greed, which in turn rests upon a human nature wounded by original sin, that facilitates this. If advertising vanished tomorrow, we would still buy food and clothes and shoes, things we really need, but perhaps we would gradually stop buying all the other things we don't need. But advertising and our commercial culture have taught most of us to buy and spend without regard to our real needs, so that now any financial setback threatens our ability to meet our ordinary expenses. Thus bankruptcy.
Now is there anything here which should be of concern to Catholics, and indeed all Christians? If we take seriously the doctrines of our faith, we should note that in general Holy Scripture and Christian tradition are quite suspicious toward the economic motive in human affairs. Who can forget the words of St. Paul, "if we have food and clothing, with these we shall be content. But those who desire to be rich fall in temptation, into a snare, into many senseless and hurtful desires that plunge men into ruin and destruction. For the love of money is the root of all evils; it is through this craving that some have wandered away from the faith and pierced their hearts with many pangs" (I Tim. 6:8-10)? Can anyone seriously contend that Paul looked upon a limitless desire for increased material comfort as a good thing?
Every Christian knows that our powerful sexual appetite must be kept in bounds by social custom and even law, but what of the nearly equally powerful appetite of greed? In view of the essentially negative attitude which Holy Scripture and Christian tradition take toward an unnecessary preoccupation with material things, are we not justified in thinking that the same sorts of social custom and law must be used to keep this latter appetite in check too? But because nearly all discussion in our society is automatically classified according to our bitter, confusing and demonically-inspired division into Right/Left, Conservative/Liberal, many otherwise faithful Christians think that such criticism of moneymaking smacks of all the errors and evils of the Left. All too many people discount or refuse to listen to anything which they think savors of the other side, whom they identify as the enemy, almost the Devil himself. But whether one is deluded into embracing the ideology of the Left or the Right, the words of St. Paul still stand and still have to be taken into account. We cannot dismiss him. A Christian who identifies himself primarily as a follower of Jesus Christ will look for truth in the genuine sources of revelation, not amidst the partisan verbiage that passes for discussion in our day.
I do not expect any real reform of our hedonistic and chaotic American society. But I would like to see a little attention by Catholics and other Christians to this subject, a little recognition that our fascination with riches and goods is not pleasing to God. It is true that the clergy largely ignore it, indeed, many of them are avid participants in it. But none of that negates the teaching of the Gospel. We ignore it at our peril, indeed at the peril of the moral and even physical health of our nation. And especially at the peril of our souls. For it is "easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God" (Matthew 19:24).
Originally published on Traditional Catholic Reflections and Reports, May 2006.


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Schwarzenegger Combats Plans to Divert Federal After-School Aid
By Laura Heinauer Mellett on November 1, 2013 12:01 PM | No comments
Former California Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger was in the nation's capital this week, using his star power to prevent federal dollars from getting diverted from after-school programs.
The Governator came out slugging, voicing concern about schools requesting waivers from the U.S.Department of Education that would allow them to use federal after-school money from the 21st Century Community Learning Centers program to lengthen the school day or school year, according to a Huffington Post article. The piece said officials with an advocacy group, the Afterschool Alliance stated that 24 states have requested waivers that would result in as many as 60,000 students losing their after-school programs.
There's a longstanding debate over how flexible federal requirements should be for the 21st Century grants program, pitting after-school advocates against those who wish to use the money for an extended school day and other interventions, as we've reported in Education Week.
"There has been an attempt to take this funding, ... and they thought no one would notice," the story quoted Schwarzenegger as saying.
Support for after-school programs is a cause that Schwarzenegger, now an honorary chair of the Afterschool Alliance, has rallied behind since 2002 when he campaigned for Proposition 49, which created the After-School Education and Safety Program, which currently provides $550 million each year for such programs in California. He also founded a group called After-School All-Stars. This group provides after-school programs in hundreds of schools throughout the country.
In addition to appearances on Capitol Hill, Schwarzenegger could be found on Reddit voicing support of after-school programs. He also wrote in an opinion piece for the publication Politico about he has seen firsthand that after-school programs can do remarkable things for kids, families, and communities.
"There is a large and growing body of evidence showing that comprehensive after-school programs help inspire kids to learn and help working families," he wrote, saying research has shown that every dollar spent on after-school programs results in a $3 return in the form of reduced crime, improved student performance, and reduced social services costs.
It looks as though he is citing a study in 2002, which was in part funded by the Afterschool Alliance, to determine the estimated costs and benefits of California's after-school initiative.
Schwarzenegger also shared this link on Reddit, to a compendium of studies, reports and commentaries on expanding learning and after school programs.
"We know the programs work, so my argument is simply not to cut something we know is effective," he said on Reddit. "I'd love to increase funding, but I understand that there is limited money to go around right now so I'm just trying to protect what we have."
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Hartlepool () is a seaside and port town in County Durham, England. It is governed by a unitary authority borough named after the town which also governs the civil parishes of Greatham, Hart, Dalton Piercy and Elwick. The borough is part of the devolved Tees Valley area. With an estimated population of 90,123, it is the second-largest settlement (after Darlington) in County Durham.

The old town was founded in the 7th century, around the monastery of Hartlepool Abbey on a headland. As the village grew into a town in the Middle Ages, its harbour served as the County Palatine of Durham's official port. The new town of West Hartlepool was created in 1835 after a new port was built and railway links from the South Durham coal fields (to the north) and from Stockton-on-Tees (to the south) were created. The two towns merged and became known as the Hartlepools before dropping the "s".

Industrialisation in northern England and the start of a shipbuilding industry in the later part of the 19th century meant it was a target for the Imperial German Navy at the beginning of the First World War. A bombardment of 1,150 shells on 16 December 1914 resulted in the death of 117 people in the town. A severe decline in heavy industries and shipbuilding following the Second World War caused periods of high unemployment until the 1990s when major investment projects and the redevelopment of the docks area into a marina saw a rise in the town's prospects.

Toponymy

The place name derives from Old English heort ("hart"), referring to stags seen, and pōl (pool), a pool of drinking water which they were known to use. Records of the place-name from early sources confirm this:
 649: Heretu, or Hereteu.
 1017: Herterpol, or Hertelpolle.
 1182: Hierdepol.
The 8th-century Northumbrian chronicler Bede referred to the spot on which today's town is sited upon as "the place where deer come to drink", and in this period the Headland was named by the Angles as Heruteu (Stag Island). At the beginning of the 11th century the name had evolved into Herterpol, and after the Norman Conquest the name of the village sited there evolved in Middle English as: Hart-le-pool ("The Pool of the Stags"). Archaeological evidence has been found below the current high tide mark that indicates that an ancient post-glacial forest by the sea existed in the area during this period.

History

Town on the heugh

Following the end of Roman rule in its province of Britannia in the early 5th century, the northeastern coast was raided by the Angles from across the North Sea in Scandinavia. They subsequently began crossing the North Sea and settled in the area, creating the Kingdom of Northumbria in sub-Roman Britain. Hartlepool began as an Anglian settlement, and a town developed in the 7th century sited around Hartlepool Abbey, which had been founded in 640 by the Irish Christian priest Saint Aidan upon a headland overlooking a natural harbour and the North Sea. The monastery became powerful under St Hilda, who served as its abbess from 649 to 657. The Abbey fell into decline with the loss of Northumbrian power in the early 8th century, and it was probably destroyed during a sea raid by Vikings on Hartlepool in the 9th century. In March 2000, the archaeological investigation television programme Time Team located the foundations of the lost monastery in the grounds of St Hilda's Church.

Hartness

During the Norman Conquest, the De Brus family gained over-lordship of the land surrounding Hartlepool. William the Conqueror subsequently ordered the construction of Durham Castle, and the villages under their rule were mentioned in records in 1153 when Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale became Lord of Hartness. The town's first charter was received before 1185, for which it gained its first mayor, an annual two-week fair and a weekly market.

By the Middle Ages Hartlepool was growing into an important (though still small) market town, one of the reasons for its escalating wealth being that its harbour was serving now as the official port of the County Palatine of Durham. The main industry of the town at this time was fishing, and Hartlepool in this period established itself as one of the primary ports upon England's Eastern coast.

In 1306, Robert the Bruce was crowned King of Scotland, and became the last Lord of Hartness. Angered, King Edward I confiscated the title to Hartlepool, and began to improve the town's military defences in expectation of war. In 1315, before they were completed, a Scottish army under Sir James Douglas attacked, captured and looted the town.

In the late 15th century a pier was constructed to assist in the harbour's workload.

Garrison
Hartlepool was once again militarily occupied by a Scottish incursion, this time in alliance with the Parliamentary Army during the English Civil War, which after 18 months was relieved by an English Parliamentarian garrison.

In 1795 Hartlepool artillery emplacements and defences were constructed in the town as a defensive measure against the threat of French attack from seaborne Napoleonic forces. During the Crimean War two coastal batteries were constructed close together in the town to guard against the threat of seaborne attacks from the Imperial Russian Navy, they were entitled the Lighthouse Battery (1855) and the Heugh Battery (1859).

Hartlepool in the 18th century became known as a town with medicinal springs, particularly the Chalybeate Spa near the Westgate. The poet Thomas Gray visited the town in July 1765 to "take the waters", and wrote to his friend William Mason:

A few weeks later, he wrote in greater detail to James Brown:

Town by the strand

By the early nineteenth century, Hartlepool was still a small town of around 900 people, with a declining port. In 1823 the council and Board of Trade decided that the town needed new industry, so the decision was made to propose a new railway to make Hartlepool a coal port, shipping out minerals from the Durham coalfield. It was in this endeavour that Isambard Kingdom Brunel visited the town in December 1831, and wrote: "A curiously isolated old fishing town – a remarkably fine race of men. Went to the top of the church tower for a view."

But the plan was faced by local competition from new docks.  to the north, the Marquis of Londonderry had approved the creation of the new Seaham Harbour (opened 31 July 1831), while to the south the Clarence Railway connected Stockton-on-Tees and Billingham to a new port at Port Clarence (opened 1833). Further south again, in 1831 the Stockton and Darlington Railway had extended into the new port of Middlesbrough.

The council agreed the formation of the Hartlepool Dock and Railway Company (HD&RCo) to extend the existing port by developing new docks, and link to both local collieries and the developing railway network in the south. In 1833, it was agreed that Christopher Tennant of Yarm establish the HD&RCo, having previously opened the Clarence Railway (CR). Tennant's plan was that the HD&RCo would fund the creation of a new railway, the Stockton and Hartlepool Railway, which would take over the loss-making CR and extended it north to the new dock, thereby linking to the Durham coalfield.

After Tennant died, in 1839, the running of the HD&RCo was taken over by Stockton-on-Tees solicitor, Ralph Ward Jackson. But Jackson became frustrated at the planning restrictions placed on the old Hartlepool dock and surrounding area for access, so bought land which was mainly sand dunes to the south-west, and established West Hartlepool. Because Jackson was so successful at shipping coal from West Hartlepool through his West Hartlepool Dock and Railway Company and, as technology developed, ships grew in size and scale, the new town would eventually dwarf the old town.

The  West Hartlepool Harbour and Dock opened on 1 June 1847. On 1 June 1852 the  Jackson Dock opened on the same day that a railway opened connecting West Hartlepool to Leeds, Manchester and Liverpool. This allowed the shipping of coal and wool products eastwards, and the shipping of fresh fish and raw fleeces westwards, enabling another growth spurt in the town. This in turn resulted in the opening of the Swainson Dock on 3 June 1856, named after Ward Jackson's father-in-law. In 1878 the William Gray & Co shipyard in West Hartlepool achieved the distinction of launching the largest tonnage of any shipyard in the world, a feat to be repeated on a number of occasions. By 1881, old Hartlepool's population had grown from 993 to 12,361, but West Hartlepool had a population of 28,000.

Ward Jackson helped to plan the layout of West Hartlepool and was responsible for the first public buildings. He was also involved in the education and the welfare of the inhabitants. In the end, he was a victim of his own ambition to promote the town: accusations of shady financial dealings, and years of legal battles, left him in near-poverty. He spent the last few years of his life in London, far away from the town he had created.

World Wars
First

The area became heavily industrialised with an ironworks (established 1838) and shipyards in the docks (established in the 1870s). By 1913, no fewer than 43 ship-owning companies were located in the town, with responsibility for 236 ships. This made it a key target for Germany in the First World War. One of the first German offensives against Britain was a raid and bombardment on the by Imperial German Navy on the morning of 16 December 1914,

Hartlepool was hit with a total of 1150 shells, killing 117 people. Two coastal defence batteries at Hartlepool returned fire, launching 143 shells, and damaging three German ships: SMS Seydlitz, SMS Moltke and SMS Blücher. The Hartlepool engagement lasted roughly 50 minutes, and the coastal artillery defence was supported by the Royal Navy in the form of four destroyers, two light cruisers and a submarine, none of which had any significant impact on the German attackers.

Private Theophilus Jones of the 18th Battalion Durham Light Infantry, who fell as a result of this bombardment, is sometimes described as the first military casualty on British soil by enemy fire. This event (the death of the first soldiers on British soil) is commemorated by the 1921 Redheugh Gardens War Memorial together with a plaque unveiled on the same day (seven years and one day after the East Coast Raid) at the spot on the Headland (the memorial by Philip Bennison illustrates four soldiers on one of four cartouches and the plaque, donated by a member of the public, refers to the 'first soldier' but gives no name). A living history group, the Hartlepool Military Heritage Memorial Society, portray men of that unit for educational and memorial purposes.

Hartlepudlians voluntarily subscribed more money per head to the war effort than any other town in Britain.

Between

On 4 January 1922, a fire starting in a timber yard left 80 people homeless and caused over £1,000,000 pounds of damage. Hartlepool suffered badly in the Great Depression of the 1930s and endured high unemployment.

Second

Unemployment decreased during the Second World War, with shipbuilding and steel-making industries enjoying a renaissance. Most of its output for the war effort were "Empire Ships". German bombers raided the town 43 times, though, compared to the previous war, civilian losses were lighter with 26 deaths recorded by Hartlepool Municipal Borough and 49 by West Hartlepool Borough. During the Second World War, RAF Greatham (also known as RAF West Hartlepool) was located on the South British Steel Corporation Works.

The merge

In 1891 the two towns had a combined population of 64,000. By 1900 the two Hartlepools were, together, one of the three busiest ports in England.

The modern town represents a joining of "Old Hartlepool", locally known as the "Headland", and West Hartlepool. As already mentioned, what was West Hartlepool became the larger town and both were formally unified in 1967. Today the term "West Hartlepool" is rarely heard outside the context of sport, but one of the town's Rugby Union teams still retains the name.

The name of the town's professional football club reflected both boroughs; when it was formed in 1908, following the success of West Hartlepool in winning the FA Amateur Cup in 1905, it was called "Hartlepools United" in the hope of attracting support from both towns. When the boroughs combined in 1967 the club renamed itself "Hartlepool" before re-renaming itself Hartlepool United in the 1970s. Many fans of the club still refer to the team as "Pools"

Fall out

After the war, industry went into a severe decline. Blanchland, the last ship to be constructed in Hartlepool, left the slips in 1961. In 1967, Betty James wrote how "if I had the luck to live anywhere in the North East [of England]...I would live near Hartlepool. If I had the luck". There was a boost to the retail sector in 1970 when Middleton Grange Shopping Centre was opened by Princess Anne, with over 130 new shops including Marks & Spencer and Woolworths.

Before the shopping centre was opened, the old town centre was located around Lynn Street, but most of the shops and the market had moved to a new shopping centre by 1974. Most of Lynn Street had by then been demolished to make way for a new housing estate. Only the north end of the street remains, now called Lynn Street North. This is where the Hartlepool Borough Council depot was based (alongside the Focus DIY store) until it moved to the marina in August 2006.

In 1977, the British Steel Corporation announced the closure of its Hartlepool steelworks with the loss of 1500 jobs. In the 1980s the area was afflicted with extremely high levels of unemployment, at its peak consisting of 30 per cent of the town's working-age population, the highest in the United Kingdom. 630 jobs at British Steel were lost in 1983, and a total of 10,000 jobs were lost from the town in the economic de-industrialization of England's former Northern manufacturing heartlands. Between 1983 and 1999 the town lacked a cinema and areas of it became afflicted with the societal hallmarks of endemic economic poverty: urban decay, high crime levels, drug and alcohol dependency being prevalent.

Rise and the future
Docks near the centre were redeveloped and reopened, by Queen Elizabeth II, in 1993 as a marina with the accompanying National Museum of the Royal Navy opened in 1994, then known as the Hartlepool Historic Quay.

A development corporation is under consultation until August 2022 to organise  projects, with the town's fund given to the town and other funds. Plans would be (if the corporation is formed) focused on the railway station, waterfront (including the Royal Navy Museum and a new leisure centre) and Church Street. Northern School of Art also has funds for a TV and film studios.

Governance

Hartlepool was traditionally administered as a part of the County Palatine of Durham until 1850 when Old Hartlepool i.e. the Headland was incorporated as a municipal borough with its headquarters, Hartlepool Borough Hall, completed in 1866.

In 1887 West Hartlepool was also incorporated as a municipal borough, with its own headquarters, West Hartlepool Town Hall, completed in 1897. In 1902 West Hartlepool was incorporated as a county borough in its own right, remaining non-administratively in County Durham. The old Hartlepool Borough Council amalgamated with West Hartlepool Borough Council to form a combined authority in 1967.

In 1974, the combined council was merged into Cleveland, which appointed its own Lord Lieutenant. The 1996 Banham Review, disbanded Cleveland county and gave unitary authority status to its four districts, Hartlepool borough and part of Stockton-on-Tees borough became a part of non-administrative County Durham under the Lieutenancies Act 1997. Since the 2010s, Hartlepool is also part of the Tees Valley region, a mayor for the region was elected in 2016. Although the former districts and boroughs of Durham now form the unitary authority of County Durham. This means that County Durham now has four unitary authorities.

Council

After boundary changes introduced in 2019, Hartlepool is now divided into 12 electoral wards, each of which elects three councillors who make up the 36 councillors of the Borough Council.

Members of Parliament

Hartlepool is represented in the House of Commons by one Member of Parliament. The current MP for the Hartlepool constituency is Jill Mortimer of the Conservative Party. She was elected at the 2021 Hartlepool by-election with 51.9% of the vote.

Members of parliament for Hartlepool since 1945 have been:

Mandelson, the MP between 1992 and 2004, resigned to take up a role in the European Commission. On 13 October 2008 he was created Baron Mandelson of Foy and Hartlepool following his appointment as Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform in the British Government.

Emergency services

Hartlepool falls within the jurisdiction of Cleveland Fire Brigade and Cleveland Police. Before 1974, it was under the jurisdiction of the Durham Constabulary and Durham Fire Brigade. Hartlepool  has two fire stations: a full-time station at Stranton and a retained station on the Headland.

Geography

Distance to other places

Nearby smaller towns include: Seaham (); Sedgefield (); Billingham () and Peterlee (). Beyond the far side of the Tees Bay, on the other side of the River Tees, the distant monument on Eston Nab can be seen on clear days.

Economy
Hartlepool's economy has historically been linked with the maritime industry, something which is still at the heart of local business. Hartlepool Dock is owned and run by PD Ports. Engineering related jobs employ around 1700 people. Tata Steel Europe employ around 350 people in the manufacture of steel tubes, predominantly for the oil industry. South of the town on the banks of the Tees, Able UK operates the Teesside Environmental Reclamation and Recycling Centre (TERRC), a large scale marine recycling facility and dry dock. Adjacent to the east of TERRC is the Hartlepool nuclear power station, an advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR) type nuclear power plant opened in the 1980s. It is the single largest employer in the town, employing 1 per cent of the town's working age people.

The chemicals industry is important to the local economy. Companies include Huntsman Corporation, who produce titanium dioxide for use in paints, Omya, Baker Hughes and Frutarom.

Tourism was worth £48 million to the town in 2009; this figure excludes the impact of the Tall Ships 2010. Hartlepool's historic links to the maritime industry are centred on the Maritime Experience, and the supporting exhibits PS Wingfield Castle and HMS Trincomalee.

Camerons Brewery was founded in 1852 and currently employs around 145 people. It is one of the largest breweries in the UK. Following a series of take-overs, it came under the control of the Castle Eden Brewery in 2001 who merged the two breweries, closing down the Castle Eden plant. It brews a range of cask and bottled beers, including Strongarm, a 4% abv bitter. The brewery is heavily engaged in contract brewing such beers as Kronenbourg 1664, John Smith's and Foster's.

Orchid Drinks of Hartlepool were formed in 1992 after a management buy out of the soft drinks arm of Camerons. They manufactured Purdey's and Amé. Following a £67 million takeover by Britvic, the site was closed down in 2009.

Middleton Grange Shopping Centre is the main shopping location. 2800 people are employed in retail. The ten major retail companies in the town are Tesco, Morrisons, Asda, Next, Argos, Marks & Spencer, Aldi, Boots and Matalan. Aside from the local sports clubs, other local entertainment venues include a VUE Cinema and Mecca Bingo.

Companies that have moved operations to the town for the offshore wind farm include Siemens and Van Oord.

Culture and community

Festivals and Fairs
Since November 2014 the Headland has hosted the annual Wintertide Festival, which is a weekend long event that starts with a community parade on the Friday and culminating in a finale performance and fireworks display on the Sunday.

Tall Ships' Races
On 28 June 2006 Hartlepool celebrated after winning its bid to host The Tall Ships' Races. The town welcomed up to 125 tall ships in 2010, after being chosen by race organiser Sail Training International to be the finishing point for the race. Hartlepool greeted the ships, which sailed from Kristiansand in Norway on the second and final leg of the race.

Museums, art galleries and libraries
Hartlepool Art Gallery is located in Church Square within Christ Church, a restored Victorian church, built in 1854 and designed by the architect Edward Buckton Lamb (1806–1869). The gallery's temporary exhibitions change frequently and feature works from local artists and the permanent Fine Art Collection, which was established by Sir William Gray. The gallery also houses the Hartlepool tourist information centre.

The Heugh Battery Museum is located on the Headland. It was one of three batteries erected to protect Hartlepool's port in 1860. The battery was closed in 1956 and is now in the care of the Heugh Gun Battery Trust and home to an artillery collection.

Hartlepool is home to a National Museum of the Royal Navy (The other in Portsmouth). Previously known simply as The Historic Quay, the museum is a re-creation of an 18th-century seaport and host to Hartlepool's Maritime Experience. The centre-piece of the exhibition is a sailing frigate, HMS Trincomalee.

Willows was the Hartlepool mansion of the influential Sir William Gray of William Gray & Company and he gifted it to the town in 1920, after which it was converted to be the town's first museum and art gallery. Fondly known locally as "The Gray" it was closed as a museum in 1994 and now houses the local authority's culture department.

There are six libraries in Hartlepool, the primary one being the Community Hub Central Library. Others are Throston Grange Library, Community Hub North Library, Seaton Carew Library, Owton Manor Library and Headland Branch Library.

Transport

Road
Hartlepool is served by two primary routes which are the A179 road and the A689 road, both linking the town to the A19 road. The A179 road is the main road to the north-west which leads to the A19 road, Durham, Sunderland and Tyneside. The A689 road is the main road to the south-west towards the A19 & Billingham, Stockton, Middlesbrough and York. The A178 road leads south to Seaton Carew, Graythorp, Seal Sands, Port Clarence and Middlesbrough via the Transporter bridge. The A1086 road leads north to Crimdon, Blackhall, Horden, Peterlee and Easington.

Rail

Hartlepool is served by  and  railway stations, both of which lie on the Durham Coast Line with hourly services to ,  and , which are operated by Northern. A service to  from Sunderland, operated by Grand Central that uses Class 180 trains capable of  operates from the former of the two stations. The service marks the first time since the 1980s that Hartlepool has had a direct rail link with London which takes around three and a half hours.

Bus
Local bus services are provided around the town mainly by Stagecoach North East. The operator has the service 36 from Hartlepool to Billingham, Stockton and Middlesbrough, as well as the faster service 1 to Middlesbrough via Seaton Carew and Port Clarence.

Other services are provided by Arriva North East and Go North East from Hartlepool to Peterlee, Durham, Seaham, Hetton-le-Hole, Houghton-le-Spring and Sunderland.

Sea

Hartlepool has been a major seaport virtually since it was founded, and has a long fishing heritage. During the industrial revolution massive new docks were created on the southern side of the channel running below the Headland, which gave rise to the town of West Hartlepool.

Now owned by PD Ports, the docks are still in use today and still capable of handling large vessels. However, a large portion of the former dockland was converted into a marina capable of berthing 500 vessels. Hartlepool Marina is home to a wide variety of pleasure and working craft, with passage to and from the sea through a lock.

Hartlepool also has a permanent RNLI lifeboat station.

Education

Secondary
Hartlepool has five secondary schools:
Dyke House Sports and Technology College
English Martyrs School and Sixth Form College
High Tunstall College of Science
Manor Community Academy
St Hild's Church of England School
The town had planned to receive funding from central government to improve school buildings and facilities as a part of the Building Schools for the Future programme, but this was cancelled because of government spending cuts.

College
Hartlepool College of Further Education is an educational establishment located in the centre of the town, and existed in various forms for over a century. Its former 1960s campus was replaced by a £52million custom-designed building, it was approved in principle in July 2008, opened in September 2011.

Hartlepool also has Hartlepool Sixth Form College. It was a former grammar and comprehensive school, the college provides a number of AS and A2 Level student courses. The English Martyrs School and Sixth Form College also offers AS, A2 and other BTEC qualification to 16- to 18-year-olds from Hartlepool and beyond.

A campus of The Northern School of Art is a specialist art and design college and higher education, located adjacent to the art gallery on Church Square. The college has a further site in Middlesbrough that facilitates further education.

Territorial Army
Situated in the New Armoury Centre, Easington Road are the following units.

Royal Marines Reserve
90 (North Riding) Signal Squadron

Sport

Football

Hartlepool United is the town's professional football club and they play at Victoria Park. The club's most notable moment was in 2005 when, with 8 minutes left in the 2005 Football League One play-off final, the team conceded a penalty, allowing Sheffield Wednesday to equalise and eventually beat Hartlepool to a place in the Championship. The club currently play in EFL League Two.

Supporters of the club bear the nickname of Monkey Hangers. This is based upon a legend that during the Napoleonic wars a monkey, which had been a ship's mascot, was taken for a French spy and hanged. Hartlepool has also produced football presenter Jeff Stelling, who has a renowned partnership with Chris Kamara who was born in nearby Middlesbrough. Jeff Stelling is a keen supporter of Hartlepool United Football Club and often refers to them when presenting Sky Sports News. It is also the birthplace and childhood home of Pete Donaldson, one of the co-hosts of the Football Ramble podcast as well as co-host of the Abroad in Japan podcast, and a prominent radio DJ.

Rugby union

Hartlepool is something of an anomaly in England having historically maintained a disproportionate number of clubs in a town of only c.90,000 inhabitants.  These include(d) West Hartlepool, Hartlepool Rovers, Hartlepool Athletic RFC, Hartlepool Boys Brigade Old Boys RFC (BBOB), Seaton Carew RUFC (formerly Hartlepool Grammar School Old Boys), West Hartlepool Technical Day School Old Boys RUFC (TDSOB or Tech) and Hartlepool Old Boys' RFC (Hartlepool). Starting in 1904 clubs within  of the headland were eligible to compete for the Pyman Cup which has been contested regularly since and that the Hartlepool & District Union continue to organise.

Perhaps the best known club outside the town is West Hartlepool R.F.C. who in 1992 achieved promotion to what is now the Premiership competing in 1992–93, 1994–95, 1995–96 and 1996–97 seasons. This success came at a price as soon after West was then hit by bankruptcy and controversially sold their Brierton Lane stadium and pitch to former sponsor Yuills Homes. There then followed a succession of relegations before the club stabilised in the Durham/Northumberland leagues. West and Rovers continue to play one another in a popular Boxing Day fixture which traditionally draws a large crowd.

Hartlepool Rovers, formed in 1879, who played at the Old Friarage in the Headland area of Hartlepool before moving to West View Road. In the 1890s Rovers supplied numerous county, divisional and international players. The club itself hosted many high-profile matches including the inaugural Barbarians F.C. match in 1890, the New Zealand Maoris in 1888 and the legendary All Blacks who played against a combined Hartlepool Club team in 1905. In the 1911–12 season, Hartlepool Rovers broke the world record for the number of points scored in a season racking up 860 points including 122 tries, 87 conversions, five penalties and eleven drop goals.

Although they ceased competing in the RFU leagues in 2008–09, West Hartlepool TDSOB (Tech) continues to support town and County rugby with several of the town's other clubs having played at Grayfields when their own pitches were unavailable. Grayfields has also hosted a number of Durham County cup finals as well as County Under 16, Under 18 and Under 20 age group games.

Olympics

Boxing
At the 2012 Summer Olympics, 21-year-old Savannah Marshall, who attended English Martyrs School and Sixth Form College in the town of Hartlepool, competed in the Women's boxing tournament of the 2012 Olympic Games. She was defeated 12–6 by Marina Volnova of Kazakhstan in her opening, quarter-final bout. Savannah Marshall is now a professional boxer, currently unbeaten as a pro and on 31 October 2020 in her 9th professional fight Marshall became the WBO female middleweight champion with a TKO victory over opponent Hannah Rankin at Wembley Arena.

Swimming
In August 2012 Jemma Lowe, a British record holder who attended High Tunstall College of Science in the town of Hartlepool, competed in the 2012 Olympic Games. She finished sixth in the 200-metre butterfly final with a time of 58.06 seconds. She was also a member of the eighth-place British team in the 400m Medley relay.

Monkeys

Hartlepool is known for allegedly executing a monkey during the Napoleonic Wars. According to legend, fishermen from Hartlepool watched a French warship founder off the coast, and the only survivor was a monkey, which was dressed in French military uniform, presumably to amuse the officers on the ship. The fishermen assumed that this must be what Frenchmen looked like and, after a brief trial, summarily executed the monkey.

Historians have pointed to the prior existence of a Scottish folk song called "And the Boddamers hung the Monkey-O". It describes how a monkey survived a shipwreck off the village of Boddam near Peterhead in Aberdeenshire. Because the villagers could only claim salvage rights if there were no survivors from the wreck, they allegedly hanged the monkey. There is also an English folk song detailing the later event called, appropriately enough, "The Hartlepool Monkey". In the English version the monkey is hanged as a French spy.

"Monkey hanger" and Chimp Choker are common terms of (semi-friendly) abuse aimed at "Poolies", often from footballing rivals Darlington. The mascot of Hartlepool United F.C. is H'Angus the monkey. The man in the monkey costume, Stuart Drummond, stood for the post of mayor in 2002 as H'angus the monkey, and campaigned on a platform which included free bananas for schoolchildren. To widespread surprise, he won, becoming the first directly elected mayor of Hartlepool, winning 7,400 votes with a 52% share of the vote and a turnout of 30%. He was re-elected by a landslide in 2005, winning 16,912 on a turnout of 51% – 10,000 votes more than his nearest rival, the Labour Party candidate.

The monkey legend is also linked with two of the town's sports clubs, Hartlepool Rovers RFC, which uses the hanging monkey as the club logo. Hartlepool (Old Boys) RFC use a hanging monkey kicking a rugby ball as their tie crest.

Notable residents

 Michael Brown, former Premier League footballer
 Edward Clarke, artist
 Brian Clough, football manager who lived in the Fens estate in town while manager of Hartlepools United
 John Darwin, convicted fraudster who faked his own death
 Pete Donaldson, London radio DJ and podcast host
 Janick Gers, guitarist from British heavy metal band Iron Maiden
 Courtney Hadwin, singer
 Jack Howe, former England international footballer
 Liam Howe, music producer and songwriter for several artists and member of the band Sneaker Pimps
 Saxon Huxley, WWE NXT UK wrestler
 Andy Linighan, former Arsenal footballer who scored the winning goal in the 1993 FA Cup Final
 Savannah Marshall, professional boxer
 Guy Pearce, film actor who lived in the town when he was younger as his mother was from the town
 Narbi Price, artist
 Jack Rowell, coached the England international rugby team and led them to the semi-final of the 1995 Rugby World Cup
 Wayne Sleep, dancer and actor who spent his childhood in the town.
 Reg Smythe, cartoonist who created Andy Capp
 Jeremy Spencer, guitarist who was in the original Fleetwood Mac line-up
 Jeff Stelling, TV presenter, famous for hosting Gillette Soccer Saturday

Local media
 Hartlepool Life - local free newspaper
 Hartlepool Mail – local newspaper
 BBC Radio Tees – BBC local radio station
 Radio Hartlepool – Community radio station serving the town
 Hartlepool Post – on-line publication

Town twinning
Hartlepool is twinned with:
  Sète, France
  Hückelhoven, Germany (since 1973)
  Muskegon, Michigan
  Sliema, Malta
  Novovolynsk, Ukraine

Climate
Hartlepool has an oceanic climate typical of Great Britain. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb"(Marine West Coast Climate).

References

External links

 Official Website of the Borough of Hartlepool
 Tide times for Hartlepool from the BBC, Easytide and Tidetimes.

Towns in County Durham
Places in the Tees Valley
Populated coastal places in County Durham
Populated places established in the 7th century
Unparished areas in County Durham
Borough of Hartlepool

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
All American Speedway Reveals Driver Appreciation Bonuses
Via All American Speedway Media
ROSEVILLE, CALIFORNIA (December 24, 2018) – The 2019 season at All American Speedway will mark the first full championship year under the guidance of Bill McAnally Racing Promotions. In an effort to attract strong car counts, Bill McAnally has announced a variety of contingency prizes and bonus incentives for the speedway's competitors. This year will also mark a return of NASCAR Home Tracks sanctioning to the track located @The Grounds in Roseville, CA.
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Labels: All American Speedway, NASCAR K&N Pro Series West, SPEARS SRL Southwest Tour Series
New Season Brings New Partnership
Longtime Series Sponsor in at 2019 Winter Showdown
All American Speedway Reveals Driver Appreciation ...


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text:
IV. Devlet Giráj (krími tatár: III Devlet Geray, ٣ دولت كراى), (1730 – 1781) krími tatár kán, Arszlán Giráj kán fia. Egyes szerzők III. Devletként tartják számon és Kara Devlet kánt (ur.: 1716–1717) nem sorszámozzák.

Első uralkodása
1750 és 1756 között Devlet a budzsáki nogáj tatárok vezére (szeraszkirja) volt. 1767-ben a kalga méltóságot töltötte be. 1769-ben Kirim kán halála után a szultán őt nevezte ki krími kánnak. Devlet öccseit, Sahbazt és Mubareket tette meg kalgának és núreddinnek.
Devlet legfontosabb feladata a tatár seregek összegyűjtése volt és vezetésük az éppen elkezdődött orosz-török háborúban. Kiderült azonban, hogy nem minden krími tatárnak állt érdekében a gyors és eredményes küzdelem az oroszok ellen. A bégek egy része titokban tárgyalásokba kezdett a fölényben levő oroszokkal, hogy megfelelő kompenzációért hajlandóak lennének átállni és szabotálták a tatár sereg mobilizációját. Így a tatárok késve és kisebb számban jelentek meg az elvártnál, és a feldühödött szultán tétlenséggel vádolta és leváltotta Devlet Girájt.

Második uralkodása
1773-ban III. Musztafa oszmán szultán megbízta, hogy szabadítsa fel az oroszok által megszállt Krímet. Devlet kelet felől, a Kaukázuson és Kercsen keresztül megérkezett a félszigetre. Jöttére az oroszok által addig támogatott II. Száhib elmenekült. Az 1774-es békeszerződés értelmében a Krími Kánság kiszakadt a török függésből és formálisan független lett (ám gyakorlatilag orosz függésben). Devlet Giráj sürgette a szultánt, hogy ismét vegye védelmébe a kánságot, de mivel ez a szerződés megszegését jelentette volna, és Isztambul nem akart újból háborút az oroszokkal, ezért nem tettek semmit.

1777-ben a nogájok és oroszok által támogatott Sahin Giráj elfoglalta az egész Krímet. A krími bégek egy része is az ő oldalán állt, azok akiket Devlet megbüntetett II. Száhib támogatásáért. Devlet Giráj Törökországba vonult, ahol 1780-ban, Vize városában meghalt.

Források
 О. Гайворонский «Созвездие Гераев»
 Халим Гирай «Розовый куст ханов» (история крымских ханов)

Kapcsolódó szócikkek
Krími kánok listája
Krími kánok családfája

Fordítás

1730-ban született személyek
1781-ben elhunyt személyek
Krími kánok


The high school experience can be extremely stressful for many students, creating many vices for students to eliminate stress with, one of the most popular being streaming movies and TV shows over the internet.
High school students are very familiar with the streaming service Netflix. As the global web index observed, 70% of centennials (those born in the 90's and early 2000's) use the application at least once a month.
However, amongst the spotlight and popularity of Netflix, a similar application, Hulu, is often outshined by its competitor.
Like Apple vs Android, and Xbox vs. PlayStation arguments, Hulu has both its pros and cons in comparison to Netflix, but in my opinion, Hulu is the superior streaming service, regardless of its lesser popularity.
In today's society, many people are straying away from expensive cable bills and resorting to online streaming applications instead. Hulu serves as a more efficient TV replacement because of its diverse library, and live TV options.
Hulu has many TV shows that have either recently aired or are currently airing, such as Modern Family, Fixer Upper, and The Bachelor, so cutting the cord on cable doesn't come with the separation of beloved live TV shows. Furthermore, with an additional cost, Hulu grants access to over 50 live TV channels including news and sports, making the removal of cable manageable.
While Hulu exceeds in quantity of fun, entertaining TV series', Netflix triumphs in the quality of exclusive, binge-worthy options, making Netflix the greater platform to watch award winning shows.
However, Hulu provides consumers with a casual experience, with many shows that don't require the deliberate attention required for many Netflix shows. As a long-term Netflix user, the addition of Hulu provided a fresh, entertaining, now preferred experience in comparison.
Whether students have run out of shows on Netflix, or looking to invest in a streaming service for their downtime, students can try Hulu out with a free 7-day trial or hold off until college and receive free Hulu with the purchase of Spotify Premium for $4.99 a month.


The point was a shrewd one: There is a timeworn tradition of writers traveling to the Canadian Arctic and Alaska to marvel at the land—at its nightless summers, its eccentric inhabitants, its fearsome bears. Jack London spent less than a year in the Klondike. John McPhee based Coming Into the Country on four trips from his home in New Jersey. The fascination of the North stems, in part, from the fact that it's a damn hard place to visit, much less live in; little wonder that much of its literature is penned by outsiders.
You're allowed, therefore, some initial skepticism of Kings of the Yukon, whose author, Adam Weymouth, lives, the jacket tells us, "on a Dutch barge in London." Kings—one part travelogue, one part ethnography, and 10 parts ode to a charismatic fish—recounts a 2,000-mile canoe trip down the Yukon River, from ice-strewn headwaters to sprawling delta. Weymouth's journey runs countercurrent to the upriver migration of the Yukon's king salmon: "many pounds of muscle, toned through years of swimming headlong into Pacific storms, and their flesh … red as blood." These mighty fish give Kings its title and focus—and help its author find, remarkably, something new and insightful to say about the North.
Weymouth's Yukon fixation began in 2013, a year when just 37,000 king salmon returned to the Yukon—scarcely 10 percent of the historical average. The previous year, 23 Yup'ik fishermen had been arrested for flouting a state fishing ban, a deliberate act of civil disobedience. At their trial, which Weymouth covered for The Atlantic, the defendants noted salmon's centrality to Yup'ik religion and argued that the First Amendment protected their right to fish. The judge, though sympathetic, slapped each fisherman with a $250 fine.
Although Weymouth explores the science behind the decline's possible causes—Is it overfishing? Ocean conditions? Climate change?—he is most concerned about its human victims. As he drifts from Dawson City to Emmonak, he meets a parade of Native and white fishermen, whose stories he tells with delicacy and dry humor. There's Isky, a rapping descendant of Pueblo Indians who wants to make fishing cool for local kids again; Richard, who sardonically narrates bus tours for discomfited New Zealanders; Jim, a caviar-plant operator who goes by Egg Man. Especially memorable is Mary Demientieff, a gregarious Athabascan elder with "family the length of the river, the breadth of the state." Mary presides over a flagging fish camp, where in the evenings she plays the guitar with "glee, unselfconsciously … laughing and wheezing," a scene so charming it almost dispels the sadness.
Inevitably, Kings of the Yukon revives some familiar Alaskan tropes: Practically every writer who's ever encountered a grizzly—including, admittedly, me—has meditated on feeling "conflicted between fear and the privilege of the moment." (Your anxiety and awe are probably heightened when you come from a country whose largest carnivore is the badger.) Mostly, though, Weymouth's nature writing is exquisite, even when he's evoking the unlovely end of a salmon's cycle: "Its kype is caught in a rictus somewhere between a snarl and a leer, and its gills are clouded with fungus, where it gasps for air as though breathing through cotton wool." Just as Weymouth acclimates to the rhythms of his voyage, one of Kings' joys is stretching out in its prose, stately and pleasurable as a flat stretch of river.
While fishing communities have waned, Weymouth finds that another culture has ascended to take their place: reality TV. Half the riverside dwellers he meets, it seems, feature in one of Alaska's myriad unscripted dramas, from Andy of Life Below Zero to Stan from Yukon Men. "It seems quite possible," Weymouth writes, "that Alaska has the highest ratio of television celebrities in the world." Forget salmon—the biggest drivers of Yukon commerce today are National Geographic and the Discovery Channel. If we don't reverse salmon's collapse, reality stars might someday be the Yukon's last kings.
Ben Goldfarb is a frequent contributor to High Country News, where this review first appeared.


Enbridge Gas Distribution is Canada's largest natural gas distributor. The company has existed since the middle of the 19th century and has an enviable record for health, safety and efficiency. TWPL was invited to assess the Ontario operation with a view to providing a long-term roadmap to establish even further efficiencies in the use of the company's critical assets.


While the Media is Diverting Your Attention to The Southern Border, Your States (13 of them so far) Have Been Handed Over to Illegals! This is Treason!
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text:
Historical >
In A Cold Open Field
Sheila Solomon Klass
in 1950, Eva and Sol Greenfield receive a telegram from the Department of the Army informing then that their son, Ben, in missing in action in Korea. The effect of the telegram is devastating. Eva, an orthodox Jewish woman, goes to a fortune teller in Coney Island for comfort. "In A Cold Open Field" explores the developing relationship between the two women, as Eva desperately needs to deny the death of her child and the fortune teller takes advantage of Eva's need for her own gain. "In A Cold Open Field" was a finalist for the Drue Heinz Literature Prize. "Library Journal" said about this book: "Klass's evocation of Brooklyn in the Fifties in wonderfully effective..."
About Sheila Solomon Klass
Sheila Solomon Klass has taught English since 1965 at Manhattan Community College of The City University of New York where she holds a full professorship. She has been a United States Information Service lecturer in Creative Writing at several women's colleges in Calcutta, India and has held lectureships at the University of Connecticut and at the Leonia Library, Leonia, New Jersey. She received a First Prize in Fiction Award from the Charles Goldman Judaica Library and a Citation at a Notable New Jersey Author from the New Jersey Institute of Technology. She has published four novels and a memoir as well as ten novels for young adults.
FIC014000 (FICTION / Historical)