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Effects of ergothioneine-enriched mushroom extract on oxidative stability, volatile compounds and sensory quality of emulsified sausage
Ye Tao, Shan Xiao, Jiaming Cai, Jihui Wang, Lin Li
DOI : https://doi.org/10.5713/ab.20.0817
Anim Biosci > Volume 34(10); 2021 > Article
Tao, Xiao, Cai, Wang, and Li: Effects of ergothioneine-enriched mushroom extract on oxidative stability, volatile compounds and sensory quality of emulsified sausage
Animal Bioscience 2021; 34(10): 1695-1704.
Published online: March 11, 2021
https://doi.org/10.5713/ab.20.0817
Ye Tao1, 2 , Shan Xiao1, 2, * , Jiaming Cai2 , Jihui Wang1, 2, * , Lin Li1
1Engineering Research Center of Health Food Design & Nutrition Regulation, School of Chemical Engineering and Energy Technology, Dongguan University of Technology, Dongguan 523808, China
2College of Biological Engineering, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China
*Corresponding Authors: Shan Xiao,
Tel: +86-0769-22861828, Fax: +86-0769-22861828, E-mail: xiaoshan@dgut.edu.cn.
Jihui Wang,
Tel: +86-0769-22861828, Fax: +86-0769-22861828, E-mail: wangjh@dgut.edu.cn
Received December 5, 2020 Revised January 5, 2021 Accepted March 9, 2021
Copyright © 2021 by Animal Bioscience
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The aim of this work was to assess the effect of ergothioneine (ESH)-enriched mushroom extract on oxidative stability, volatile compounds, and sensory quality of emulsified sausage.
The ESH content was determined by high performance liquid chromatography. The antioxidant activity of Flammulina velutipes (F. velutipes) extract was determined through radical-scavenging activity of 1,1 diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl, 2,2-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) and hydroxyl radicals. Four different groups of emulsified sausage were manufactured: control, no antioxidants; BHA, 0.01% butylated hydroxyanisole; EEME, 0.8% ESH-enriched mushroom (F. velutipes) extract; AE, 0.012% authentic ESH, after storage for 14 days (at 4°C), the quality of sausage including oxidative stability (2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and protein carbonyls content), volatile compounds and sensory quality were studied.
It was demonstrated that adding ESH-enriched F. velutipes extract to sausage could effectively prevent lipid and protein oxidation, and its efficacy was equivalent with 0.01% BHA. During meat processing, the ESH mainly contributed to the antioxidative activity of F. velutipes extract. The flavor and sensory attributes of emulsified sausage were improved through adding ESH-enriched F. velutipes extract.
Accordingly, the extract of F. velutipes contained high-level of ESH and could be a good antioxidant candidate for processed meat production.
Keywords: Ergothioneine; Mushroom Extract; Oxidation Stability; Sensory Evaluation; Volatile Compounds
The ready-to-eat (RTE) meat products are popular for consumers all over the world, because they are convenient, time-saving, tasty and nourishing. While, the shelf-life of RTE meat products is generally short, and oxidation reaction is one of the main causes of quality deterioration [1]. To reduce the oxidation level of RTE meat products, synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), as well as nitrite and nitrate are extensively used to prevent the occurrence of oxidation reaction and further extend shelf-life of RTE meat products [1,2]. While, as consumers increased their interest in purchasing natural products, more and more researchers began looking for novel and natural antioxidants for developing "clean label" meat products [2]. Recently, ergothioneine [3] (ESH, 2-mercaptohistidine betaine, Figure 1) attracted considerable interest from researchers because of its strong antioxidant property. Many in vitro studies have proved ESH to be an effective natural antioxidant. As described by Franzoni et al [4], compared to classic antioxidants glutathione (GSH), uric acid and trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid), ESH was the most active scavenger of free radicals. Stoffels et al [5] demonstrated that 1O2 significantly favored ESH over GSH more than 50-fold for the initial reaction. Dong et al [6] indicated that addition of only 20 and 100 μM ESH could effectively inhibit alloxan-induced lipid peroxidation of phosphatidylcholine liposomes by 67% and 100%, which was more than twice the protective effect of coenzyme Q10. Pahila et al [7] demonstrated that the 1,1 diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging half maximal effective concentration (IC50) of ESH could compete with ascorbic acid, and ESH revealed a stronger scavenging capacity for oxygen radicals than ascorbic acid and GSH.
Early research showed that mushrooms contained higher levels of ESH than other dietary sources [8]. Reports indicated that ESH was naturally present in various genera of mushrooms, the levels ranged from 0.15 to 7.27 mg/g dry weight, and the highest concentration was observed in yellow oyster and porcini [9]. Since purification of ESH from mushroom is expensive and time-consuming it cannot meet the requirements of practical application, therefore, many studies focused on application of ESH-enriched mushroom extract to keep muscle food fresh. Based on the study reported by Bao et al [9], regarding lipid oxidation occurring in tuna meat, addition of 5 mL of mushroom extract to 100 g of minced bigeye tuna meat was more effective than adding ascorbic acid sodium salt (0.05%) or α-tocopherol (0.05%). Bao et al [10] demonstrated that the hydrophilic extract from the mushroom's fruiting body was rich in ESH and had the ability to control the oxidation of lipid and myoglobin in homogenates yellowtail dark muscle. Researchers also concluded that ESH-enriched mushroom extract was effective for controlling melanosis in crab [11] and shrimp [12], they pointed out that ESH-enriched mushroom extract could be a novel and effective alternative to synthetic melanosis-inhibiting agents. Pahila et al [13] indicated that addition of ESH-enriched mushroom extract could successfully control lipid oxidation and discoloration in salmon muscle stored at low temperatures. Based on these studies, to our knowledge, only few studies focused on application of ESH-rich mushroom extract in processed meat, and in food matrix, whether ESH in Flammulina velutipes (F. velutipes) extract plays a major role in antioxidation is still unknown. Therefore, in this study, the effects of ESH-enriched mushroom extract on oxidative stability, volatile compounds and sensory of emulsified sausage were detected. Meanwhile, a comparative study on the antioxidant activity in ESH-enriched mushroom extract, BHA and authentic ESH was conducted.
Mushroom extract preparation
The cultivated mushrooms F. velutipes were purchased from a local market in Dalian, China. The fruiting bodies of mushrooms were freeze-dried and ground to a fine powder using a food processor (YR-500A, Ying Run Industrial Co., Jinan, China). The mushroom powders were stored at −20°C until further analysis.
Mushroom extracting was carried out in triplicate for each sample. A 10 g of the F. velutipes powder was extracted by adding 580 mL of 70% (v/v) ethanol, followed by water bath for 15 min at 53°C, then centrifuged (3–30KS, Sigma, Osterode am Harz, Germany) at 11,363 g for 10 min at 4°C to obtain a supernatant, and then evaporated to a quarter of the original volume in vacuo, then added 95% (v/v) ethanol to the original volume and evaporated to dryness using a vacuum rotary evaporator (Scientz-100F, Biocool Co., Beijing, China).
Determination of ergothioneine content
The ESH content was determined using the method as described by Lee et al [14] with some modifications. Dissolved 1 g mushroom extract in 100 mL water, after passing through a 0.22 μm microporous membrane, this was injected into the HPLC (E2695, Waters, Milford, MA, USA) equipped with Hilic column (4.6 mm×250 mm×5 μm, Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA). The mobile phase was water: acetonitrile = 3:97, a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min was used, injection volume was 10 μL. The ESH level was quantified by monitoring absorbance at 254 nm with an ultraviolet (UV) detector, comparing the standard curve obtained from the standard ESH (purity ≥98%, Sigma, St Louis, MO, USA). The concentration of ESH in F. velutipes extract was 15.29±0.52 mg/g extract.
Determination of free radical scavenging ability
One milligram F. velutipes extract was diluted with distilled water to 100 mL for next determination.
1,1 Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical scavenging activity
The DPPH radical scavenging activity was determined according to Zhang et al [15] with some modifications. Three milliliters of 100 μmol/L DPPH-methanol solution was mixed with 1 mL mushroom extract, and the tubes were vigorously shaken 30 s for mixture and incubated for 30 min in the dark. Then the corresponding absorbance (A1) at 517 nm and absorbance of the samples mixed with methanol (A2) were read. In addition, the absorbance (A0) of the control (DPPH solution without samples) at 517 nm was also recorded. The scavenging rate was calculated by the following equation:
DPPH radical scavenging activity(%)=(1-A1-A2A0)×100
Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity
The hydroxyl radical scavenging activity was measured according to the method described by Zhou et al [16]. Firstly, 2 mL of mushroom extract and ascorbic acid were mixed with 0.6 mL of 6 mM salicylic acid-ethanol solution, 2 mL of 6 mM FeSO4∙7H2O aqueous solution and 1.4 mL of 6 mM H2O2. After thoroughly mixed, they were incubated in a water bath at 37°C for 30 min. The absorbances of the mixture with (A1) or without salicylic acid (A2) were recorded at 532 nm. Meanwhile, the absorbance of the control without samples (A0) at 532 nm was recorded. The scavenging rate was obtained using the following equation:
Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity(%)=(1-A1-A2A0)×100
2,2-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical scavenging activity
The 2,2-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging activity was determined following the method described by Thaipong et al [17] with minor modifications. Firstly, the ABTS stock solution was prepared, and then the solution was prepared into work solution with 50% ethanol until diluted to the absorbance of 0.70±0.02 units at 734 nm. And then, 3.9 mL ABTS work solution was mixed with 0.1 mL mushroom extract, and the tubes were vortexed for 45 s, reacted at 25°C for 7 min. Then the absorbances of samples mixed with extract (A1) and water (A2) were read at 734 nm. Meanwhile, the control (ABTS solution mixed with 70% ethanol) (A0) at 734 nm was also recorded. The scavenging rate was calculated by the following equation:
ABTS radical scavenging acitivity(%)=(1-A1-A2A0)×100
Emulsified sausages preparation
Four different groups of emulsified sausage were manufactured: control group, no antioxidant; EEME group, added 0.8% ESH-enriched F. velutipes extract; AE group, added 0.012% standard ESH, and this concentration was same as the ESH content in mushroom extract; BHA group, added 0.01% BHA. The pork lean and back fat were separately ground through a 12-mm plate. Sausages were prepared with pork lean (80%), back fat (20%), and the following additives (g/kg): NaCl (25), sugar (50), soy sauce (15), liquor (10, alcohol degree 52%), ground pepper (1), sodium glutamate (0.2). The mixture was chopped to obtain a homogeneous mass with a ZB-5 bowl chopper (Huaying Food Machine Co., Hebei, China), and marinated for 10 h at 4°C. And then, the meat batter poured into the pig casing at the temperature of 4°C. The diameter of the sausage casing was about 2 cm. All sausage batches were boiled in water until the central temperature of final products attained to 72°C±2°C, and then they were cooled to room temperature, packed in oxygen-permeable bags (polyethylene, 2,300 mL/m2/24 h, 100 mm×150 mm, total thickness 0.0508 mm), stored for 14 d at 4°C±1°C. Analyses were conducted at 0, 3, 7, and 14 days of storage (n = 3 sausages per treatment (4) per storage time (4); n = 48 samples). The analysis of each parameter was performed in three observation (total number of tested samples n = 192 for testing parameters 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances [TBARS], carbonyl, volatile compounds and sensory).
Lipid oxidation
The TBARS content was determined. Diluted 1,1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane (1 mg/L) (Sigma-Aldrich, Beijing, China) was used as standard solution for determining malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Briefly, 2.5 g sausage sample was mixed with 20 mL distilled water, and then the mixture was homogenized in a high-speed homogenizer (T10 basic ULTRA, IKA, Staufen, Germany). Five milliliters of trichloroacetic acid (25%) were added to the homogenate, followed by stirring at 4°C for 15 min. The stirred liquid was centrifuged (3–30KS, Sigma, Germany) at 4°C (10,000 g, 15 min), and the supernatant was mixed with 1.5 mL of thiobarbituric acid (0.6%), and in water bath at 70°C for 30 min, then the absorbance of samples was read at 532 nm using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (U5100, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan). The TBARS was calculated as mg of MDA/kg of sausage.
Protein oxidation
Protein oxidation was determined by the method described by Xiao et al [18]. Briefly, carbonyl groups were reacted with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to develop protein hydrazone. The value of reaction products was measured by a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (U5100, Hitachi, Japan) at 370 nm. The protein concentration was calculated by measuring the absorbance at 280 nm, and bovine serum albumin was used as standard. The carbonyl content was calculated as nanomoles per mg of protein, using an absorption coefficient of 22,000.
Volatile compounds
Sausages were cut into small pieces and 3.0 g sample was put into a 20 mL headspace vial. The volatile compounds were determined using GC/MS (7890A-5975C, Agilent Technologies, Wilmington, DE, USA) with a HP-5 silica capillary column (60 m×0.32 mm×0.25 μm, Agilent Technologies, USA), and volatile compounds of sausages were extracted by headspace-solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME, DVB/CAR/PDMS fiber, Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA). Prior to extraction of volatiles, the fiber was preconditioned at 230°C for 30 min in the gas chromatography (GC) injection port. The sample was extracted in headspace vail at 60°C for 15 min. The SPME fiber was inserted into the headspace vail through the septum and absorbed volatile compounds at 60°C for 30 min. The SPME fiber was desorpted 5 min in the injection port at 230°C during the chromatographic run. Helium with a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min was used as the carrier gas. The injection port was in splitless mode. The temperature program was isothermal for 15 min at 40°C, then increased to 190°C at a rate of 4°C/min, and then increased to 250°C at 10°C/min. The transfer line to the mass spectrometer was maintained at 250°C. The mass spectrometer was obtained by electronic impact at 70 eV. The data was obtained at a rate of s−1 over a range of 33 to 450 for m/z. And the NIST 11 mass spectral library was used to identify the volatile compounds. Results were expressed as percentage of total chromatographic area.
Sensory evaluation
Sensory evaluation of sausage samples was performed by a group consisted of 20 panel members (10 females and 10 males), and they were trained according to the standard procedure: samples were cut into 1 cm sections, followed by randomly numbered with digit and placed in a random order, and then the samples were placed on plates and served to the panelists at 25°C. The panelists were provided 100 mL water to gargle before evaluating the sausage samples. The sensory properties of sausages were evaluated by their color, smell, taste, sourness, chewiness, and overall acceptability. A 9-point hedonic scale was used: for color, 1 = dislike very much, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 9 = like very much; for smell, 1 = very weak, 5 = neither strong nor weak, 9 = very strong; for taste, 1 = dislike, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 9 = like very much; for sourness, 1 = very weak, 5 = neither strong nor weak, 9 = very strong; and for chewiness, 1 = very tough, 5 = neither tough nor tender, 9 = very tender. And panelists also evaluated the over acceptability of sausages, 1 = dislike very much, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 9 = like very much.
The experimental data was processed by SPSS 20.0 software (SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). Comparison of means of values among different treatments were subjected to one-way analysis of variance, where the measured variables were set as dependent variables, different treatments (Control, BHA, AE, EEME) and four display times (0, 3, 7, and 14) as fixed effects, and replicate as random effect. For sensory evaluation data, all panelists were included in sensory evaluation portion of analysis. A mixed statistic model was created with time, treatment and panelists as fixed effects and the session was considered as random effect. When significant differences were found, differences among the means were compared in accordance with Duncan's multiple range test, and a value of p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. The values were given in terms of means±standard error of three replicates in Tables.
The antioxidant capacity of mushroom extract
Early studies have demonstrated that mushroom extract had free radical scavenging capacity and antioxidant activity in vitro and in vivo [10]. The abilities to scavenge free radicals of DPPH, ABTS and hydroxyl were widely used to test the antioxidant activity of samples against reduction/oxidation initiated by free radicals [17]. In Figure 2, it was shown that the F. velutipes extract revealed strong scavenging activities against free radicals DPPH (90.2%), ABTS (96%), and hydroxyl (87.6%). Based on previous studies, similar results were obtained by Bao et al [10], they found that DPPH radical scavenging rate and total reducing power rate of extract prepared from F. velutipes fruiting body were about 85% and 90% (volume of extracts 20 μL).
Oxidative stability
In this study, the effects of natural antioxidant ESH-enriched mushroom extract against lipid and protein oxidation occurred in emulsified sausage were detected. The TBARS value was used to evaluate the lipid oxidation in meat system. As shown in Table 1, at day 0, 3, 7, and 14, the TBARS values of sausages from EEME group were 0.12, 0.27, 0.43, and 0.80 mg/kg sample, which were significantly lower than those in control group by 36.84%, 28.95%, 31.75%, and 34.62% at the respective storage times (p<0.05). For sausages from BHA group, the TBARS values were 0.13, 0.28, 0.48, and 0.82 mg/kg sample at day 0, 3, 7, and 14 of refrigerated storage, and no difference was found between group EEME and group BHA at each storage time. It was demonstrated that adding ESH-enriched F. velutipes extract (0.8%) to sausage could effectively prevent lipid oxidation during refrigerated storage, and its efficacy was equivalent to 0.01% BHA. In current study, the content of protein carbonyls was used to evaluate the degree of protein oxidation occurring in sausages. As shown in Table 2, the carbonyl values of sausages from EEME group were 0.032, 0.28, 0.76, and 0.92 nmol/mg at day 0, 3, 7, and 14 of refrigerated storage, which were significantly lower than those in control group by 33.33%, 36.36%, 25.49%, and 28.68% at the respective storage times (p<0.05). For the samples from BHA batch, at day 0, 3, 7, and 14, no difference was found between group BHA and group EEME. This data indicated that ESH-enriched F. velutipes extract (0.8%) also could effectively prevent protein oxidation of sausage, and its efficacy was equivalent with 0.01% BHA. The results obtained in this study agreed with previous studies conducted on raw muscle food, these studies concluded that adding ESH-enriched mushroom extract was an effective method to control the oxidative reactions occurring in tuna [9], yellowtail dark muscle and beef patties [10], shrimp [12], and salmon [13].
During meat processing, many factors could affect the antioxidative activity of natural antioxidants, such as temperature, pH, processing conditions and food additives. So, for utilization in processed meat, the antioxidants should meet many requirements, among which being stable of heat, light and acid-base is important. Liu et al [19] studied the stability of ESH from mushroom extract and found that it had excellent light, thermal and acid-base stability, this is very ubiquitous advantage for processed meat production. It is suggested that the extract of F. velutipes contained high-level of ESH and could be a good antioxidant candidate for meat processing.
Numerous studies have revealed that extract of certain mushrooms had strong antioxidative ability, and the active substances in the extract (extracting with water or alcohol) including ESH and certain phenolic compounds [10]. Nguyen et al [20] demonstrated that, both ESH and total phenolic compounds (TPs) showed a significant correlation with DPPH radical scavenging capacity, and the ESH had higher correlation (R2 = 0.84) with DPPH radical scavenging activity than TPs (R2 = 0.52). Pahila et al [7] also concluded that a high correlation (R2 = 0.9984) was found between ESH content in crude mushroom extract and DPPH radical scavenging. Meanwhile, Bao et al [10] also reported that ESH in mushrooms mainly contributed to the DPPH radical scavenging capacity. While Liu et al [19] found that, after isolating ESH from mushrooms, the antioxidant ability of ESH accounted for about 25% of the total antioxidant ability of the extract. In current study, to clarify whether ESH in F. velutipes extract plays a major role in antioxidation, we set up an AE group where authentic ESH (purity ≥98%) at a level of 0.12 g/kg (this amount of ESH was same as that of F. velutipes extract) was added to sausage. As shown in Table 1 and 2, compared to AE group, there was an increasing trend in the numerical values of TBARS and carbonyl in EEME group, but no significant difference was found between group EEME and group AE at day 0, 3, 7, and 14 refrigerated storage. These results confirmed that ESH mainly contributed to the antioxidative activity of F. velutipes extract.
As shown in Figure 1, chemically, ESH is an unusual thiol-histidine betaine with a sulfur atom linked to position 2 of imidazole ring [3,6]. It has distinctive features that are markedly different from ordinary thiols like GSH, for example, under physiological pH, ESH does not oxidize automatically as rapidly as GSH, and it does not promote the production of hydroxyl radicals by H2O2 and Fe2+ ions [21]. Another important characteristic of ESH is that the standard redox potential of thiol-disulfide couple of ESH at pH 7 is −0.06 V, while other widely occurring natural thiols typically range from −0.20 to −0.32 V [22]. Because of these excellent characteristics, ESH revealed strong antioxidant capacity to control oxidative damage.
In the process of meat production, various physical operations (such as grinding, cooking, emulsification, and deboning) can cause muscle membrane system disruption, which is conducive to the oxidation reaction in meat. It is well accepted that polyunsaturated fatty acids in meat are beneficial to oxidation because the double bond in polyunsaturated fatty acids is an ideal initiator in the oxidation process, it reacts with oxygen and other fatty acids in the atmosphere to form hydrogen peroxide and free radicals [2,23]. This process continues until production of final products, such as aldehydes, ketones, and hexanes, which cannot further support the oxidation cycle [23]. Meanwhile, lipid oxidation and free radicals could promote protein oxidation occurring in meat and result in protein carbonylation, polymerization and coagulation [24]. In addition to the composition and content of lipids and proteins in meat, the oxidation process is also affected by other factors, such as light, heat, metal ions, heme pigments, low pH, oxidative enzymes, sodium chloride and other ingredients [2,23]. So, the substances which could act as free radical terminators (e.g. BHA and BHT), free radical preventors (e.g. metal complexing agents ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) and redox compounds (e.g. cysteine and ascorbic acid) could retard the oxidative damage in meat [23]. Many researchers did good work on antioxidative mechanism of ESH, they demonstrated that ESH is an active scavenger of free radicals, including H2O2, •OH, 1O2, lipid peroxides, nitric oxide derivatives and superoxide ion [3]. Meanwhile, earlier studies discovered that ESH could chelate divalent metal cations, including Cu2+, Hg2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Co2+, Fe2+, and Ni2+ [25], and the Cu2+ could form a most stable complex with ESH in the form at a molar ratio of 2:1 of ESH to metal ion [25]. In the meat system, the ability of binding these metal ions could help to decrease the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Encarnacion et al [12], that ESH interacted directly with Cu2+ at the putative binding sites of polyphenoloxidase, based on this reaction, ESH could prevent shrimp from melanosis. Therefore, there is a strong possibility that, during emulsified sausage processing and storage, ESH exerts the antioxidant activities through donating hydrogen to the free radicals and controlling the production of ROS through chelating metal ions, acting alone or in combination. While further studies are needed to better understand the antioxidant mechanism of ESH in meat system.
It is established that flavor is one of the most important quality attributes contributing to the eating quality of meat. In current study, using SPME-GC-MS, 36 volatile compounds were identified during the storage of emulsified sausage (Table 3), they were classified into 6 groups including aldehydes (6), hydrocarbons (10), ketones (2), alcohols (1), esters (14), and aromatics (3). Among them, aldehydes were the main component of which hexanal dominated. As described by previous work, the level of off-flavor can be an ultimate factor determining consumer purchases [23], and the lipid oxidation in meat matrix was associated with off-flavor [26], furthermore, it was shown that the hexanal content was widely used as indicator of lipid oxidation in meat system [26]. As shown in Table 3, at day 0, 3, 7, and 14, the concentrations of hexanal in sausages from groups BHA, AE, and EEME were significantly (p<0.05) lower than those from control group, while, no significant difference was found among groups BHA, AE, and EEME. In terms with pentanal, at day 0, 3, 7, and 14, the concentrations of pentanal in sausages from groups BHA, AE, and EEME were significantly (p<0.05) lower than those from control group. These results were in line with the findings of Frankel and Tappel [27], who concluded that the amounts of pentanal correlated well with the corresponding amounts of hexanal in meat. These data confirmed our above observations in lipid oxidation measured by TBARS, and they were also consistent with sensory evaluation of sausage.
Volatile hydrocarbons have a relatively high aroma threshold [28], so, they may not have a major impact on meat flavor, and there is evidence that volatile hydrocarbons are produced during lipid peroxidation [23]. In present study, at day 0, 3, 7, and 14, the total hydrocarbon amounts in sausages from EEME group was significantly (p<0.05, Table 3) lower than other groups. These results agreed with the TBARS values shown in Table 1. It is reported that volatile alcohols are usually associated with fresh, fruity and fatty aromas [29], while the aroma threshold of alcohols is higher than that of aldehydes and ketones [30]. In this study, large amounts of ethanol were found in all groups, but there was no difference among groups control, BHA, AE, and EEME. The alcohol-derived volatiles in sausages should be related to the wine added during manufacturing. It is described that most of volatile ketones have milky and fruity aroma [16], while they poorly contribute to the flavor of sausage due to the high aroma threshold value. In current study, only two kinds of ketones were detected, they were 2,3-octanedione and acetophenone. As shown in Table 3, at day 3, 7, and 14, the 2,3-octanedione amounts in sausages from groups BHA, AE, and EEME were significantly (p<0.05) lower than those from control group. Based on previous studies, ketones are another major product of lipid oxidation, accordingly, these results coincided with the results of lipid oxidation as shown in Table 1. From Table 3, it is shown that, at day 0 and 3, higher amounts of 2-pentyl-furan were detected in EEME group. It is reported that many kinds of mushroom contained 2-pentyl-furan which can provide vegetable-like, earthy and bean aroma [31]. Therefore, the higher levels of 2-pentyl-furan identified in sausages of EEME group could be derived from mushroom extract. While, at day 7 and 14, the amounts of 2-pentyl-furan in EEME group were lower than control group. As discussed above, this phenomenon can be explained by the lower oxidative reaction occurred in sausages from EEME group, because 2-pentyl furan could be formed from deterioration of lipid and protein at low temperature storage [31].
It is demonstrated that volatile esters are generally responsible for fruity and flowery smell of food [16], and they are formed by the interaction of alcohol and free fatty acid produced by lipid oxidation [32]. During storage of emulsified sausages, 14 kinds of ester compounds were identified in samples from EEME group (Table 3), and they were dominated by hexanoic acid, ethyl ester (Table 3), this phenomenon could be attributed to ester compounds contained in mushroom extract [33], or these ester compounds were formed in other reactions taking place in stored sausage. Overall, above data demonstrated that adding ESH-enriched mushroom extract to sausage could be able to enrich flavor composition and increase content of characteristic flavor of emulsified sausage.
The effects of adding BHA, AE, and EEME on the sensory characteristics of emulsified sausages were studied. The sensory parameters including color, taste, chewiness, smell, sourness, and overall acceptability of sausages were assessed. As shown in Figure 3, compared to other groups, the sausages in EEME group got the highest scores in taste and smell at day 0, 3, 7, and 14 refrigerated storage, this may be due to the "good components" contained in mushroom extract, such as phenolic, flavonoid and free amino acids [34], which can promote the taste and flavor properties of sausages. As described above, adding mushroom extract to sausage could effectively prevent lipid oxidation and improve flavor attributes of emulsified sausage during refrigerated storage. Therefore, these results obtained from sensory evaluation coincided with the findings from oxidative stability and volatile compounds. While, for parameters of color and chewiness, no significant difference was found among four groups. Sourness taste could be an indicator of rancid for emulsified sausages, at day 3, 7, and 14 refrigerated storage, the sourness score of sausages from control group was higher than those from groups BHA, AE, and EEME. This indicates that the quality of sausages without adding any antioxidant significantly decreased with storage time increased.
The F. velutipes extract has high-level of ESH (15.29±0.52 mg/g extract), it produced excellent scavenging activities against free radicals DPPH (90.2%), ABTS (96%), and hydroxyl (87.6%). It was demonstrated that adding ESH-enriched F. velutipes extract to sausage could effectively prevent lipid and protein oxidation during refrigerated storage, and its efficacy was equivalent to 0.01% BHA. During meat processing, the ESH mainly contributed to the antioxidative activity of F. velutipes extract. The flavor and sensory attributes of emulsified sausage could be improved through adding ESH-enriched F. velutipes extract. In conclusion, the extract of F. velutipes contained high-level of ESH could be a good natural antioxidant candidate in processed meat production.
We certify that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in the manuscript.
This work was supported by Dongguan Institute of Science and Technology High Level Talent Research Start Project (GC300501-139); National Natural Science Foundation of China (31201386) and Institute of Science and Technology Innovation, DGUT (No. KCYCXPT2017007; GB200902-51).
The structure of ergothioneine (ESH).
The radical scavenging activity of Flammulina velutipes extracts. Error bars refer to the standard error obtained from triplicate sample analysis.
Sensory properties of emulsified sausage during refrigerated storage treated with antioxidants BHA, AE, and EEME. Control, no antioxidant; EEME, with 0.8% ergothioneine (ESH)-enriched Flammulina velutipes extracts; AE, with 0.012% authentic ergothioneine (ESH); BHA, BHA with 0.01% butylated hydroxyanisole.
Effect of ergothioneine-enriched mushroom extract on the TBARS content of emulsified sausage during refrigerated storage
Group1)
TBARS (mg MDA/kg sample)
Control 0.19±0.01a 0.38±0.03a 0.63±0.05a 1.23±0.08a
BHA 0.13±0.01b 0.28±0.01b 0.48±0.02b 0.82±0.06b
AE 0.15±0.02a 0.30±0.02b 0.51±0.05b 0.87±0.12b
EEME 0.12±0.01b 0.31±0.01b 0.43±0.04b 0.80±0.04b
The values are expressed as mean±standard deviation.
TBARS, 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; MDA, malondialdehyde.
1) Control, no antioxidant; BHA, BHA with 0.01% butylated hydroxyanisole; AE, with 0.012% authentic ergothioneine (ESH); EEME, with 0.8% ergothioneine (ESH)-enriched Flammulina velutipes extracts.
a,b Means with different letters in the same column are different (p<0.05).
Effect of ergothioneine-enriched mushroom extract on the protein carbonyls content of emulsified sausage during refrigerated storage
Carbonyls (nmol/mg protein)
Control 0.048±0.01a 0.44±0.06a 1.02±0.02a 1.29±0.01a
BHA 0.037±0.03b 0.27±0.02b 0.84±0.05b 0.95±0.10b
AE 0.040±0.05b 0.31±0.06b 0.83±0.02b 0.96±0.02b
EEME 0.032±0.02b 0.28±0.01b 0.76±0.04b 0.92±0.03b
Effect of ergothioneine-enriched mushroom extract on the volatile compounds of emulsified sausage during refrigerated storage
Control1)
BHA1)
AE1)
EEME1)
EEME
Decane ND ND ND ND 0.90c 3.25a 3.15a 1.83b 0.14b 2.12a 2.13a 2.2a 0.47b 1.95a 1.97a 1.84a
Undecane ND ND ND ND 7.21a 7.96a 7.19a 4.54b 10.24a 8.17b 8.61b 5.19c 14.98a 9.44b 9.37b 7.32c
Pentadecane ND ND ND ND 1.46a NDb NDb NDb 1.58a NDb NDb 0.15b ND ND ND ND
Heptadecane ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.68 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Dodecane 0.82b 0.73b 1.07a 0.75b ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Tetradecane 1.20a 0.84b 0.89b 0.51c ND ND ND ND 0.26 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Pentane ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDb NDb NDb 0.61a ND ND ND ND
Octane 1.05a NDb NDb NDb ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Total hydrocarbons 3.07a 1.57b 1.96b 1.27c 9.57a 11.21a 10.34a 6.37b 12.22a 10.29b 10.74b 8.15c 15.45a 11.39b 11.34b 9.16c
Pentanal 1.84a NDc 0.98b 1.21b 2.27a NDc 1.46b 1.29b 2.01a NDc 0.53b 0.39b 2.51a NDc 1.72b 1.67b
Hexanal 30.97a 11.4b 12.05b 11.57b 31.91a 16.5b 18.28b 15.47c 32.6a 20.75b 22.39b 18.06b 34.13a 24.22b 25.13b 22.37b
Octanal 1.52a 1.56a 2.05a 0.99b 1.90a 2.31a 2.08a 1.76b 2.88a 2.68a 2.66a 1.85b 3.59a 2.87b 2.79b 2.47b
Nonanal 13.99a 9.67c 10.23b 11.44b 9.36a 6.97b 9.46a 10.78a 8.38a 7.04c 8.61a 7.81b 6.67a 4.66b 6.47a 4.38b
Benzaldehyde 0.7b 1.10a 1.22a 1.17a 1.42 1.59 1.79 1.44 ND ND ND 0.99 ND ND ND 0.39
2-Octenal ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.09 0.77 ND 0.62 1.08 ND ND ND ND
Total aldehydes 49.02a 23.73b 26.54b 26.16b 46.86a 27.36c 33.06bc 30.82c 46.64a 30.48b 34.81b 30.16b 46.90a 31.75b 36.11b 31.28b
2,3-Octanedione 1.31a 0.38b 1.34a 1.24a 1.69a 0.71c 1.06b 1.26b 1.64a 0.69b 0.94b 0.64b 1.84a 1.24b 1.33b 1.18b
Acetophenone ND ND ND ND ND ND 1.19 ND 0.81 0.82 1.06 1.06 0.32 0.51 0.47 0.58
Total ketones 1.31a 0.38b 1.34a 1.24a 1.69a 0.71c 2.25a 1.26b 2.45a 1.51b 2.00b 1.70b 2.16a 1.75b 1.80b 1.76b
Ethanol 15.54 15.36 15.79 15.63 15.32 15.13 15.75 15.67 15.37 15.65 15.83 15.81 15.48 15.47 15.78 15.64
Total alcohols 15.54 15.36 15.79 15.63 15.32 15.13 15.75 15.67 15.37 15.65 15.83 15.81 15.48 15.47 15.78 15.64
Ethyl acetate 2.42a NDb 3.23a 2.58a 2.35a NDc 1.56b 2.27a 2.11a NDb 1.94a 1.99a 1.41b NDc 1.57b 1.82a
Hexanoic acid, ethyl ester 12.75c 12.13c 19.25b 29.64a 12.40b 6.31c 22.12a 25.29a 13.65b 3.78c 19.98b 24.74a 13.37b 3.01c 18.01b 23.03a
Octanoic acid, ethyl ester 1.5ab 1.25b 2.09a 1.76a 1.61a 1.21b 1.75a 1.73a 0.99b 0.90b 1.34a 1.37a 0.16b 0.19b 0.63a 0.60a
2,4-Hexadienoic acid, ethyl ester 3.97ab 3.75b 5.87a 4.98a 4.02a 3.31b 4.28a 4.69a 2.64b 2.92b 3.87a 3.68a 2.46b 2.61b 3.68a 3.54a
Benzoic acid, ethyl ester 2.13b 1.63c 2.93a 3.00a 1.72a NDc 1.58b 1.47b 1.08a 0.42c 0.71b 0.81ab 0.85a 0.55b 0.33c 0.37c
2,2,4-Ttrimethyl-3-Pentanoicacid-carboxyisopropyl, isobutyl ester 4.14c 4.76b 8.8a 7.74a ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Phthalic acid, allyl ethyl ester 1.26a NDb NDb NDb 0.07 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Dibutyl phthalate 1.54a 0.78b 1.97a 1.79a 0.82 0.62 0.47 0.72 0.29 ND ND ND 0.14 ND ND ND
Hexanedioic acid, bis (2-methylpropyl) ester 0.06 0.04 ND ND 0.21 0.06 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
2-Methyl-,1-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-1,3-propanediyl ester ND 0.06 ND ND 0.07 0.35 0.42 0.41 0.06 0.4 0.51 0.4 ND ND ND ND
Adipic acid, isobutyl 2-methylpent-3-yl ester NDb 1.00a 1.32a 1.16a NDc NDc 1.36b 1.90a NDc NDc 1.82b 2.44a NDc NDc 2.64b 3.41a
Heptanoic acid, ethyl ester NDb NDb 0.46b 1.21a NDb NDb 0.82a 1.34a NDb NDb 1.31a 1.33a NDc NDc 2.39b 2.98a
2-Ethylhexyl acrylate ND ND ND ND 2.14a NDb 2.95a 3.2a 0.95d 1.17c 2.07b 5.63a NDd 1.51c 3.57b 4.65a
Butanoic acid, ethyl ester ND ND ND ND ND 0.31 0.35 ND 0.08b NDb 0.66a 0.94a ND ND ND ND
Total esters 29.78c 25.4d 45.92b 53.85a 25.4c 12.17d 37.64b 43.03a 21.85c 9.59d 34.21b 43.32a 18.39c 7.87d 32.82b 40.40a
Butylated hydroxytoluene NDb 31.81a NDb NDb NDb 31.42a NDb NDb NDb 30.60a NDb NDb NDb 30.31a NDb NDb
Toluene ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDb 1.40a 1.60a NDb NDb 1.23b 1.49a NDb
2-Pentyl-furan 1.28b 1.74a 1.96a 1.85a 1.16b NDc 0.95b 1.85a 1.46a 0.48c 0.81b 0.85b 1.62a 0.23c 0.66b 0.76b
Total aromatics 1.28b 33.56a 1.96b 1.85b 1.16b 31.42a 0.95b 1.85b 1.46b 32.48a 2.41b 0.85b 1.62b 31.77a 2.15b 0.76b
Volatile compounds expressed as % of total peak area.
ND, not detected.
1) Control: no antioxidant; BHA, BHA with 0.01% butylated hydroxyanisole; AE, with 0.012% authentic ergothioneine (ESH); EEME, with 0.8% ergothioneine (ESH)-enriched Flammulina velutipes extracts.
a–d Means with different letters superscript in the same row are significant different (p<0.05).
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Effect of fermented blueberry on the oxidative stability and volatile molecule profiles of emulsion-type sausage during refrigerated storage2020 May;33(5)


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Template:Redirect Template:Infobox Company The Ford Motor Company (often referred to simply as Ford; sometimes nicknamed Ford's or FoMoCo, Template:NYSE is an automobile maker founded by Henry Ford in Detroit, Michigan, and incorporated on June 16, 1903.
Ford radically reformed the methods for large-scale manufacturing of cars, and large-scale management of an industrial workforce. Ford implemented the ideas of Eli Whitney, who developed the first assembly line using interchangeable parts, which made it possible to put the cars together at a much lower cost and with greater reliability and repeatability. The use of a chain driven track to move the vehicles to the workers was unique in the industry and quickly became the preferred methodology for volume production. As the individual work tasks became simple and repetitive this allowed the use of unskilled laborers who could be quickly trained for a single task but this also removed most of the satisfaction that a worker performing multiple tasks may enjoy.
The headquarters of Ford Motor Company are located in Dearborn, Michigan.
1.1 The Great Depression
1.2 World War II
1.3 Post war developments
2 Brands and marques
3 Global markets
3.4 Africa and Middle East
4 A new direction for the new century
5 2005 bond downgrade
6 Response to the downgrade
7.1 Notable employees, past and present
7.2 Diversity
9 Related topics
Ford was launched from a converted wagon factory, with $28,000 cash from 12 investors. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at the Ford factory on Mack Avenue in Detroit. Groups of two or three men worked on each car from components made to order by other companies.
2000_Ford_Taurus.jpg
A Ford Taurus, one of Ford's most recognizable cars.
A Ford Model T, Ford's first and signature car.
In 1908, the Ford company released the Ford Model T. The first Model T's were built at the Piquette Plant. The company was forced to move production to the much larger Highland Park Plant to keep up with the demand for the Model T, and by 1913 had developed all of the basic techniques of the assembly line and mass production. Ford introduced the world's first moving assembly line on December 1 that year, which reduced chassis assembly time from 12½ hours in October to 2 hours, 40 minutes. However these innovations were not popular, and in order to stop the staff deserting the monotonous jobs, on January 5, 1914, Ford took the radical step of doubling pay to $5 a day, and cut shifts from 9 hours to 8 [1] (http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1542-734X.1997.00047.x/pdf) - moves that were not popular with rival companies, although seeing the increase in Ford's productivity, most soon followed suit.
By the end of 1913, Ford was producing 50% of all cars in the United States, and by 1918 half of all cars in the country were Model Ts. Referring to the Model T, Henry Ford is reported to have said that "Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black." This was because black paint was quickest to dry; earlier models had been available in a variety of colors.
On January 1, 1919, Edsel Ford succeeded his father as president of the company, although Henry Ford still kept a hand in management. The Ford company lost market share during the 1920s due to the rise of consumer credit. The company's goal was to produce an inexpensive automobile that any worker could afford. To keep prices low, Ford (at the behest of its owner, Henry Ford) offered few features. General Motors and other competitors began offering automobiles in more colors, with more features and luxuries. They also extended credit so consumers could buy these more expensive automobiles. Ford resisted following suit, insisting that such credit would hurt the consumer and the economy. Due to market constraints, however, the company finally gave in and followed its competitors' lead when on December 2, 1927 Ford unveiled the redesigned Ford Model A and retired the Model T.
Ford maintained production for nearly two years after the start of the Great Depression, however the slump in sales led to Ford closing the Model A assembly line on August 1, 1931, with the loss of 60,000 jobs. The following year, five Ford workers were killed as unemployed workers marched to demand jobs. Henry Ford fortified his home and the factory. Only eight of 35 US plants were in production in 1933 and it took until 1939 before sales returned to their 1929 levels.
After the outbreak of World War II, U.S. domestic automotive production ceased for the duration of the conflict, as the nation's industries were redirected to war production. Ford Motor Company was responsible for major contributions to the Allies' war effort. Of the companies contracted to produce the famous World War II "jeep" or general-purpose vehicle, Ford produced the most (the other companies included Willys-Overland, which later adopted the name Jeep.)
Wartime production at Ford also included aircraft construction. Nearby to its Detroit-area headquarters, Ford developed the Willow Run plant and its associated airfield, where the B-24 Liberator aircraft was produced. The Willow Run plant was a massive facility, and held the distinction at the time of being the world's largest enclosed "room"; at its peak, the plant was able to produce as many as one B-24 aircraft per hour of production. Willow Run, located near Ypsilanti, Michigan, still operates as an airfield today; today, Ford rival General Motors owns part of the facility, where manufacturing continues.
During the War, thousands of women found employment in manufacturing at Ford, many for the first time. These women became symbolized by the famous poster image of Rosie the Riveter.
Ford's former manufacturing plant at Richmond, California, located near San Francisco, is under development by the National Parks Service as the Rosie the Riveter / World War II Home Front National Historical Park.
Ford's plants in Germany and Vichy France, Fordwerke, produced many of the cars and trucks used by the Nazis in World War II. The Ford Motor Company has denied allegations that they profited by the use of forced labor to produce tanks for the Nazis during the war, saying that Ford had lost control of the German division by that point in the war and was not responsible for its activities. (See: Strategic bombing survey) Similar charges have been made against other American firms which had European operations at the outbreak of hostilities.
Post war developments
Ford became a publicly traded corporation in 1956; however, the Ford family still maintains a controlling interest in the company. Henry Ford's great-grandson Bill Ford is presently chairman and CEO.
Brands and marques
Today, Ford Motor Company manufactures automobiles under the highly-recognized Lincoln and Mercury brand names. In 1958, Ford introduced a new marque, the Edsel, but poor sales led to its discontinuation in 1960. Later, in 1986, the Merkur brand was released, but met a similar fate in 1988.
Ford has major manufacturing operations in Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Germany, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and several other countries, including South Africa, where following divestment during apartheid, it once again has a wholly-owned subsidiary. It also has a joint venture with Mahindra in India.
Ford also has a cooperative agreement with GAZ. In recent years Ford has acquired Aston Martin, Jaguar, Volvo Cars, and Land Rover, as well as a controlling share of Mazda, with which it operates an American joint venture plant called Auto Alliance. It has spun off its parts division under the name Visteon. Its prestige brands, with the exception of Lincoln, are managed through its Premier Automotive Group.
Ford's non-manufacturing operations include organizations in the financial services (Ford Credit) and automobile rental (Hertz) businesses.
Initially, Ford models sold outside the US were essentially versions of those sold on the home market, but later on there were vast differences between those sold in the US and those sold in Europe. The divergence in product tastes is such that European models like the Ford Mondeo have fared poorly in the US, while US models such as the Ford Taurus have fared poorly in Japan and Australia, even produced in right hand drive. The small European model Ka, a hit in its home market, did not catch on in Japan, as it was not available as an automatic. The Mondeo was dropped by Ford Australia, because the segment of the market in which it competes had been in steady decline, with buyers preferring the larger local model, the Falcon. The Focus has been one exception, which has sold strongly on both sides of the Atlantic, despite its European design.
1970 Ford Cortina Mark 2
Initially, Ford in Germany and the United Kingdom built different models from one another until the late 1960s, with the Ford Escort and then the Ford Capri being common to both companies. Later on, the Ford Taunus and Ford Cortina became identical, produced in left hand drive and right hand drive respectively. Rationalisation of model ranges meant that production of many models in the UK switched to elsewhere in Europe, including Belgium and Spain as well as Germany. The Ford Sierra replaced the Taunus and Cortina in 1982, drawing criticism for its radical aerodynamic styling, which was soon given nicknames such as "Jellymould" and "The Salesman's Spaceship".
Increasingly, Ford Motor Company has looked to Ford of Europe for its 'world cars', such as the Mondeo, Focus, and Fiesta, although sales of European-sourced Fords in the US have been disappointing, and in Asia, models from Europe are not as competitively priced as Japanese-built rivals, nor are they perceived as reliable. The Focus has been one exception to this, which has become America's best selling compact car since its launch in 2000.
In 2001, Ford ended car production in the UK and it was the first time in more than 80 years that Ford cars had not been made in Britain, although production of the Transit van continues at the company's Southampton facility, engines at Bridgend and Dagenham and transmissions at Halewood. Development of European Ford is broadly split between Dunton in Essex (Powertrain, Fiesta/Ka and Transit) and Merkenich ( Body, Chassis, Electrical, Focus, Mondeo) in Germany. Ford also produced the Thames range of commercial vehicles although the use of this brand name was discontinued circa 1965. It owns the Jaguar, and Land Rover car plants in Britain which are still operational. Ford's Halewood Assembly Plant was converted to Jaguar production.
Elsewhere in Continental Europe, Ford assembles the Mondeo range in its Belgian facility in Genk (where a Transit production line was also maintained until 2003), while Fiesta/Ka assembly takes place in the Valencia plant in Spain. The Saarlouis and Cologne plants in Germany take responsibility for European assembly of the Focus.
Ford also owns a joint venture production plant in Turkey. Ford-Otosan, established in the 1970s, manufactures the Transit Connect compact panel van as well as the "Jumbo" and long wheelbase versions of the full-size Transit. This new production facility was set up near Koeceli in 2002, and its opening marked the end of Transit assembly in Genk. Another joint venture plant near Setubal in Portugal set up in collaboration with Volkswagen assembles the Galaxy people carrier as well as its sister ship the VW Sharan.
In Australia and New Zealand, the popular Ford Falcon is considered by some inappropriate as an economical family car, being considerably larger than the Mondeo sold in Europe. Originally the Falcon was based on a US Ford of that name, but is now substantially different, still having rear wheel drive, like its General Motors rival, the Holden Commodore.
Ford's presence in Asia has traditionally been much smaller, but with the acquisition of a stake in Japanese manufacturer Mazda, in 1979, Ford began selling Mazda's Familia and Capella (also known as the 323 and 626) as the Ford Laser and Telstar. The Laser was one of the most successful models sold by Ford in Australia, and, ironically, outsold the Mazda 323. The Laser was also built in Mexico and sold in the US as the Mercury Tracer, while the 1989 US Ford Escort was based on the Laser/Mazda 323. The smaller Mazda 121 was also sold in the US and Asia as a Ford Festiva.
Through its relationship with Mazda, Ford also acquired a stake in South Korean manufacturer Kia, which later built the Ford Aspire for export to the US, but later sold the company to Hyundai. Ironically, Hyundai also manufactured the Ford Cortina until the 1980s. Ford also has a joint venture with Lio Ho in Taiwan, which assembled Ford models locally since the 1970s. Ford came to India in 1998 with its Ford Escort model, which was later replaced by locally produced Ford Ikon in 2001.
In South America, Ford has had to face protectionist government measures in each country, with the result that it built different models in different countries, with no rationalisation or economies of scale. In some cases, it based its models on those of other manufacturers whose plants it had taken over. For example, the Corcel and Del Rey in Brazil were originally based on Renaults. In the 1980s, Ford merged its operations in Brazil and Argentina with those of Volkswagen to form a company called Autolatina, with which it shared models.
Autolatina was dissolved in the 1990s, and with the advent of Mercosur, the regional common market, Ford was able to rationalise its product line-ups in those countries. Consequently, the Ford Fiesta is only built in Brazil, and the Ford Focus only built in Argentina, with each plant exporting in large volumes to the neighbouring country. Models like the Ford Mondeo from Europe could now be imported completely built up. Ford in Brazil produces a pick-up version of the Fiesta, which is also produced in South Africa, in right hand drive as the Ford Bantam.
In Africa and the Middle East, Ford's market presence has traditionally been strongest in South Africa and neighbouring countries, with only trucks being sold elsewhere on the continent. Ford in South Africa began by importing kits from Canada to be assembled at its Port Elizabeth facility. Later Ford sourced its models from the UK and Australia, with local versions of the Ford Cortina including the XR6, with a 3.0 V6 engine, and a Cortina 'bakkie' or pick-up, which was exported to the UK. In the mid-1980s Ford merged with a rival company, owned by Anglo American, to form the South African Motor Corporation (Samcor).
Following international condemnation of apartheid, Ford divested from South Africa in 1988, and sold its stake in Samcor, although it licensed the use of its brand name to the company. Samcor began to assemble Mazdas as well, which affected its product line-up, which saw the European Fords like the Escort and Sierra replaced by the Mazda-based Laser and Telstar. Ford bought a 45 per cent stake in Samcor following the demise of apartheid in 1994, and this later became, once again, a wholly owned subsidiary, the Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa. Ford now sells a local sedan version of the Fiesta (also built in India and Mexico), and the Focus and Mondeo Europe. The Falcon model from Australia was also sold in South Africa, but was dropped in 2003.
Ford's market presence in the Middle East has traditionally been even smaller, partly due to the Arab boycott of companies dealing with Israel, although US Fords are now sold in Saudi Arabia.
A new direction for the new century
Under the leadership of the current chairman, William Clay Ford, Jr., the company (and Mr. Ford personally) stunned the industry and pleased environmentalists with an announcement (http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=105&STORY=/www/story/07-27-2000/0001276963) of a planned 25 percent improvement in the average mileage of its light truck fleet - including its popular Sport Utility Vehicles - to be completed by the 2005 calendar year. Mr. Ford was also one of the first top industry executives to make regular use of an electric vehicle, a Ford Ranger EV, while the company contracted with the U. S. Postal Service for delivery of a large number of electric postal vans based on the Ranger EV platform. Many Ford vehicles now sport an emblem - a green leaf springing from a curving road-like twig, symbolic of the new "green" commitment to preserve the environment and reduce resource consumption while delivering safe, economical, and effective products to the motoring public. Note however, that FMC has made no significant progress toward the 2005 goal as of early 2005 (and in 2003 announced that it would not to try to achieve this goal), has terminated its electric vehicle program, recovering most vehicles for recycling via crushing and shredding (rather than putting the components or vehicles on the market), and has instead delivered ICE vehicles to the post office, despite obtaining various subsidies for EV development. In this period Ford also introduced the "Excursion", a supersized SUV, larger even than the GMC/Chevrolet Suburban. As with General Motor's Hummer H2 SUV this vehicle is so large that its poor milage does not count toward the manufacture's Corporate Average Fuel Economy ("CAFE") milage.
2005 bond downgrade
In May 2005, several bond rating agencies downgraded the bonds of Ford Motor Company to below investment grade (so called "junk bonds", at the same time they downgraded the bonds of General Motors. These downgrades were a recognition high health care costs for an aging workforce and of the dependance of the company for profits from the sales of Sport Utility Vehicles. Owing to higher fuel prices there has been a decrease in the profits on these vehicles owing to "incentives" (in the form of rebates or low interest financing), required due to declining sales. Foreign manufactures, not having the truck manufacturing capabilities to form a platform base for similar vehicles have instead introduced so called "crossover" SUV's — vehicles built on an automobile or minivan platform rather than a truck chassies. For various reasons including fuel economy, ride comfort, handling, and performance, these have proved to be popular in the market, while Ford had not developed such vehicles (with the exception of the Escape light SUV). As far as the other non-truck models, most of these (with the notable exception of the 2005 Mustang) are disadvantaged in the marketplace owing to a perception by buyers that foreign manufactures (especially Toyota and Honda) deliver better value in terms of fuel economy, reliability, and build quality. These perceptions are reflected in the used car market by higher values for these foreign models. For owners who frequently trade in and for those who lease their vehicles the resale values are reflected in substantial cost differences with domestic vehicles costing more in overall costs.
Response to the downgrade
The current strategy of Ford in response to the circumstances that lead to the bond downgrade is to reduce the company's reliance on a limited portion of their products for profit. To make good profits across their product line will require that they reduce the costs of development and production while introducing compelling products. This strategy is in contrast with that of GM, which has postponed development of a new rear wheel drive passenger car platform (called "Zeta" internally) to free up resources for the next generation of their light truck and SUV lines, this in the stated belief that their core market for such vehicles is sufficiently prosperous as to be insensitive to fuel price increases (and implicitly, to low resale values).
Notable employees, past and present
Clarence Avery, one of the developers of the assembly line
Maurice Buckmaster (France; later of the French Resistance during WWII)
Phillip Caldwell, sucessor to Iacocca as president and later the first non-family leader of the company upon Henry Ford II's retirement
Bill Ford (Chairman and CEO, great grandson of Henry Ford)
Berry Gordy, songwriter
Lee Iacocca (engineer, sales executive, and eventually Ford president)
J. Edward Lundy, legendary financial executive within company
Peter E. Martin, head of manufacturing at the Highland Park Plant
J Mays (controversial automobile designer and current Chief Creative Officer)
Robert McNamara (finance executive and eventually Ford president; later U.S. Secretary of Defense)
George Murphy (later movie actor and ultimately U.S. Senator from California)
Robert Lutz (later of Chrysler Corporation and General Motors)
Jacques Nasser (president and CEO in the late 1990s, forced to resign)
William Mayo (chief power engineer)
Earl S. MacPherson (engineer; inventor of the MacPherson strut)
Malcolm X (assembly line worker)
Jim Padilla, president effective February 1 2005
Don Peterson, chairman in the late 1980s
"Red" Poling (president and later chairman in the early 1990s
Jack Roush, engineer, later founded a performance engineering company specializing in modification of Ford products and successful NHRA and NASCAR racing teams
"Marvelous Marv" Runyon, manufacturing executive, later chief of Nissan in the U.S., chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority, and United States Postmaster General
Sir Nicholas Scheele, president 2001-2005
Bob Seger, rock and roll singer
Larry Shinoda, noted designer
Charles E. Sorensen, head of manufacturing in the 1930s and early 1940s
Alexander James Trotman, chairman and CEO in the mid 1990s
Coleman Young, later mayor of Detroit
Ford received a 100% rating on the Corporate Equality Index released by the Human Rights Campaign starting in 2004, the third year of the report. In additon, Ford was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2004 by Working Mothers magazine.
Ford Motor Company. 2003 Annual Report. Rochester, New York:St Ives Inc Case-Hoyt. [2] (http://www.ford.com/en/company/investorInformation/companyReports/annualReports/)
List of Ford vehicles
List of Ford factories
List of Ford engines
List of Ford platforms
List of Ford VIN codes
EPA 2004 fuel economy report (Ford)
Firestone vs Ford Motor Company controversy
Ford Motor Company Home Page (http://www.ford.com/)
Ford Vehicles Home Page (http://www.fordvehicles.com/)
The Ford Motor Company and the Third Reich (http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Holocaust/ford.html)
Ford Commits to Major SUV Fuel Economy Gains (http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=105&STORY=/www/story/07-27-2000/0001276963)
Ford Escape Hybrid Sets SUV Mileage Record in 37-Hour Non-Stop Driving Test on a Tank of Gas (http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=105&STORY=/www/story/04-07-2004/0002147628)
FordForums.com a fan forum enthusiast page (http://www.fordforums.com)
Ford-forums.com, another fan forum enthusiast page (http://www.ford-forums.com)
Blueovalnews.com a fan information site (http://www.blueovalnews.com)
FORDMUSCLE.COM Webmagazine. Tech Content for Power (http://www.fordmuscle.com)
Template:Ford Template:Ford Motor Companyde:Ford Motor Company es:Ford Motor Company fr:Ford hr:Ford id:Ford Motor Company it:Ford he:פורד nl:Ford ja:フォード・モーター no:Ford Motor Company pl:Ford Motor Company pt:Ford Motor Company sr:Форд fi:Ford sv:Ford tr:Ford
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Categories: Ford | Fortune 500 companies

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


• Open plan kitchen and dining.
This charming and low maintenance home is set amongst easy care gardens, with a small pergola at the back of the property. It has an open plan kitchen and dining area with plenty of cupboard space and an updated gas stove. The lounge room has polished floorboards with heating and cooling and newly hung curtains. All 3 bedrooms have built in wardrobes with new carpets and curtains. The bathroom includes a vanity cabinet, bath and shower. There is a separate toilet and laundry with easy access to the backyard.
This modern and stylish townhouse offers a fantastic lifestyle and low maintenance city living with so much nearby.
Downstairs comprises of spacious open plan living with sliding doors opening out to a private paved courtyard.
The centrally located kitchen is beautifully appointed and features great storage, a dishwasher and gas cooking.
A convenient powder room and separate laundry complete downstairs.
There are 2 generous bedrooms upstairs, each with their own ensuite and the main with walk in robe and balcony to enjoy the city views beyond.
Ducted heating and cooling ensure comfort year round and there is a single carport with auto roller door.
Nestled in the heart of the city, between boutique hotels, quaint cafe's, fabulous restaurants, the iconic Central Market, vibrant Gouger Street and public transport.
This property is a beautifully renovated 2nd floor unit that is light and airy. Located close to the stunning beach and public transport.
The property features a sparkling kitchen with open plan living/dining. Included in the tenancy are a washing machine, dryer and fridge.
Both bedrooms are spacious and the main has built in robes and carpeted throughout.
The bathroom has recently been renovated with modern features.
A private balcony lends itself to uninterrupted views of the apartments well maintained gardens.
Reverse cycle heating and cooling provides year round comfort and there is allocated off street parking.
Be quick to secure this sensational unit and start enjoying an enviable lifestyle with strolls along the beach, the shopping, cafes, restaurants and entertainment all nearby.


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BICS joins SMART Africa Alliance
Morgan Lewis Feb.27.2020 Market intelligence, Networks 1
BICS has announced that it has joined the SMART Africa Alliance to support its 'One Africa Network' (OAN).
Launched in 2013, by seven African Heads of State, Smart Africa is focused on accelerating sustainable socioeconomic development on the continent and ushering Africa into the knowledge economy through affordable access to broadband and ICT. The Alliance now has 30 member countries, representing over 750 million people.
"We're delighted to have BICS as a partner for our ongoing flagship project, the One Africa Network, as BICS is a major stakeholder in the value chain of what we're aiming to achieve – namely free roaming for all Africans, said Lacina Koné, Director General of Smart Africa.
BICS is connected to almost all the mobile networks in Africa and has an extensive and long-standing presence in the market, reaching 95% of African subscribers directly. Its extensive worldwide network includes several submarine cables across Africa, as well as five PoPs in Southern Africa, East and West Africa.
Daniel Kurgan, CEO of BICS commented that his firm were really pleased to be supporting SMART Africa on its mission to reduce roaming charges. "BICS is a leading and neutral carrier, and we already carry a significant proportion of voice, messaging and data roaming traffic within Africa. As such, and thanks to our turn-key 'free roaming' solutions, we're perfectly positioned to help our customers (local mobile operators) to roll out the new initiative affordably, and in a very short timeframe," he said.
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Tags: 4G, 5G, africa, BICS, Daniel Kurgan, data roaming, Lacina Kone, messaging, mobile, mobile operators, neutral carrier, roaming, SMART Africa Alliance, SMS, submarine cables, voice, voice roaming


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MSO spans calendar, globe in one show
Posted by Kevin Lee | Jan 17, 2018 | Artifice | 0 |
If the midwinter blahs have you down, there's a cure at the Saenger Theatre (6 S. Joachim St.) in late January. That's when Mobile Symphony Orchestra will magically take attendees through a couple of calendars' worth of music with the assistance of lauded international talent.
One of the time-travel architects is Italian baroque composer Antonio Vivaldi and the vessel is his best-known work. Known collectively as "Four Seasons," the quartet of violin concertos have become a "go-to" piece for a wealth of modern media, from films to television ads.
Written shortly after Vivaldi's three years as maestro of the court of the governor of Mantua, Italy, "Four Seasons" was published in 1725. Added to the four operas he produced the same year, it proved a particularly fertile period for him.
"Four Seasons" was also one of the earliest examples of narrative thread and went on to influence centuries of artists. Mobile-native Ward Swingle and his famous combo The Swingle Singers served up their own take on their 1969 album "The Joy of Singing."
The Vivaldi is followed by the same idea from a different perspective, less florid but spicier. Groundbreaking Argentine composer Astor Piazzolla penned "The Four Seasons of Buenos Aires" as part of his experimentation with fused classical, jazz and tango sounds.
Though born in South America, Piazzolla actually grew up in New York City, where he initially dismissed the sounds of his parents' homeland. Once he learned to play a traditional South American concertina called a bandoneon, he returned to those musical roots and Argentina itself, but alive with ideas for "nuevo tango."
A quarter century after Piazzolla's calendar romp coalesced in 1970, Russian composer Leonid Desyatnikov rearranged the four pieces. He converted each into three sections and scored them for solo violin and orchestra in order to link to Vivaldi's earlier composition.
Fittingly, the third piece on the MSO program is Olsvaldo Golijov's "Last Round," written as a tribute to Piazzolla following his 1992 death.
Solo violin buoys all of the European and South American works, especially in this strings-only version of MSO. It's only fitting they will turn to yet another continent to fill a seminal role.
South Korean violinist Chee-Yun makes her third appearance with MSO but it's only the latest appearance in her nearly lifelong and stellar career. Her first public performance was at the tender age of 8 in Seoul after winning the grand prize of the Korean Times Competition.
At 13, Chee-Yun came to the United States and was invited to perform in a Young People's Concert with the New York Philharmonic. Two years later, she appeared as a soloist with the New York String Orchestra at Carnegie Hall and the Kennedy Center.
After studying at Juilliard, she won the Young Concert Artists International auditions in 1989. Chee-Yun snagged an Avery Fisher Career Grant in 1990 and Korea's "Nan Pa" Award in 1993.
She performs regularly with the Philadelphia Orchestra, the London Philharmonic and the Toronto, Houston, Seattle, Pittsburgh and National symphony orchestras. She also has appeared with the Haifa Symphony, the Hong Kong Philharmonic, the London Festival Orchestra, the Atlanta Symphony and the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra, and with distinguished conductors such as James DePriest, Michael Tilson Thomas, Krzysztof Penderecki and Neeme Järvi.
Her orchestral highlights include a concert with the Seoul Philharmonic that was broadcast on national network television, a benefit for UNESCO with the Orchestra of St. Luke's at Avery Fisher Hall and U.S. tours with the San Francisco Symphony under Michael Tilson Thomas and Japan with the NHK Symphony.
Chee-Yun's past faculty positions included serving as resident Starling Soloist and Adjunct Professor of Violin at the University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music and Visiting Professor of Music (Violin) at Indiana University School of Music. In 2007, she was appointed Artist-in-Residence and Professor of Violin at Southern Methodist University in Dallas.
She's boasts frequent appearances on public broadcasting – radio and television. In 2009, the violinist even made an episode of HBO's comedy "Curb Your Enthusiasm."
Chee-Yun last appeared in the Azalea City in May 2015 when she played with the Mobile Symphony Youth Orchestra for their season finale.
Attendees who want more than the performance itself are invited to dip into MSO's pre-concert Take Note program in Room 1927, next to the Saenger's main entrance. An hour before the conductor's baton is raised they can hear a talk on the show's background from MSO personnel.
The Jan. 20 show is at 7:30 p.m.. Sunday matinee is at 2:30 p.m..
Tickets run $15 – $75. For more information, call 251-432-2010 or go to mobilesymphony.org.
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Kevin Lee has served as Lagniappe arts editor since 2003. He won Mobile Press Club awards for both Best Commentary Print and In-Depth Reporting for Non-Daily Newspaper in 2004 and 2005.
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The company is widely tipped to adopt higher-resolution OLED displays for the latest iPhone, along with better touchscreen technology and wireless charging - which could come with a $1,000 plus price tag. So as the iPhone 8 launch event is set for September 12, it is pretty much obvious that the pre-orders for the device will open up at the end of next week on Friday, September 15 at 12:00 a.m. Another option for Apple would be to wait and add LG's OLED screens to 2019 iPhone models.
The company is expected to reveal the two rumoured iterative iPhone updates, possibly named the iPhone 7s and iPhone 7s Plus, in addition to a high-end iPhone 8.
Apple has shown us that megapixel count doesn't matter as much as it should, with its line of iPhones capable of producing numerous best quality images out there when compared with the competition. The iPhone X could very well be a high-end anniversary edition of Apple's smartphone.
The iPhone is all geared up to be unveiled next week on September 12 in a press conference taking place at Apple's new headquarters called Apple Park. Therefore, it's time to sum up the story for you all who are biting their nails and waiting for Apple iPhone 8 to get released.
This is one of the features where Apple may outsmart the other major smartphone manufacturers. These OLED displays will cost Apple double the price for what they used in iPhone 7 Plus LCD panel. However, the iPhone 8 will be the first to introduce an OLED display.
Although the due date of launch of iPhone 8 is just around the corner, but the company claims that the supply of smartphones might be limited during first few months.
A facial-recognition sensor, earpiece and front-facing camera sit on a notch that occupies the screen's top.
The report further said that they have received a box shot from the Royal Dutch telecom provider KPN. With that gone, Apple is believed to have struggled to build Touch ID into the screen itself, and may now be removing the option to unlock your phone with your fingerprint altogether.
Coleen, 31, has been on 10 holidays in the past year , most recently jetting out to Mallorca, only to return when news of Wayne's arrest broke.
The flagship smartphones are also expected to run Android Oreo , Google's latest version of the Android mobile operating system. Backing up the two outlets' statements, a recent FCC filing confirmed that the Pixel 2 is going to sport Snapdragon 835 .
Arsene Wenger erupted in fury when Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain informed him last week he wanted to quit Arsenal for Liverpool , according to a reliable journalist.
Mounting the stage amidst warm applause from the crowd, She said, "hi to the state "we love", it is a pleasure to be back here". Along with stopping by at his meetings, Ms Trump has frequently accompanied her father to events. "I said yes, you can".
Premier League clubs have voted and there will be huge changes to next season's transfer window. . We just hope that other European leagues and the Football League follow suit.
They don't know exactly when or where yet, but Amazon does know that it will open a second headquarters in North America . Pittsburgh said it plans to "compete" for the new site and has already scheduled strategy sessions and started planning.
George, 4, held onto his dad's hand as he arrived at Thomas's Battersea private school in London this morning. Please SHARE to wish him the best of luck in his first year of elementary school!
Bob Menendez's upcoming corruption trial has gotten very little attention from members of the media. His successor would be appointed by the governor of New Jersey, now Republican Chris Christie.
NPR's Carrie Johnson reports the Justice Department concluded the program is unconstitutional. President Donald Trump says Congress should "get ready" to take on immigration legislation.
It's now unclear exactly how L.A Noire: The VR Case Files will play out, but it should be noted that it's not the full L.A. Noire will be released on the consoles and HTC Vive November 14 , proving rumors from earlier in the year to be true .
During questioning, Powers admitted to staying at Barker's place for two weeks and having sexual relations with the girl. Authorities arrested these three men on suspicion of kidnapping , false imprisonment and assault . "Unbelievable people.
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Paul Ince predicts Manchester City v Liverpool clash Raheem Sterling will miss the game due to a a one-match suspension following his red card at Bournemouth. Allardyce also believes Mourinho's experience will play a huge role in United's bid to win the title.
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PRRI Releases Largest Survey of American Religious and Denominational Identity Ever Conducted Another sharp decline highlighted by the report is that only 17 percent of Americans identify as white evangelical Protestants. These states tend to be more concentrated in the Western U.S., although they include a couple of New England states, as well.
Destiny 2's New Single-Use Armor Shaders Are Upsetting Players After completing the campaign, players can then pay a visit to Amanda Holliday, a vehicle vendor who also appeared in Destiny . The most popular is the thread calling for the boycott, which is nearing an incredible 40,000 upvotes as of this writing.
Taliban Carries Out 'Revenge' Attack on US-Afghan Airbase Over Leaflet No one claimed immediate responsibility for the attack, but both Taliban and Islamic State militants are active in the province. The cross-border sanctuaries may be an enabler but not a game changer for the Taliban's battlefield victories in Afghanistan.
'Bachelor' Shocks Fans With Season 22 Pick But, true to " Bachelor " form, Ben proposed to then-25-year old Lauren Bushnell, and they ultimately split this past May . Is a Good " Bachelor " Pick, " which argued that "he might be able to restore the show to its rightful form".
Stephens comeback continues into semis It looked like Sevastova was heading for victory at 3-1 in the final set but Stephens recovered to force a tie-break. Open semifinals for the first time by outlasting Anastasija Sevastova in Tuesday's quarterfinal match at NY .
Kim Kardashian & Kanye West's 3rd Baby Is Due In January Kim Kardashian and Kanye West will add a third child to their family in January (18), via a surrogate , according to reports. Kardashian has spoken about the prospect of surrogacy, even asking her sisters Kourtney and Khloe if they would oblige.
NY Radio Host Craig Carton Charged in Ticket Fraud Scheme He was allegedly involved in an investment scam where he and an associate claimed to be running a ticket broker business. Kim says Carton was actually running "a sham, created to fleece investors out of millions".
Pakistan to play two Tests in England next year Lara was quoted as saying, "I grew up at a time when West Indies dominated the world. England and the West Indies clash in the third and final test at Lords.
Poor air quality expected in Salem this week The advisory is in effect until Thursday at 10 a.m.at which time conditions will be reevaluated, according to a DEQ news release. Some schools also were making sure that students did not stand in lines outdoors before or after school.
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European Union court rejects Hungary-Slovakia appeal of refugee quotas All four countries also say migrants will disrupt their societies and the EU's focus should be on protecting its external borders .
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