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Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the Qieyun, a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The Swedish linguist Bernard Karlgren believed that the dictionary recorded a speech standard of the capital Chang'an of the Sui and Tang dynasties. However, based on the preface of the Qieyun, most scholars now believe that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late Northern and Southern dynasties period. This composite system contains important information for the reconstruction of the preceding system of Old Chinese phonology (early 1st millennium BC).

The fanqie method used to indicate pronunciation in these dictionaries, though an improvement on earlier methods, proved awkward in practice. The mid-12th-century Yunjing and other rime tables incorporate a more sophisticated and convenient analysis of the Qieyun phonology. The rime tables attest to a number of sound changes that had occurred over the centuries following the publication of the Qieyun. Linguists sometimes refer to the system of the Qieyun as Early Middle Chinese and the variant revealed by the rime tables as Late Middle Chinese.

The dictionaries and tables describe pronunciations in relative terms, but do not give their actual sounds. Karlgren was the first to attempt a reconstruction of the sounds of Middle Chinese, comparing its categories with modern varieties of Chinese and the Sino-Xenic pronunciations used in the reading traditions of neighbouring countries. Several other scholars have produced their own reconstructions using similar methods.

The Qieyun system is often used as a framework for the study and description of various modern varieties of Chinese. With the exception of the Min dialects (including Hokkien), which show independent developments from Old Chinese, the primary branches of the Chinese family such as Mandarin (including Standard Chinese, based on the speech of Beijing), Yue (including Cantonese) and Wu (including Shanghainese) can be largely treated as divergent developments from it. The study of Middle Chinese also provides for a better understanding and analysis of Classical Chinese poetry, such as the study of Tang poetry.

Sources
The reconstruction of Middle Chinese phonology is largely dependent upon detailed descriptions in a few original sources.  The most important of these is the Qieyun rime dictionary (601) and its revisions.  The Qieyun is often used together with interpretations in Song dynasty rime tables such as the Yunjing, Qiyinlue, and the later Qieyun zhizhangtu and Sisheng dengzi.  The documentary sources are supplemented by comparison with modern Chinese varieties, pronunciation of Chinese words borrowed by other languages (particularly Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese), transcription into Chinese characters of foreign names, transcription of Chinese names in alphabetic scripts (such as Brahmi, Tibetan and Uyghur), and evidence regarding rhyme and tone patterns from classical Chinese poetry.

Rime dictionaries

Chinese scholars of the Northern and Southern dynasties period were concerned with the correct recitation of the classics.
Various schools produced dictionaries to codify reading pronunciations and the associated rhyme conventions of regulated verse.
The Qieyun (601) was an attempt to merge the distinctions in six earlier dictionaries, which were eclipsed by its success and are no longer extant.
It was accepted as the standard reading pronunciation during the Tang dynasty, and went through several revisions and expansions over the following centuries.

The Qieyun is thus the oldest surviving rhyme dictionary and the main source for the pronunciation of characters in Early Middle Chinese (EMC).  At the time of Bernhard Karlgren's seminal work on Middle Chinese in the early 20th century, only fragments of the Qieyun were known, and scholars relied on the Guangyun (1008), a much expanded edition from the Song dynasty.  However, significant sections of a version of the Qieyun itself were subsequently discovered in the caves of Dunhuang, and a complete copy of Wang Renxu's 706 edition from the Palace Library was found in 1947.

The rhyme dictionaries organize Chinese characters by their pronunciation, according to a hierarchy of tone, rhyme and homophony.  Characters with identical pronunciations are grouped into homophone classes, whose pronunciation is described using two fanqie characters, the first of which has the initial sound of the characters in the homophone class and second of which has the same sound as the rest of the syllable (the final).  The use of fanqie was an important innovation of the Qieyun and allowed the pronunciation of all characters to be described exactly; earlier dictionaries simply described the pronunciation of unfamiliar characters in terms of the most similar-sounding familiar character.

The fanqie system uses multiple equivalent characters to represent each particular initial, and likewise for finals.  The categories of initials and finals actually represented were first identified by the Cantonese scholar Chen Li in a careful analysis published in his Qièyùn kǎo (1842).  Chen's method was to equate two fanqie initials (or finals) whenever one was used in the fanqie spelling of the pronunciation of the other, and to follow chains of such equivalences to identify groups of spellers for each initial or final. For example, the pronunciation of the character  was given using the fanqie spelling , the pronunciation of  was given as , and the pronunciation of  was given as , from which we can conclude that the words ,  and  all had the same initial sound.

The Qieyun classified homonyms under 193 rhyme classes, each of which is placed within one of the four tones.  A single rhyme class may contain multiple finals, generally differing only in the medial (especially when it is /w/) or in so-called chongniu doublets.

Rhyme tables

The Yunjing (c. 1150 AD) is the oldest of the so-called rime tables, which provide a more detailed phonological analysis of the system contained in the Qieyun.  The Yunjing was created centuries after the Qieyun, and the authors of the Yunjing were attempting to interpret a phonological system that differed in significant ways from that of their own Late Middle Chinese (LMC) dialect.  They were aware of this, and attempted to reconstruct Qieyun phonology as well as possible through a close analysis of regularities in the system and co-occurrence relationships between the initials and finals indicated by the fanqie characters.  However, the analysis inevitably shows some influence from LMC, which needs to be taken into account when interpreting difficult aspects of the system.

The Yunjing is organized into 43 tables, each covering several Qieyun rhyme classes, and classified as:
 One of 16 broad rhyme classes (shè), each described as either "inner" or "outer".  The meaning of this is debated but it has been suggested that it refers to the height of the main vowel, with "outer" finals having an open vowel ( or ) and "inner" finals having a mid or close vowel.
 "open mouth" or "closed mouth", indicating whether lip rounding is present. "Closed" finals either have a rounded vowel (e.g. ) or rounded glide.
Each table has 23 columns, one for each initial consonant.  Although the Yunjing distinguishes 36 initials, they are placed in 23 columns by combining palatals, retroflexes, and dentals under the same column.  This does not lead to cases where two homophone classes are conflated, as the grades (rows) are arranged so that all would-be minimal pairs distinguished only by the retroflex vs. palatal vs. alveolar character of the initial end up in different rows.

Each initial is further classified as follows:
 Place of articulation: labials, alveolars, velars, affricates and sibilants, and laryngeals
 Phonation: voiceless, voiceless aspirated, voiced, nasal or liquid

Each table also has 16 rows, with a group of 4 rows for each of the 4 tones of the traditional system in which finals ending in ,  or  are considered to be entering tone variants of finals ending in ,  or  rather than separate finals in their own right.
The significance of the 4 rows within each tone is difficult to interpret, and is strongly debated.
These rows are usually denoted I, II, III and IV, and are thought to relate to differences in palatalization or retroflexion of the syllable's initial or medial, or differences in the quality of similar main vowels (e.g. , , ).
Other scholars view them not as phonetic categories but formal devices exploiting distributional patterns in the Qieyun to achieve a compact presentation.

Each square in a table contains a character corresponding to a particular homophone class in the Qieyun, if any such character exists.  From this arrangement, each homophone class can be placed in the above categories.

Modern dialects and Sino-Xenic pronunciations
The rime dictionaries and rime tables identify categories of phonetic distinctions, but do not indicate the actual pronunciations of these categories. The varied pronunciations of words in modern varieties of Chinese can help, but most modern varieties descend from a Late Middle Chinese koine and cannot very easily be used to determine the pronunciation of Early Middle Chinese.
During the Early Middle Chinese period, large amounts of Chinese vocabulary were systematically borrowed by Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese (collectively known as Sino-Xenic vocabularies), but many distinctions were inevitably lost in mapping Chinese phonology onto foreign phonological systems.

For example, the following table shows the pronunciation of the numerals in three modern Chinese varieties, as well as borrowed forms in Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese:

Transcription evidence
Although the evidence from Chinese transcriptions of foreign words is much more limited, and is similarly obscured by the mapping of foreign pronunciations onto Chinese phonology, it serves as direct evidence of a sort that is lacking in all the other types of data, since the pronunciation of the foreign languages borrowed from—especially Sanskrit and Gāndhārī—is known in great detail.
For example, the nasal initials  were used to transcribe Sanskrit nasals in the early Tang, but later they were used for Sanskrit unaspirated voiced initials , suggesting that they had become prenasalized stops  in some northwestern Chinese dialects.

Methodology

The rime dictionaries and rime tables yield phonological categories, but with little hint of what sounds they represent.
At the end of the 19th century, European students of Chinese sought to solve this problem by applying the methods of historical linguistics that had been used in reconstructing Proto-Indo-European.
Volpicelli (1896) and Schaank (1897) compared the rime tables at the front of the Kangxi dictionary with modern pronunciations in several varieties, but had little knowledge of linguistics.

Bernhard Karlgren, trained in transcription of Swedish dialects, carried out the first systematic survey of modern varieties of Chinese.
He used the oldest known rime tables as descriptions of the sounds of the rime dictionaries, and also studied the Guangyun, at that time the oldest known rime dictionary.
Unaware of Chen Li's study, he repeated the analysis of the fanqie required to identify the initials and finals of the dictionary.
He believed that the resulting categories reflected the speech standard of the capital Chang'an of the Sui and Tang dynasties.
He interpreted the many distinctions as a narrow transcription of the precise sounds of this language, which he sought to reconstruct by treating the Sino-Xenic and modern dialect pronunciations as reflexes of the Qieyun categories. A small number of Qieyun categories were not distinguished in any of the surviving pronunciations, and Karlgren assigned them identical reconstructions.

Karlgren's transcription involved a large number of consonants and vowels, many of them very unevenly distributed.
Accepting Karlgren's reconstruction as a description of medieval speech, Chao Yuen Ren and Samuel E. Martin analysed its contrasts to extract a phonemic description.
Hugh M. Stimson used a simplified version of Martin's system as an approximate indication of the pronunciation of Tang poetry.
Karlgren himself viewed phonemic analysis as a detrimental "craze".

Older versions of the rime dictionaries and rime tables came to light over the first half of the 20th century, and were used by such linguists as Wang Li, Dong Tonghe and Li Rong in their own reconstructions.
Edwin Pulleyblank argued that the systems of the Qieyun and the rime tables should be reconstructed as two separate (but related) systems, which he called Early and Late Middle Chinese, respectively.
He further argued that his Late Middle Chinese reflected the standard language of the late Tang dynasty.

The preface of the Qieyun recovered in 1947 indicates that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late Northern and Southern dynasties period (a diasystem).
Most linguists now believe that no single dialect contained all the distinctions recorded, but that each distinction did occur somewhere.
Several scholars have compared the Qieyun system to cross-dialectal descriptions of English pronunciations, such as John C. Wells's lexical sets, or the notation used in some dictionaries.
Thus for example the words "trap", "bath", "palm", "lot", "cloth" and "thought" contain four different vowels in Received Pronunciation and three in General American; both these pronunciations (and many others) can be specified in terms of these six cases.

Although the Qieyun system is no longer viewed as describing a single form of speech, linguists argue that this enhances its value in reconstructing earlier forms of Chinese, just as a cross-dialectal description of English pronunciations contains more information about earlier forms of English than any single modern form.
The emphasis has shifted from precise sounds (phonetics) to the structure of the phonological system.
Thus Li Fang-Kuei, as a prelude to his reconstruction of Old Chinese, produced a revision of Karlgren's notation, adding new notations for the few categories not distinguished by Karlgren, without assigning them pronunciations.
This notation is still widely used, but its symbols, based on Johan August Lundell's Swedish Dialect Alphabet, differ from the familiar International Phonetic Alphabet.
To remedy this, William H. Baxter produced his own notation for the Qieyun and rime table categories for use in his reconstruction of Old Chinese.

All reconstructions of Middle Chinese since Karlgren have followed his approach of beginning with the categories extracted from the rime dictionaries and tables, and using dialect and Sino-Xenic data (and in some cases transcription data) in a subsidiary role to fill in sound values for these categories. Jerry Norman and Weldon South Coblin have criticized this approach, arguing that viewing the dialect data through the rime dictionaries and rime tables distorts the evidence. They argue for a full application of the comparative method to the modern varieties, supplemented by systematic use of transcription data.

Phonology

The traditional analysis of the Chinese syllable, derived from the fanqie method, is into an initial consonant, or "initial", ( ) and a final ( ).
Modern linguists subdivide the final into an optional "medial" glide ( ), a main vowel or "nucleus" ( ) and an optional final consonant or "coda" ( ).
Most reconstructions of Middle Chinese include the glides  and , as well as a combination , but many also include vocalic "glides" such as  in a diphthong .
Final consonants , , , , , ,  and  are widely accepted, sometimes with additional codas such as  or .
Rhyming syllables in the Qieyun are assumed to have the same nuclear vowel and coda, but often have different medials.

Middle Chinese reconstructions by different modern linguists vary. These differences are minor and fairly uncontroversial in terms of consonants; however, there is a more significant difference as to the vowels.
The most widely used transcriptions are Li Fang-Kuei's modification of Karlgren's reconstruction and William Baxter's typeable notation.

Initials
The preface of the Yunjing identifies a traditional set of 36 initials, each named with an exemplary character.
An earlier version comprising 30 initials is known from fragments among the Dunhuang manuscripts.
In contrast, identifying the initials of the Qieyun required a painstaking analysis of fanqie relationships across the whole dictionary, a task first undertaken by the Cantonese scholar Chen Li in 1842 and refined by others since.
This analysis revealed a slightly different set of initials from the traditional set.
Moreover, most scholars believe that some distinctions among the 36 initials were no longer current at the time of the rime tables, but were retained under the influence of the earlier dictionaries.

Early Middle Chinese (EMC) had three types of stops: voiced, voiceless, and voiceless aspirated.  There were five series of coronal obstruents, with a three-way distinction between dental (or alveolar), retroflex and palatal among fricatives and affricates, and a two-way dental/retroflex distinction among stop consonants.
The following table shows the initials of Early Middle Chinese, with their traditional names and approximate values:

Old Chinese had a simpler system with no palatal or retroflex consonants; the more complex system of EMC is thought to have arisen from a combination of Old Chinese obstruents with a following  and/or .

Bernhard Karlgren developed the first modern reconstruction of Middle Chinese.
The main differences between Karlgren and recent reconstructions of the initials are:
The reversal of  and . Karlgren based his reconstruction on the Song dynasty rime tables.  However, because of mergers between these two sounds between Early and Late Middle Chinese, the Chinese phonologists who created the rime tables could rely only on tradition to tell what the respective values of these two consonants were; evidently they were accidentally reversed at one stage.
Karlgren also assumed that the EMC retroflex stops were actually palatal stops based on their tendency to co-occur with front vowels and , but this view is no longer held.
Karlgren assumed that voiced consonants were actually breathy voiced.  This is now assumed only for LMC, not EMC.

Other sources from around the same time as the Qieyun reveal a slightly different system, which is believed to reflect southern pronunciation.
In this system, the voiced fricatives  and  are not distinguished from the voiced affricates  and , respectively, and the retroflex stops are not distinguished from the dental stops.

Several changes occurred between the time of the Qieyun and the rime tables:
 Palatal sibilants merged with retroflex sibilants.
  merged with  (hence reflecting four separate EMC phonemes).
 The palatal nasal  also became retroflex, but turned into a new phoneme  rather than merging with any existing phoneme.
 The palatal allophone of  () merged with  () as a single laryngeal initial  ().
 A new series of labiodentals emerged from labials in certain environments, typically where both fronting and rounding occurred (e.g.  plus a back vowel in William Baxter's reconstruction, or a front rounded vowel in Chan's reconstruction).  However, modern Min dialects retain bilabial initials in such words, while modern Hakka dialects preserve them in some common words.
 Voiced obstruents gained phonetic breathy voice (still reflected in the Wu Chinese varieties).
The following table shows a representative account of the initials of Late Middle Chinese.

The voicing distinction is retained in modern Wu and Old Xiang dialects, but has disappeared from other varieties.  In Min dialects the retroflex dentals are represented with the dentals, while elsewhere they have merged with the retroflex sibilants.  In the south these have also merged with the dental sibilants, but the distinction is retained in most Mandarin dialects.  The palatal series of modern Mandarin dialects, resulting from a merger of palatal allophones of dental sibilants and velars, is a much more recent development, unconnected with the earlier palatal consonants.

Finals

The remainder of a syllable after the initial consonant is the final, represented in the Qieyun by several equivalent second fanqie spellers.
Each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain between one and four finals.
Finals are usually analysed as consisting of an optional medial, either a semivowel, reduced vowel or some combination of these, a vowel, an optional final consonant and a tone.
Their reconstruction is much more difficult than the initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class.

The generally accepted final consonants are semivowels  and , nasals ,  and , and stops ,  and .
Some authors also propose codas  and , based on the separate treatment of certain rhyme classes in the dictionaries.
Finals with vocalic and nasal codas may have one of three tones, named level, rising and departing.
Finals with stop codas are distributed in the same way as corresponding nasal finals, and are described as their entering tone counterparts.

There is much less agreement regarding the medials and vowels.
It is generally agreed that "closed" finals had a rounded glide  or vowel , and that the vowels in "outer" finals were more open than those in "inner" finals.
The interpretation of the "divisions" is more controversial.
Three classes of Qieyun finals occur exclusively in the first, second or fourth rows of the rime tables, respectively, and have thus been labelled finals of divisions I, II and IV.
The remaining finals are labelled division-III finals because they occur in the third row, but they may also occur in the second or fourth rows for some initials.
Most linguists agree that division-III finals contained a  medial and that division-I finals had no such medial, but further details vary between reconstructions.
To account for the many rhyme classes distinguished by the Qieyun, Karlgren proposed 16 vowels and 4 medials.
Later scholars have proposed numerous variations.

Tones

The four tones of Middle Chinese were first listed by Shen Yue around 500 AD.
The first three, the "even" or "level", "rising" and "departing" tones, occur in open syllables and syllables ending with nasal consonants.
The remaining syllables, ending in stop consonants, were described as the "entering" tone counterparts of syllables ending with the corresponding nasals.
The Qieyun and its successors were organized around these categories, with two volumes for the even tone, which had the most words, and one volume each for the other tones.

Karlgren interpreted the names of the first three tones literally as level, rising and falling pitch contours, respectively.
However, the pitch contours of modern reflexes of these categories vary so widely that it is impossible to reconstruct Middle Chinese contours.
The oldest known description of the tones is found in a Song dynasty quotation from the early 9th century Yuanhe Yunpu  (no longer extant): "Level tone is sad and stable. Rising tone is strident and rising. Departing tone is clear and distant. Entering tone is straight and abrupt."
In 880, the Japanese monk Annen described the even tone as "straight and low", the rising tone as "straight and high", and the departing tone as "slightly drawn out".

The tone system of Middle Chinese is strikingly similar to those of its neighbours in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area—proto-Hmong–Mien, proto-Tai and early Vietnamese—none of which is genetically related to Chinese. Moreover, the earliest strata of loans display a regular correspondence between tonal categories in the different languages. In 1954, André-Georges Haudricourt showed that Vietnamese counterparts of the rising and departing tones corresponded to final  and , respectively, in other (atonal) Austroasiatic languages. He thus argued that the Austroasiatic proto-language had been atonal, and that the development of tones in Vietnamese had been conditioned by these consonants, which had subsequently disappeared, a process now known as tonogenesis. Haudricourt further proposed that tone in the other languages, including Middle Chinese, had a similar origin. Other scholars have since uncovered transcriptional and other evidence for these consonants in early forms of Chinese, and many linguists now believe that Old Chinese was atonal.

Around the end of the first millennium AD, Middle Chinese and the southeast Asian languages experienced a phonemic split of their tone categories.
Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late Tang Dynasty, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as the "upper" and "lower".
When voicing was lost in most varieties (except in the Wu and Old Xiang groups and some Gan dialects), this distinction became phonemic, yielding up to eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables.
Cantonese maintains these tones and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables, resulting in a total of nine tonal categories. However, most varieties have fewer tonal distinctions. For example, in Mandarin dialects the lower rising category merged with the departing category to form the modern falling tone, leaving a system of four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such syllables were reassigned to one of the other four tones.

Changes from Old to Modern Chinese

Middle Chinese had a structure much like many modern varieties (especially conservative ones such as Cantonese), with largely monosyllabic words, little or no derivational morphology, three tones, and a syllable structure consisting of initial consonant, glide, main vowel and final consonant, with a large number of initial consonants and a fairly small number of final consonants. Without counting the glide, no clusters could occur at the beginning or end of a syllable.

Old Chinese, on the other hand, had a significantly different structure. There were no tones, a smaller imbalance between possible initial and final consonants, and many initial and final clusters. There was a well-developed system of derivational and possibly inflectional morphology, formed using consonants added onto the beginning or end of a syllable. The system is similar to the system reconstructed for proto-Sino-Tibetan and still visible, for example, in Classical Tibetan; it is also largely similar to the system that occurs in the more conservative Austroasiatic languages, such as modern Khmer (Cambodian).

The main changes leading to the modern varieties have been a reduction in the number of consonants and vowels and a corresponding increase in the number of tones (typically through a pan-East-Asiatic tone split that doubled the number of tones and eliminated the distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants). That has led to a gradual decrease in the number of possible syllables. Standard Mandarin has only about 1,300 possible syllables, and many other varieties of Chinese even fewer (for example, modern Shanghainese has been reported to have only about 700 syllables). The result in Mandarin, for example, has been the proliferation of the number of two-syllable compound words, which have steadily replaced former monosyllabic words; most words in Standard Mandarin now have two syllables.

Grammar

The extensive surviving body of Middle Chinese (MC) literature of various types provides much source material for the study of MC grammar. Due to the lack of morphological development, grammatical analysis of MC tends to focus on the nature and meanings of the individual words themselves and the syntactic rules by which their arrangement together in sentences communicates meaning.

See also
 Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese
 Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese

Notes

References

Citations

Works cited

  See also List of Corrigenda.

Further reading

External links
 Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology, Guillaume Jacques
 Traditional Chinese Phonology, Guillaume Jacques
 Historical Chinese Phonology/Philology at Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects, Dylan W.H. Sung
 Note on Tang pronunciations in Unicode, using the simplification of Karlgren's system used by Hugh M. Stimson in his Fifty-Five T'ang Poems
 Middle Chinese readings for 9000 characters in Baxter's notation
 StarLing website reconstructing Middle Chinese and Old Chinese as well as intermediate forms
  EastLing form yielding Middle Chinese from character search
 Hugh Stimson's Middle Chinese reconstruction and kTang data from Unicode.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


The District of Columbia by itself, and Virginia's included towns, are county equivalents. Virginia's included towns are outlined below their surrounding county.
 What became referred to as the McMillan Plan was finalized in 1901 and included re-landscaping the Capitol grounds plus the National Shopping mall, clearing slums, and setting up a brand new citywide park method. The plan is believed to own largely preserved L'Enfant's supposed style.
These days, D.C. is marked by contrasts. Neighborhoods to the japanese periphery in the central city, and east from the Anacostia River are generally disproportionately reduced-cash flow. Pursuing World War II, quite a few Center-income whites moved from the town's central and jap sections to newer, economical suburban housing, with commuting eased by freeway design. The assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1968 sparked big riots in mainly African American neighborhoods east of Rock Creek Park. Significant sections of the central town remained blighted for decades.
In 1791, the District was ceded for the federal authorities for the objective of turning into the nation's money, a district which was for being ruled by Congress.
 To be crammed in part via the waters of Tiber Creek, the canal technique would traverse the center of the town and would enter both equally the Potomac River along with the Jap Branch.
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On November eight, 2016, Washington voters were asked to advise the Council to approve or reject a proposal, which incorporated advising the council to petition Congress to admit the District because the 51st State and to approve a Structure and boundaries for The brand new condition.
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In early 1791, President Washington appointed Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant to devise a plan for the new city in an area of land at the middle with the federal territory that lay among the northeast shore in the Potomac River along with the northwest shore of your Potomac's Jap Branch. L'Enfant then developed in his "Plan of town intended for your long lasting seat of The federal government of The usa .
Washington is while in the northern Element of the humid subtropical local climate zone (Köppen: Cfa).[sixty two] Winters are usually chilly with gentle snow, and summers are warm and humid.
The Twenty-3rd Modification to The us Constitution, ratified on March 29, 1961, offers the people a voice inside the electoral faculty of the size in the smallest condition (three votes).
New migration designs have appeared. Washington includes a steadily declining black population, as a result of lots of African People' leaving the city for suburbs. Concurrently, the town's Caucasian and Hispanic populations have steadily elevated.[a hundred and ten] Given that 2000 there has been a seven.
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The signing in the Home Act on July 16, 1790 accredited the development of the funds district located alongside the Potomac River around the region's East Coast. The U.S. Constitution presented for a federal district under the exceptional jurisdiction from the U.S. Congress, plus the District is consequently not a Component of any point out.
Alexandria's citizens petitioned Virginia to just take again the land it experienced donated to form the District, via a process called retrocession.
Metropolis leaders have criticized the height restriction for a Principal purpose why the District has confined reasonably priced housing and site visitors problems a result of urban sprawl.
Greater federal expending on account of The brand new Offer during the 1930s triggered the development of latest govt structures, memorials, and museums in Washington.
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text:
California Gov. Newsom's Fact-Finding Trip to El Savador Seen as Smart Politics
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Separating families and inflicting harm on children as a negotiating ploy is inhumane, illegal, and…
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Atty. Gen. Jeff Sessions announced new restrictions of political asylum, telling immigration judges Monday that…

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Scotts of Stow retails home and garden ware online and through its flagship store in Stow-on-the-Wold.
Scotts of Stow is based in Stow-on-the-Wold, a small market town in the Cotswold hills. The company is best-known as the publisher of Britain's favourite catalogue of products for the kitchen, home and garden. The company's flagship store is situated in the centre of the Market Square in Stow-on-the-Wold.


The CHIEF Archive is a collection of references cited in the Compilation of Air Pollutant Emissions Factors, AP-42, Volume I: Stationary Point & Area Sources and the supporting background documentation.
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text:
Lord Horatio Nelson
"He came in, and with a pale countenance and faint voice said, 'We have gained a great Victory'. 'Never mind your victory,' I said, "My letters – give me my letters' – Capt. Whitby was unable to speak – tears in his eyes and a deathly paleness over his face made me comprehend him. I believe I gave one scream and fell back, and for ten hours after I could neither speak nor shed a tear – days have passed on and I know not how they end or begin – nor how I am to bear my future existence."
Lady Hamilton, in a recollection to Lady Foster
Lord Nelson, before the Battle of Trafalgar, wrote a codicil to his will, leaving everything to Emma and his daughter, Horatia. He entreated the government, in the event of his death, to arrange for Emma's financial security. Even, in his final hours, he pleaded for his nation to care for his family.
Lord Nelson fulfilled his duty. His government did not.
The funeral was the most lavish in British History. Lord Nelson had requested that Emma sing at his funeral. They had plans to be buried side by side. Emma was shut out entirely, a foreshadowing of what was to come. There was no government assistance for either Emma or Horatia, despite Lord Nelson's sacrifice for his country. Emma passed away on January 1815, in Calais, France, her daughter at her side.
Horatia lived a long life and found true love with Reverend Philip Ward. They had ten children, three girls and seven boys. She lived to see her children grow and find their own way in the world. Her epitaph includes:
"…Here rests Horatia Nelson Ward, who died March 6th. 1881, aged 80, the beloved daughter of Vice Admiral Lord Nelson and widow of the above-named Revd. Philip Ward."
Horatia never publicly revealed or recognized that she was the daughter of Emma Hamilton. Indeed, over the years, many scholars have marginalized Emma's relevance in Lord Nelson's life. How foolish.
In the end, Emma had the best of all outcomes. She was loved, passionately and irrevocably by England's greatest hero.
If you are interested in learning more about Lady Hamilton (and there is much more to know) I recommend reading: "England's Mistress – The Infamous Life of Emma Hamilton" by Kate Williams
This entry was posted in Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson and tagged Horatia Nelson Ward, Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson.
A New Century
"England expects that every man will do his duty."
Horatio Nelson
Sir William was enormously fond of Lord Nelson. Both men held each other in great esteem, enjoying the camaraderie of close friends. Lord Nelson, Sir William and Lady Hamilton united in their resolve not to allow Naples to fall into the hands of Napoleon. They called themselves "Tria juncto in uno." Under these perilous circumstances, Lord Nelson could see the strength and courage in Lady Hamilton. Love between the two was inevitable.
By the end of 1798, the French invasion was imminent. Lady Hamilton, a close friend and adviser to Queen Maria Carolina, wife of Ferdinand I of Naples, was at the Queen's side as plans were made to flee. The "Tria juncto in uno," along with the royal family and those with means, escaped to Sicily. Yet, England was beckoning.
Nelson was recalled to Britain and Sir William, whose health was failing, longed for home. The three set out, taking the long route through a Europe grateful for Lord Nelson's recent victory at the Battle of the Nile. Britain gave Lord Nelson a hero's welcome. There was great jubilation. It was 1800, the dawning of a new century.
Instead of a long life together, Lord Nelson and Lady Hamilton were given six years, much of that time spent apart. They had one daughter, Horatia in 1801. Sir William passed away in 1803, a heavy blow to both Emma and Lord Nelson. And then destiny intervened.
On October 21, 1805, Nelson's fleet gained the victory over a joint Franco-Spanish naval force at the Battle of Trafalgar.
"Now I can do no more. We must trust to the Great Disposer of all events and the justice of our course. I thank God for this opportunity of doing my duty."
This entry was posted in Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson and tagged Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson, Trafalgar.
"Let me alone: I have yet my legs and one arm. Tell the surgeon to make haste and his instruments. I know I must lose my right arm, so the sooner it's off the better."
Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson was a brilliant strategist and a highly successful navel commander. Perhaps the most beloved of all British military leaders, his men followed him with a loyalty that few have ever known. A captain at 20, Nelson served in the West Indies, Baltic and Canada. In 1793, when Britain entered the French Revolutionary Wars, he was given the command of the Agamemnon. He assisted in the capture of Corsica and lost the sight in his right eye at the battle at Calvi. He would lose his right arm at the Battle off Santa Cruz de Tenerife in 1797.
Considered a man of bold action, he was extremely confident in his capabilities to the point of occasionally ignoring orders from his superiors. Fate rewarded him for his defiance by granting him victories against the Spanish off Cape Vincent in 1797, and at the battle of Copenhagen in 1801. He relished the spotlight and was partial to flattery. Nonetheless, his loyalty was unwavering. He once said, "Duty is the great business of a sea officer; all private consideration must give way to it, however painful it may be."
Lady Hamilton was twenty-eight when she first met Horatio Nelson, a thirty-five year old captain, on September 12, 1793 when he sailed into Naples. Their next meeting, five years later, was during the frightening spectre of an impending French invasion. Fresh from the glorious victory over the French in the "Battle of the Nile," Nelson was welcomed by all of Naples, as a liberator. Everyone believed that he would be the man to conquer the mighty Napoleon.
Nelson, exhausted from battle, and in pain from his wounds, was overwhelmed by the welcoming party that awaited him on the waterfront. It was said that Emma threw herself upon him, weeping with joy and thanksgiving. Lord Nelson would keep them safe.
"My greatest happiness is to serve my gracious King and Country and I am envious only of glory; for if it be a sin to covet glory I am the most offending soul alive."
This entry was posted in Lady Emma Hamilton, Naples and tagged Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson, Naples, Napoleon Bonaparte.
Naples & A Wedding
"First gain the victory and then make the best use of it your can."
Emma was famous. Sir Charles Greville did not relish being the "lesser half" of a power couple. He was also in need of a huge injection of funds. Ever a schemer, his goal was simple. He would marry Henrietta Middletown, an eighteen-year-old rich heiress. As well, he was newly involved with Lady Craven, a playwright and daring socialite. The Emma "problem" would be easily solved by persuading his uncle, Sir William Hamilton, British Envoy to Naples, to take Emma on as a hostess for his Naples home, known for its excellent hospitality and elegance.
Sir William, fourth and youngest son of Lord Archibald Hamilton, was the Envoy Plenipotentiary to Naples. Known for his extravagant lifestyle, he mingled with the leading aristocrats in England. A recent widower, he had returned to England to finalize his late wife's estates. By all accounts, his marriage was happy and successful, even though his late wife suffered from bouts of depression.
Emma was enchanting, Sir William acknowledged. And he did have need of someone to organize his household and arrange for the elaborate banquets and soirées. Keeping the childish King Ferdinand of Naples and his demanding Queen Maria Carolina (sister to Marie Antoinette) was a difficult task at best. Emma would be ideal. Alas, poor Emma did not know of the secretive machinations that swirled about her. Sir Charles simply lied. A short holiday to Naples, she was told, along with a promise that he would come for her.
Sir Charles, in his devious and selfish way, released Emma. Naples embraced Emma with open arms and showered her with fame, fortune and title. Yes, she was distressed by Sir Charles's rejection, but she grew to love Sir William. They were married on September 6, 1791. She became Lady Hamilton.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was creating instability and alarm in all of Europe. Before long, Lady Hamilton would be embroiled in the politics of Kings and Queens.
"Throw your dreams into space like a kite, and you do not know what it will bring back, a new life, a new friend, a new love, a new country."
This entry was posted in King Ferdinand of Naples, Kings, Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson, Naples, Queen Maria Carolina and tagged Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson, Naples, Sir William Hamilton.
All The Players
"All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players: They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts,"
Amy Lyon, 15 and without family support, thought only of survival. Even so, her life unfolded seamlessly, with all the players coming together for a purpose, one person leading to another and another, each with ascending import. First, it was Sir Harry Featherstonhaugh who hired her for several months as hostess and entertainer at a lengthy retreat at his Uppark country estate. There, she became friends with Sir Harry's guest, Charles Greville, second son of the Earl of Warwick and MP for Warwick, in the Midlands.
Sir Charles was thirty-two, unmarried, rather plain in appearance, and had limited financial resources. Fascinated by Emma's effervescent charm, it was not long before he fell in love with her. Within a few short months, she came to live with him as Mrs. Emma Hart. Theirs was a complex relationship. Sir Charles took on the task of turning Emma into a respectable lady; in return, Emma dressed modestly, ate slimming foods, and dutifully followed his lead without protest.
George Romney, the most fashionable artist of the day, met Emma in 1782. It all began when Sir Charles commissioned George Romney to paint his portrait. Sir Charles, ever looking for ways to augment his meagre income, instigated a brilliant plan to make money. Emma would model for George Romney and he would receive a cut of any sale proceeds.
Emma was a natural, thanks to her training in dance and modelling as one of Graham's "Goddesses of Health." George Romney was enchanted by Emma's unequaled talent to move and express moods. Her flamboyant dress and various poses allowed her to reinvent herself into many characters. Emma's spontaneity was infectious. She would sing, dance and talk, all through the sessions. Artist and model came to trust and rely on each other unreservedly. Their fame spread. With every painting sold, demand grew exponentially. Within one year, Emma was the most sought after model in London.
George Romney had found his muse and his enduring obsession. For the rest of his life, Emma pervaded his paintings and sketches. She was simply irreplaceable.
"O for a Muse of fire, that would ascend, The brightest heaven of invention…"
William Shakespeare, Henry V
This entry was posted in George Romney, Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson and tagged George Romney, Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson.
Time is Everything
"Time is everything; five minutes make the difference between victory and defeat."
She was born Amy Lyon, on April 16, 1765 in Ness, Chesire, a poverty-stricken community made up of a depressing huddle of thirty or more miners' homes. England was on the threshold of the industrial revolution and coal was the black gold of the eighteenth century. Her father, a blacksmith, died under suspicious circumstances, when she was two months old. She was left in the care of her mother, Mary Kidd who returned to her family home in Hawarden. Amy Lyon had no formal education, nor did she have any means by which to change her situation.
"Time is everything," as Lord Nelson declared years later. Timing and luck were indeed in Amy Lyon's favour. Even at a young age, she was working, first as a maid for a local doctor in Harwarden and then for a family in Chatham Place, Blackfriars. This is where she met her friend, Jane Powell, a turning point in Amy's life. Jane aspiration's to become an actress inspired Emma to start working as a maid to the actresses of the Drury Lane theatre in Covent Garden. Her next career was as a "Goddess of Health," a model and dancer at James Graham's "Temple of Health." An entrepreneur, showman and all around quack, James Graham used smoke fireworks and music, to support his claim that electricity, as administered via his technique, would cure all ills. The Temple, declared at times to be the Elysian Palace, glittered with gold and silver and was embellished by Oriental drapes, crystal chandeliers, and paintings of medieval knights. It is said that even the Prince of Wales came for visits.
James Graham soon gave up electricity, embracing the healing virtues of mud bathing, in cheaper accommodations off Pall Mall. Amy left the Temple and accepted a position in Madam Kelly's. A chance meeting with Sir Harry Featherstonhaugh propelled Amy into the world of the aristocracy. She was 15.
"Being a woman is a terribly difficult task, since it consists principally in dealing with men."
This entry was posted in Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson and tagged Lady Emma Hamilton, Lord Horatio Nelson.


text:
Q: Converting a 2d array along with its elements from string to int As much as I tried to find a similar version in the question here, I couldn't find something.. so I am asking your help.
After reading some numbers from a textfile (now in string format), I split them in rows and columns and add them to a 2d-array (in string format as well). Now I want to convert everythinh in integers so that I can play with sorting the numbers out later.
Here is my code...
 using System;
 using System.Collections.Generic;
 using System.Linq;
 using System.Text;
 using System.Threading.Tasks;
 using System.IO;

 namespace ArrayProgram
 {
   class Program
 {
    int number = 0;
    int i = 0;
    int k = 0;
    string strnum;

    public void onetohundredints()
    {
        StreamWriter writer = new StreamWriter("numberstored.txt");

        for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
        {

            for (k = 0; k < 10; k++)
            {
                number++;

                Console.Write(number + " ");
                strnum = number.ToString();
                writer.Write(strnum + " ");
            }

            Console.WriteLine();
            writer.WriteLine();
        }
            writer.Close();
    }

    public void readints()
    {
        StreamReader reader = new StreamReader("numberstored.txt");
        string data = reader.ReadToEnd();
        reader.Close();

        string[,] dataarray = new string[10,10];
        int[] numbers = new int[100];

        string[] dataperlines = data.Split(new[] { '\r','\n' },StringSplitOptions.RemoveEmptyEntries);

        for(int i=0; i<=dataperlines.Count()-1; i++)
        {
            string[] numbersperrow = dataperlines[i].Split(new[] { ' ' }, StringSplitOptions.RemoveEmptyEntries);
            for (int j=0; j<=numbersperrow.Count()-1; j++)
            {
                dataarray[i, j] = numbersperrow[j];
            }
        }

    }

    public static void Main(string[] args)
    {
        Program prog = new Program();
        prog.onetohundredints();
        prog.readints();
        Console.ReadKey();
    }
}
}

After I insert the number into the 2d-array, how do I convert all of it in integers?

A: If you don't have a particular reason to have an array of strings, you can just save you data as int in the first place. Just change your inner for loop to do:
var parsed = int.TryParse(numbersperrow[j], out dataarray[i, j]);
if (!parsed)
{
    // Error
}

While that should work, I would suggest to re-write your ReadData method to look similar to the sample below.
public int[,] ReadData(string filePath, int xDimension, int yDimension)
{
    var results = new int[xDimension, yDimension];

    var lines = File.ReadLines(filePath);

    for (var i = 0; i < allLines.Count(); i++)
    {
        var values = lines[i].Split(new[] { ' ' },
                                    StringSplitOptions.RemoveEmptyEntries);

        for (var j = 0; j < values.Count(); j++)
        {
            var parsed = int.TryParse(values[j], out results[i, j]);
            if (!parsed) { }
        }
    }

    return results;
}

A: You're putting everything into a string array. That array can only hold strings, not numbers. If you want to make the 2d array hold numbers, define it as int[,] dataarray = new int[10,10]; Next, in the final loop, simply do dataarray[i, j] = Convert.ToInt32(numbersperrow[j]);
Edit: You can use int.TryParse(numbersperrow[j], out value) if you aren't sure that numbersperrow[j] will be a number. Value will return false if the conversion is not successful.

A: I am happy to say that both solutions work. I now have my numbers in my 2d array. But now I wish to play with them. Let's say that I want the numbers printed on the screen in reverse order.
Having this correct solution:
        int numbers;
        int[,] dataarray = new int[10,10];
        string[] dataperlines = data.Split(new[] { '\r','\n' },StringSplitOptions.RemoveEmptyEntries);

        for(int i=0; i<=dataperlines.Count()-1; i++)
        {
            string[] numbersperrow = dataperlines[i].Split(new[] { ' ' }, StringSplitOptions.RemoveEmptyEntries);
            for (int j=0; j<=numbersperrow.Count()-1; j++)
            {
                numbers = int.Parse(numbersperrow[j]);
                dataarray[i, j] = numbers;
                Console.Write(numbers + " ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine();
        }

I know that I have to make a double for loop. But how do I write a succesful syntax for the numbers to be printed properly?
I also tried this:
int[,] reversedarray = new int[10, 10];
reversedarray[i, j] = Array.Reverse(dataarray[i,j]);

but the dataarray[i,j] becomes red and the error "cannot convert from int to system.Array occurs... what am I missing?
I also tried this...
for (i = 10; i <= dataperlines.Count(); i--)
        {
            string[] numbersperrow = dataperlines[i].Split(new[] { ' ' }, StringSplitOptions.RemoveEmptyEntries);
            for (j =10; j <= numbersperrow.Count(); j--)
            {
                numbers = int.Parse(numbersperrow[j]);
                reversedarray[i, j] = numbers;

                Console.Write(numbers + " ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine();
        }

But I have an IndexOutOfRange exception coming from
string[] numbersperrow = dataperlines[i].Split(new[] { ' ' }, StringSplitOptions.RemoveEmptyEntries);

I understood that since I splitted the columns into rows too, it is unecessary to write it again, but I am stuck. I tried simplifying the code since I have my 2darray with its elements and I my tries were fallacious. Any more suggestions?

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