CHARACTERIZATION OF FLOW RATES IN AN IN-WATER ALGAL HARVESTING FLUME KRISTIN RHODES ADVISOR: DR. WILLIAM COOKE ABSTRACT Algal harvesting from in-water platforms has the potential to contribute to meeting current energy demands while simultaneously aiding in environmental remediation efforts. The purpose of this research was to characterize the flow through an in-water algal harvesting platform, the York River Research Platform (YRRP). The flow through the YRRP was assessed through the use of an Aquadopp Current Profiler, which generated a current profile over a 200 hour period of deployment. In addition, a Nortek Vectrino Velocimeter was utilized to attain instantaneous velocity measurements across the transverse distance of the platform, between algal harvesting screens. Models of the of both the tidal height and the flow were created using velocity readings taken during the Aquadopp's deployment. Through power spectrum analysis using Kolmogorov's Laws, it was determined that the flow through the platform was congruous with a turbulent flow model. Additionally, the change in flow between the screens was modeled effectively with an exponential fit. From the exponential models it was determined that the maximum flow between screens was largely independent of the overall flow outside of the YRRP. Further research will be conducted to determine the horizontal, vertical, and transverse flow profiles throughout the flume. The total flow as a function of the length of the platform will also be studied in order to determine the ideal length of an algal harvesting flume of this nature.
INTRODUCTION Algae has the potential to be utilized as a significant resource for meeting our nation's liquid fuel demands, as the lipids extracted from algal cells can be converted into usable biofuels. However, the most productive, environmentally sound, and cost-effective methods by which to grow and harvest algae for biofuel production have yet to be determined . Though many current growth methods focus on the cultivation of a singular species, the Chesapeake Algae Project instead uses an in-water algal harvesting flume, the York River Research Platform (YRRP), to cultivate a robust array of wild algae while simultaneously removing excess nutrients and carbon dioxide from the surrounding environment  .
This research sought to model, measure, and characterize the flow of the water through the YRRP. A characterization of the flow is necessary to understand the algal growth process, and could also provide flow models for similar in-water structures. A full characterization of the flow will also help to generate an understanding of the flow speed and flow behavior as a function of position within the craft, and as a function of proximity to algal harvesting screens. Ultimately this will assist in determining the ideal platform size to optimize water treatment and algal growth. Flow characterization will also allow for the quantification of the total volume of water treated by the flume in a given period of time. This is necessary for understanding the flume's effectiveness in removing excess nutrients, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide from the water, and therefore its efficacy as an environmental remediation tool.
The YRRP is located in the lower York River, to the East of Gloucester Point. Initially, the YRRP contained 10 cages of 5 algal harvesting screens, each with a surface area of 1 m2 on each side. The platform has suffered severe damage due to storms and general wear, and consequently contained a variable number of screens throughout the research period.
Ignoring the slight curvature of the earth and assuming a flat plane for the surface of the water, the flow of the water was modeled as the derivative of the tidal height with respect to time. Consequently, the flow model used was as follows: ) ) where is a constant scaling factor. By generating a model of the flow, an estimate of the expected total volume of water through the YRRP was determined. Additionally, the characteristics of the flow at different speeds through the flume were characterized. Turbulence occurs at higher flow speeds, and is caused by unsteady vortices of differing sizes interact with each other, resulting in chaotic and irregular motion. In turbulent flow, larger eddies will break up into smaller ones until the total kinetic energy is dissipated into the internal energy of the water. Conversely, laminar flow exists when there is no disruption between parallel layers of water, and consequently no lateral mixing or eddies occur . Because wave motion is periodic, a wave field can be described as the linear combination of different sine waves and analyzed using Fourier Analysis. A power spectral density plot can be used to demonstrate how the power of a given wave is distributed among these sine waves. Though the power spectrum of a measurement in a free-flowing body of water will contain energy at all frequencies, the power spectrum identifies the frequencies at which the bulk of the energy is concentrated . Power spectrum analysis can also be utilized to determine whether the motion of the water exhibits turbulent or laminar flow.
      1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 4 2 2 4 2 4 1 2 32 8 32 1 2 60 2 z x W W W z z W v hLv F hL x W dP hW F dx v v hdx v dx v dt W hLv x x dx hW v v W W W W hW v hW v v u u du v v v                                                          15 2 hW       This is bounded because the flow speed should not (and does not) exceed the river speed, so        2 1 0 1 0 1 0 6 2 1 4 7 240 15 2 7 7 7 Re 240 240 0.5 m/s 0.15 m Re 75000 10 m / 0.15 m 7 75000 2200 33 240 10 m hLv v hW L v Wv W W v v Wv W W v L L Wv s v W v L                              So, there will not be a parabolic transverse flow dependence unless the outside flow is smaller (< 0.02 m/s), or if there is sufficient turbulence to make an effective (or eddy) viscosity much larger.
  / 1 1 x v v e     MATERIALS AND METHODS Aquadopp Profiler: The Aquadopp Profiler utilizes the Doppler Effect to determine the current profile of a body of water. It contains three different acoustic beams taking measurements in a variable number of cells. It also contains internal tilt compass sensors to determine the direction of the current, and a high-resolution pressure sensor to determine the depth. The Aquadopp Profiler was deployed on the YRRP beginning on 12/07/11 at 10:38:35. Velocity measurements were taken for 18 different cells at time increments of 1 minute for a total of 200 hours.
The tidal heights are recorded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) at the USCG Training Center in Yorktown, which is a short distance from the YRRP. The average East Velocity over the first 8 cells of data for the Aquadopp measurements was calculated. A model of the flow was determined using Equation (2), with parameters altered in order to minimize the difference between the Model Flow and the Measured East Velocity. Using the parameters of the Model Flow, the Model Tidal Height was determined using Equation (1). This was plotted against the curve of the Tidal Height data as determined by NOAA.
Vectrino Velocimeter: Measurements were made using Nortek's Vectrino Velocimeter, a high resolution acoustic Velocimeter using coherent Doppler processing. The Doppler Effect is the change in pitch that occurs when the source of sound is in motion relative to the observer. The relative change in pitch allows for quantification of the speed of the moving particle. The Vectrino Velocimeter functions by reflecting short pairs of sound pulses off of particles in the water, and measuring the change in frequency of the returned sound. It can therefore calculate the velocity of such particles, which move with the overall flow of the water. The focal point of the measurements occurs ~5cm from the transducers on the Vectrino probe. Figure 1: The Vectrino probe. The Vectrino measures flow when the transducer sending pulses, and the four receivers measure the Doppler Shift.
For data collection, the Vectrino was completely submerged, with the transmit axis was positioned such that it was perpendicular to the main flow direction. A mount was constructed for the Vectrino to enter the YRRP as depicted in Figure 2.
probe was then moved across the transverse distance between the screens and measurements were made for the velocity at increments of 0.25". Power spectrum plots were generated for the velocity measurements, and the turbulence of the flow was assessed using a comparison of the plot of Equation (3). An exponential fit model was generated for the flow as a function of distance from the screens using Equation (5). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Initial Flow Calculations In initial measurements, the peak flow speed was determined to be 0.70 m/s. A flow model with an amplitude of 0.70 was generated by taking the derivative a sinusoidal tidal model. The rectified form of this model, used to show the absolute value of the flow velocity, is plotted in Figure 4.
The average flow speed was summed with the total surface area of the screens in order to project the total amount of water treated by the YRRP. This was determined to be 38 million liters of water per day by the YRRP. Aquadopp Profiler and Flow Model: Using Equation 1, a model was created to fit the average measured Average East Velocity from the Aquadopp readings. On account of a break in the data recordings from hours 130-153, the model was fitted to hours 11-130. A comparison of the measured East Velocity and the Model Flow is depicted in Figure 3.
minimize the difference between the model and the NOAA measurements. was determined to be 1.363 and thus the Model Tidal Height can be given as follows: ) The Model Tidal Height was plotted with the NOAA Tidal Height Measurements over the time period through which the flow was modeled. Figure 7:Measured Tidal Height from NOAA and Model Tidal Height. Using Equation 6, the average flow over the tidal cycle was determined to be 0.26 m/s. This model therefore predicts that 22 million liters of water will be treated by the YRRP per day. Vectrino Velocimeter Measurements and Power Spectrum: Measurements were taken with the Vectrino Velocimeter on 03/15/12 during a period of relatively high flow. Measurements were taken from directly against the screen to 9.75" away from the screen at increments of .25", and at a depth of 13". Figures [8-11] depict a sampling of Power Spectrum plots.
Figure 8: Power Spectrum for velocity data taken 0.25" away from the Screen, 13" Deep. Equation 3 is plotted in red with A= 0.005. Figure 9: Power Spectrum for velocity data taken 3.25" away from the Screen, 13" Deep. Equation 3 is plotted in red with A= 0.015.
Figure 7: Power Spectrum for velocity data taken 6.5" away from the Screen, 13" Deep. Equation 3 is plotted in red with A= 0.013. Figure 8: Power Spectrum for velocity data taken 9.75" away from the Screen, 13" Deep. Equation 3 is plotted in red with A= 0.015. The plots demonstrate that Equation 3 fits the data, corroborating the idea that a turbulent flow exists between the screens.
Measurements were also taken with the Vectrino Velocimeter on 03/13/12 during a period of low flow. Measurements were taken from up against the screen to 7" away from the screen at increments of .25", once again at a depth of 13". Figures [9-11] show the Power Spectrum plots for different distances from the screens. Figure 9: Power Spectrum for velocity data taken 0" away from the Screen, 13" Deep. Equation 3 is plotted in red with A= 0.013. Figure 10: Power Spectrum for velocity data taken 3.25" away from the Screen, 13" Deep. Equation 3 equation is plotted in red with A= 0.015.
Figure 11: Power Spectrum for velocity data taken 6.5" away from the Screen, 13" Deep. Equation 3 is plotted in red with A= 0.020. Figure 12: Power Spectrum for velocity data taken 9.75" away from the Screen, 13" Deep. Equation 3 is plotted in red with A= 0.030.
As depicted in the plots, the Kolomogorov model fits the power spectrum for the velocity measurements. The slope of the spectrum plot decreases within the high frequency range, but this can likely be accounted for by the noise of the instrument. Further data analysis is necessary to confirm this assumption, however. Exponential fits were created using the transverse velocity measurements. Figure 13 shows the fit of measurements taken during a period of high flow, and Figure 14 shows a fit of the measurements taken during low flow.
Figure 14: Exponential Fit to velocity measurements taken during a period of High Flow The parameters of the fits for all of the different trials are shown in Table 1 as follows. Table 1: Parameters of Exponential Fit of Transverse Velocity Plots, Fitted to Equation 4 The asymptotic velocity for the various trials is relatively constant. The average is value 7.24 cm/s with a standard deviation of 0.63 cm/s. If this is taken to be the average flow through the platform, these models predict a treatment of 6.25 million liters of water per day by the YRRP, which is significantly less than the original model.
CONCLUSION A flow model outside the YRRP as a function of time was determined to be ( ) , which leads to an average flow of 0.26 m/s. If the flow outside the flume was congruous with the flow inside the flume, this model dictates an average of 22 million liters of water being treated by the flume per day, as compared to an initial estimate of 38 million liters. However, it was determined that the flow inside the flume is significantly slower than the flow outside it. Exponential models were created in order to provide a model for the transverse flow between the screens. From these models, it was found that the average flow speed through the YRRP was 7.24 cm/s. This model predicts an average of 6.25 million liters of later being treated by the flume per day, which is significantly lower than expected. It was also determined that a turbulent flow exists between the screens of the YRRP via power spectrum analysis using Kolmogorov's theories. This has implications for the transport of nutrients and carbon dioxide throughout the flume, as turbulent mixing plays a significant role in the circulation throughout a water column .
A variety of different factors may have affected the flow cycle that were not considered in this research. The York River estuary consists of different shoals and dunes in the riverbed in addition to a system of channels. Scully et al. took flow measurements and found that lateral differences in turbulent mixing are more pronounced in the channel regions and less pronounced in the shoal regions. The greatest lateral asymmetries occur at the end of ebb tide, inducing a shorter ebb tide over the channels, and a longer ebb tide over the shoals . In the future, a greater understanding of the waterbed's geography could provide additional insight into the behavior of the flow cycle.
Spring tides currents lead to more mixing and less stratification of flow across the vertical water column, while during weak tides, the stratification is more stable. Sharples et al. found that in the York River, for the most part the water column is stratified, with short transitions to high mixing and homogeneity along the vertical water column. Sharples et al. also determined that the surface wind stress was equally likely to cause mixing events as Spring tides . In the future, measurements across the water column should take into account both the type of tide and the surface winds as both can significantly affect the behavior of the flow. This research provided new insights into the total amount of water being treated by the York River Research Platform, in addition to creating a predictive model for the flow outside of the flume. Future work will allow for a more in-depth quantification of the total volume of flow through the flume in a variety of ways. First, a numerical model for the flow inside of the flume as a function of the flow outside of the flume will be created. Horizontal and vertical profiles will also be generated to assess variation across the platform. Ultimately, these models with be utilized to determine the ideal length for algal harvesting structures similar to the YRRP.
REFERENCES  McClain, J., 2010. To Harness the Wild Algae. William & Mary Ideation (http://www.wm.edu/research/ideation/science-and-technology/to-harness-the- wild- algae5832.php)  The Chesapeake Algae Project. William and Mary Economic Development.(http://www.wm.edu/offices/economicdevelopment/regionalprojects /chesapeak ebay/chap/index.php )  Influence of Earth Tides, 2003. Geophysical Research Letters, 30. Laminar & Turbulent Flows. http://udel.edu/~inamdar/EGTE215/Laminar_turbulent.pdf Wave Measurements and the RDI ADCP Waves Technique.
http://www.rdinstruments.com/pdfs/waves_primer.pdf  Scully, M.E., and C.T. Friedrichs, 2006. The Importance of Tidal and Lateral Asymmetries in Stratification to Residual Circulation in Partially Mixed Estuaries. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 37, 1496-1511.  Sharples, J. , J.H. Simpson, and J.M. Brubaker, 1994. Observations and Modeling of Periodic Stratification in the Upper York River Estuary, Virginia. Estuarine, Coastal, and Shelf Science, 38, 301- 312.


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Pope Francis appoints North Dakota priest to lead Diocese of Helena
Pope Francis appointed Tuesday Fr. Austin A. Vetter as the next bishop of Helena, Montana.
Fr. Austin Vetter Diocese of Bismarck
By Courtney Mares
Keywords: BISHOP APPOINTMENT, VATICAN CITY, VATICAN
Vatican City, (CNA) - Pope Francis appointed Tuesday Fr. Austin A. Vetter as the next bishop of Helena, Montana.
Vetter, 52, is a priest from the Diocese of Bismarck, North Dakota, where he has served as rector of the city's Cathedral of the Holy Spirit since 2018. Before that he was posted in Rome for six years as the director of spiritual formation for the Pontifical North American College.
Vetter replaces Bishop George Leo Thomas, who led the Diocese of Helena for 15 years.
Pope Francis appointed Thomas to be Bishop of Las Vegas in Feb. 2018. Monsignor Kevin O'Neill has served as diocesan administrator of Helena since Bishop Thomas' installation in Nevada.
After receiving a B.A. in philosophy from Bismarck's Cardinal Muench Seminary, Vetter studied sacred theology at the Angelicum in Rome, receiving his S.T.B. in 1992. He was ordained to the priesthood on June 29, 1993.
The North Dakota native has served as the director of continuing education for clergy, a high school teacher, episcopal vicar for the permanent diaconate, and as a pastor for the St. Leo, St. Patrick, and St. Martin parishes. Vetter also has taught at Creighton University's Institute for Priestly Formation.
The Diocese of Helena was established in 1884. Stretching more than 51,900 square miles, the Montana diocese has 38 missions in addition to its 57 parishes.
The diocese has an estimated 45,400 Catholics, which is just over 7% of the area's total population.
Ave Maria - Hail Mary
St. Josephine Bakhita Classes
St. Agatha Classes

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Yep, mine started with -23000 and is now -10000. Windows Vista Ulitmate, SP2.32-bit. Wired connection to Internet.
Broken for me. Come on guys, fix this or at least acknowledge the problem and let us know what you're doing to fix it.
Will not show anyone or to say that it is aware of the problem?
-23000 error on win7. Colleague next to me, on the same network but win8.1 had no problems.
I just installed both the droid client and the Windows client. I get "Failed to connect to the server (-23000) message with the Windows client although I can login via the web.


We had just sipped our first dram at a private tasting conducted by a young and impressive whisky expert, Lindsey, at the Quaich Bar in the Craigellachie Hotel. The room was decorated with plush green velvet seating, antique chess boards, and library-style shelves stocked with the local and further-flung whiskies of Scotland and abroad. Over 700 of them, so they say. We were seemingly in the middle of nowhere – an hour and half from Aberdeen, three and a half from Edinburgh, surrounded by mountains, tall and bushy evergreens, and over fifty distilleries in something like a fifteen mile radius — and a whole lot of character. We had the distinct pleasure of meeting two of them when a hotel manager pushed through the door, breaking our concentration on the local flavors of a Speyside whisky.
Two sweet-looking, snowy-haired men with the most mischievous smiles you can imagine – a specialty of those sorts born to the Celtic regions – walked in.
For several hours a day over the course of two months, S could be found locked-in on the screen of his phone, zooming in, out and around a grouping of islands just off the western coast of Sweden. After braving the placid waters of the Chesapeake Bay on one of our first trips together in 2011, we had become obsessed with the idea of kayaking abroad. After a few summer trips where the timing just didn't work out to fit in some kayaking, our entire trip to Sweden was planned around the goal of getting out on the water. We picked a great little hotel right on the North Sea in a town with several rental companies and stocked up on waterproof cold-weather gear. We pictured ourselves zigging and zagging around the beautiful light-house bearing islands dotting the coast, smiling, laughing, snapping photos. For two months this was our dream. For two months, S studied these islands and plotted our course, dreaming about the great adventure we would have.
We landed in Dublin on Good Friday. In other words, we landed in a place known for its stout and whiskey on a day when no one would/could sell us any stout or whiskey. Even the gas station beer selection was covered in bed sheets. Great planning on our part. Undeterred, we hopped in a car and drove west toward Connemara, hoping to find some sort of wild-west-we-do what-we-want spirit. We pulled into a convenience store/bar (because most establishments in Ireland are a something slash bar) outside of Clifden, hoping to charm the proprietor into selling us a welcoming brew. The little Irish man behind the counter seemed physically pained that he couldn't send us off with a Guinness. Really, we could tell that it hurt his soul. And we're also pretty sure, based on his pointing and winking (something that the Irish confusingly do a lot), that he would have sold us some if his wife weren't working the register next to him.
It may take me a few thousand hours to comb through the photos from the week that S and I traveled around Southern Spain with his wonderful parents, R and P. While in the early stages of that combing, I couldn't wait to share a few of my favorite photos with you. As I write this, I'm sitting in my apartment, hiding from what is November in Germany and feeling its gray skies and dry frigid air sucking what little tan I had from my skin. Wow, that is sad. Luckily, I have the promise of a trip home for Thanksgiving to see family and friends and the fantasy-come-reality that is the German Christmas Market when we return. I also have my memories from an unforgettable trip south and I've been trying to determine my favorite. Was it dining on tapas in Ronda with the restaurant patio to ourselves and a view of the Puente Nuevo lit up at night? Was it the bartender in Nerja singing along to "Material Girl" while S and I sipped Rioja and snacked on freshly cut ham and Manchego? Was it the guitar player at El Molino? Seriously, is there anything cooler than Spanish guitar? My favorite moment could easily be our morning touring, admiring, and gawking at the beauty of the Alhambra. It could also easily be the flamenco show that we saw in the old gypsy caves of the Albayzin area, or the second flamenco show that we saw in Grenada's city center, or our three pans of paella, or our five bowls of gazpacho, or our ten plates of Iberico ham, or our countless pitchers of sangria. We ate a lot. Overall, and as sappy as it sounds, I have to say that my favorite part of the trip was the time spent with S, P, and R (with the Alhambra in second place and all of the foods a close third)!


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Dutch EU Presidency
Dutch EU Presidency 2016 From 1 January to 30 June 2016, the Netherlands holds the six-month rotating Presidency of the European Union. The Netherlands is the firts of the Trio and in close coordina
Oeds Westerhof - Leeuwarden-Friesland the European Capital of Culture 2018
EUKN interview with Mr Oeds Westerhof 5 Jun 2018 In 2018, Leeuwarden-Friesland celebrates its European Capital of Culture year by hosting a number of events, festivals, shows, performances and concert
Joram Snijders - Energy transition in the built environment in the Netherlands
EUKN interview with Mr Joram Snijders 12 November 2018 The EUKN interviewed Mr Joram Snijders, Senior policy officer, Department of Construction and Energy, Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relati
Christiaan Norde - Zero waste and circular economy
EUKN interview with Mr Christiaan Norde 2 March 2015 The concept of zero waste is gaining momentum. Despite the circular economy package being dropped by the European Commission in favour of a more am
Natasja Wijnen - A key tool to a successful partnership in BrabantStad
EUKN interview with Ms Natasja Wijnen 18 October 2014 The EUKN interviewed Ms Natasja Wijnen, a key-speaker of the Policy Lab for Hungary held on 26 September 2014 and a manager of the BrabantStad Off
Policy Lab for BE, NL, FR: Radicalisation
Prevention of radicalisation 20 September 2016 On 20 September 2016, the EUKN organised a Policy Lab in Brussels on the prevention of radicalisation, together with several knowledge partners from Fran
Policy Lab for NL: Circular Economy
Circular Economy 18 June 2015 The EUKN Policy Lab on Circular Economy took place in the Hague on 18 June 2015 with participants from the French Institut Economie Circulaire and the City of Copenhagen.
Policy Lab for NL: One year after the Pact of Amsterdam
One Year Pact of Amsterdam 4 July 2017 The EUKN organised a Policy Lab for the Netherlands on 4 July 2017 which was devoted to the first anniversary of the Pact of Amsterdam. The event was jointly org
Energy efficiency in the built environment in the Benelux and Rhineland Westphalia
Energy efficiency in the built environment in the Benelux and Rhineland-Westphalia EUKN, 2013 In early 2010, the Benelux General Secretariat took the initiative to organise cooperation with the EUKN i
Report Publication - Policy Lab on Radicalisation
Prevention of Radicalisation Proceedings of the joint Policy Lab of the EUKN in Belgium, France and the Netherlands Report of the Policy lab organised on 20 September 2016 in Brussel s
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Quality Builders is located at the address 610 N Church St in Mount Olive, Illinois 62069. They can be contacted via phone at (217) 999-7137 for pricing, hours and directions.
For maps and directions to Quality Builders view the map to the right. For reviews of Quality Builders see below.


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Lawyer Avenatti ordered to give luxury assets to wife in divorce
On behalf of Gary, Till, Burlingham & Lynch | Dec 20, 2018 | Firm News, Property Division
Michael Avenatti is a Los Angeles attorney who has garnered an outsize share of media coverage in the last several months by representing adult film actress Stormy Daniels in her dispute with President Donald Trump about an affair she allegedly had with him several years ago. He is now getting media coverage because of his pending divorce and the property settlement with his estranged wife. Avenatti's divorce does not provide a paragon for ending a marriage, but he and his wife have apparently reached an agreement about dividing assets that may provide a template for other high-asset couples.
Avenatti and his wife have entered into a settlement agreement in which the lawyer has agreed to transfer certain assets to his wife with the understanding that she will have the power to sell them. The assets include a 2017 Ferrari 488 GT Spider, selected works of art, a sculpture by famed architect Frank Gehry and several extremely expensive wrist watches. Avenatti's law firm has also been ordered to give the firm's Honda private jet to his wife as part of the settlement.
Avenatti reportedly owes his wife $1,947,540 in back child support and alimony. Avenatti also agreed to pay spousal support going forward in the amount of $124,398 per month. Avenatti has apparently paid some of the arrears in cash, and the balance will be paid by proceeds from the sale of the personal assets that he has transferred to his wife.
The reports of the settlement have omitted a number of critical details, such as whether any of the assets are community property. Nevertheless, the concept of transferring assets to one soon-to-be ex-spouse who has the right to sell the assets may help some couples resolve disputes about dividing assets that are considered community property.


Well...I can add another golf course to the ever-growing list of SoCal golf I've played. This one is a track I've driven by on the 118 freeway literally hundreds of time without ever knowing exactly where it was or stopping by to see it. That all changed recently with the fruits of my "labor" being now evidenced in the Simi Hills Golf Course Review.


Fantastic 5-acre building lot in wonderful 13-lot community, minutes west of Charlottesville and UVA. Private, nearly level, partly wooded, excellent homesite, beautiful setting. Choose your builder and begin building your dream home today! Prime Western Albemarle location in Murray/Henley School District.


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› Barbados (2014)
Barbados (2014)
Barbados' energy sector is highly dependent on imported fossil fuels. Barbados relies on imported refined product to meet approximately 95% of its power and transport fuel needs; domestic natural gas provides less than 5% of total energy needs. The country has some production of oil and natural gas; it produces slightly more than 1,000 barrels of oil and 1.7 million cubic feet of natural gas per day; however, the oil is exported to Trinidad where it is refined and shipped back as refined product.
In 2010, the country's electricity installed capacity of 239.1MW is 100% fossil-fuel based. Power generation is mostly based on heavy fuel oil (85% of generation, of which 21% in steam plants and 64% in low-speed diesel plants); the remaining 15% of generation is based on diesel fuel. Electricity peak demand in Barbados has been growing steadily over the past 10 years at around 3% per year, from 125 MW in 2000 to 166 MW in 2009, while total electricity consumption has been growing at around 3.6 % annually.
Barbados has no utility scale renewable generation capacity. RE generation is limited to a few small solar photovoltaic and wind systems installed by households, and experimental systems located at Government facilities. Currently, SEFB pilot projects in RE and EE are in implementation, including the installation of 25 PV systems and the provision of energy efficient lighting to 3,000 households.
Barbados has some oil production, but domestic demand, approximately 10,000-barrels of oil per day (bbl/d) greatly exceeds local supply (approximately 1,000-bbl/d). This results in imports in excess of 9,000-bbl/d, which represents a significant expenditure and drain on Barbados' foreign reserves, particularly considering the degree of volatility in international oil markets.
The country's electrification rate is 100% and BL&P supplies electricity to 119,000 customers.
The dependence on petroleum products is almost complete. In a country with very limited fossil-based resources, this has serious and negative implications for foreign oil dependence, energy security, foreign spending and environmental impact. This results in imports in excess of 9,000-bbl/d, which represents a significant expenditure and drain on Barbados' foreign reserves, particularly considering the degree of volatility in international oil markets.
Any strategy that seeks to address petroleum product consumption will, by default, contribute to the sustainability of Barbados and its mitigation efforts against harmful emissions and climate change.
The Government of Barbados has long been an advocate of developing renewable sources of energy. During the 1980's and early 1990's, BL&P purchased electricity produced from bagasse during the sugar crop season by a number of local factories. Since then the government has also experimented with wind turbines and photovoltaics.
Barbados has an involvement in wind energy going back to 1980s. Recently, as wind energy has become a more reliable and cost effective technology, BL&P have sought to develop a wind farm in the Lamberts area. There however continue to be impediments to the project due to issues related to the leasing of the land.. BL&P have now been given the go ahead to develop the land in Lamberts for wind but there are still negotiations to be undertaken. Barbados has not chosen to go for compulsory acquisition of the land as was done in St. Lucia. BL&P and Sagicor will be required to agree on a price for BL&P to lease the land.. (Morgan Ince, 2013)
Commercial solar water heating finds its origins in the 1970s as a simple local church initiative to provide vocational training for young men. A demonstration at the official residence of the then Prime Minister led to government implementation of initial fiscal incentives to promote the use of solar water heater (SWH) technology. Through the Fiscal Incentives Act of 1974, import tariffs for SWH raw materials had been waived and a 30% consumption tax was placed on electric water heaters (BIDC, 2010). Further, under a 1980 Income Tax Amendment, the full cost of SWH purchase and installation up to $BD 3500 was allowed as a home-owner tax deduction. This tax deduction was reinstated in 1996 following its suspension during a period of economic recession that extended from the 1980s. The government also actively engaged in purchasing over 1200 units for five different housing development projects since the mid 1970's further stimulating the industry.
As interest in the new technology grew, other competitors quickly joined the market and by the beginning of the 1980's SunPower Corporation and AquaSol Components Limited, had established themselves as industry players. By 2003 there were over 35,000 solar water heaters installed in Barbados. Of this consumer base, 70% of the systems are in residential homes and 30% in commercial properties, predominantly hotels. This represents 30% penetration across building properties in Barbados. More recent quotes put the total at 45,000 installations island-wide. Since the late 1990s Solar Dynamics has expanded to own manufacturing operations in Saint Lucia, a distribution centre in Jamaica and agents in the Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, St. Maarteen, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, St. Kitts & Nevis and the British Virgin Islands.
Geothermal/Hydropower
Unlike its geographic neighbours, Barbados has limited potential for utilisation of these energy sources. Popular movement suggests support for investment in geothermal power in neighbouring countries, but no official investment has been forthcoming from BL&P.
Biomass Cogeneration has been used by the sugar cane industry in Barbados for years. Currently the sugar cane industry burns bagasse in their boilers to generate steam for their processes. The steam is also used to generate electricity for the plant. No excess electricity is generated. The BCIC has plans to consolidate the current Andrews and Portvale sugar mills into a single rehabilitated and refurbished factory at Andrew's factory site. As part of these upgrades BCIC intends to optimize the co-generation of electricity for sale to BL&P, utilizing both bagasse from the cane and other biomass waste available from the Islands' waste management facility.
The most cost effective appliances for Barbados' market are CFLs, power monitors, premium efficiency motors, efficient Air Conditioning (AC) systems, variable frequency drives and efficient chillers. If the population of Barbados used these technologies, the potential for EE would be 19.4% (in terms of MWh) saved compared to the total electricity consumption.
The company Barbados Light & Power Company Limited (BL&P) is responsible for the generation, supply and distribution of electricity. It is an investor owned electric utility and is in operations since June 17, 1911. BL&P is a vertically integrated company which is now 80% owned by the Canadian company Emera, who invested in the company in 2010. The electricity supply network serves the entire island, with only a few exceptions. The electricity is supplied by diesel generator plants, and most of the electricity is produced from the least expensive residual fuel oil. Some locally available natural gas is burned in the steam boilers but this accounted for less than 1% in 2008.
The National Petroleum Corporation (NPC) is a public corporation established as successor to the Natural Gas Corporation by the National Petroleum Corporation Act, Cap 280. That Act came into effect on April 1 1981. The Corporation's primary function is the sale of piped natural gas for domestic, commercial, and industrial use. Its mission is to provide an adequate, reliable, safe, and efficient gas service to customers at a reasonable cost. The Corporation's general functions of production of crude oil, natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas are carried out by an associated company, the Barbados National Oil Company Limited (BNOCL). Since January 24 1996, the Corporation holds 24.5% of the equity in BNOCL, while the Government holds 75.5%. The Corporation is directed by a Board of Directors appointed by the Minister responsible for Energy.
BL&P is the sole electricity provider in Barbados. The company started operations in the early 1920s under complete ownership of a London based holding company. In 1955 the company was divested is now owned by primarily Barbadian investors. The minority shares are owned by Canadian International Power Co. Ltd. The 1907 Electricity Supply Act gives BL&P sole rights to generate and transmit electricity and does not make provision for Independent Power Producers (IPPs), prohibiting sale or injection into the grid. Since 2001 the utility has been regulated by the Fair Trading Commission, which was preceded by the Barbados Public Utilities Board, established since 1955 (Shirley & Kammen, 2013).
BL&P has a license until 2028 and has a monopoly for power production, transmission and distribution. The Barbados electricity market is not liberalized and open for new entities yet.
Like others in the Caribbean, Barbados has a power market controlled by a vertically integrated monopoly utility that relies heavily on imported fossil fuels for electricity generation.
National Strategic Plan of Barbados for 2006–25
The National Strategic Plan of Barbados for 2006–25 was designed to help eliminate the reliance on fossil fuel, with a specific focus on increasing the number of household solar water heaters by 50% by the end of 2025. To date, solar water heaters are used extensively in Barbados, with installations in nearly half of the island's dwelling units (Barbados Light and Power Company Limited Annual Report 2012). More recently, the Barbados Light and Power Company Limited, with the approval of the Fair Trading Commission and technical support from the IDB, introduced the Renewable Energy Rider initiative in mid–2010. This initiative allows customers to connect to the grid and sell any excess electricity generated from renewable sources to Barbados Light and Power Company Limited. Thus far, more than 200 customers have benefited from the initiative.
The renewable energy industry is also supported through a series of tax incentives introduced by the GoBA. Some of these incentives are a zero value-added tax rate on all renewable energy and energy-efficient systems and products produced in Barbados; an income tax holiday of 10 years for developers, manufacturers, and installers of renewable energy products; and a 150% deductible on expenditures for staff training, marketing of products for the sale of electricity, and product development or research that is related directly to the generation and sale of electricity. To facilitate renewable energy generation on the island, the GoBA is also expected to pass renewable energy legislation in Parliament in October of this year. This new legislation will help reposition Barbados' economy and establish a complete renewable energy sector in the country.
The National Energy Policy was published by the Government in 2007 and in 2010 the Fair Trading Commission approved a Renewable Energy Rider pilot project which allows eligible customers with renewable power sources to sell excess power to the grid. The program currently limits size to 5kW for domestic and 50kW for other tariff brackets. All kWh supplied to the grid are credited for 1.8 times the Fuel Clause Adjustment or 31.5 cents/kWh, whichever is greater.
The country is committed to reducing its oil dependency and in May 2012 hosted the Achieving Sustainable Energy for All in Small Island Developing States conference where it announced an ambitious renewable energy target of 29% by 2029. It is now one of the few countries in the Caribbean to have such a mandate.
The Implementing Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Projects under the Sustainable Energy Framework for Barbados is an example of a climate change mitigation project which is currently under implementation in Barbados. The general objective of the project is to promote renewable energy (RE) and energy efficiency (EE) in Barbados, thus reducing the country's dependency from imported fossil fuels enhancing security and stability in energy supply, and improving overall environmental sustainability in the country.
Specifically the project will help the Government of Barbados to develop a Sustainable Energy Framework (SEF) and achieve institutional strengthening in the areas of RE and EE, achieve EE in the country's key sectors, implement energy efficiency pilot projects, identify, and promote the most effective alternatives for RE generation, and implement renewable energy pilot projects. The expected outputs of project include the distribution and installation of 15,000 compact fluorescent lights in 3,000 households along with the installation of 28 solar photovoltaic systems and one micro wind turbine. The project will also carry out energy efficiency audits in seven public sector buildings, 25 residential buildings, and eight audits in commercial (non-tourism) buildings.
In 2010, Barbados's power utility established a net metering program, which included 25 consumer generators as participants until the end of 2012. Last year, a private company financed the purchase of 1.4MW of solar photovoltaic panels to help reduce its electricity bill and carbon footprint.
Minister in the Barbados' Prime Minister's Office with responsibility for energy, Senator Darcy Boyce has disclosed that a study would be undertaken, in partnership with the European Union, to establish "the marine potential within the limit of our territorial waters, by undertaking an assessment of the technical and commercial viability and sustainability of these marine resources". "We are particularly interested in OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion) systems which, not only produce base load electricity, but also cold water which may be used for air-conditioning, which creates a heavy demand for expensive electricity," he noted, while adding that this would be of particular interest for the tourism-driven national economy, as a heavy user of air-conditioning.
With OTEC also of interest because of the potentially beneficial by-products produced by electricity, the minister said that it was critical that the technology be explored. He disclosed that Barbados was already a recipient of a desk-top study on this technology through the SIDS-DOCK (Sustainable Energy Initiative) mechanism, using Japanese experts. The study, he added, suggests that a 10 MW OTEC plant is technically viable but, given the heavy investment required, its commercial viability would have to be investigated carefully.
Barbados is a member state of the Caribbean Renewable Energy Development Programme (CREDP), which is a joint project of CARICOM and the German International Cooperation GIZ, formerly GTZ.
CREDP originates from an initiative of the Energy Ministers of the CARICOM member states, established to improve the political, legal and regulatory framework conditions for the use of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in the Caribbean Region.
Ministry of Finance, Economic Affairs and Energy (MFIE)
The Ministry of Finance, Economic Affairs and Energy is responsible for decisions regarding natural resources, public utilities, the National Petroleum Corporation and the Barbados National Oil Company (Loy 2007). Besides that, the Ministry is gearing toward "promoting energy conservation practices and the use of renewable energy technologies, where possible, and becoming self-sufficient in oil and gas production; plans to develop renewable sources of energy are focused on wind energy, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal, fuel cell and biogas/biomass".
The Energy Division within MFIE has the responsibility for monitoring and regulating energy supply by interacting closely with all of the institutions involved in the energy sector. In particular, the Energy Division is responsible for developing policy and administering such policies with respect to the sector's participants. Some of the Energy Division's specific responsibilities include:
Issuing licenses and leases for all oil exploration and production
Advising on petroleum product prices
Promoting the use of renewable energy technologies
Promoting the effective use of energy.
The Fair Trading Commission (FTC)
The Fair Trading Commission (FTC) was established in January 2001 under the Fair Trading Commission Act. The FTC evolved from its predecessor, the Public Utilities Board, which was responsible for regulating public utilities (such as electricity and telephone services) from 1955 until 2001. The further development of Barbados saw the need for a new body with a broader mandate to deal with other areas that had become important such as fair competition and consumer rights. The FTC is responsible for utility regulation, ensuring fair competition and ensuring consumer protection. The Utility Regulation Division of the FTC regulates two utility companies: Cable & Wireless (Barbados) Ltd. and The Barbados Light & Power Company Ltd. This Division oversees rates and service standards, and investigates queries and complaints.
Barbados National Oil Company (BNOC)
BNOC is the local oil company whose operations are governed by a statutory board. The company is responsible for the drilling and exploration for crude oil within the country. Barbados produces about 1000 bbls of oil per day of crude which represents about one fifth of the countries local demand. The crude produced in Barbados is shipped to Petrotrin in Trinidad for refining and resold to the country. In spite of their role in fossil fuel development, the government has identified this agency to be a leader in terms of bringing renewable energy to commercialization. (Morgan Ince, 2013)
The Future Centre Trust (FCT) is an environmental organization that aims to work with wider organizations such as UNCED to concentrate on economic and tourist activity in Barbados that is based on sustainable development for future generations on the island.
The FCT is acknowledged in Barbados as an important group for sustainable development on the island, and is a significant contributor to political decisions over environmental issues as they are actively involved in the process of decision-making and working on multi-sectoral committees.
The Fair Trading Commission established on January 2, 2001 is the independent regulator of the supply and distribution of electricity as well as domestic and international telecommunications services and natural gas.
The Utility Regulation Department currently oversees two utility companies – the Barbados Light& Power Company Ltd. (electricity) and Cable & Wireless (Barbados) Ltd. (telecommunications).
http://www.ftc.gov.bb
FTC is an independent agency with 11 part-time commissioners appointed by the Minister of Commerce and Trade for a period of five years. It is funded mainly by government grants, 25% levies. (Abbot & Ma, 2013)
Laws and Regulations that govern the electricity sector in Barbados are:
The Electricity Act, Chapter 277 of the Laws of Barbados
The Electric Light and Power Act, Chapter 278 of the Laws of Barbados
The Fair Trading Commission Act, Chapter 326B of the Laws of Barbados
The Utilities Regulation Act, Chapter 282 of the Laws of Barbados.
The Utilities Regulation Act enforced by the Fair Trading Commission in Barbados outlines its functions as follows:
establish principles for arriving at the rates to be charged;
set the maximum rates to be charged;
monitor the rates charged to ensure compliance;
determine the standards of service applicable;
monitor the standards of service supplied to ensure compliance; and
carry out periodic reviews of the rates and principles for setting rates and standards of service."
This suggests that new regulatory agencies will need to be established to deal with issues related to renewable energy where more sustainable development goals are to be addressed. (Ince Morgan, 2013)
The FCT is involved in the regulation, proposal and planning of alternative energy projects.
In Barbados, it is noticeable the number of experiments with renewable energy that the state controlled utility has made thus far. While few of these projects have come to fruition in a major way (except for solar water heaters), the tendency highlights utility, and by extension, government interest in energy security and power sector functionality. However this intention is not supported by significant legislative and comprehensive policy backing. This may be part of the reason that, aside from Solar Water Heating technology, it has actually been difficult to integrate other technologies into the market. It would seem that while the necessary components are present, there needs to be a more structured plan in the near and long term future and greater consistency in the delivering of incentives such as the tax credit. Strides are indeed being made, but a more concrete structure and outlined plan of action and implementation would ensure that the more useful avenues for energy mix expansion are explored.
The 1907 Electricity Supply Act and the 1951 Public Utilities Act of 1951 are to date the only major pieces of legislation that govern the power sector, making it difficult for IPPs to potentially market themselves to the utility company.
Shirley, Rebekah a & Kammen, Daniel (2013): Renewable energy sector development in the Caribbean: Current trends and lessons from history Energy Policy 57 (2013) 244–252. Available at https://rael.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/Shirley%20Kammen%20Energy%20Policy%20Vol%2057.pdf Accessed 26th February
Bloomberg New Energy Finance (2013): Climatescope 2013: New Frontiers for Low-Carbon Energy Investment in Latin America and the Caribbean Available at http://www.offnews.info/downloads/ClimateScope2013.pdf Accessed 17th February
IDB (2013): Caribbean Region Quarterly Bulletin Available at http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=38175715 Accessed 17th February
IDB 2011 (2012): Second Generation of Reforms in Support for Sustainable Energy Framework for Barbados (SEFB) Available at http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=36857218 Accessed 23rd February
CREDP/GTZ (2010): Analysis of the Potential Solar Energy Market in the Caribbean Available at http://www.credp.org/Data/Solar_Market_Analysis_Caribbean.pdf Accessed 23rd February
IDB (2010): Sustainable Energy Framework for Barbados Available at http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getDocument.aspx?DOCNUM=35232784 Accessed 23rd February
GEF (2012): Barbados and the GEF Available at http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/publication/Barbados%20Country%20Fact%20Sheet_English.pdf Accessed 23rd February
Jamaicaobserver.com (2014): Ocean energy of interest to Barbados and the region Available at http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/environment/Ocean-energy-of-interest-to-Barbados-and-the-region_16147514 Accessed 23rd February
Morgan Ince, Philip David (2013): Drivers and Barriers to the Development of Renewable Energy Industries in the Caribbean Available at http://theses.ucalgary.ca/bitstream/11023/1091/2/ucalgary_2013_ince_philip.pdf Accessed 5th March.
CREDP (2013): Caribbean Renewable Energy Development Programme Available at http://www.credp.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=19&Itemid=27 Accessed 5th March
Abbot, M & Ma, X (2013): The regulatory governance of the telecommunication and electricity industries in small, island nations Utilities Policy 26 (2013) 7-16 Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jup.2013.04.002 Accessed 7th March
IDB (2014): Barbados Energy Market Available at http://blogs.iadb.org/caribbean-dev-trends/2013/11/22/barbados-energy-market/
energy, electricity generation, electricity, renewable energies, solar, projects, wind, energy utilities, natural gas, water resources, solar photovoltaic, taxes


CUBA was hit hard less than six months ago by a hurricane that caused considerable damage to the country's four principal tourist destinations. It is the only island nation in the world which, by law, U.S. citizens are not allowed to visit as tourists, and figures among the countries which Washington has singled out with travel advisories, recommending that travelers "reconsider" visiting.
Nevertheless, as of this month, theyear's first million visitors have arrived in Cuba, some 67,000 hotel rooms are available, along with more than 21,000 family bed and breakfasts, while 68 airlines operate flights linking the island to 70 important cities around the world. Cruise lines with six ports of call and stopovers located on the island make this modality increasingly popular, and the country was recently recognized as the "most secure for tourism" at the 38th international Tourism Fair (Fitur), in Madrid.
Changes in the panorama have created difficulties, but the country continues as one of the Caribbean's favorite destinations. According to statements by Janet Ayala, the Ministry of Tourism's public information officer, although the figure of one million visitors was reached four days later than last year, it remains a notable accomplishment given the pressures and adverse conditions faced by the sector over this last period.
Irma struck Cuba in the month of September, and just days before its arrival, 88.5% of all tourists in the country were staying in hotels along the island's northern coastline, precisely the area where the hurricane made landfall and caused the most damage. From beach resorts on Cayo Coco, Cayo Guillermo, and Cayo Santa María, alone, 10,625 visitors were evacuated.
More than 70% of the hotels on these northern keys suffered damage, as well as 26% of the accommodations farther west in Varadero, the country's most important beach resort. The main impact was seen on landscaping, light roofing, false ceilings, glass panes, and aluminum trim, according to Manuel Marrero Cruz, who leads the country's Ministry of Tourism (Mintur).
Over the following three months (October, November, and December) the number of tourists arriving declined, reflecting the erroneous but widespread belief that "everything was in bad shape and it was impossible for Cuba to recover before the high season," Marrero stated. Nonetheless, some 4,700,000 visitors traveled to the island in 2017, 11.9% more than projected.
"I am super surprised," an Argentine, visiting Jardines del Rey in November, told Granma International, "I've asked around, and really could not believe the speed with which everything was restored. They told me how the hotel was left (after the hurricane), and how all the employees helped accelerate the process. I was a bit apprehensive because the date was so close to what had happened, but everything is impeccable."
Fifteen days after the hurricane work began, and just 40-odd days later, by November 1, clients were arriving at the northern key resorts, more than 3,210 to Jardines del Rey, alone.
The U.S. State Department has deemed Cuba unsafe, advising travelers to "reconsider" trips to Cuba, asserting that serious security risks exist. In its new U.S. travel advisory system, the country is rated as a three on a scale of four, in terms of potential risks.
Around the same time these unjustified statements were made, January 18 to be exact, Cuba received an Excellence Prize as the "safest country for tourism," at the 38th International Tourism Fair (Fitur) in Madrid. Journalist Christopher P. Baker commented on the website smerconish.com, "I've always considered Cuba to be the safest place in the Americas outside Canada… the notion of Cuba being unsafe is bogus."
Despite the blockade and continuing restrictions on conducting tourism in Cuba, arrivals of visitors from the U.S. increased significantly after the Obama administration eased the licensing system for travel to Cuba. In 2017, Cuba received 620,000 U.S. travelers and established a record for international visitors. According to Cuba Educational Travel, the vast majority consider the country "very safe."
Experiences reported and surveys conducted indicate that visitors have been satisfied with their trips to Cuba, confirming that Cuba is secure, tranquil, and stable, characteristics also recognized by United Nations international agencies, and other specialized tourism groups. At the same time, leading companies have praised the country's standards of quality and comfort.
Likewise, members of a U.S. Congressional delegation which visited the island recently, along with their families, said they felt safe here. Representative Jim McGovern reported that he met with U.S. students pursuing degrees at the University of Havana, saying, "They feel safe," and "I have spoken with business people; they feel safe, as do Americans working at the diplomatic mission."
Cuba has unique characteristics that attract tourism, in particular cruises, thanks to its privileged geographic position, commented Rodrigo Malmierca Díaz, Minister of Foreign Trade and Investment. This modality has expanded, with additional routes from the United States, increasing both the number of ships and passengers arriving. According to information provided by the Ministry, of the four million tourists who visited Cuba in 2017, 112,000 arrived aboard cruise ships.
Although the Trump administration, in June of last year, announced a series of measures that limit travel between the two countries with strict Treasury Department regulations, four U.S. cruise lines continue to operate in Cuba - Carnival Cruise Line, Royal Caribbean Cruise Line (RCCL), Norwegian Cruise Line Holding (NCLH), and Pearl Seas LLP - and a fifth is expected soon.
"Of the company's 500 destinations, Havana is number one in satisfaction among our clients. Many of my colleagues repeat this same comment, showing that Cuba has something to offer," said Frank Del Río, Norwegian Cruise Line CEO, during a meeting between leaders of the world's principal cruise lines and Cuban authorities, held in November of 2017 to discuss the potential for expanding operations in the country.
Since the Obama era, Cuba has signed memoranda of understanding with port authorities in several U.S. cities in the states of Virginia, Louisiana, Alabama, Texas, and Ohio, which is key to developing the cruise industry. However, the current President's measures not only restrict U.S. citizens' right to travel, but also that of the country's businesses to operate here - affecting the majority of those in the tourism sector.
Given this scenario and the blockade's limitations, progress in bilateral relations is hampered, especially in terms of maritime-port activity, which Cuban authorities are looking to develop with an extensive program of investment in infrastructure. The project is intended to strengthen cruise tourism in different parts of the country, to ensure that this industry continues to grow every year.
The U.S. based Carnival Cruise Line has announced 17 new trips to Cuba for 2019, aboard the Carnival Sensation, with five-day voyages departing from South Florida. According to the news agency Prensa Latina, the itineraries include a day in Havana, and stops in other popular Caribbean ports, including the Bahamas.
Christine Duffy, Carnival Cruise Line president, stated that Cuba is a much-sought destination, and the company is thrilled to be offering their clients more opportunities to experience and explore "this fascinating island."
Cuba's tourist sector, included in the country's National Social and Economic Development Plan through 2030, has identified diversification as one of its objectives, and is working to provide new options. History, culture, architecture, hiking, nature and urban tourism are among the new offerings being consolidated.
Along these lines, expanding the number of marinas and nautical centers in the country has been projected, as well as constructing new golf courses and condominiums. The holding of conventions, congresses , and fairs is also prioritized, and special attention afforded to health and quality of life tourism.
Efforts are also being made to recover a number of events and incentive travel, "modalities featuring large volumes of visitors, usually with exhibitors accompanied by their families," explained Minister Marrero, during the National Assembly 8th Legislature's 10th Ordinary Period of Sessions.
Promoting sustainable tourism is another imperative. In this regard, the Council of Ministers had approved a plan to confront climate change, with the implementation of a number of environmental regulations, including those addressing coastal land use and the demolition of structures constructed on sand dunes.
The national tourism industry is currently immersed in an investment process with a view toward renovating and increasing accommodations capacity. A detailed plan through 2030, and favorable conditions for the sector, allow for the projection of five million visitors in 2018 and growth on the order of 6%.


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183rd (Mixed) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment was an air defence unit of Britain's Royal Artillery formed during World War II. Around two-thirds of its personnel were women from the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS). The regiment was heavily engaged in Operation Diver, defending England against V-1 flying bombs, and later was deployed to Antwerp to carry out anti-Diver duties there in the closing stages of the war.

Organisation

By 1941, after two years of war Anti-Aircraft Command, tasked with defending the UK against air attack, was suffering a manpower shortage. In April its commander-in-chief, Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick 'Tim' Pile, proposed to overcome this by utilising the women of the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS). The ATS was by law a non-combatant service, but it was decided that Defence Regulations permitted the employment of women in anti-aircraft (AA) roles other than actually firing the guns. They worked the radar and plotting instruments, range-finders and predictors, ran command posts and communications, and carried out many other duties. With the increasing automation of heavy AA (HAA) guns, including gun-laying, fuze-setting and ammunition loading under remote control from the predictor, the question of who actually fired the gun became blurred as the war progressed. The ATS rank and file, if not always their officers, took to the new role with enthusiasm and 'Mixed' batteries and regiments with the ATS supplying two-thirds of their personnel quickly proved a success.

By late 1942 the training regiments were turning out a regular stream of Mixed HAA batteries, which AA Command formed into regiments to take the place of the all-male units being sent to overseas theatres of war. One such new unit was 183rd (Mixed) HAA Regiment. Regimental Headquarters (RHQ) was formed on 26 October 1942 at Datchet, Buckinghamshire, with 564 (Mixed) HAA Battery transferred from 157th (M) HAA Rgt. and over the next few months the following batteries were regimented with it:
 590 (M) HAA Bty, formed on 19 August 1942 by 210th HAA Training Rgt at Oswestry, joined  the regiment on its formation but soon left for 137th (M) HAA Rgt
 591 (M) HAA Bty, formed on 26 August by 206th HAA Training Rgt at Arborfield, joined on 16 November
 608 (M) HAA Bty, formed on 9 September by 24th HAA Training Rgt at Blackdown, joined 30 November
 624 (M) HAA Bty, formed on 18 November at 206th HAA Training Rgt, joined 1 February 1943; transferred to 148th (M) HAA Rgt 24 February, and replaced by:
 640 (M) HAA Bty joined from 160th (M) HAA Rgt

Deployment
By December 1942 the regiment had joined 38 AA Brigade in 2 AA Group covering South East England. This remained the regiment's deployment for over a year.

Most of the Luftwaffe attacks on the UK in 1943 involved 'hit and run' raids on coastal towns by Fighter-bombers, which were Light AA (LAA) targets, and a few sporadic raids on London. However, in January 1944 it resumed night raids on London, which became known as the 'Baby Blitz'. These raids employed new faster bombers with sophisticated 'pathfinder' techniques and radar jamming. For example, on the night of 21 January 200 hostile aircraft were plotted approaching the South Coast in two waves, which intermingled with returning aircraft of RAF Bomber Command. This caused problems of identification and restrictions on fire, but the guns of 2 AA Group engaged as the raiders approached London. Only one-fifth of the raiders reached the city, the remainder turning away to bomb open country. AA guns brought down eight aircraft. Other raids came in along the Thames Estuary, which was the responsibility of 1 AA Group.

As preparations for the Allied invasion of Normandy (Operation Overlord) gathered momentum, AA Command redeployed its resources in Southern England to cover the assembly areas and embarkation ports. 183rd HAA Regiment was briefly with 30 AA Bde and then in May 1944 it joined 102 AA Bde, a designated 'Overlord' HQ.

Operation Diver

A week after 'Overlord' began on D-Day (6 June), the Germans began launching V-1 flying bombs, codenamed 'Divers', against London. V-1s (known to Londoners as 'Doodlebugs') presented AA Command's biggest challenge since The Blitz of 1940–41. Defences had been planned against this new form of attack (Operation Diver), but the missiles' small size, high speed and awkward height presented a severe problem for AA guns. 2 AA Group's HAA batteries left their 'Overlord' sites and moved to pre-planned sites across the 'funnel' of V-1 flightpaths. However, the initial results were disappointing, and after a fortnight AA Command changed its tactics. The HAA gun belt was moved to the coast and interlaced with LAA guns to hit the missiles out to sea, where the gun-laying radar worked best and where a 'downed' V-1 would cause no damage. This new belt was divided into six brigade sectors, 43 AA Bde taking charge of one sector, with 183rd (M) HAA Rgt under command. The whole process involved the movement of hundreds of guns and vehicles and thousands of servicemen and women, but a new 8-gun site could be established in 48 hours. After moving the mobile 3.7-inch HAA guns to the coast, these were progressively replaced by the static Mark IIC model, which had power traverse that could more quickly track the fast-moving targets, accompanied by the most sophisticated Radar No 3 Mark V (the SCR-584 radar set) and No 10 Predictor (the all-electric Bell Labs AAA Computer). These were emplaced on temporary 'Pile platforms' named after the C-in-C of AA Command. The introduction of VT Proximity fuzes also increased the 'kill rate'. The guns were constantly in action, but success rates against the 'Divers' steadily improved, until over 50 per cent of incoming missiles were destroyed by gunfire or fighter aircraft. This phase of Operation Diver ended in September after the V-1 launch sites in Northern France had been overrun by 21st Army Group.

In August 183rd (M) HAA Rgt had moved to 71 AA Bde, still in the Diver Belt, but in September–October it was with 5 AA Bde under 1 AA Group, which operated a 'Diver Box' covering the Thames Estuary, as the Luftwaffe began air-launching V-1s over the North Sea. In November it left 71 AA Bde once more and rejoined 30 AA Bde, now in 5 AA Group, which was controlling the 'Diver Fringe' protecting the East Coast against air-launched V-1s.

Antwerp 'X' deployment

Once 21st Army Group had captured Brussels and Antwerp, these cities became targets for V-1s launched from within Germany, and anti-Diver or 'X' defences had to be established. AA Command's experience had shown that the power-operated, remotely controlled Mk IIC 3.7-inch gun, with automatic fuze-setting, SCR 584 radar and Predictor No 10 were required to deal effectively with V-1s, but 21st Army Group's mobile HAA units did not have experience with this equipment. In December the first overseas deployment of Mixed HAA units began, and 183rd (M) HAA Rgt was one of those selected. The war establishment of an HAA regiment on service overseas was three batteries, so 640 (M) HAA Bty left to become independent on 30 November (it disbanded on 12 December).

The regiment arrived at Antwerp in January 1945, taking over Mk IIC 3.7-inch guns on Pile platforms in bitter weather with inadequate hutting, and were immediately in action against the onslaught of V-1s. The Antwerp 'X' defences under 80 AA Bde involved an outer line of Wireless Observer Units sited  to  in front of the guns to give 8 minutes' warning, then Local Warning (LW) stations positioned half way, equipped with radar to begin plotting individual missiles. Finally there was an inner belt of Observation Posts (OPs), about  in front of the guns to give visual confirmation that the tracked target was a missile. The LW stations and OPs were operated by teams from the AA regiments. Radar-controlled searchlights were deployed to assist in identification and engagement of missiles at night. The success rate of the X defences had been low at first, but after the arrival of Mk IIC guns and experienced crews from AA Command the results improved considerably, with best results in February and March 1945. The number of missiles launched at Antwerp peaked at 623 a week in February, but dropped rapidly as 21st Army Group continued its advance, and in the last week of action the AA defences destroyed 97.5 per cent of those reaching the defence belt.

The war in Europe ended on VE Day, 8 May 1945. 183rd (Mixed) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, together with 564, 591 and 608 Batteries, was disbanded on 25 May.

Insignia

While the male members of the regiment wore the Royal Artillery's 'gun' cap badge, the women wore the ATS cap badge, but in addition they wore the RA's 'grenade' collar badge as a special badge above the left breast pocket of the tunic. Both sexes wore the white RA lanyard on the right shoulder.

Notes

References
 Basil Collier, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Defence of the United Kingdom, London: HM Stationery Office, 1957.
 J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol II, Wakefield, Microform Academic, 1984, .

 Gen Sir Frederick Pile's despatch: "The Anti-Aircraft Defence of the United Kingdom from 28th July, 1939, to 15th April, 1945" London Gazette 18 December 1947.
 Brig N.W. Routledge, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Anti-Aircraft Artillery 1914–55, London: Royal Artillery Institution/Brassey's, 1994, .
 Col J.D. Sainsbury, The Hertfordshire Yeomanry Regiments, Royal Artillery, Part 2: The Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment 1938–1945 and the Searchlight Battery 1937–1945; Part 3: The Post-war Units 1947–2002, Welwyn: Hertfordshire Yeomanry and Artillery Trust/Hart Books, 2003, .

Heavy anti-aircraft regiments of the Royal Artillery
Military units and formations established in 1942
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
Mixed regiments of the Royal Artillery
Military units and formations in Buckinghamshire

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text:
Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid
When aging Pat Garrett becomes the sheriff in Lincoln County, New Mexico, the governor of the state expects him to bring down his old friend, Billy the Kid. Garrett and his deputies trap Billy in his hideout and force him to surrender. As the gallows are being built for him, Billy is tormented by a self-righteous deputy named Ollinger, but eventually he manages to escape from jail and uses Ollinger's own gun to kill him. Sheriff Garrett appoints a new posse to capture Billy again and some of them die in the attempt. Billy keeps running, but the relentless Garrett finds him one night near Fort Sumner where they have their final showdown.
James Coburn, Kris Kristofferson, Bob Dylan, Richard Jaeckel, Katy Jurado, Chill Wills, Jason Robards, R G Armstrong, Luke Askew, Richard Bright, Matt Clark, Rita Coolidge, Jack Dodson, Jack Elam, Emilio Fernández, Paul Fix, L.Q. Jones, Slim Pickens, Jorge Russek, Harry Dean Stanton, Aurora Clavel, Elisha Cook Jr., Gene Evans, Dub Taylor, John Beck
Sam Peckinpah, Gordon Dawson
Gordon Carroll, Sam Peckinpah
Rudy Wurlitzer


text:
Q: How to investigate and resolve Throttling Time issue in Azure Data Lake Analytics? I got following warning on one of my successful ADLA job:
Throttling Time: The job exhibited throttling which may have impacted performance.

In the job, I am reading data from a table, doing some processing and writing results in two different tables along with updating input table. Here is some information about distribution scheme(just in case it helps):
Input/Output Table: Distributed by Round Robin with 250 distributions (Each partition contains around 215 GB data)
Output Table 1: Distributed by Round Robin with 250 distributions (Each partition contains around 215 GB data)
Output Table 2: Distributed by Round Robin with 10 distributions (Each partition contains around 4 GB data)
I need help in understanding and analyzing U-SQL job for throttling issue and how to resolve it.

A: Old answer
Right now there is not much you can do with this diagnostic, except contacting support with the job link and ask if the bandwidth can be increased for your account for this job.
Addendum
Since this error message was noisy and confusing, it got removed for now until we can provide a more actionable error message.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
MBRSC
MBRSC names finalists for UAE astronaut programme
The Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) has announced that 18 candidates are currently undergoing the final stage of the interviews leading up to choosing the first Emirati astronaut corps of the UAE Astronaut Programme. The
39 Emiratis pass astronaut programme exams
Dubai-based Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre said that 39 out of 95 candidates passed the physical and psychological tests to qualify for the preliminary list of the UAE Astronaut Programme, a media report said. The Programme aims
UAE Mars probe model to be unveiled at Dubai Airshow
The Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) is set to showcase the Emirates Mars Mission's Hope probe model for the first time at the Dubai Airshow 2017 which kicks off tomorrow (November 12). One of the most prominent and
MBRSC wins top award at astronautical congress
Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre, a Dubai Government entity which aims to promote scientific innovation, has won the first IAF Excellence in 3G Diversity Award at the International Astronautical Congress in Adelaide, Australia. Th
MBRSC launches science event
Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) has launched the first edition of Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre Science Event (MBRSC Science Event) in Dubai, UAE. The event will be held under the patronage of His Highness Sheikh Moham
MBRSC in global drive to back disaster management
UAE's Mohammed Bin Rashid Space (MBRSC) has joined Sentinel Asia, an international initiative for applying remote sensing and Web-GIS technologies to support disaster management in the Asia-Pacific region. The centre joined
MBRSC, Dubai university in co-operation deal
UAE-based Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) has signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the University of Dubai to strengthen links of cooperation with the educational institution. The agreement aims to develop and


NEW YORK CITY — There are now 115 people who are infected with Legionnaires' disease in NYC, in the deadliest outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in city history that's already claimed 12 lives, officials said Tuesday.
Officials have identified two more people who were infected by the disease, a form of pneumonia transmited by breathing in water vapor, Mayor Bill de Blasio said in a Tuesday afternoon press conference at a senior home in The Bronx.
The mayor tried to dampen concern, saying there haven't been any new infections since Aug. 3 and that officials are working on protocols to ensure they prevent similar outbreaks going forward.
"We are confident the Legionnaires' outbreak is now ending," de Blasio said, adding, "We will make sure we will not ever have another outbreak like this again in this city."
Investigators have found the disease in the cooling towers of 18 buildings, 11 of which are in what officials call the "impact zone" of the outbreak, officials said.
The remaining seven buildings, however, may not be tied to the current outbreak that began in July because they fall outside the zone, officials said.
Those outside the zone include a Verizon building at 1106 Hoe Ave.: The Bronx detective squad building at 1086 Simpson St.; 1201 Lafayette Ave. and 230 E. 123rd St. in Manhattan, city officials said in a news release sent Monday evening.
State investigators found the bacteria, a form of pneumonia, at three other sites outside the impact zone, but have not released their locations, city officials said.
The conflicting information coming from the city and state are part of an ongoing feud between Gov. Andrew Cuomo and Mayor Bill de Blasio that critics have called unseemly during a health disaster of this scope.
Officials said they have contained the outbreak, that there haven't been any new infections since Aug. 3 and they are confident they can identify its source.
Mayor Bill de Blasio has also put forward a bill that would require building owners' to register their cooling towers, which officials suspect have been spreading the disease during the current outbreak.
But the court officers' union, which operates in two court houses that have tested positive for Legionnaires', criticised the city's response, calling it "lackadaisical."
They cited an April death tied to Legionnaires' disease that they said the city failed to properly act on.
"Once they had the first death, of a New York City school teacher in the South Bronx, they should have brought in the CDC to find out what the problem was," a union official said.


What did you think of the cast of characters as a whole? Did you find the team well-balanced in terms of skill and personality?
How did you feel about each character's personal agenda and motivations?
What did you think of Kaz as a leader? How do you feel about the reveal of his background?
Which character backstory or side plot was your favorite? Why?
What did you think about the heist?
Were the stakes high enough for you? Did Bardugo explain the risks and rewards well enough that it felt real to you?
Were you invested in the characters' success in addition to their survival?
Did this heist story remind you of any other heist stories (like Ocean's 11?)? How does it compare to the big-budget heist movies we're all familiar with?
Do you think those similarities (if you saw any) helped or hindered your enjoyment of this book?
Did you know that Bardugo had already published a series in this universe? Were you aware of those books before you read Six of Crows?
What did you find most interesting about the larger universe this story was set in? Was there anything you wish the book had spent more time exploring?
What did you think of the romantic subplots in this book? In your mind, were there two or three?
Did that feel like a natural culmination of his/their growth over the course of the narrative? It's no stretch to say that the relationship between Kaz and Inej transformed over the course of the story. But did this last line feel in-character for Kaz, or did it feel forced?


JAKARTA, Sept.29 (JDN.id) – At least 384 have been killed and 540 injured after a 1.5-meter tsunami hit Indonesia's Central Sulawesi following a massive 7.4 quake on Saturday.
Number of casualties is likely to climb as search and rescue operation is still ongoing, Sutopo Purwo Nugroho from the country's disaster mitigation agency BNPB said in a statement.
Previously the agency announced the scale of the quake at 7.7 but revised it to 7.4.
According to the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, the earthquake has caused electricity blackout that affected telecommunication network.
Earlier it had resulted in the lack of information on casualties.
State air navigation agency AirNav issued a notification on the closure of Mutiara SIS Al Jufri Airport in Palu for 24 hours to Saturday night.


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Thermostats for Under floor Heating.
Thermostat suppliers for Under floor heating, thermostats and all materials related to the trade,( hessian, bonding liquid / plaster key and self levelling screed )in South Africa, Johannesburg. Our range of energy saving thermostats helps to run your under floor heating system economically and effectively. Our under tile heating system is very easy to install and you just need to follow a few simple steps for a successful installation.
The digital thermostat can be used for dual purpose, air sensor as well as floor ( laminate wood ) sensor. Floor sensor means a probe is attached measuring temperature underneath the wood, thereby ensuring temperature does not exceed 28 degrees.


text:
DNA Typing: Significance and Applications
The genetic material that holds human life in this world is Deoxyribo-Nucleic Acid (DNA). It is present mostly inside the nucleus of each cell in the living body. Each nucleus has a pack of chromosomes which in turn contain DNA.
The DNA molecule occurs in two strands that wind around each other forming a double helical shape. Each strand holds a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups. To the alternating sugars, each of the four typical DNA bases such as adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine are attached.
The two strands are held together by bonds between the bases; adenine bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds with guanine. The sequence of the bases along the backbones serves as instructions for assembling protein and RNA molecules.
It's a polymer of four bases–A, C, T, and G–but it allows enormous complexity to be encoded by the pattern of those bases, one after another. DNA is organized structurally into chromosomes and then wound around nucleosomes as part of those chromosomes.
Functionally, it's organized into genes, which are pieces of DNA, which lead to observable traits. And those traits come not from the DNA itself, but actually from the RNA that is made from the DNA, or most commonly of proteins that are made from the RNA which is made from the DNA.
So the central dogma, so-called molecular biology, is that genes, which are made of DNA, are made into messenger RNAs, which are then made into proteins. But for the most part, the observable traits of eye color or height or one thing or another of individuals come from individual proteins.
Sometimes, we're learning in the last few years they come from RNAs themselves without being made into proteins–things like microRNAs. But those still are relatively the exception for accounting for traits
The invention of our genetic material helped scientists to come up with a variety of techniques that could be used to extract, detect and analyze samples of DNA in solving crimes, paternity tests, detecting the presence of any diseases, or even for cross-breeding techniques.
Few such techniques of DNA Typing include Restriction fragment length polymorphisms(RFLP), Polymerase chain reactions(PCR), sequence polymorphisms, gel electrophoresis, and DNA sequencing.
DNA Typing Techniques
1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
Restriction enzymes are proteins that cut the DNA at short, specific, particular sites called restriction sites. RFLPs are differences in the length of DNA strands among the individuals, cut by the enzymes. After a segment of DNA has been cut into pieces with restriction enzymes, researchers can examine the fragments using a laboratory method called gel electrophoresis, which separates DNA fragments according to their size.
If two individuals have differences in their DNA sequences at particular restriction sites, then the restriction enzymes will cut their DNA into fragments of different lengths. There may also be differences in the number of DNA fragments observed among two or more individuals.
RFLP analysis can be used as a form of genetic testing to observe whether an individual carries a mutant gene for a disease that runs in his or her family. Most RFLP markers are codominant (both alleles in a heterozygous sample will be detected) and highly locus-specific.
An RFLP probe is a labeled DNA sequence that hybridizes with one or more fragments of the digested DNA sample after they were separated by gel electrophoresis, thus revealing a unique blotting pattern characteristic to a specific genotype at a specific locus. Short, single- or low-copy genomic DNA or cDNA clones are typically used as RFLP probes.
The total DNA sample obtained from a matrix is extracted after dilution and digestion using methylation-sensitive enzymes. The digested DNA is then size-fractionated on a preparative agarose gel medium, and fragments ranging from 500 to 2000 bp are excised, eluted, and cloned into a plasmid vector. Digests of the plasmids are screened to check for inserts.
The strands are further analyzed using PCR. Isolation of sufficient DNA for RFLP analysis is time-consuming and labor-intensive. However, PCR can be used to amplify very small amounts of DNA, usually in 2-3 hours, to the levels required for RFLP analysis.
Therefore, more samples can be analyzed in a shorter time. An alternative name for the technique is the Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequence assay. RFLPs have been very useful to use as markers for following genomic DNA, either from humans or other animals.
2. PCR Amplification
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is one of the most widely applied techniques that helps in the analysis of DNA bands to apply in various fields like forensics, plant breeding, cross animal breeds, etc. PCR has a wide field of the procedure. The requirements for PCR include;
Thermal Cycler: It is the PCR machine inside which the reactions take place with samples. It has a thermal block with holes for loading the sample tubes containing reaction mixtures. It has the space to load three hundred plus vials usually distinctively set in three thermal blocks, along with preloaded coding features and screen to control the operation of the machine such as time set and program set.
DNA Polymerase: Polymerases are used in stabilizing the reaction so that the DNA would be successfully made at the high temperature required for the reaction. Hence the most important feature of a DNA polymerase is that it should be heat stable. A few of them are PFU polymerase, obtained from Pyrococcus furiosus, and TTH polymerase obtained from Thermus thermophilus. However, the aptest and common polymerase used is Taq DNA polymerase. It is obtained from Thermus Aquaticus, which possesses the capability of tolerating very high temperatures and is found in hot springs across the world. It was first invented in 1969 at the hot spring of Yellowstone National Park. It is also believed to be the most ancient form of bacteria. They are capable of making new proteins such as DNA in high temperatures without getting degenerated, due to which Taq Polymerase is made from this group of bacteria for PCR.
DNA Primers: Primers are short sequences of nucleotides that provide a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are attached at the end of DNA strands that are being multiplied which also helps in elongation. They are usually around 20 nucleotides in length. For a nucleotide to be used as a primer it should contain certain properties:
Deoxyribonucleic Triphosphates(dNTPs): Nucleosides bonded with three phosphate groups containing deoxyribose as the backbone are dNTPs. They are organic compounds used as the building blocks of DNA. They help in enhancing the production of new DNA strands.
Tris Buffer: Also known as Trisaminomethane buffers, they are used in TAE and TBE variations of buffers in solutions of nucleic acids. It helps in maintaining the pH of the reaction and has a melting point of 175 degrees celsius.
Magnesium Chloride: The salt form of magnesium enhances the activity of Taq DNA polymerase and acts as a cofactor of the reaction by increasing the rate of amplification of DNA.
Potassium Chloride: It neutralizes the charge present on the backbone of DNA and reduces repulsion between negatively charged DNA strands, i,e the primer and the template, and stabilizes the primer-template binding.
Bovine Serum Albumin: BSA helps in yielding results from the most impure form of sample DNA. It removes the contamination and enhances production. It also helps in the stabilization of enzymes during the storage of the samples. Sometimes Gelatin is used as an alternative to BSA or along with BSA.
PCR takes place in four different stages which include:
Initialization: It is done only in the presence of DNA polymerase that requires manual heat activation by Hot Start PCR.
Denaturation: The target DNA, the sample to be amplified is heated at a temperature range of 94-98 degrees celsius for one minute, leading to the separation of the double-stranded DNA into two single-stranded DNA due to the breakage of hydrogen bonds between the base pairs in the given high temperature.
Annealing: The new strands are slowly built from the existing two template strands by attaching the primers in complementary directions(3'-5': 5'-3') using Taq polymerase. This is done by lowering the temperature to 50-54 degree celsius.
Elongation: The multiple strands are now forming with one old and one new strand of DNA and the cycle is repeated thirty to forty times for obtaining around billions of copies.
PCR can be amplified using detectors to analyze the graphical result obtained and provide the applications as necessary.
3. Sequence Polymorphism
Sequence Polymorphism involves one of two or more variants of a particular DNA sequence. The most common type of polymorphism involves variation at a single base pair. Polymorphisms can also be much larger and involve long stretches of DNA. A polymorphism has to occur in at least one in 100 people.
Polymorphisms could be not just single-letter changes like a C instead of T. They could also be something more elaborate, like a whole stretch of DNA, that is either present or absent. You might call that a copy number variant; those are all polymorphisms. But this is a general term to talk about diversity in genomes in a species.
A gene is said to be polymorphic if more than one allele occupies that gene's locus within a population. A polymorphic variant of a gene can lead to the abnormal expression or the production of an abnormal form of the protein; this abnormality may cause or be associated with the disease.
Polymorphisms can be identified in the laboratory using a variety of methods. Many methods employ PCR to amplify the sequence of a gene. Once amplified, polymorphisms and mutations in the sequence can be detected by DNA sequencing either directly or after screening for variation with a method such as single-strand polymorphism analysis.
Application of DNA Typing Techniques
DNA analysis helps a lot in applications such as parentage and kinship tests, especially in immigration cases. A direct match between evidence and suspect in criminal casework also relies heavily on DNA typing.
Techniques such as RFLP helps in the detection of genetic diseases such as Cystic fibrosis from an individual to a whole set of familial lineage.
It helps in confirming certain changed DNA levels which can link a suspect to the crime scene in forensic science and paternity testing.
It is also used widely in genetic mapping to determine recombination rates that show the genetic distance between the loci and to identify a carrier of a disease-causing mutation in a family.
DNA polymorphism serves as a genetic marker for its location in the chromosome thus they are convenient for analysis and is used in molecular genetic studies and research works that uses analysis of DNA in a wide range of sequencing.
Adra Balagopal
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Main Title Impact of Ozone on Vegetation.
Visible injury on vegetation is one of the earliest and most obvious manifestations of ozone injury. However, ozone effects are not limited to visible injury; impacts range from reduced plant growth, decreased yield, changes in crop quality and alterations in susceptibility to abiotic and biotic stresses. Several approaches have been used to estimate the ozone concentrations and exposure durations that induce foliar injury. Most of these studies used short-term exposures (less than 1 day) and measured visible injury as the response variable. In one study designed to estimate the concentrations and durations that would induce specific amounts of visible injury plants were exposed to a range of ozone concentrations and exposure durations and the data were evaluated by regression analysis. The data for several species are summarized to illustrate the range of concentrations required to induce foliar injury on sensitive, intermediate, and less sensitive species. An alternative approach for estimating ozone concentrations and exposure durations which induce foliar injury is the use of limiting value analysis. The limiting values were developed from a review of the literature and represent the lowest concentration and exposure duration reported to cause visible injury on various plant species. The analysis was based on more than 100 studies of agricultural crops and 18 studies of tree species.


Laura will find your dream holiday with 20 years experience.
Hi I'm Laura and based in Bedford, I've worked in Travel for almost 20 years now and have visited countries all over the World.
I am married with 3 young children and love finding dream holidays for new and existing clients.


Control a 10,000-ton freight train over a mountain pass?
Get your passengers safely home on a snowy winter's night?
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