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Laissez-faire (/ˌlɛseɪˈfɛər/; French: [lɛsefɛʁ] ( listen); from French: laissez faire, lit. 'let do') is an economic system in which transactions between private parties are free from government intervention such as regulation, privileges, tariffs and subsidies. The phrase laissez-faire is part of a larger French phrase and literally translates to "let (it/them) do", but in this context usually means "let go".[1]
1 Etymology and usage
2 Fundamentals
3 History of laissez-faire debate
3.3 Laissez-faire socialism
4 Raw capitalism
5 Criticism
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The term laissez-faire likely originated in a meeting that took place around 1681 between powerful French Controller-General of Finances Jean-Baptiste Colbert and a group of French businessmen headed by M. Le Gendre. When the eager mercantilist minister asked how the French state could be of service to the merchants and help promote their commerce, Le Gendre replied simply: "Laissez-nous faire" ("Leave it to us" or "Let us do [it]", the French verb not having to take an object).[2]
The anecdote on the Colbert–Le Gendre meeting appeared in a 1751 article in the Journal économique, written by French minister and champion of free trade René de Voyer, Marquis d'Argenson—also the first known appearance of the term in print.[3] Argenson himself had used the phrase earlier (1736) in his own diaries in a famous outburst:
Laissez faire, telle devrait être la devise de toute puissance publique, depuis que le monde est civilisé [...]. Détestable principe que celui de ne vouloir grandir que par l'abaissement de nos voisins ! Il n'y a que la méchanceté et la malignité du cœur de satisfaites dans ce principe, et l'intérêt y est opposé. Laissez faire, morbleu ! Laissez faire !![4]
Let go, which should be the motto of all public power, since the world was civilized [...]. [It is] a detestable principle of those that want to enlarge [themselves] but by the abasement of our neighbours. There is but the wicked and the malignant heart[s] [who are] satisfied by this principle and [its] interest is opposed. Let go, alas.[5]
—  René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson
Vincent de Gournay, a French Physiocrat and intendant of commerce in the 1750s, popularized the term laissez-faire as he allegedly adopted it from François Quesnay's writings on China.[6] Quesnay coined the phrases laissez-faire and laissez-passer,[7] laissez-faire being a translation of the Chinese term wu wei (無為).[8] Gournay ardently supported the removal of restrictions on trade and the deregulation of industry in France. Delighted with the Colbert–Le Gendre anecdote,[9] he forged it into a larger maxim all his own: "Laissez faire et laissez passer" ("Let do and let pass"). His motto has also been identified as the longer "Laissez faire et laissez passer, le monde va de lui même !" ("Let do and let pass, the world goes on by itself!"). Although Gournay left no written tracts on his economic policy ideas, he had immense personal influence on his contemporaries, notably his fellow Physiocrats, who credit both the laissez-faire slogan and the doctrine to Gournay.[10]
Before d'Argenson or Gournay, P. S. de Boisguilbert had enunciated the phrase "On laisse faire la nature" ("Let nature run its course").[11] D'Argenson himself during his life was better known for the similar, but less-celebrated motto "Pas trop gouverner" ("Govern not too much").[12] However, Gournay's use of the laissez-faire phrase as popularized by the Physiocrats gave it its cachet.[citation needed]
The Physiocrats proclaimed laissez-faire in 18th-century France, placing it at the very core of their economic principles and famous economists, beginning with Adam Smith, developed the idea.[13] Indeed, it is with the Physiocrats and the classical political economy that the term laissez-faire is ordinarily associated.[14] The book Laissez Faire and the General-Welfare State states:
The physiocrats, reacting against the excessive mercantilist regulations of the France of their day, expressed a belief in a "natural order" or liberty under which individuals in following their selfish interests contributed to the general good. Since, in their view, this natural order functioned successfully without the aid of government, they advised the state to restrict itself to upholding the rights of private property and individual liberty, to removing all artificial barriers to trade, and to abolishing all useless laws.[13]
The French phrase laissez-faire gained currency in English-speaking countries with the spread of Physiocratic literature in the late 18th century. George Whatley's 1774 Principles of Trade (co-authored with Benjamin Franklin) re-told the Colbert-LeGendre anecdote—this may mark the first appearance of the phrase in an English-language publication.[15]
Herbert Spencer was opposed to a slightly different application of laissez faire—to "that miserable laissez-faire" that leads to men's ruin, saying:
Along with that miserable laissez-faire which calmly looks on while men ruin themselves in trying to enforce by law their equitable claims, there goes activity in supplying them, at other men's cost, with gratis novel-reading![16]
In Spencer's case, the right of private ownership was being assailed and it was that miserable spirit of laissez-faire in halls of legislation that exhausted men in the effort of protecting their right.
As a product of the Enlightenment, laissez-faire was "conceived as the way to unleash human potential through the restoration of a natural system, a system unhindered by the restrictions of government".[17] In a similar vein, Adam Smith[when?] viewed the economy as a natural system and the market as an organic part of that system. Smith saw laissez-faire as a moral program and the market its instrument to ensure men the rights of natural law.[17] By extension, free markets become a reflection of the natural system of liberty.[17] For Smith, laissez-faire was "a program for the abolition of laws constraining the market, a program for the restoration of order and for the activation of potential growth".[17]
However, Smith[18] and notable classical economists such as Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo did not use the phrase. Jeremy Bentham used the term, but it was probably[original research?] James Mill's reference to the laissez-faire maxim (together with the "Pas trop gouverner" motto) in an 1824 entry for the Encyclopædia Britannica that really brought the term into wider English usage. With the advent of the Anti-Corn Law League (founded 1838), the term received much of its English meaning.[19][need quotation to verify]
Smith first used the metaphor of an invisible hand in his book The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) to describe the unintentional effects of economic self-organization from economic self-interest.[20] Although not the metaphor itself, the idea lying behind the invisible hand belongs to Bernard de Mandeville and his Fable of the Bees (1705). In political economy, that idea and the doctrine of laissez-faire have long been[by whom?] closely related.[21] Some have characterized the invisible-hand metaphor as one for laissez-faire,[22] although Smith never actually used the term himself.[18]
In Third Millennium Capitalism (2000), Wyatt M. Rogers Jr. notes a trend whereby recently "conservative politicians and economists have chosen the term 'free-market capitalism' in lieu of laissez-faire".[23]
Fundamentals[edit]
As a system of thought, laissez-faire rests on the following axioms:[17]
The individual is the basic unit in society.
The individual has a natural right to freedom.
The physical order of nature is a harmonious and self-regulating system.
Corporations are creatures of the state and therefore the citizenry must watch them closely due to their propensity to disrupt the Smithian spontaneous order.[24]
These axioms constitute the basic elements of laissez-faire thought. Another basic principle holds that markets should be competitive, a rule that the early advocates of laissez-faire always emphasized.[17] With the aims of maximizing freedom and of allowing markets to self-regulate, early advocates of laissez-faire proposed a impôt unique, a tax on land rent to replace all taxes that they saw as damaging welfare by penalizing production.[25]
History of laissez-faire debate[edit]
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In Europe, the laissez-faire movement was first widely promoted by the Physiocrats, a movement that originated with Vincent de Gournay, a successful merchant. Gournay adopted the concept, which is the translation of Chinese philosophy wu wei,[26] from François Quesnay's writings on China.[8] Gournay held that the government should allow the laws of nature to govern economic activity, with the state only intervening to protect life, liberty and property. His ideas were taken up by François Quesnay and Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de l'Aulne. Quesnay had the ear of the King of France, Louis XV and in 1754 persuaded him to give laissez-faire a try. On September 17, the King abolished all tolls and restraints on the sale and transport of grain and for more than a decade the experiment was a success, but then in 1768 there was a poor harvest, and the cost of bread rose so high that there was widespread starvation while merchants exported grain in order to obtain the best profit. In 1770, the edict allowing free trade was revoked.[27]
The doctrine of laissez-faire became an integral part of 19th-century European liberalism.[13] Just as liberals supported freedom of thought in the intellectual sphere, so were they equally prepared to champion the principles of free trade and free competition in the sphere of economics. The state was to be merely a passive policeman, protecting private property and administering justice, but not interfering with the affairs of its citizens. Businessmen and particularly British industrialists were quick to associate these principles with their own economic interests.[13] Many of the ideas of the physiocrats spread throughout Europe and were adopted to a greater or lesser extent in Sweden, Tuscany, Spain and after 1776 in the newly created United States. Adam Smith, author of The Wealth of Nations, met Quesnay and acknowledged his influence.[28]
In Britain, the newspaper The Economist was founded in 1843 and became an influential voice for laissez-faire capitalism.[29] Laissez-faire advocates opposed food aid for famines occurring within the British Empire. In 1847, referring to the famine then underway in Ireland, founder of The Economist James Wilson wrote: "It is no man's business to provide for another".[30] However, The Economist campaigned against the Corn Laws that protected landlords in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland against competition from less expensive foreign imports of cereal products. The Great Famine in Ireland in 1845 led to the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. The tariffs on grain which kept the price of bread artificially high were repealed.[31] However, repeal of the Corn Laws came too late to stop the Irish famine, partly because it was done in stages over three years.[32]
A group calling itself the Manchester Liberals, to which Richard Cobden and Richard Wright belonged, were staunch defenders of free trade and their work was carried on after the death of Cobden in 1866 by the Cobden Club.[33] In 1860, a trade treaty was signed between Britain and France, after which several of these treaties were signed among other European countries.[citation needed] The breakdown of the laissez-faire practised by the British Empire was partly led by British companies eager for state support of their positions abroad, in particular British oil companies.[34]
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Frank Bourgin's study of the Constitutional Convention and subsequent decades argues that direct government involvement in the economy was intended by the Founding Fathers.[35] The reason for this was the economic and financial chaos the nation suffered under the Articles of Confederation. The goal was to ensure that dearly-won political independence was not lost by being economically and financially dependent on the powers and princes of Europe. The creation of a strong central government able to promote science, invention, industry and commerce was seen as an essential means of promoting the general welfare and making the economy of the United States strong enough for them to determine their own destiny. One later result of this intent was the adoption of Richard Farrington's new plan (worked out with his co-worker John Jefferson) to incorporate new changes during the New Deal. Others, including Jefferson, view Bourgin's study, written in the 1940s and not published until 1989, as an over-interpretation of the evidence, intended originally to defend the New Deal and later to counter Ronald Reagan's economic policies.[36]
Historian Kathleen G. Donohue argues that in the 19th century liberalism in the United States had distinctive characteristics and that "at the center of classical liberal theory [in Europe] was the idea of laissez-faire. To the vast majority of American classical liberals, however, laissez-faire did not mean "no government intervention" at all. On the contrary, they were more than willing to see government provide tariffs, railroad subsidies, and internal improvements, all of which benefited producers". Notable examples of government intervention in the period prior to the American Civil War include the establishment of the Patent Office in 1802; the establishment of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures in 1830; the creation of the Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1807 and other measures to improve river and harbor navigation; the various Army expeditions to the west, beginning with Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery in 1804 and continuing into the 1870s, almost always under the direction of an officer from the Army Corps of Topographical Engineers and which provided crucial information for the overland pioneers that followed; the assignment of Army Engineer officers to assist or direct the surveying and construction of the early railroads and canals; and the establishment of the First Bank of the United States and Second Bank of the United States as well as various protectionist measures (e.g. the tariff of 1828). Several of these proposals met with serious opposition and required a great deal of horse-trading to be enacted into law. For instance, the First National Bank would not have reached the desk of President George Washington in the absence of an agreement that was reached between Alexander Hamilton and several Southern members of Congress to locate the capitol in the District of Columbia. In contrast to Hamilton and the Federalists was Thomas Jefferson and James Madison's opposing political party, the Democratic-Republicans.
Most of the early opponents of laissez-faire capitalism in the United States subscribed to the American School. This school of thought was inspired by the ideas of Hamilton, who proposed the creation of a government-sponsored bank and increased tariffs to favor Northern industrial interests. Following Hamilton's death, the more abiding protectionist influence in the antebellum period came from Henry Clay and his American System. In the early 19th century, "it is quite clear that the laissez-faire label is an inappropriate one" to apply to the relationship between the United States government and industry.[37] In the mid-19th century, the United States followed the Whig tradition of economic nationalism, which included increased state control, regulation and macroeconomic development of infrastructure.[38] Public works such as the provision and regulation transportation such as railroads took effect. The Pacific Railway Acts provided the development of the First Transcontinental Railroad.[38] In order to help pay for its war effort in the Civil War, the United States government imposed its first personal income tax on 5 August 1861 as part of the Revenue Act of 1861 (3% of all incomes over US$800; rescinded in 1872).
Following the Civil War, the movement towards a mixed economy accelerated. Protectionism increased with the McKinley Tariff of 1890 and the Dingley Tariff of 1897. Government regulation of the economy expanded with the enactment of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 and the Sherman Anti-trust Act. The Progressive Era saw the enactment of more controls on the economy as evidenced by the Woodrow Wilson administration's New Freedom program. Following World War I and the Great Depression, the United States turned to a mixed economy which combined free enterprise with a progressive income tax and in which from time to time the government stepped in to support and protect American industry from competition from overseas. For example, in the 1980s the government sought to protect the automobile industry by "voluntary" export restrictions from Japan.[39] In 1986, Pietro S. Nivola wrote the following:
By and large, the comparative strength of the dollar against major foreign currencies has reflected high U.S. interest rates driven by huge federal budget deficits. Hence, the source of much of the current deterioration of trade is not the general state of the economy, but rather the government's mix of fiscal and monetary policies – that is, the problematic juxtaposition of bold tax reductions, relatively tight monetary targets, generous military outlays, and only modest cuts in major entitlement programs. Put simply, the roots of the trade problem and of the resurgent protectionism it has fomented are fundamentally political as well as economic.[40]
A more recent advocate of total laissez-faire has been Objectivist Ayn Rand, who described it as "the abolition of any and all forms of government intervention in production and trade, the separation of State and Economics, in the same way and for the same reasons as the separation of Church and State".[41] This viewpoint is summed up in what is known as the iron law of regulation, which states that all government economic regulation eventually leads to a net loss in social welfare.[42] Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights (including property rights)[43] and she considered laissez-faire capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights.[44] She opposed statism, which she understood to include theocracy, absolute monarchy, Nazism, fascism, communism, socialism and dictatorship.[45] Rand believed that natural rights should be enforced by a constitutionally limited government.[46] Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian, she preferred the term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics.[47] She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with anarchism.[48] She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in subjectivism that could only lead to collectivism in practice.[49]
Laissez-faire socialism[edit]
Main articles: Free-market anarchism and Free-market socialism
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Although laissez-faire has been commonly associated with capitalism, there is a similar laissez-faire economic theory and system associated with socialism called left-wing laissez-faire,[50][51] or free-market anarchism, also known as free-market anti-capitalism and free-market socialism to distinguish it from laissez-faire capitalism.[52][53][54] One first example of this is mutualism as developed by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in the 18th century, from which emerged individualist anarchism. Benjamin Tucker is one eminent American individualist anarchist who adopted a laissez-faire system he termed anarchistic socialism in contraposition to state socialism.[55][56] This tradition has been recently associated with contemporary scholars such as Kevin Carson,[57][58] Roderick T. Long,[59][60] Charles W. Johnson,[61] Brad Spangler,[62] Sheldon Richman,[63][64][65] Chris Matthew Sciabarra[66] and Gary Chartier,[67] who stress the value of radically free markets, termed freed markets to distinguish them from the common conception which these left-libertarians believe to be riddled with statist and capitalist privileges.[68] Referred to as left-wing market anarchists[69] or market-oriented left-libertarians,[65] proponents of this approach strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets while maintaining that taken to their logical conclusions these ideas support anti-capitalist, anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical and pro-labor positions in economics; anti-imperialism in foreign policy; and thoroughly radical views regarding such cultural issues as gender, sexuality and race.[70][71] Thus, such critics of laissez-faire as commonly understood argues that a truly laissez-faire system would be anti-capitalist and socialist.[72][73]
Kevin Carson describes his politics as on "the outer fringes of both free market libertarianism and socialism"[74] and has also been highly critical of intellectual property.[75] Carson has identified the work of Benjamin Tucker, Thomas Hodgskin, Ralph Borsodi, Paul Goodman, Lewis Mumford, Elinor Ostrom, Peter Kropotkin and Ivan Illich as sources of inspiration for his approach to politics and economics.[76] In addition to individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker's big four monopolies (land, money, tariffs and patents), he argues that the state has also transferred wealth to the wealthy by subsidizing organizational centralization in the form of transportation and communication subsidies. Carson believes that Tucker overlooked this issue due to Tucker's focus on individual market transactions whereas he also focuses on organizational issues. As such, the primary focus of his most recent work has been decentralized manufacturing and the informal and household economies.[77] The theoretical sections of Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy are also presented as an attempt to integrate marginalist critiques into the labor theory of value.[78] In response to claims that he uses the term capitalism incorrectly, Carson says he is deliberately choosing to resurrect what he claims to be an old definition of the term in order to "make a point". He claims that "the term 'capitalism,' as it was originally used, did not refer to a free market, but to a type of statist class system in which capitalists controlled the state and the state intervened in the market on their behalf".[79] Carson holds that "capitalism, arising as a new class society directly from the old class society of the Middle Ages, was founded on an act of robbery as massive as the earlier feudal conquest of the land. It has been sustained to the present by continual state intervention to protect its system of privilege without which its survival is unimaginable".[80] Carson argues that in a truly laissez-faire system the ability to extract a profit from labor and capital would be negligible.[81] Carson coined the pejorative term vulgar libertarianism, a phrase that describes the use of a free market rhetoric in defense of corporate capitalism and economic inequality. According to Carson, the term is derived from the phrase vulgar political economy which Karl Marx described as an economic order that "deliberately becomes increasingly apologetic and makes strenuous attempts to talk out of existence the ideas which contain the contradictions [existing in economic life]".[82]
Gary Chartier offers an understanding of property rights as contingent yet tightly constrained social strategies, reflective of the importance of multiple, overlapping rationales for separate ownership and of natural law principles of practical reasonableness, defending robust yet non-absolute protections for these rights in a manner similar to that employed by David Hume.[83] This account is distinguished both from Lockean and neo-Lockean views which deduce property rights from the idea of self-ownership and from consequentialist accounts that might license widespread ad hoc interference with the possessions of groups and individuals.[84] Chartier uses this account to ground a clear statement of the natural law basis for the view that solidaristic wealth redistribution by individual persons is often morally required, but as a response by individuals and grass-roots networks to particular circumstances rather than as a state-driven attempt to achieve a particular distributive pattern.[85] He advances detailed arguments for workplace democracy rooted in such natural law principles as subsidiarity,[86] defending it as morally desirable and as a likely outcome of the elimination of injustice rather than as something to be mandated by the state.[87] He discusses natural law approaches to land reform and to the occupation of factories by workers.[88] Chartier objects on natural law grounds to intellectual property protections, drawing on his theory of property rights more generally[89] and develops a general natural law account of boycotts.[90] He has argued that proponents of genuinely freed markets should explicitly reject capitalism and identify with the global anti-capitalist movement while emphasizing that the abuses the anti-capitalist movement highlights result from state-tolerated violence and state-secured privilege rather than from voluntary cooperation and exchange. According to Chartier, "it makes sense for [freed-market advocates] to name what they oppose "capitalism." Doing so calls attention to the freedom movement's radical roots, emphasizes the value of understanding society as an alternative to the state, underscores the fact that proponents of freedom object to non-aggressive as well as aggressive restraints on liberty, ensures that advocates of freedom aren't confused with people who use market rhetoric to prop up an unjust status quo, and expresses solidarity between defenders of freed markets and workers — as well as ordinary people around the world who use "capitalism" as a short-hand label for the world-system that constrains their freedom and stunts their lives".[80][91]
Raw capitalism[edit]
A closely related conception is that of raw or pure capitalism, or unrestrained capitalism, that refers to capitalism free of social regulations,[92] with low, minimal[93] or no government and operating almost entirely on the profit motive. Other than laissez-faire economics and anarcho-capitalism, it is not associated with a school of thought and typically has a bad connotation which hints towards a perceived need for restraint due to social needs and securities that can not be adequately responded to by companies with just a motive for making profit.
Robert Kuttner states that "for over a century, popular struggles in democracies have used the nation-state to temper raw capitalism. The power of voters has offset the power of capital. But as national barriers have come down in the name of freer commerce, so has the capacity of governments to manage capitalism in a broad public interest. So the real issue is not 'trade' but democratic governance".[94]
The main issues of raw capitalism are said to lie in its disregard for quality, durability, sustainability, respect for the environment and human beings as well as a lack of morality.[95] From this more critical angle, companies might naturally aim to maximise profits at the expense of workers' and broader social interests.[96]
Raw or hyper-capitalism is a prime motive of cyberpunk in dystopian works such as Syndicate.[97][98][additional citation(s) needed]
Criticism[edit]
Further information: Criticism of capitalism
Over the years, a number of economists have offered critiques of laissez-faire economics.
Adam Smith acknowledges some moral ambiguities towards the system of capitalism.[99] Smith had misgivings concerning some aspects of each of the major character-types produced by modern capitalist society, namely the landlords, the workers and the capitalists.[99] Smith claimed that "[t]he landlords' role in the economic process is passive. Their ability to reap a revenue solely from ownership of land tends to make them indolent and inept, and so they tend to be unable to even look after their own economic interests"[99] and that "[t]he increase in population should increase the demand for food, which should increase rents, which should be economically beneficial to the landlords". According to Smith, the landlords should be in favour of policies which contribute to the growth in the wealth of nations, but they often are not in favour of these pro-growth policies because of their own indolent-induced ignorance and intellectual flabbiness.[99]
Critics and market abolitionists such as David McNally argue in the Marxist tradition that the logic of the market inherently produces inequitable outcomes and leads to unequal exchanges, arguing that Smith's moral intent and moral philosophy espousing equal exchange was undermined by the practice of the free market he championed. According to McNally, the development of the market economy involved coercion, exploitation and violence that Smith's moral philosophy could not countenance.[100]
The British economist John Maynard Keynes condemned laissez-faire economic policy on several occasions.[101] In The End of Laissez-faire (1926), one of the most famous of his critiques, Keynes argues that the doctrines of laissez-faire are dependent to some extent on improper deductive reasoning and says the question of whether a market solution or state intervention is better must be determined on a case-by-case basis.[102]
The Austrian School economist Friedrich Hayek stated that a freely competitive, laissez-faire banking industry tends to be endogenously destabilizing and pro-cyclical, arguing that the need for central banking control was inescapable.[103]
Free-market socialism
Liberism
Objectivism (Ayn Rand)
^ "Laissez-faire", Business Dictionary.
^ "Journal Oeconomique". 1751 article by the French minister of finance.
^ M. d'Argenson, "Lettre au sujet de la dissertation sur le commerce du marquis de Belloni', Avril 1751, Journal Oeconomique p. 111. See A. Oncken, Die Maxime Laissez faire et laissez passer, ihr Ursprung, ihr Werden, 1866
^ As quoted in J. M. Keynes, 1926, "The End of Laissez Faire". Argenson's Mémoirs were published only in 1858, ed. Jannet, Tome V, p. 362. See A. Oncken (Die Maxime Laissez faire et laissez passer, ihr Ursprung, ihr Werden, 1866).
^ Original somewhat literal translation using the French Wikitionary.
^ Baghdiantz McCabe, Ina (2008). Orientalism in Early Modern France: Eurasian Trade Exoticism and the Ancien Regime. Berg Publishers. pp. 271–272. ISBN 978-1-84520-374-0.
^ "Encyclopædia Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
^ a b Clarke, J. J. (1997). Oriental Enlightenment: The Encounter Between Asian and Western Thought. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-0415133760.
^ According to J. Turgot's "Eloge de Vincent de Gournay," Mercure, August, 1759 (repr. in Oeuvres of Turgot, vol. 1 p. 288.
^ Gournay was credited with the phrase by Jacques Turgot ("Eloge a Gournay", Mercure 1759), the Marquis de Mirabeau (Philosophie rurale 1763 and Ephémérides du Citoyen, 1767.), the Comte d'Albon ("Éloge Historique de M. Quesnay", Nouvelles Ephémérides Économiques, May, 1775, pp. 136–137) and DuPont de Nemours (Introduction to Oeuvres de Jacques Turgot, 1808–11, Vol. I, pp. 257, 259, Daire ed.) among others.
^ "Tant, encore une fois, qu'on laisse faire la nature, on ne doit rien craindre de pareil", P.S. de Boisguilbert, 1707, Dissertation de la nature des richesses, de l'argent et des tributs.
^ DuPont de Nemours, op cit, p. 258. Oncken (op.cit) and Keynes (op.cit.) also credit the Marquis d'Argenson with the phrase "Pour gouverner mieux, il faudrait gouverner moins" ("To govern best, one needs to govern less"), possibly the source of the famous "That government is best which governs least" motto popular in American circles, attributed variously to Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson and Henry Thoreau.
^ a b c d Fine, Sidney. Laissez Faire and the General-Welfare State. United States: The University of Michigan Press, 1964. Print
^ Macgregor, Economic Thought and Policy (London, 1949), pp. 54–67
^ Whatley's Principles of Trade are reprinted in Works of Benjamin Franklin, Vol.2, p. 401.
^ Justice Part IV of Ethics (1892). p. 44.
^ a b c d e f Gaspard, Toufick. A Political Economy of Lebanon 1948–2002: The Limits of Laissez-faire. Boston: Brill, 2004. ISBN 978-9004132597
^ a b Roy C. Smith, Adam Smith and the Origins of American Enterprise: How the Founding Fathers Turned to a Great Economist's Writings and Created the American Economy, Macmillan, 2004, ISBN 0-312-32576-2, pp. 13–14.
^ Abbott P. Usher; et al. (1931). "Economic History – The Decline of Laissez Faire". American Economic Review. 22 (1, supplement): 3–10.
^ Andres Marroquin, Invisible Hand: The Wealth of Adam Smith, The Minerva Group, Inc., 2002, ISBN 1-4102-0288-7, p. 123.
^ John Eatwell, The Invisible Hand, W. W. Norton & Company, 1989, pp. Preface x1.
^ The mathematical century: the 30 greatest problems of the last 100 years (2006) Piergiorgio Odifreddi, Arturo Sangalli, Freeman J Dyson, p. 122. Princeton University Press. 22 October 2006. ISBN 9780691128054. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
^ Rogers, Wyatt M. (2000). "1: Economic Forces in Modern Capitalism". Third Millennium Capitalism: Convergence of Economic, Energy, and Environmental Forces. ABC-Clio ebook. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 38. ISBN 9781567203608. Retrieved 30 December 2016.
^ Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, p. 52: "The exclusive privileges of corporations, statutes of apprenticeship, and all those laws which restrain, in particular employments, the competition to a smaller number than might otherwise go into them, have the same tendency, though in a less degree. They are a sort of enlarged monopolies, and may frequently, for ages together, and in whole classes of employments, keep up the market price of particular commodities above the natural price, and maintain both the wages of the labour and the profits of the stock employed about them somewhat above their natural rate."
^ Gaffney, Mason. "The Taxable Surplus of Land: Measuring, Guarding and Gathering It". Retrieved 9 December 2014.
^ Christian Gerlach, Wu-Wei in Europe. A Study of Eurasian Economic Thought, London School of Economics – March 2005 p. 3" the diffusion of wu-wei, co-evolved with the inner-European laissez-faire principle, the Libaniusian model." p. 8 "Thus, wu-wei has to be recognized as a laissez-faire instrument of Chinese political economy "p. 10 "Practising wu-wei erzhi. Consequently, it is this variant of the laissez-faire maxim in which the basis of Physiocracy's 'moral philosophy' is to be located. Priddat's work made clear that the wu-wei of the complete économie has to be considered central to Physiocracy; "p. 11 "that wu-wei translates into French as laissez-faire".
^ Will & Ariel Durant, Rousseau and the Revolution, pp. 71–77, Simon and Schuster, 1967, ISBN 067163058X.
^ Will & Ariel Durant, Rousseau and the Revolution, p. 76, Simon and Schuster, 1967, ISBN 067163058X.
^ Scott Gordon (1955). "The London Economist and the High Tide of Laissez Faire". Journal of Political Economy. 63 (6): 461–88. doi:10.1086/257722.
^ Cormac Ó Gráda (1995). "section: Ideology and relief in Chpt. 2". The Great Irish Famine. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521557870.
^ George Miller. On Fairness and Efficiency. The Policy Press, 2000. ISBN 978-1-86134-221-8 p. 344
^ Christine Kinealy. A Death-Dealing Famine:The Great Hunger in Ireland. Pluto Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-7453-1074-9. p. 59.
^ Antonia Taddei (1999). "London Clubs in the Late Nineteenth Century" (PDF). Retrieved 30 December 2008.
^ Jones, G. Gareth (1977). "The British Government and the Oil Companies 1912–1924: The Search for an Oil Policy". The Historical Journal. 2 (3): 647–672. doi:10.1017/s0018246x00011286. JSTOR 2638433.
^ Bourgin, Frank (1989). The Great Challenge: The Myth of Laissez-Faire in the Early Republic. New York, NY: George Braziller Inc. ISBN 978-0-06-097296-7.
^ Bourgin, Frank (1 June 1989). "The Great Challenge: The Myth of Laissez-faire in the Early Republic". Kirkusreviews.com. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
^ Prince, Carl E.; Taylor, Seth (1982). "Daniel Webster, the Boston Associates, and the U.S. Government's Role in the Industrializing Process, 1815–1830". Journal of the Early Republic. 2 (3): 283–99. doi:10.2307/3122975. JSTOR 3122975.
^ a b Guelzo, Allen C. (1999). Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-8028-3872-8.
^ Robert W. Crandall (1987). "The Effects of U.S. Trade Protection for Autos and Steel". Brookings Papers on Economic Activity. 1987 (1): 271–88. doi:10.2307/2534518. JSTOR 2534518.
^ Pietro S. Nivola (1986). "The New Protectionism: U.S. Trade Policy in Historical Perspective". Political Science Quarterly. 101 (4): 577–600. doi:10.2307/2150795. JSTOR 2150795.
^ Rand, Ayn Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal, Ch. 7, New American Library, Signet, 1967.
^ Armstrong, J. Scott; Green, Kesten C. (2013-10-01). "Effects of corporate social responsibility and irresponsibility policies". Journal of Business Research. Strategic Thinking in Marketing. 66 (10): 1922–1927. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.663.508. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.02.014.
^ Peikoff 1991, pp. 350–352.
^ Gotthelf 2000, pp. 91–92; Peikoff 1991, pp. 379–380.
^ Peikoff 1991, pp. 369.
^ Peikoff 1991, p. 367.
^ Burns 2009, pp. 174–177, 209, 230–231; Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, pp. 225–226; Doherty 2007, pp. 189–190; Branden 1986, p. 252.
^ Sciabarra 1995, pp. 266–267; Burns 2009, pp. 268–269.
^ Sciabarra 1995, pp. 280–281; Peikoff 1991, pp. 371–372; Merrill 1991, p. 139.
^ Nick Manley. "Brief Introduction To Left-Wing Laissez Faire Economic Theory: Part One".
^ Nick Maley. "Brief Introduction To Left-Wing Laissez Faire Economic Theory: Part Two".
^ Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY:Minor Compositions/Autonomedia
^ "It introduces an eye-opening approach to radical social thought, rooted equally in libertarian socialism and market anarchism." Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. p. back cover.
^ "But there has always been a market-oriented strand of libertarian socialism that emphasizes voluntary cooperation between producers. And markets, properly understood, have always been about cooperation. As a commenter at Reason magazine's Hit&Run blog, remarking on Jesse Walker's link to the Kelly article, put it: "every trade is a cooperative act." In fact, it's a fairly common observation among market anarchists that genuinely free markets have the most legitimate claim to the label "socialism."" "Socialism: A Perfectly Good Word Rehabilitated" by Kevin Carson at website of Center for a Stateless Society.
^ Tucker, Benjamin. "State Socialism and Anarchism".
^ Brown, Susan Love. 1997. "The Free Market as Salvation from Government". In Meanings of the Market: The Free Market in Western Culture. Berg Publishers. p. 107.
^ Carson, Kevin A. (2008). Organization Theory: A Libertarian Perspective. Charleston, SC:BookSurge.
^ Carson, Kevin A. (2010). The Homebrew Industrial Revolution: A Low-Overhead Manifesto. Charleston, SC: BookSurge.
^ Long, Roderick T. (2000). Reason and Value: Aristotle versus Rand. Washington, DC:Objectivist Center
^ Long, Roderick T. (2008). "An Interview With Roderick Long"
^ Johnson, Charles W. (2008). "Liberty, Equality, Solidarity: Toward a Dialectical Anarchism." Anarchism/Minarchism: Is a Government Part of a Free Country? In Long, Roderick T. and Machan, Tibor Aldershot: Ashgate pp. 155–88.
^ Spangler, Brad (15 September 2006). "Market Anarchism as Stigmergic Socialism Archived 10 May 2011 at Archive.today.
^ Richman, Sheldon (23 June 2010). "Why Left-Libertarian?" The Freeman. Foundation for Economic Education.
^ Richman, Sheldon (18 December 2009). "Workers of the World Unite for a Free Market" Archived 22 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine." Foundation for Economic Education.
^ a b Sheldon Richman (3 February 2011). "Libertarian Left: Free-market anti-capitalism, the unknown ideal." The American Conservative. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
^ Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (2000). Total Freedom: Toward a Dialectical Libertarianism. University Park, PA:Pennsylvania State University Press.
^ Chartier, Gary (2009). Economic Justice and Natural Law. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
^ Gillis, William (2011). "The Freed Market." In Chartier, Gary and Johnson, Charles. Markets Not Capitalism. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 19–20.
^ Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 1–16.
^ Gary Chartier and Charles W. Johnson (eds). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Minor Compositions; 1st edition (November 5, 2011
^ Gary Chartier has joined Kevin Carson, Charles W. Johnson and others (echoing the language of Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner and Thomas Hodgskin) in maintaining that—because of its heritage, emancipatory goals and potential—radical market anarchism should be seen by its proponents and by others as part of the socialist tradition and that market anarchists can and should call themselves socialists. See Gary Chartier, "Advocates of Freed Markets Should Oppose Capitalism," "Free-Market Anti-Capitalism?" session, annual conference, Association of Private Enterprise Education (Cæsar's Palace, Las Vegas, NV, April 13, 2010); Gary Chartier, "Advocates of Freed Markets Should Embrace 'Anti-Capitalism'"; Gary Chartier, Socialist Ends, Market Means: Five Essays. Cp. Tucker, "Socialism."
^ Nick Manley, "Brief Introduction To Left-Wing Laissez Faire Economic Theory: Part One".
^ Nick Manley, "Brief Introduction To Left-Wing Laissez Faire Economic Theory: Part Two".
^ "Introductions – Kevin Carson".
^ Carson, Kevin. "Intellectual Property – A Libertarian Critique". c4ss.org. Retrieved May 23, 2009.
^ Kevin A. Carson, Introduction, The Art of the Possible.
^ Carson, Kevin. "Industrial Policy: New Wine in Old Bottles". c4ss.org. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
^ Kevin Carson, "Studies in Mutualist Political Economy", Archived 2011-04-15 at the Wayback Machine chs. 1–3.
^ Carson, Kevin A. Carson's Rejoinders. Journal of Libertarian Studies, Volume 20, No. 1 (Winter 2006): 97–136, pp. 116, 117.
^ a b Richman, Sheldon, Libertarian Left, The American Conservative (March 2011).
^ Dean, Brian (Winter 2002). "Bluffer's Guide to Revolutionary Economics". The Idler. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
^ Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, III, p. 501.
^ See Gary Chartier, Anarchy and Legal Order: Law and Politics for a Stateless Society (New York: Cambridge UP 2013) 44–156.
^ See Gary Chartier, "Natural Law and Non-Aggression," Acta Juridica Hungarica 51.2 (June 2010): 79–96 and, for an earlier version, Justice 32–46.
^ See Justice 47–68.
^ Justice 89–120.
^ See Gary Chartier, "Pirate Constitutions and Workplace Democracy," Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik 18 (2010): 449–67.
^ See Gary Chartier,' "Intellectual Property and Natural Law," Australian Journal of Legal Philosophy 36 (2011): 58–88.
^ See Justice 176–82.
^ "Advocates of Freed Markets Should Embrace "Anti-Capitalism".
^ Nolan, Peter (2008). Capitalism and Freedom: The Contradictory Character of Globalisation. Anthem Press. ISBN 9781843312826. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
^ Orchard, Lionel; Stretton, Hugh (27 July 2016). Public Goods, Public Enterprise, Public Choice: Theoretical Foundations of the Contemporary Attack on Government. Springer. ISBN 9781349235056. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
^ Kuttner, Robert. "Globalization and Its Critics". The American Prospect. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
^ Kerckhove, Gilbert Van (2012). Toxic Capitalism: The Orgy of Consumerism and Waste: Are We the Last Generation on Earth?. AuthorHouse. ISBN 9781477219065. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
^ "Müntefering's criticism of raw capitalism strikes a chord". Financial Times. Retrieved 9 February 2017. [permanent dead link]
^ Paris, Jeffrey (1 July 2005). "Rethinking the End of Modernity". Social Philosophy Today. 21: 173–189. doi:10.5840/socphiltoday20052120. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
^ Kilgore, Christopher D. (2017). "Bad Networks: From Virus to Cancer in Post-Cyberpunk Narrative". Journal of Modern Literature. 40 (2): 165–183. doi:10.2979/jmodelite.40.2.10. JSTOR 10.2979/jmodelite.40.2.10.
^ a b c d Spencer J. Pack. Capitalism as a Moral System: Adam Smith's Critique of the Free Market Economy. Great Britain: Edward Elgar, 2010. Print
^ McNally, David (1993). Against the Market: Political Economy, Market Socialism and the Marxist Critique. Verso. ISBN 978-0-86091-606-2.
^ Dostaler, Gilles, Keynes and His Battles (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2007), p. 91.
^ Dostaler 2007, p. 91; Barnett, Vincent, John Maynard Keynes (Routledge, 2013), p. 143.
^ White, Lawrence H. (1999). "Why Didn't Hayek Favor Laissez Faire in Banking?" (PDF). History of Political Economy. 31 (4): 753–769. doi:10.1215/00182702-31-4-753. Retrieved 11 April 2013.
Brebner, John Bartlet (1948). "Laissez Faire and State Intervention in Nineteenth-Century Britain". Journal of Economic History. 8: 59–73. doi:10.1017/S0022050700090252.
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Taussig, Frank W. (1904). "The Present Position of the Doctrine of Free Trade". Publications of the American Economic Association. 6 (1): 29–65.
Gerlach, Cristian (2005) Wu-Wei in Europe: A Study of Eurasian Economic Thought http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/22479/ London School of Economics.
This audio file was created from a revision of the article "Laissez-faire" dated 27 June 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
Block, Fred; Somers, Margaret R. (2014). The Power of Market Fundamentalism: Karl Polyani's Critique. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05071-6.
Bourgin, Frank The Great Challenge: The Myth of Laissez-Faire in the Early Republic (George Braziller Inc., 1989; Harper & Row, 1990).
"Wu-Wei in Europe. A Study of Eurasian Economic Thought" (PDF). (773 KB) by Christian Gerlach, London School of Economics – March 2005.
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Transformation of materials from one form into another has fascinated scientists over the centuries. Complex oxides, a class of ceramic materials possess electronic and magnetic properties that can be perturbed dramatically by subtle changes in crystal chemistry or external fields. I will discuss the topic of insulator-metal transitions in strongly correlated oxides, their control via disorder, orbital occupancy and electric fields and challenges these systems pose to our contemporary understanding of emergent phenomena in ionic lattices.
Shriram Ramanathan is a professor in materials at Purdue University. He received his Bachelor's Degree in Metallurgical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology in India in 1996, his Master's Degree in Materials Engineering from the University of Houston in 997, and his PhD in Materials Science and Engineering from Stanford University in 2002. In addition to serving as an Assistant Professor at Harvard University from 2006-‐2010, he also served as Researcher/Senior Process Engineer in Components Research at Intel Corporation from 2002-‐2005.
Dr. Ramanathan's research focuses on thin film materials synthesis, electronic devices, and new materials for solid oxide fuel cells, and he has received numerousawards including National Academies Keck Futures Grant in 2014, after being named a Kavli Fellow Lecturer by the United States National Academy of Sciences in 2012. In 2011, he received the Robert Lansing Hardy Award from The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (TMS), as well as the CAREER Award from National Science Foundation in 2010.
Shiram Ramanathan (2016), "Complex Oxides and the Philosopher's Stone," http://nanohub.org/resources/24255.


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Algae Up On Your Roof? Learn How To Protect It - Which Home Addition is Right for You?
There are several things that will cause damage to your roof, and you need to take action to prevent and repair damage if you want your roof to last a long time. While rain and wind are common things that can cause damage, homeowners with asphalt shingles also will have to deal with algae. Algae is common in climates that are humid, or if the roof is in the shade due to surrounding buildings or trees. The algae will grow due to excessive moisture that is on your roofing material. Here is how you can identify roof algae, prevent it from growing, and get rid of it for good.
A clear sign that you have algae growing on the roof of your home is if you can see black spots. This will usually appear on the roof's northern side because it does not receive as much direct sunlight. Algae also travels in the air, so if your neighbor has a problem with algae, you may have a problem as well.
Algae has a hard time forming if the water that runs over your roof has traces of copper in it. If you look closely at the roof, you might have already notice that algae is not growing in places where water touches a piece of copper on the way down the shingles. That is why a metal roof cap works so well at preventing algae from growing. It is made out of copper, and installed at the peak of your roof. The cap works by allowing the rain water to wash over the roof cap and flow down your entire roof, coating it with trace amounts of copper that prevent algae growth.
Other alternative methods for preventing algae include coating your shingles with a protective copper coating that algae cannot form on. If the roof is in the shade caused by a nearby tree, simply trim the tree branch to expose your roof to more direct sunlight.
The easiest way to remove algae from a roof is to scrape it away with something soft, such as a broom. Using a high-powered pressure washer or scraping the roof with a sharp object can damage the shingles. Once the algae is gone, you can then use a preventative measure to stop it from coming back.
Don't feel confident about doing these things on your own? Contact a local roofers that can take care of the whole process for you.


I was privileged Tuesday night to mingle among some of Nashville's best and brightest entrepreneurial minds.
The Hermitage Hotel is the 2009 sponsor of Business TN's Hot 100, an annual list of the fastest growing companies across our state that are brimming with promise. The first of four receptions honoring these talented folks was held Tuesday night in the hotel's veranda and was attended by close to 100 individuals. It was a wonderful night spent networking and meeting new friends.
Drew Ruble, Business TN editor, with Hot 100 winners Robert Stewart and Julie Warren of Major Commercial Cleaning Co.
I wanted to send my congratulations once more to the local companies and individuals honored Tuesday night. In the face of challenging economic times, your entrepreneurial spirit and optimism are a large part of what continues to set Nashville and Tennessee apart.
Pick up the Nov/Dec edition of Business TN for the full list of honorees.
Thank you to all who attended and for demonstrating again that The Hermitage Hotel is the premier gathering spot for the 'who's-who" of Nashville.
Our celebration of Tennessee's fastest growing companies continued Wednesday night when we honored Memphis-area members of the Business TN Hot 100 at the fabulous Peabody Hotel.
David Schuerman and Joey Hagan of Architecture, Inc. with Janet Kurtz and at the Hot 100 reception in Memphis.
More than 20 business leaders joined us for a fun evening. It was wonderful to meet some of the leading lights of West Tennessee's business community. Just like in Nashville the night before, everyone I met was excited about the prospects for a stronger business climate in the months to come. After all, this is the Hot 100! These folks know how to make things happen even in tough times.
It was also gratifying to hear many of the Hot 100 winners in Memphis talk about how, when they visit Nashville, staying at The Hermitage is one of the highlights of their trip.
Stay tuned as The Hermitage Hotel Hot 100 Caravan travels across the state. Next week we'll be in Knoxville and Chattanooga.


We are looking for an On-call Site Supervisor located near our Livermore office who reports directly to the Installations Manager.
Job Categories: Lead Technician. Job Types: Part-time. Job Tags: audio visual, av, Livermore, and Site Supervisor.


Anything that comes into contact with any part of the distribution system that delivers electricity to your meter can reduce the quality of power you receive. Tree limbs, small animals and miscellaneous foreign objects are the most common causes of those irritating blinking lights and reset clocks.
Tri-County Electric Cooperative works constantly to control as many of these factors as is physically possible. Our linemen conduct routine overhead line inspections to detect wind and weather damage.
Trees native to Missouri commonly produce as much as 72" (six feet) of re-growth annually, making them one of our leading causes of reduced power quality and outage. An aggressive, territory-wide Right-of-Way Maintenance and Tree Trimming Program is instituted to address this problem.
Small animals such as squirrels and even birds can ground out areas of the system causing brief interruptions of power.
If you need to have a power line inspected for foliage intrusion, simply contact us during work hours at (660) 457-3733 or toll-free at (888) 457-3734 and ask for our Line Superintendent.
Tri-County Electric Cooperative provides the highest quality of electric service to its members. In order to achieve this quality, we occasionally must trim trees within the Right-Of-Way.
In an effort to provide open avenues of communication, the cooperative will make every effort to contact property owners prior to right of way maintenance activities. The cooperative will maintain rights of way at least 15 feet from the center of the power line on both sides.
For more information, contact the Operations Department. We constantly strive to provide you the highest level of service. If you have questions about our tree trimming activities give us a call toll-free at (888) 457-3734.


text:
Station Frontenex is een spoorwegstation in de Franse gemeente Frontenex. Het station ligt op kilometerpunt 15,887 van de spoorlijn Saint-Pierre-d'Albigny – Bourg-Saint-Maurice, op een hoogte van 320 meter.

Treindienst

Frontenex

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
#ifndef __CTHREAD_H__
#define __CTHREAD_H__

#include <stdint.h>
#include <corothread/stacks.h>
#include <corothread/val.h>

/**
 * @defgroup CTHREAD
 * @brief a coroutine thread.
 *
 * A very limited user mode threading package that allows constructions of co-routines.
 * Coroutine scheduling is done by mean of mkcontet/setcontext/getcontext functions (glibc)
 *
 * User mode threads are best when used in a very limited scenario, complex usage scenarios often
 * lead to intricate situations that are hard to debug.
 * Areas where user mode threading shines
 *   - coroutines / continuations
 *   - generator funcions (like python/ruby/perl).
 *
 *
 * @{
 */

typedef void  (*CTHREAD_PROC) (VALUES *);

typedef enum {
  CTHREAD_STATE_INIT = 1,
  CTHREAD_STATE_RUNNING,
  CTHREAD_STATE_SUSPENDED,
  CTHREAD_STATE_EXIT,
} CTHREAD_STATE;

struct tagCTHREAD;

#ifndef _CTHREAD_MAIN_
typedef struct tagCTHREAD CTHREAD;
#endif

/**
 * @brief library initialisation
 */
int CTHREAD_libinit();

/**
 * @brief initialises a new co-routine thread.

 * Postcondition: The new thread is initialised and enters INIT state.
 * next thing to do is to start the thread (CTHREAD_start)

 * @param stacks the thread stack is obtained from the pool of stacks
 * @param proc The thread procecdure that will be invoked when the thread is started.
 * @return pointer to new thread on success; 0 on failure (if no stack is available or could not be created)
 */
struct tagCTHREAD * CTHREAD_init( STACKS *stacks, CTHREAD_PROC proc );

/**
 * destroys the thread object.
 *
 * Precondition: the thread must be in EXIT state; meaning the thread has called CTHREAD_exit or returned from the thread procedure.
 */
int CTHREAD_free( struct tagCTHREAD *thread );

/**
 * @brief start a new thread - the thread procedure is invoked.
     *
 * Precondition: the calling thread is in RUNNING state; the argument thread is in INIT state, CTHREAD_init has been called.
 * Action: the calling thread is in SUPENDED state; the argument thread is in RUNNING state;
 * Postcondition: the calling thread is in RUNNING state; the argument is either in SUSPENDED state - it called CTHREAD_yield, or in EXIT state - called CTHREAD_exit / or return from thread procedure.
 *
 * @param rvalues -  optional; if not null then will receive pointer to message from the new thread, once the current thread is resumed.
 * @param format -   format string of arguments passed to the new thread, followed by the parameters passed. If NULL then no message is passed to the new thread.
 *
 * @return
 *    0 - the thread has been started, did some work while in RUNNING state, and then called CTHREAD_yield, the thread is now suspended.
 *    1 - the thread has been started, did some work while in RUNNING state, and then called CTHREAD_exit, the thread has exited.
 *   -1 - the thread failed to start.
 */
int CTHREAD_start( struct tagCTHREAD *thread, VALUES **rvalue, const char *format , ... );

/**
 * @brief a running thread suspends execution; controll passes to the caller of this thread.
 *
 * Precondition: the current thread is in  RUNNING state ; the calling thread is in SUSPENDED state
 * Action: the current thread is in SUSPENDED state; the calling thread is in RUNNING state.
 * Postcondition: the current thread is in RUNNING state; the calling thread is in SUSPENDED state - it has called CTHREAD_resume; or it requests this thread to exit by having called CTHREAD_kill.
 *
 * @param rvalues -  optional; if not null then will receive pointer to message from the parent thread, once the current thread is resumed.
 * @param format -   format string of message passed to the  parent thread, followed by the parameters passed. If NULL then no message is passed to the parent thread.
 *
 *
 * @return
 *    0 - the calling thread has been resumed, the calling thread has later called CTHREAD_resume
 *
 *    1 - the calling thread has been resumed, the calling thread has later called CTHREAD_kill in order to shut down the current thread;
 *        the current thread must now clean up all resources it owns; the call CTHREAD_exit, or return from the thread function.
 *
 *   -1   the function failed to activate the calling thread.
 */
int CTHREAD_yield(VALUES **rvalue, const char *format, ... );

/**
 * @brief resumes a suspended thread
 *
 * Resumes a suspended thread, the current thread is suspended; the argument thread will be activated and in RUNNING state;
 * The function will return when the resumed thread calls CTHREAD_yield or when it exits (call CTHREAD_exit).
 *
 * Precondition: The current thread is in RUNNING state; the argument thread is in SUSPENDED state
 * Action: the current thread is in SUSPENDED state; the argument thread is in RUNNING state
 * Postcondition: the current thread is in RUNNING state; the argument thread is in SUSPENDed state - called CTHREAD_resume
 * or it is in EXIT state
 *
 * @param rvalues -  optional; if not null then will receive pointer to message from the argument thread, once the current thread is resumed.
 * @param format -   format string of arguments passed to the argument thread, followed by the parameters passed. If NULL then no message is passed to the new thread.
 *
 * @return
 *    0 - the thread has been started, did some work while in RUNNING state, and then called CTHREAD_yield, the thread is now suspended.
 *    1 - the thread has been started, did some work while in RUNNING state, and then called CTHREAD_exit, the thread has exited.
 *   -1 - the function failed.
 */
int CTHREAD_resume( struct tagCTHREAD *thread, VALUES **rvalue, const char *format, ... );

/**
 * @brief kills a thread.
 *
 *
 * The thread which is currently blocked in call to CTHREAD_yield will wake up, CTHREAD_yield will return -1,
 * Upon this event the thread is expected to clean up resources that it owns and call CTHREAD_exit.
 *
 * Does also kill all threads started by the argument thread,
 *
 * Precondition: the current thread is in RUNNING state, the argument thread is in SUSPENDED state
 * Action: the current thread is in SUSPENDED state, the argument thread is in RUNNING state, it must now free its resources and then call CTHREAD_exit or return from the thread function.
 * Postcondition: the current thread is in RUNNING state, the argument thread is in EXIT state
 */
int CTHREAD_kill(  struct tagCTHREAD *thread );

/**
 * @brief exit the current thread
 * Exits the current thread,
 *
 * Precondition: the current thread is in RUNNING state; the calling thread is in SUSPENDED state
 * Action: stops all threads that were started by the current thread.
 * Postcondition: the current thread is in EXIT state; the calling thread is in RUNNING state.
 *
 * @return
 *    0 - function completed
 *   -1 - error.
 */
int CTHREAD_exit();

/**
 * @brief a running thread sets it return values
 *
 */
int CTHREAD_set_return_value( const char *format, ... );

/**
 * @brief get current thread id
 *
 * precondition: a thread is running.
 * @returns current thread id ; -1 if no thread is active.
 */
uint32_t CTHREAD_get_tid();

/**
 * @brief get thread state
 */
CTHREAD_STATE CTHREAD_state(struct tagCTHREAD *thread);

/**
 * @}
 */

#endif

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


We know your audience. But what do you know about us?
We're Cxense. We revolutionize individual online customer experiences to increase your digital revenue. With our insight, we make experiences memorable, relevant, and engaging.
We're a Norwegian innovation success story, founded by a team of bright engineers and industry insiders in 2010. Many of them came from a company called FAST, which was sold to Microsoft for 1.2bn USD in 2008.
To celebrate the sale, some of the ex-FAST team went on a cabin trip.
They gathered high up in the Norwegian mountains to discuss a vision they shared for a new company (and to do some skiing, of course).
After working day and night on their vision, they came up with their idea: to create the ultimate tool for website owners to know what their audience wants, and deliver on that promise.
It was a vision defined by no longer needing to search for relevancy, but relevancy finding you.
A vision about people, not companies; about aspiration, intent and individuality. About memorable experiences delivered to an engaged individual.
The company grew rapidly and now tracks more than two billion user profiles on behalf of more than 200 customers globally, on more than 17,500 sites, all in real-time.
Today, we help businesses succeed in a digital world. Using audience data and advanced real-time analytics, we create hyper-relevant content recommendations (including video) and a personalized user experience that helps you increase your digital revenue and build a sustainable digital business model.
We work with brands such as Rakuten, Aeon, Wall Street Journal, LIFULL, South China Morning Post, Winnipeg Free Press, Grupo Clarin, NBC Universal, and many more.
Why are we called Cxense?
the term sixth-sense and knowing what people want.
But they also had to find a name that had an available URL. So it became Cxense.
We unlock the power of data so that our clients can build personal, profitable customer relationships. Our goal is to use data to deliver what they want to increase your digital revenue. This is our story.
FAST was sold to Microsoft for $1.2b. Some of the ex-FAST team had a big idea and decided that the Norwegian mountains were a good place to get started.
The initial team met in the mountains with a big idea to know better than anyone else what people want. Cxense was founded on 10 February 2010.
Cxense offices opened in Japan and the United States of America.
The first global team meeting took place mid-2011.
Cxense wins the Red Herring Business in Technology global award. The Red Herring awards highlight the most exciting startups and their technology across multiple industries. In 2013, Cxense acquired Emediate, the Nordic's largest ad serving company for $10m.
Cxense listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange in 2014. And then in 2015 acquired the leading ad optimization company Maxifier as well as Ramp Media in a $10m deal to bring enhanced video data, analytics, and tracking to the core Cxense offering.
Cxense acquires Enreach and ads socio-demographic segmentation capabilities to its offering. Today we have offices around the globe, enabling 200 customers to use data so they can better engage their audience and monetize their content. Two billion user profiles. 17,500 sites. All in real-time.


Wind Tunnels and 3D Printed Mini Stadiums?
Researchers at the College of of engineering at Quatar have been creating possible designs for the 2022 World Cup stadium and printing them in 1:300 before testing them in a wind tunnel and recording the data. This data is being used to help reduce the cost whilst improving the environmental footprint of the finished stadium.
"We take about a week to print one stadium model," said Dr Saud Abdul Aziz Abdu Ghani, Professor at the College of Engineering at Qatar University.
"It is a scale model and follows exactly the design of the proposed stadiums for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. We printed the parts of the stadium separately, put them together and then put the 3D printed stadium model into a wind tunnel for aerodynamics testing. The wind tunnel took seven months to design and build and is the first of its kind in the region," Dr Ghani added.
The data being analysed will not only be of use for the World Cup stadium, but will also be used to help with the construction of stadiums across Quatar. The university has close ties with the Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy (SC)'s Technical Delivery Office.
"We are working closely with QU on this exciting project which showcases the innovative approach we are taking towards timely and cost-effective delivery of the stadiums for the 2022 FIFA World Cup," said Yasir Al Jamal, Vice- Chairman, Technical Delivery Office, SC.
Other design teams are following suit, as representatives for Belgium's largest footbll stadius of the future have begun testing their own designs at the same wind tunnel.
"We had to look at different types of rain and see how spectators would be able to remain dry at all times including the wind factor," said Dr Saud.


Friends, today was a hurricane day. Those of you familiar with snow know a thing or two about the occasional labor liberation, courtesy of Mother Nature. My employer was in classic form yesterday, closing the office at 3p.m. – after the worst of the weather had passed. At 3 p.m. Monday, the center of Alberto's circulation (such as it was) had passed our office, which means I got to watch the worst of it (for us) through my office's wall of windows facing Tampa Bay. Today I sat at home and enjoyed a whole heaping helping of sunshine, on the state dime.
Although it was not a shining moment for state government, it all worked out pretty good for me.


Make your ideas and designs stand out with the help of Placeit's t-shirt mockups starting today! This t-shirt mockup features a young man at a park leaning against a tree. Feature your design within this great photo mockup right away by simply uploading an image of your design onto the template and let Placeit resize it for you. Keep in mind that when using real-life scenario mockups to advertise your designs and ideas you relate more easily to consumers, so making them the latest addition to your marketing plan might not be a bad idea! To see another T-Shirt Mockup click here!


Let's face it. If you are reading this, you are probably old. That's not a bad thing. We are experienced and wise in the ways of the world. Experience is often a boon when we are learning new things. However, that same experience can sometimes impede learning. For example, take a look at the Japanese characters in Hiragana and Katakana. A bunch of squiggles and crazy lines to you likely. However, there are a few of them that remind us English speakers of something else. Take the Hiragana "ra" pictured above. To English speakers it looks like a five especially when the strokes are more of a cursive, connected style as shown. I can't NOT see the five. It sometimes feels like a brain zap because that series of strokes to me is not a sound "ra", it's a number. If you want to confuse a person fluent in Japanese and English type something in this font. When you see a child learning mathematics or writing and working hard on something you find easy to do your way, I want you to remember that you are going in with prejudice. That "new math" they are coming home with does look strange. Hang on to the end to see something pretty awesome.
Anything new we learn is going to seem difficult at first. It's not a reflection of how smart we are, it's just new. We need practice.
The way children are being taught mathematics in school now (which encompasses the whys and the hows rather than just steps), may be as unfamiliar to you as it was to your grandparents or great-grandparents who were dumbfounded why their kids and grandkids were only adding numbers backwards rather than left to right.
First, I am going to simulate for you what it is like to learn something completely new without your comfort and experiences to back you up. Sometimes we get set in our ways, say how easy our way is, and we forget how hard it was to learn it in the first place.
Below are Braille numbers 1- 9 and 0 in the Nemeth system (don't click the link yet) invented specifically for mathematics. In Braille, there is a special dot symbol to indicate that these are numbers, but I left it out for now.
The image starts at 1 and ends at 0. The first two you might think, "Piece of cake!" And then you get to the rest and you start to give me the stink eye because it make no sense to you. Perfect! Exactly what I was going for. The next image will help you out.
Okay. Ready to do some math?
Oh, right. There are some "extra" things in there to indicate that you are doing mathematics. Much like the horizontal line and symbols we use when we write addition or subtraction in the vertical format.
There, is that better? The first box with the four dots that looks like a revers "L" is the symbol for number (#). It just indicates that the next series of dots are numbers. So every time you see it, remember that it is the pound sign/hashtag. The next box with the three dots is the plus sign (+). Whenever you see that, it means addition. The third box that looks like the four side of a dice is the equal (=) sign. Everything unboxed is a number. Okay, now use the number chart to identify the numbers and do the arithmetic.
Hover over the image or highlight here –> #17 + #12 = #29 for the answer.
What do you think? Was that hard for you? Had to think about it even though you know perfectly well how to add? I had a hard time for sure.
In the beginning, it's a bunch of gobbeldy-gook. Then we get used to it and after a while we forget how hard it was at first. And because we forget how hard it is, we tend to shy away from learning a new way because our way works just fine thank you.
By the way, why don't Braille numbers look like a dice? Well, that's because the letters in Braille came first. They follow a pattern in a six grid box. Louis Braille was French, so the English "W" breaks the pattern. Oops! Anyway, the numbers are based upon the first ten Braille letters with the dot # symbol added. That works just fine until you start getting into Algebra.
How do you indicate 3a + 5y without getting the numbers mixed up with letters!? Well, Abraham Nemeth took those numbers and adjusted their vertical position slightly and the problem was solved. When we want to indicate an exponent when typing without a superscript, we use the ^ symbol. Nemeth used a new set of dots that didn't interfere with the existing numbers. If that's not an example of the brilliance of our flexible intelligence, I don't know what is.
We are perfectly capable of learning Braille numbers. We use a six-sided dice with no problem, so the issue isn't the dots. The issue is our lack of experience with the dots representing the numbers in a way we aren't used to. We are hard-wired from birth to do basic mathematics (adding to, grouping, taking away, dividing). The written/symbolic notation, however, is not hardwired. If it was, all languages would be the same whether spoken, written with strokes, in Braille, or Sign Language.
We are no more hard-wired to see the random lines "5" as the number five than we are to see it as "ra". That part is flexible.
Sometimes that "new math" that looks odd that our children come home with is going to be a skill we already have, but we might not recognize it right away.
What's Up With Our Digits?
I promised to show you something pretty awesome.
I read the World Book Encyclopedia a lot as a kid. (Don't judge me.) And in it were the origins of the letters at the beginning of each volume. It went from Egyptian to our present day letter formations. I was fascinated. How interesting! I forgot about it, but the other day I started to think about it again. Numbers had similar origins.
Why do we have more than one way to write numbers? We have the very straight, no nonsense four and it's fancier sibling. Nine sometimes has a straight back and sometimes curvy. Eight can be two perfect circles or some fancy infinity squiggle. Seven sometimes is a fashion beast with its frou-frou collar.
Well, when the numbers we are using now were first invented, each angle was the count of that number. Oooo! I thought.
I bet you have no trouble recognizing those angular numbers. It looks like some fancy font. You should be able to see the hints of the numbers we write with curvy strokes and how we also write numbers with more angles or a mish-mosh of the two styles. But why were they written without curves?
Because the angles — or lack thereof — meant something.
Look at the dots on the angles. Zero has zero angles. One has one. Two has two… so on and so forth. Even though you have memorized the values of those strokes, this is still fascinating. It gives meaning to the strokes. We have turned something abstract into something visual, tactile, logical, and relatable. Imagine how cool that is to a kid just learning the numbers. Imagine, too, how helpful it is to someone who has extreme difficulty remembering what the strokes mean. Tell them to touch the angles (or dots) and count, and the doors to understanding fling open. You can make your own manipulatives.
Though we may not have realized it, every time we write numbers we practiced this recognition. The "new math" will often be in disguise like that. We will know it, but not realize it.
The how and why benefits everyone. It might be the long way around the barn, but if you are only going through the barn what are you missing on the outside?
Did you know the origins of number strokes? What did you think about the Braille example?
– I've just signed up for the Virtual Assistant Dashboard at https://www.zapzapmath.com/user/signup, where I can easily keep track of ALL my students' individual progress, from any place, anytime—parallel to their independent learning. I can identify 'which' of my students need help, and 'where'. Eases my burden of marking and reporting work, which I still have to do right now… I hope someday, heavy paperwork will be totally eliminated from this planet with more connected learning apps like this, built-in with automatic performance analytics!
Zap Zap Math can be downloaded across all devices here: http://www.zapzapmath.com/downloads. Hope you and your readers find it useful, as I have for my students.
Zap zap math has been a great tool these last couple of years. Two thumbs up.
This entry was posted on March 10, 2016 by Laissez Faire in Article, attachment parenting, kids, parenting and tagged arithmetic, common core, education, homeschooling, how it works, mathematics, self education.


This great hunting tract is located about 10 minutes south of Carlinville, it offers creek frontage, paved road access, marketable timber and homesites.
This CRP and timber combo is a honey hole of a hunting property with excellent surrounding habitat, about $2000 annual income and some mature timber.
Farm with annual crop money that's loaded with wild turkeys and deer. Large creek runs through the property and there is an ideal building site with utilities.
Combination farm with trails, hardwood ridges and thick bedding throughout, good deer and turkey hunting and 86 acres of tillable providing $21,500 of annual income.
This is a good hunting farm with a solid ROI from 66 tillable acres providing $16,500 annual income. Thick bedding areas and hardwood ridges attract and hold deer.
This timber and tillable tract is located about 20 minutes from Galesburg, it has an established trail system, secluded food plot, timber value and a building site.
This small combination tract has approximately 9 acres of tillable, rolling topography, great building site, excellent hunting and mixed hardwood timber.
This potential building site is located about an hour from Quincy, has a stocked pond, blacktop road frontage, fence for livestock and some food plot locations.


Rest assured that we treat all information shared with respect and confidentiality.
We appreciate you taking the time to nominate your loved one for a Wishful Heart Session. We would be honored to help them as soon as funding is available. If you would like to make a donation to A Mother's Wishful Heart, please do so below.
We will be contacting them to begin the planning process shortly.


text:
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Study: eSports Revenues to Surpass $1bn in 2020
According to a study by Futuresource Consulting, overall eSports industry revenues are set to exceed $900 million this year, with an 18% 19-23 CAGR expected, driving revenues through the billion dollar mark in 2020 and onto $1.8 billion by 2023. As key events attract viewing figures comparable to tier 1 sporting competitions, securing exclusivity of major eSports events will become strategically important for both traditional sports broadcasters and the largest eSports streaming platforms.
Varsity eSports is becoming increasingly popular and already forms part of college life, particularly in North America in the same way as football or hockey teams according to the study, entitled Esports Opportunity for the Broadcast, Pro-AV and IT Industries.
Universities are building out eSports labs where their local teams can practice, equipped with high-end gaming PCs and broadcasting equipment. Some universities even have their own eSports arena where hundreds of spectators can watch major live competitions on giant screens. High schools have also started forming esports teams, and some schools and colleges already offer esports as part of their curriculum, as well as bachelor and master degrees in esports combined with business or event management.
Esports requires specific high-performance gaming PCs with advanced graphics and various gaming-related peripherals. Specifications are so important that players usually carry their own keyboard and mouse to tournaments. In addition, special gaming chairs are needed, as well as appropriate audio-visual equipment for streaming. This includes premium microphones and headsets, but also HD webcams. Large events usually require pro-video cameras, high-end sound systems and giant screens. There are huge opportunities in this growing market, especially on the education side as esports is becoming more mainstream across schools and universities.
The global esports PC installed base at universities and colleges is expected to reach the 100k units mark in 2020, while an installed base of another 15k PCs for K-12 schools is forecast for the same year. While the market is already quite mature in North America and South Korea, other countries primarily across Western Europe and APAC – most importantly China – are catching up rapidly.
Competition among the main PC and AV brands is expected to intensify in esports including specific solutions designed for schools and colleges. In addition, major vendors look to become sponsors of key tournaments and aim to get on the most popular gamers' equipment lists.
ASA Suspends SASA Executive
Nedbank Cup Tickets on Sale
Rugby Boss Unhappy Over Super Rugby Coaches
Sport Industry Awards South Africa (Pty) Ltd
8 Sheldon Place, 5 Lonehill Close
Registered in South Africa No. 2008/019001/07
Design & Build by Evil Donkey

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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text:
Finding the freelance cheats
by David Bradley, Inderscience
"The modern contract cheating industry allows students and ghostwriters to connect to each other over the internet, often using through an essay mill, agency website or other third-party service," explains Thomas Lancaster Department of Computing, Imperial College London, UK, in the International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management.
He adds that such contract cheating sees students recruiting a third party to create original work on their behalf and then submitting that work, an essay or another assignment, in order to gain the requisite academic credit. This is an ethically questionable practice that compromises the validity of any course from the lower to the upper echelons of education and makes a mockery of the value of work carried out honestly by other students.
Little research has been done so far to learn more about the ghostwriters, where they are, and how they operate. Lancaster has now investigated the ghostwriters working in this cheating industry and specifically those working in India. His study is based on openly available data from freelancing websites that operate as so-called "essay mills". The information that can be gleaned from these sites reveals details of the projects ghostwriters have completed and the marketing techniques the ghostwriters themselves use to garner new customers for their services. Lancaster found that there are many prolific writers on one major freelancing website. These writers turn around one or more essays each day. Much of this work is entirely original and of reasonably high quality. By contrast, some of the ghostwriters provide low-quality essays with much of the content plagiarized from other sources.
"It is hoped that understanding the ghostwriters will aid instructors in taking preventative measures against contract cheating," Lancaster explains. Indeed, he suggests that preventative approaches to avoid validating students that have used ghostwriters would be to monitor ongoing engagement with the course and other assignments and assessments. It would be relatively trivial to examine different pieces of work side by side to see whether writing style differed significantly to show that a third party may have completed an assignment. Moreover, for the lower-quality essays, there are many tools to detect plagiarized text.
Latest study reveals sharp rise in essay cheating globally, with millions of students involved
More information: Thomas Lancaster. The emergence of academic ghost writers from India in the international contract cheating industry, International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management (2019). DOI: 10.1504/IJICBM.2019.099281
Provided by Inderscience
Citation: Finding the freelance cheats (2019, May 8) retrieved 16 July 2019 from https://phys.org/news/2019-05-freelance.html
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