text:
Climatic classification in forestry
by C. W. THORNTHWAITE and F. KENNETH HARE1
1C. W. Thornthwaite is Director of the Laboratory of Climatology, Centerton, N. J., U.S.A., and President, WHO Commission for Climatology: F. Kenneth Hare is Chairman of the Department of Geography, McGill University Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
CLIMATES, like nearly all other variable quantities, can be classified. But it is important to realize that the taxonomy of climate is not the same as that which arranges living organisms into species, genera and so to the phylum. However much the biologists may disagree as to what constitutes a species, there is no doubt that the living world is divisible into groups that are, on the whole, mutually distinct; between the genera Abies and Picea there are differences of morphology, of physiology and of genetic characteristics that are too strong to be lightly disregarded. But no such striking differences need separate adjacent climates. On the contrary, one climate tends to grade into another by continuous transition. Only rarely do wee find climatic boundaries that approach in sharpness the difference, for example, between Pinus and Taxus.
Clearly, the real analogy is between climatic classification and the classification of soils or natural vegetation; it is commonplace that the grasslands of the world normally grade into forest through a broad ecotone of park or savannah. It is difficult to classify rationally such a natural complex as soil or vegetation; yet such classification is necessary, and it is groping toward reality. There is no doubt that "coniferous forest" is a real entity, however difficult it may be to define its limits. It is likewise with climate. In the face of complex geographical variation of climate, it is necessary to recognize climatic types and their geographical equivalent, climatic regions. The purpose of a climatic classification is to provide a concise description of the various climatic types in terms of the truly active factors of climate, primarily those of moisture and heat. The value of any classification. depends, first, on the accuracy with which the climatic regions are identified and their boundaries located, and second, on the skill with which numerical parameters are selected to define these boundaries, as well as to specify conditions lying within them.
The forester and the silviculturist have a legitimate interest in this subject. For many years it has been customary to regard natural vegetation and soil as complex functions of climate, whether on the continental scale (as in Clements' climax formations) or on the purely local scale where the concept of site is applicable. That forest vegetation is distributed in response to certain external climatic controls and that forests are themselves major conditioners of microclimates and even macroclimates are by now well-known facts. But to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the question of climatic classification assumes an altogether more practical significance, because of its interest in tree-planting, especially of exotic species. The Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, at its second session in Singapore, December 1-13, 1952, asked the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), through the Director of the Forestry Division of FAO, to recommend a standard scheme of climatic classification...
"... based on the relationships between climate and vegetation... Such a classification would be extremely useful to forestry agencies of our Member Governments as a guide for the choice of exotic species for trial plantings."2
2Quoted in Annex II to Recommendation 8, Abridged Final Report of the First Session, Commission for Climatology, World Meteorological Organization, Washington March 12-25, 1953, pp. 40-41.
In 1954, the Eighth General Conference of UNESCO in Montevideo discussed a plan of procedure for research in the humid tropics. The Proposed Programme and Budget for 1955 and 1956 included the following recommendation:
"Maps delimiting the humid tropical areas and showing those areas which experience similar climatic conditions are considered to be a prerequisite for the work of the programme."3
3Quoted from Proposed Programme and Budget for 1955 and 1956, UNESCO, 8th General Conference, Montevideo, 1954, paragraph 86.
This interest by different agencies within the United Nations Organization is but the reflection of a growing awareness in all countries of the need for accurate and detailed climatic information.
The present authors doubt whether any classification yet exists that deserves to be adopted as "standard." It may be a. long time before anything approaching a standard can be achieved. But a review of existing methods may be useful: that is what is attempted in this article.
Brief historical review
The earliest attempts at climatic classification in the modern sense were made in the mid-nineteenth century, chiefly by natural historians and biologists. From the very beginning the initiative in such classification has rested with the biologists, and it has been from these students of the living cover of the earth that most of the actual systems of classification have come. Both of the present authors have published reviews of this early phase with abundant literature citations, and only the briefest treatment is needed here.4 1866, A. Grisebach published the earliest significant world map of vegetation regions. Coming as it did shortly after the great plant physiologist, Alphonse de Candolle, had published his massive investigations into the factors influencing the distribution of plant species, Grisebach's attempt at the classification of world vegetation was a challenge to students of climate to look for correspondences between temperature or precipitation data and the world distribution of vegetation. At the same time, among biologists there was extensive investigation of the effect of climate on the phenology, growth and development of plant species. The monographs of Carl Linsser are the outstanding monument to this phase; his work, concerned with the effects of temperature on phenology and rainfall on vegetation, led him to divide the world into climatic zones, thereby making himself the first to attempt a true classification of climates on the basis of vegetation zones. Later, de Candolle published a physiological classification of plants based on adaptation to climate in which the familiar terms "megathermal", "xerophilous", "mesothermal" and "microthermal" appeared for the first time.
4THORNTHWAITE, C. W.., Problems in the classification of climates, The Geographical Review, vol. 33, no. 2, 1943, pp. 233-255.
HARE, F K, Climatic classification, The London Essays in Geography; ed. L. D. Stamp and S. W. Wooldridge Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1951, pp. 111-134.
TABLE 1. - CLIMATIC ZONES OF THE WORLD
Köppen's name
Equivalent de Candolle zone
Climatic limits zone
Topical rainy
Megathermal
Coldest month temperature above 18°C. (64°F.)
Warm temperate
Mesothermal
Coldest month between -3°C 27°F) and 18°C (64°F.)
Microthermal
Coldest month below -3°C (27°F) warm est above 10°C(50°F.)
Hekistothermal
Warmest month below 10°C. (50°F)
Dry3
Xerophilous
Annual rain-fall less than R.4
1With enough rainfall for forest vegetation
2Too cool for tree growth.
3Too dry for tree growth,
4For derivation, see following text,
Thus by 1875 the idea that climates might be classified according to the type of vegetation or physiological response they produced was well established. But it was left to a St. Petersburg trained biologist, Wladimir Köppen to take this idea and elevate it into a primacy of place that it has never lost. Köppen's interest carried him into climatology, which he dominated for some 60 years, and his climatic classification continues in use even today among geographers. His first work on heat and plant growth was in the tradition of Linsser and de Candolle, but he soon turned to the task of defining world climatic regions objectively. His early training, and his familiarity with the works of Oscar Drude and Grisebach, led him to the idea that plants might serve as instruments integrating the various climatic elements, and that their distribution might therefore be assumed to identify climatic regions. This idea subsequently dominated his life's work and the thinking of a whole generation of climatologists.
Köppen first presented his classification in 1900, and thereafter modified it frequently and extensively until his last paper appeared in 1936. He took de Candolle's plant regions or vegetation zones and endeavored to find climatic correspondences for their boundaries, a search that continued the rest of his days. His primary division of the earth's surface was into five great zones following de Candolle, separated by certain critical values of temperature and precipitation. To use Köppen's own terms, these five zones comprise a "dry climate", a "snow climate", and three "tree climates", arranged as in Table 1.
Thus Köppen's limits are essentially simple averages of the directly observed values of the climatic elements. The "dry" climates (B) are those whose annual rainfall is less than a value that depends on the mean annual temperature. Köppen used many different formulae to determine this critical rainfall (R). In 1928 he adopted (as a final form) the value:
R = 0.44 (T-k),
where T = mean annual temperature, and
k = a constant whose value is determined by the seasonal concentration of rainfall.
Stations having rainfall greater than R thus fall into the humid group, which includes both tree and snow climates. Simple values of mean temperature for the coldest or warmest month separate them into A, C, D, and E groups. The primary climates are further subdivided according to the seasonal distribution of rainfall and temperature, again using averages of the simple measures of these quantities.
In spite of the wide currency it achieved, the Köppen system was always unsatisfactory, and is quite futile as a method for classifying forest climates. In the first place, it is a crude, blunt instrument; the regions it defines are large and unwieldy, and do not correspond to major divisions of the vegetation of the earth. Nor is there any point in trying to adjust the regional boundaries by shifting their numerical value as has often been done. Köppen's use of simple temperature and precipitation values to define boundaries entirely misses the point, as do all the schemes produced by his imitators and apologists. The fact that a particular isopleth of mean air temperature happens to follow a soil or vegetation boundary is to a large extent fortuitous. Any effective system must endeavor to answer the questions, "What are the real, active processes of climatic control? And how can suitable parameters for these processes be devised?
Climatic processes
The climate of a locality, considered statistically, is often regarded simply as "average weather", which is essentially a meteorologist's view. Climate considered in the light of physical processes is better thought of as the complex interaction of vegetation and atmosphere at the earth's surface, especially as expressed in the exchanges of energy, moisture and momentum between the surface and the atmosphere. We believe that a soundly based classification, of real value in the study of vegetation, ought to seek its parameters in these complex exchanges, and not in the raw observational data of the meteorologist.
In the new classification of climate which Thornthwaite proposed in 1948, he gave great prominence to natural evaporation, or evapotranspiration, to give it the term it merits over a vegetation-covered continents The principal parameter of Thornthwaite's classification is a climatic potential derived from the thermal regime, the potential evapotranspiration. To justify the cardinal role applied to these quantities, it will be necessary at this stage to digress upon the nature of evaporation over a land surface, since great confusion exists in the literature of the ecologist and plant physiologist on this point.
Evaporation - the change in state of water from liquid to vapor - represents an important mass transfer from ground to atmosphere, the reverse of precipitation in the hydrologic cycle. But it is also an important agency of energy transfer, since vast amounts of heat are required to bring the evaporation about, and are then transferred to the air with the vapor as latent heat. Thus natural evaporation is much more than the reverse of rainfall; it is also a reverse flow to the downward stream of radiation from suit and atmosphere that warms the soil surface. A single parameter, measured evaporation or computed potential, hence at one time demonstrates two of the principal exchanges between earth and atmosphere.
Natural evaporation from the land whether evaporation from ponds, lakes and rivers, intercepted rainfall from the leaves and stems of plants, direct-evaporation from the soil surface, or transpiration from green plant tissues, can proceed only when the vapor pressure of the ambient air is less than the vapor pressure at the evaporating surface, and can continue only while there is an external source of energy. The measurement of evaporation presents many difficulties. Instruments like the porous bulb atmometer and the evaporation pan are of little value in estimating evapotranspiration. They measure, rather arbitrarily, some function of the evaporating power of the air at the level of exposure. But no close relationship exists between this function and the actual upward flow of vapor from the nearby land-surface. To measure natural evaporation, the instrument must simulate closely the natural conditions of surface, exposure, albedo5 and water-supply, or else it must be designed to measure the actual flow of moisture from the ground to the atmosphere, as an electric meter measures consumed electricity.6 Actually, there are only two practicable ways of instrumentally measuring evaporation under natural conditions: the "vapor transport" method using measured values of wind speed and humidity at two levels and the method utilizing soil filled tanks or evapotranspirometers. The vapor transport method is still not entirely practical due to observational limitations but evapotranspirometers have been installed in many parts of the world, and observations are now available for a number of years.7 The problem of devising an evapotranspirometer below a tree-covered surface remains unsolved. It may be noted in passing, however, that stream discharge from watersheds with known rainfalls gives an indirect measure of evapotranspiration, though there is a long lag between the accumulation of surplus rainfall and its discharge from the watershed.
5For an explanation of this term see following text.
6THORNTHWAITE, C. W. ., and HOLZMAN, BENJAMIN., Measurement of evaporation from land and water surfaces U.S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull No. 817, 1942, 143 pp. -
THORNTHWAITE, C.W, ., with WILM, H. G. and others. Report of the committee on evaporation and transpiration, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, vol. 27, no. 5, 1946, pp.721-723.
7MATHER, J. R. The measurement of potential evapotranspiration, Publications in Climatology, The Johns Hopkins University Laboratory of Climatology, Seabrook, New Jersey, vol. VII, no. 1, 1954, 224 pp.
From this increasing inventory of evaporation measurements, certain conclusions are permissible. Evapotranspiration clearly depends on the:
(a) external supply of energy to the evaporating surface, principally by solar radiation;
(b) capacity of the air to remove the vapor, i.e., on wind speed, turbulent structure and the decrease of vapor concentration with height;
(c) nature of the vegetation, especially as regards its capacity to reflect incident radiation, the extent to which it fully occupies the soil, and the depth of its root system;
(d) nature of the soil, especially the amount of available water in the root zone.
Of these four, the meteorological controls (a) and (b) rank larger than the biotic and edaphic controls (c) and (d), a claim that will surprise many foresters. Actually (a) and (b) are closely related, since to a large extent the turbulent structure of the lower atmosphere depends on the same radiative and mass exchange processes that contribute the energy needed for evaporation. Similarly (c) and (d) are closely related.
There is no doubt that (a) is the master item in this list. Natural evaporation requires the latent heat of vaporization, and in practice this comes mainly from incoming solar radiation. Some of the radiation is reflected back from the surface, the percentage lost being known as the albedo. Some is used to heat the soil. Some goes to create convection within the air. The rest is used for evapotranspiration.
Different types of vegetation differ in their potential evapotranspiration because they absorb different amounts of solar radiation. Ångströms has given the albedos of a few different surfaces as follows: grass 0.26; oak woodland, 0.175; and pine forest, 0.14.8 Thus the pine forest might absorb 16 percent more energy than the grassland but the proportion available for evapotranspiration varies through a narrower percentage range. Most common garden vegetables and field crops absorb about the same amount of solar energy as grassland. Some types of forest may have a higher albedo than grass although we have no records of them; if such exist they would transpire less than grassland.
8ÅNGSTRÖM, A. The albedo of various surfaces of ground, Geografiska Annaler, H. 4, 1925, pp. 323-342. E
A grassland may easily consume 80 percent of the incoming net radiation for evapotranspiration when the soil is moist, and mature high forest cannot transpire much more. Table 2 shows how the available energy was partitioned during an experimental period in August 1953, over the Nebraska prairies.9
9THORNTHWAITE, C. W., and others. Micrometeorology of the surface layer of the atmosphere, the flux of momentum heat, and water vapor. Publications in Climatology, The Johns Hopkins University Laboratory of Climatology, vol. VII, no. 2, 1954, PP. 359-161.
TABLE 2. - ENERGY FOR CONVECTION, EVAPOTRANSPIRATION, AND STORAGE IN THE SOIL, TOGETHER WITH WATER CONTENT OF SOIL, OVER GRASSLAND, O'NEILL, NEBRASKA, U.S.A.
Heat Used for Convection (C)
Heat Stored in Soil (S)
Heat Used for Evapotranspiration
Total (C+S+E)
Available Soil Moisture in Top 45 cm. of Soil
(cal/cm2)
(cm.)
Aug. 13-14
When the soil of this grassland was moist, over 80 percent of the available energy was utilized for evapotranspiration, whereas only 14 percent was consumed two weeks later when the soil had partially dried out. In other words, over moist soils, a grassland is an extremely efficient evaporator. Forest vegetation can do little better; for, even if all the energy is used for evapotranspiration, the total flow can only be 25 percent greater. Those forms of forest having a lower albedo than grassland will hence absorb more energy, and will have more available for evapotranspiration. But the difference is small.
The idea that forest vegetation, under moist conditions, differs little from grassland in the power to evapotranspire will strike an unfamiliar note to many readers. The literature is full of accounts of exceedingly high transpiration rates from isolated trees, set in pasture or on river banks; and potted seedlings have also produced high rates. But it can be shown that a large stand of trees cannot possibly maintain these rates, for to do so would involve many times the available energy. The isolated tree can get additional energy by absorbing reflected radiation and by picking up heat advectively from the air. The forest stand cannot.
It is under conditions of drought, when surface soil moisture is largely exhausted, that the deep-rooted forests are able to outdo the grasslands; for they can tap deeper layers of the soil, and so supply the demands of their leaf-zone longer. But otherwise, the meteorological factor dominates and the influence of vegetation type is of secondary importance. The logic of these paragraphs is the logic of the principle of the conservation of energy; it will not tolerate much argument.
A word is necessary about interception, which is of considerable importance in forests. From the point of view of the climatologist it matters little whether the water evaporating from a plant comes from the soil via the root system, or is merely intercepted rain. Both processes require the same quantity of energy, and both constitute evapotranspiration. It is true, of course, that the intercepted water will not have figured in the physiology of the plant; but, supposing that soil moisture is not actually at the wilting point, the energy consumed in evaporating the intercepted water would otherwise have been used to evaporate transpired water. In other words, intercepted rainfall is not lost to the plant; it must afford relief to the drain on soil moisture.
Thus, to sum it up, we can fairly claim that evapotranspiration is the key process in the exchanges between earth and atmosphere. Any effective system of climatic classification in forest or grassland regions must necessarily seek to express this process and to use it as the central parameter. Even Köppen's crude aridity factor, like those of Lang, de Martonne, Szymkievicz, Emberger, and others, attempted to express the balance between rainfall and "evaporation", without being too clear about what evaporation is actually being considered. But the importance assigned to evaporation by these writers simply considered the mass exchange; water evaporated was water lost to the soil which would have to be replenished. Important also, however, is the role of evaporation in the energy balance of the surface, and it is this aspect that is emphasized here because of its novelty.
Precipitation is easily measured by means of rain gauges and has been recorded in most settled areas of the world. It is not easy to measure evapotranspiration however; in fact, no weather service in the world yet determines this important element and the little that we know about its distribution has been pieced together from various scattered determinations. So many difficulties exist, however, that it is still necessary to refer to other climatic data in order to determine the distribution of potential evapotranspiration.
The most reliable measurements of evaporation and transpiration which can be related to climatic elements in an effort to obtain a valid and practical empirical relationship are based on the monthly or seasonal data from irrigation and drainage projects and on daily observations from carefully operated evapotranspirometer tanks. Thorntwaite has found that when adjustments are made for variations in day length there is a close relation between mean temperature and potential evapotranspiration. Through study of the available data he produced a formula that permits the computation of potential evapotranspiration for any place whose latitude is known and for which temperature records are available. The formula is given and its use described elsewhere.10 Work is proceeding in several places toward the development of a new formula that is based on physical principles; in the meantime, the present empirical formula is being widely used in various water balance studies.
10THORNTHWAITE, C. W. An approach toward a rational classification of climate. The Geographical Review vol. 38, 1948, pp. 55-94.
FIGURE 1. - March of precipitation and evapotranspiration at four selected stations. (1)
The 1948 Thornthwaite classification
Thornthwaite's first world classification of climate was presented in 1931-1933.11 It differed from earlier attempts by others in that it assigned the major role to the moisture factor. In 1948 he proposed an entirely new system based fundamentally on the ideas presented above.12 He assigned the central place in this new classification to the potential evapotranspiration (PE), which he defined as the evapotranspiration that would occur from a vegetation-covered surface if soil moisture conditions were adequate for unrestricted transpiration. Work has been continued on this system since its first publication not only by the present authors but also by climatologists, biologists, and agriculturists throughout the world. Certain improvements have been worked out and adopted and others are in prospect.
11THORNTHWAITE, C. W. The climates of North America according to a new classification. The Geographical Review, vol. 21, 1931, pp. 633-655.
THORNTHWAITE, C. W. The climates of the earth. The Geographical Review, vol. 23, 1933, pp. 433-440.
12THORNTHWAITE, C. W.. An approach toward a rational classification of climate. The Geographical Review, vol. 38, 1948, pp. 55-94.
When the potential evapotranspiration is compared with the precipitation and allowance is made for the storage of water in the ground and its subsequent use, periods of moisture deficiency and excess are clearly revealed and an understanding of the relative moistness or aridity of a climate is obtained. In some stations, precipitation is always more than the evapotranspiration so that the soil remains full of water and a water surplus s occurs. In other places, month after month, precipitation is less than potential evapotranspiration, there is not enough moisture for the vegetation to use and a moisture deficit d occurs. Stations with both wet and dry seasons, or with cold seasons of low water-need, normally show:
1. a period of full storage, when precipitation exceeds water-need and a moisture surplus, s, accumulates;
2. a drying season when stored soil moisture and precipitation are used in evapotranspiration, storage is steadily diminished, the actual evapotranspiration falls below the potential and a moisture deficiency, d, occurs;
3. a moistening season when precipitation again exceeds water-need and soil moisture is recharged.
The values of s and d can be computed during the budgeting.
It was originally assumed for convenience only that the root zone of the soil contained a maximum of 10 cm of water in storage when fully moistened and that this moisture would be used at the potential rate as long as any of it remained. Actually, it is known that the moisture holding capacity of the soil available for use by the roots may be much greater than 10 cm. and that, as soil moisture is utilized, the rate of evapotranspiration will diminish. Recent work13 suggests that at least 30 cm. depth of water will be available for use by deep-rooted mature plants in most normal soils and that the evapotranspiration rate which diminishes as the soil dries is proportional to the amount of water in the soil. When the soil moisture is reduced to 50 percent of capacity, the actual evapotranspiration rate will be only 50 percent of the potential rate. Although the two procedures give somewhat comparable values of actual evapotranspiration, water surplus, and deficit, as would be expected from a consideration of the assumptions themselves, the new procedure is preferable since it is more realistic than the older empirical one and depicts more exactly the processes going on in nature.
13THORNTHWAITE, C. W., and MATHER, J. R. The water budget and its use in irrigation. Manuscript prepared for the U. S. Dept. of Agric. Yearbook 1955.
Using the new procedure it is possible to work out a water balance sheet from climatological data alone showing at all times the soil moisture condition and providing values of moisture surplus and deficiency.. Figure 1 compares the precipitation with both potential and actual evapotranspiration at four selected stations while Table 3. gives the water balance computations for two of them. The various operations indicated in Table 3, are relatively straightforward. When the soil moisture is at field capacity, actual and potential evapotranspiration are the same, and all precipitation in excess of the potential evapotranspiration is realized as water surplus. When precipitation does not equal potential evapotranspiration, the difference is made up in part from soil moisture storage; but as the soil becomes drier the part not made up is larger. This is the water deficit, the amount by which actual and potential evapotranspiration differ. The soil moisture storage change cannot be determined directly but must be obtained from an appropriate table.
Finally a moisture index, Im, is derived from the relationship of s, d, and PE, all three quantities being given their annual values. This index is the basis for the division of the world into moisture provinces. The divisions suggested are as follows:
Moisture Province
Moisture Index (Im)
Perhumid
80 to 99.9
60 to 79 9
Moist subhumid
0 to 19.9
Dry subhumid
- 19.9 to 0
Semiarid
- 39.9 to - 20
- 60 to - 40
The moist and dry climates are thus separated by the moisture index of zero.
The second index used to define climatic provinces is the annual PE itself. Extensive research at the Laboratory of Climatology has shown that the growth of cultivated crops is highly correlated with the accumulation of PE. For this reason, the annual PE can be regarded as a sort of growth potential for the region.14 Whether an equally high correlation will ultimately be established with forest vegetation remains to be seen
14THORNTHWAITE, C. W. Climate in relation to planting and irrigation of vegetable crops, Proceedings of the 17th International Geographical Congress, Section on Climatology, August 8-15, 1952. Preprinted, pp. 46-51 Also, Publications in Climatology, The Johns Hopkins University Laboratory of Climatology, vol. 5, no. 5, 1952.
The thermal provinces defined by means of PE values are given below:
Thermal Province
Annual PE
0 to 14.2 cm.
14.3 to 28.5 cm.
85.6 to 99.7 cm
99.8 to 114.0 cm.
> 114.0 cm.
Thus a single parameter, annual potential evapotranspiration, because of its dependence on the energy balance, is made to serve in both the moisture and thermal indices. It is worthy of emphasis that the indices which define these "provinces" also specify at every point a thermal growth potential and the degree of moistness or aridity of the climate. In other words, the indices are continuously distributed about the earth, and do not exist merely along boundaries.
Correlation with forest distribution
The task of correlating the indices of the Thornthwaite classification with observed vegetation distribution and with soils over the earth has hardly begun. The graphical representation of the patterns of distribution of both vegetation and soil as related to climate presented in Figure 2 is adapted from Thornthwaite's 1931 classification. Eastern United States is made up almost entirely of humid climate and together with southeastern Canada, comprises one of the largest humid regions in the world. Within this region several distinct forest types have developed, in part, due to variations in the thermal index but largely because of variations in the moisture index. The humid climate exhibits a wide range in effective moisture between its subhumid and perhumid boundaries and it has accordingly been divided into four subregions. Within each of these subdivisions there is a northern and a southern zone. The forest types associated with these climatic regions are approximately as in Table 4.15
15THORNTHWAITE, C. W. Atlas of Climatic Types in the United States 1900-1939. U.S. Dept. Agri. Misc. Pub. 421, 1941, 7 pp. 96 plates.
TABLE 3. - WATER BUDGET FOR SELECTED STATIONS (in centimeters)
TABLE 4. - MOISTURE SUBDIVISIONS OF HUMID CLIMATE, MOISTURE INDICES, AND CHARACTERISTIC FOREST TYPES IN NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN ZONES, UNITED STATES
Northern Zone
Southern Zone
Spruce - fir
(absent in eastern U.S.)
Birch - beech - maple-hemlock
Oak - chestnut
Beech - maple
Oak - pine
Oak - hickory
The moisture factor, and hence the moisture index, is of importance principally in temperate and tropical latitudes. In the economically valuable coniferous forests of the sub-arctic, thermal control appears to outweigh the significance of moisture. In a recently published series of articles Hare has shown that the broad physiognomic subdivisions of the Boreal Forest are highly correlated with the distribution of annual PE.16 He suggests these divisions:
16HAKE F. K. The Boreal conifer zone, Geographical Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, 1954, PP. 4-18.
FIGURE 2. Graphical representation of relation between climate, vegetation and soil.
Forest Sub-Zone
Forest-tundra
Tundra on interfluves; woodland in valleys.
Predominatly Cladonia-rich open woodland, closed-crown forest in isolated groves
Closed-crown forest occupying most of the mesic sites.
Mixed temperate forests
Forest dominated by non-Boreal species, typically deciduous broadleaves.
The attempts at correlation of climate and vegetation that are presented in the foregoing paragraphs are highly tentative, and the authors will warmly welcome the collaboration of readers of this paper in establishing firmer and more useful relationships. Actually, since the development of climax vegetation formations and of mature soil types are most closely related to the march of soil moisture, we feel that the present
Thornthwaite classification represents a step in the right direction. It is also reasonably certain that no system of classification exists, that is more soundly based. In particular, in establishing climatic analogues for the guidance of programs of exotic plant introduction, the indices described above seem likely to be of considerable value.
As part of a long-time program which the Laboratory of Climatology has under way,17 climatic maps are being prepared which include precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, water surplus, water deficit, and the moisture regions for all parts of the world on a scale that is consistent with the density of the climatic network. Maps of several areas have been made on a scale of 1: 1,000,000. Maps of the entire continent of Africa have been completed on the new American Geographical Society base map in scale 1: 3,000,000. It is anticipated that the mapping of the entire earth will be completed within a short time.
17This program is supported in part by the Geography Branch, Office of Naval Research, United States Navy.
These maps may help meet the expressed needs of silviculturists in FAO which were quoted earlier in this paper, as well as such groups as the Advisory Committee on Arid Zone Research and the Humid Zone Research panel of UNESCO. It is probably quite important that these new maps be made available to all workers who have need for climatic information.
Since it is clear that whether grasses and other herbaceous plants occupy an area alone or share it with trees and shrubs depends on the soil moisture regime, it is necessary to go further than merely to obtain a useful and rational climatic classification. It is necessary to develop more fully the water balance approach, to determine the actual influence of soil moisture on climax vegetation formations and to make maps of these active controls of vegetation distribution. Thus, foresters should not hope for a complete solution to problems of plant distribution in a "standard" climatic classification but should seek information on the soil moisture regime, and understand the importance of periods of moisture deficiency and surplus in the formation of vegetation complexes. Maps of the distribution of these latter elements would be more important than conventional maps of climatic regions.l8
18THORNTHWAITE, C. W. Grassland climates, Publications in Climatology, The Johns Hopkins University Laboratory of Climatology, vol. 5, no. 6, 1952.
Finally, the authors express the hope that the conceptual framework of forest ecology will approach that of the climatologist more closely in the future. It is clear that such a convergence already exists. Thornthwaite has pointed out that the detailed texture of local climates, based on variations of slope, soil characteristics, roughness, and albedo, requires what he calls a topoclimatological approach.19
19THORNTHWAITE, C. W. Topoclimatology, Proceedings of the Toronto Meteorological Conference, 9-15 September 1953, AMS and RMS, 1954, pp. 227-232.
This approach, in effect, an effort to bring climatology down to earth, has an obvious parallel in the "site" concept of the forest ecologist. Indeed, it might be possible to go so far as to say that the two ideas are opposite sides of the same coin. On the obverse, there are climatic influences of the moisture, energy and momentum exchanges, and on the reverse are the biotic and edaphic controls of relief, aspect, slope, soil texture and the composition of the vegetation. If the topoclimatological approach is pursued, there is little doubt that both groups, climatologists and forest ecologists alike, will get far closer together in their thinking than they are today.
SUN HARNESSED FOR COOKING
Sunshine may be the cheapest available "fuel" for millions of families in underdeveloped areas who cannot afford shiny new stoves or even wood.
A solar energy scientist at New York University has conceived a practical, economical stove that cooks by sunlight. The Ford Foundation is backing the project with a grant to the Research Division of New York University's College of Engineering for detailed research and development of a sun stove.
The project as reported to FAO ranges beyond engineering aspects. Concurrent with the scientific development of the cooker, therefore the social, psychological and economic effects of introducing and integrating such a new device into the customs of the peoples for whom it is intended will need to be determined.
Important also, and another area of the study, is an industrial and materials survey of these countries. What materials are available for incorporation into the sun stove? What. Skills are available for its manufacture? What is the country's industry potential for its mass production?
Cost is a crucial factor in introducing solar cooking to underdeveloped areas. The most successful solar cooker developed to date involves a costly parabolic reflector.
The new stove design eliminates the need for parabolic reflectors.. Furthermore, it has the advantage of retaining cooking heat for an hour or so after the sun has gone down, the time when the evening meal is cooked and its heat-storing capacity largely eliminates the necessity of changing the position of the stove frequently to catch direct sunshine.
The stove is a closely insulated box, roughly triangular in shape. Four ordinary flat mirrors fan out from the tilted face of the stove. At the rear of the stove is a removable drawer in which the food is placed.
The mirrors reflect sunlight down through the tilted face of the stove, concentrating it in the interior, which is filled with special heat-absorbing chemicals. The principle of the stove is "heat of fusion" , or "heat of transformation." All materials when melting require large amounts of heat to change from solid to liquid forms. During melting, the temperature of the material does not change but remains at melting point. The problem in the solar stove and other heat storage devices is to devise materials with relatively high heats of fusion. In the sun stove, therefore, the sun's heat produces a succession of changes in the heat-storage salts from solid to liquid state. The changes give off the heat used for cooking.
Preliminary models of this stove developed temperatures up to 300° F(148° C) on days when the outdoor temperature was under 70° F (21° C). From 250° to 300° F (120°-148° C) is considered ample for average cooking operations. Higher temperatures needed for frying and browning have been developed in the stove on clear days. The areas for which the stove is intended enjoy direct sunlight most of the year.
The New York University research group believes the* stove can be developed so that it can be manufactured to sell for $ 5. The least expensive solar cooker devised to date sells for about $ 16. Besides cost and conformity to local cooking customs the stove will be designed to meet these requirements: durability, ease of operation and cleaning; simplicity and portability; ability to operate in early evening, and little attention required during cooking.


text:
Professor Raouf Boutaba and his graduate students, Yuhao Dong and Woojung Kim, develop new cybersecurity system that offers better protection against hacking and censorship
A new cybersecurity system developed by researchers at the Cheriton School of Computer Science has a set a new standard in the fight to protect people from malicious online attacks.
The new tool, a naming system called Bitforest, is one of the first systems that provides an efficient method of decentralized, online security in a way that is easy for the average person to use. The naming system converts more easily remembered names, such as usernames and domain names, to values like public keys needed for securely communicating with computer services and devices.
Researchers conducting the work on Bitforest, a secure naming system (L–R): Yuhao Dong (PhD candidate in computer science) and Raouf Boutaba (Professor, Cheriton School of Computer Science and Associate Dean of Research, Faculty of Mathematics).
Woojung Kim (master's candidate in computer science) was unavailable for the photo.
The system offers two main features, policy enforcement and identity retention. Identity retention, which prevents identity theft, relies on blockchain technology. The second feature allows for better policy enforcement by placing greater controls into who can input information into the naming system.
"This could have important implications as the world moves towards more interconnected devices such as autonomous vehicles, smart watches and smart homes as we continue to expand the Internet of Things (IoT)," said Raouf Boutaba, co-author of the study and a professor in Waterloo's David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science, in the Faculty of Mathematics. "IoT devices are going to be everywhere, and they control very sensitive parts of our personal and professional lives with 75 billion such devices projected to be deployed by 2025. The security of these devices is going to be extremely important.
"This particular system will extremely useful in the software updating process, which is when systems are most vulnerable, by providing greater oversight into how those updates can occur and by whom."
Bitforest, which relies on public blockchains like Bitcoin for security and a central server to enforce policy, achieves decentralized trust and security as strong as existing blockchain-based naming systems. It also retains most of the flexibility and performance of centralized Public Key Infrastructure, allowing validating thin clients to look up and verify name bindings with comparable efficiency to traditional systems.
A paper describing the system, titled Bitforest: A Portable and Efficient Blockchain-Based Naming System, was co-authored by Profssor Boutaba, Yuhao Dong and Woojung Kim, Waterloo's Computer Science doctoral and master's students respectively, and appeared recently in the Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Network and Service Management.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Titan sets sales, earnings records in 2nd quarter
QUINCY, Ill. (July 28, 2011) —Titan International Inc. set earnings and sales records in the second quarter, prompting Chairman and CEO Maurice Taylor Jr. to predict the firm will exceed $2 billion in sales in 2012.
Titan reported operating income of $44 million in the quarter ended June 30, up 152 percent over 2010, and sales grew 76.1 percent to $404.4 million. The former Goodyear farm tire business in Latin America, which Titan bought in April, contributed $92 million to the improved sales.
Second quarter net income of $25.3 million was a fivefold jump over 2010.
For the second half, Titan expects the sale momentum to continue as the firm's "order deck has never been this large," Mr. Taylor said.
To address high demand for both farm and OTR tires, especially from replacement market dealers, Titan is boosting capacity at all its plants through additional employee hiring, Mr. Taylor told analysts in a conference call.
He didn't elaborate on how much capacity is being added, but did say previously delayed expansions at Bryan, Ohio, and Freeport, Ill., are now being completed. In addition, the company is preparing a shipment of farm tire equipment and molds for the Sao Paulo, Brazil, plant acquired from Goodyear.
Included in the firm's sales in the quarter are $70.3 million in consumer sales, which are related to the firm's contract supply agreement with Goodyear in Latin America. Capital expenditures for the year-to-date were down slightly at $10.2 million.
"I told everyone last quarter that everything was going well, but I didn't think the Titan team would be moving this quickly," Mr. Taylor said. "The forecast I made in May is too low for sales and EBITDA."
For the half year, Titan reported income from operations of $70.8 million, up 157 percent. Sales grew 54.5 percent to $685.3 million, and net income tripled to $22.2 million.
Effective Aug. 1, Titan will raise prices for the aftermarket on all Goodyear- and Titan-branded farm tires made in Titan plants in the U.S. up to 8 percent, to cover rising costs for natural and synthetic rubber.


text:
Cragganmore Distillery
The Cragganmore distillery was founded in 1869 by John Smith, who managed The Macallan and The Glenlivet distilleries. The Cragganmore whisky distillery draws ... Read More
The Cragganmore distillery was founded in 1869 by John Smith, who managed The Macallan and The Glenlivet distilleries. The Cragganmore whisky distillery draws its water from the mineral-rich Craggan Burn, which tumbles down its namesake, the Craggan More hill. The majority is used for blending, today, it can be found in Old Parr, among other blended Scotch whiskies. The stills, which have numbered four since 1964, have an unusual shape with a flat top.
This is said to contribute to the unique character of the spirit. At present, Cragganmore is under Diageo ownership and has been featured accordingly in their Classic Malts range. There are currently several independent bottlings as well as a substantial core range. The San Francisco World Spirits competition has reacted favorably to the Cragganmore 10-year (Sherry Cask) and 12-year expressions, awarding the former with a double gold medal in 2005 and the latter with two double gold, one gold and three silver medals between 2005 and 2012.
Learn more about members pricing
We only deal directly with reputable distilleries.
We cover the cost of shipping over $150* Excludes some sale & subscription items.


Thank, Dr. Reckner, for your kind introduction. I was here at Lubbock two times (in 2001 Conference and 2002 Symposium). This time, I will talk about the Mau Than Massacre at Hue in 1968.
Even right after the Mau Than event, the American mass media ignored the massacre of thousands of innocent people committed by the Communists but portrayed our military victory as a defeat.
During the last 40 years, lot of information on this crime has been revealed. But it seems that people don't care anymore.
I am here today to ring the bell to call for this heinous crime not to be erased. We get to do something to keep it remembered and to avoid such act would happen again.
Dr. Reckner has just introduced me. So I will skip this slide to save our time.
3.- After the Communists took the South, they sent 500000 South Vietnamese servicemen and women to concentration camps (from 3 to 20 years or more). This included civil servants, priests, businessmen… Tens of thousands died of starvation, illness, torture, execution in prison.
4.- At the same time, there were hundreds of thousands people fled the country to seek to for freedom in other countries. Half of those people vanished on the high sea or in the dense forests.
5.- Today, Thousands of young women have been sold to the neighboring countries. A great number ended up in whorehouse. Tens of thousands have been sold to be some kind of hard labor slaves.
Slides 5: In this presentation, I will focus only on the Massacre at Hue. This happened on the Mau Than New Year Eve and the following 4 weeks.
To our Vietnamese people, the New Year is the most important holiday of the year. It is the day of family reunion. It is indeed a sacred celebration. People from all over country will come back to their home village. In at least one week, people celebrate the new year, clean and decorating the grave yard and honor the dead.
Mr. Trinh Quoc Thien will talk about the battle. I only mention that the Tet Offensive is part of phase 2 of the Winter Spring Campaign of the Communist army.
Slide 7: Here is the map of Vietnam during the Tet Offensive. Hue is the old capital of Vietnam, located about 80 kilometers south of the DMZ.
Slide 8: Although we did not fight a conventional war, we always respected the truce to cease fight during the holidays as agreed upon by both sides. At the end of the lunar year, the Communists suggested a 7 day cease fire. South Vietnamese government agreed only 3 days since in the past, the Communists did not respect the truce.
That's why, the military authorities allowed a rotation of 50% of the force to go home with family.
On the New Year Eve, January 29, 1968, while the residents of Hue people were preparing for the new year celebration, 12000 NVA and VC soldiers left their hideout west of the city, and suddenly attacked the city from 4 directions. After 4 days of fierce combat, the NVA and Vietcong occupied the city, except for the Headquarters of the 1 Infantry Division, MAC-V Compound, Thua Thien Sector Headquarters, and the Radio Station.
The South Vietnamese troops with the support of the US Marines, fought in 24 days to retake the city. On March 2, the last resistance of Vietcong was silenced.
Slide 9: Just in Hue battle, there are about 2500 VC and NVA troops killed, another 2500 might be killed as they retreated; 89 were captured.
South Vietnam lost 421 soldiers, 2123 wounded and 31 MIA's.
Of 140,000 Hue residents, more than 5800 killed and 116,000 left homeless after the battle.
Slide 11: Since Hue was the center of the Buddhist Church and the Anti-Government movements, the Communists could easily infiltrate and recruit their secret cadres. Most of them were college students and professors. These moles helped the NVA to make a list of South Vietnamese soldiers, and civil servants, and arrested and executed them during their occupation. There are some figures that we should not forget: Le Van Hao, the brothers Hoang Phu Ngoc Tuong and Hoang Phu Ngoc Phan, Nguyen Dac Xuan, Nguyen Dinh Chi, Nguyen Doa… They had been professors or students of Hue University who turned to be executioners in this horrible event.
Slide 12: Not only South Vietnamese soldiers and civil servants and low ranking cadres, victims of Viet Cong Massacre includes students, professors, High school teachers, Catholic priests, Buddhist monks, young men at the age of military draft, foreign doctors, and foreigners who worked for humanitarian organizations, and American contractors; and even ordinary people, young women and children.
The North Vietnamese Communists assumed their victims as those who had blood debt to the Revolution, collaborators with Americans. To those who did not have any contact with South Government, the communists considered them as "having bad attitude towards Viet Cong.
During the NVA withdrawal from Huế the NVA summarily executed anyone in their custody who resisted being taken out of the city or who was too old, too young, or too frail to make the journey to the camp. (Manhard, a U.S. Senior Adviser who was taken to a POW camp by the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and held until 1973.
The planned execution of government officials and their families, political and civil servants, and collaborators with Americans; and those civilians not connected to the government who ran from questioning, spoke harshly about the occupation, or the occupiers believed "displayed a bad attitude" towards the occupiers (Don Oberdorfer and Paul Vogle, an American English professor at the local Huế University by interviewing witnesses of the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong occupation.) Oberdorfer reported that in the Catholic area of Huế, Phucam, virtually every able bodied man over the age of 15 who took refuge in the cathedral was taken away and killed.
Slide 14: On the very first day in Hue, the NVA and Viet Cong established the People's Committee with the involvement of the local pro-communist members. They began to call the South Vietnamese soldiers and agents to report to the committee. These people were released with promise of safety. Viet Cong did this 2 or three more times to get more people reported. Finally, when they think there would be no more people in hiding. They kept their victims and began the slaughter.
Slide 15: In some first mass graves within the city, we found that people were tied back to back in every 2 using the electric wires, or telephone cables even with barbed wires. They were buried alive. Some had their head blown or shot in the head.
The group of more than 400 people taken from a Catholic church was ties in bundles of 20. They were led to the forest 20 kilometers west of Hue and were killed with all types of guns and grenades. Some groups were ordered to stand on land mines, and the Communists simply ignited.
Slide 16: To this day, we don't know exactly how many people were killed. The number is estimated 7600. Of them about 5800 confirmed dead. There are 1173 killed due to accident of the battle. There are 1800-1900 missing still unaccounted.
Ø Bodies found at Phu Thu Salt Flat, November, 1969 (est.) : 300 – 1000?
Slide 17: To the Communists, whoever didn't support them would be considered reactionary elements and thus, their enemies. At the Paris talks, Viet Cong delegation denied that it had not been the work of Communists but of "dissident local political parties". Broadcasting on Hanoi's Liberation Radio (April 26, 1968), North Communists said "Victims were only "hooligan lackeys who had incurred blood debts of the Hue compatriots and who were annihilated by the Southern armed forces and people in early Spring." Ex-Colonel Bui Tin recently stated that the Viet Cong tried to get rid of people as they retreated from the battle.
Others believe that when the Communists could not hold the city, they wanted to eliminate the witnesses.
Revenge killing in the name of the Communist party or settle old scores.
Minute (A French Weekly Magazine): Article by Yves Gautron stated that no one on this planet could forgive the heinous act of killing people by Communist troops.
Of 354 U.S. news reporters in Vietnam, only 40 reported the battle but did not mention the massacre. Even they distorted the information to make the 68 Offensive a defeat of our troops. This reflected the bias of the media during the rise of the anti-war movement in the U.S. They tend to favor the public as said by NBC producer Robert Norshield: "The public perceived it as a defeat, and therefore it was a defeat " Robert Northshield, NBC's executive producer.
Please, compare the Mau Than and My Lai massacres to see how we have suffered from the bias US media.
Slide 23: VC casualties: 85,000 during the Winter-Spring Campaign (killed or permanently disabled). In Hue: 2500 killed during battle. Estimated 2500 killed while retreating beyond Hue.
After Tet Mau Than: VC Infrastructure in South Vietnam was almost totally destroyed.
Many Communist sympathizers switched their side. Pro-Communists became pro-government.
Slide 24: Almost every family in Hue has at least one relative, close or remote, who was killed or still missing.
Exhumed bodies showed teenagers and women as victims of this horrible massacre.
A great number of pre-68 anti-war activists, pro-communists people took side with South Vietnamese government.
After April 30, 1975 when South Vietnam fell into the hand of the Communist Party, it seems that the number of boat people of Hue origin takes up a greater proportion among the refugees than that from the other areas.
Slide 39: After taking Hue in 1975, the Communists tried to move the Hue residents to the remote New Economic Villages, and filled the empty houses with their people from Northern provinces.
For years, Hue still mourns their relatives who were victims of the massacre. They mingle the massacre with the New Year celebration to cheat the Communist authorities.
Assuming more than 50% of population had been born after the War who know nothing about the massacre, Communists celebrated Mau Than Offensive as their victory, distorted the true history, indifferent to the misery of their people.
This year, to mark the 40th anniversary of the Mau Than Offensive, the Communists celebrated it as their victory; disregard the misery of their people.
Slide 40: Of course, many of you already know about the Mau Than Massacre. You may know more than I do. But I still think it is not enough if we do not bring this issue in to light to make everyone on earth know it.
The killers still own Hue the blood debt. They must be brought to the justice. They might be dead or still alive, still in the VCP Poli-bureau, Central Committee and some where in Vietnam. They got to pay.


text:
Art & PhotographyNews
TextKemi Alemoru
Mario Klingemann, Memories of Passersby I (2018)Courtesy of Sotheby's
AI artwork flops at auction, robot apocalypse not here yet
Humans – 1, machines – 0
We'll have to wait a while until AI is able to outdo artists as Sotheby's first auction of machine-made surrealist portraits sells for an anti-climatic amount. The work, made by Mario Klingemann, an innovator in AI art, sold for £32,000 without the buyer's fees.
While that might be enough to cure all of your financial woes – in the art world that isn't the impressive price you might expect for a groundbreaking item. Entitled Memories of Passerby, the face melted image is the first AI piece to sell in Europe. An algorithm-generated portrait in New York previously sold for $432,500 comparatively.
According to ArtNet, Klingemann has dubbed the movement "neurography" where neural networks generate an endless array of imaginary portraits which is then presented on a two-screen installation. After the New York sale it's gained a lot of hype and as one of the first to pioneer the practice, Klingemann was probably hoping to match. The upper estimate for the work was £40,000 without the buyer's fee and sold for exactly that price with the fee included.
As part of the Barbican's 2019 season, there will be an immersive exhibit exploring the evolution of the relationship between humans and tech. AI: More Than Human examines the ethical issues of AI, looks at where it will fit into our lives, and features an installation from Bristol band Massive Attack.
In the meantime, read up on more AI art with this investigation into Ai-Da, the world's first humanoid who can draw without human input.
Art & PhotographyNewsArtificial Intelligence


text:
Francis Convery: Hindsight 27 June 2021 – 25 July 2021
weaveprint July 14, 2021 July 14, 2021 Uncategorized
The Academicians' Gallery, Royal Scottish Academy of Art & Architecture, The Mound, Edinburgh
Francis Convery RSA (2021) Black Isle, mixed media on canvas 102 x 154 cm. This work is framed in a grey stained wood frame.
The Royal Scottish Academy is currently presenting Hindsight, an exhibition of new paintings by Francis Convery RSA. This exhibition has focused upon the process of constant revision towards resolution that underlies Convery's practice, Hindsight explores the sense of flux that defines these vivid paintings of the Scottish landscape. https://academiciansgallery.org/
During the artists talk on Wednesday 7th July, 7pm via a Zoom webinar the artist discussed and fully reflected upon his work. There was acknowledgement of being an observational painter, as he often works without any visual references, drawing on the changeability of the rural Angus landscape that surrounds his studio. The paintings evoke the ever-changing face of this north-easterly landscape, with figures often caught in moments of transience: crossing a foot bridge or resting in the shade of the forest canopy. In paintings like Black Isle Convery conjures a strong sense of place with abstracted shapes which hint at the soft curves of the coastline which I particularly like. On seeing the exhibition in the flesh, I could appreciate the artists technique up close to see the layering effects of paint and the expressive quality of the imagery, of its capacity to evoke emotion. Convery's paintings tend to be characterised by a colourist sensibility and changeable form.
For Convery the paintings in this exhibition are a product of the upheavals of the last 18 months. Even though Convery's daily routine at his rural studio has continued relatively unaffected, the series titled Working from Home shows that recent societal changes are permeating his subject matter. Another series reflects on the floods on the River Dee in October 2020 which Convery describes as 'shocking in their suddenness, adding to a local experience that was increasingly like a Biblical epic: the plague… now the flood'. https://academiciansgallery.org/viewing-room/16-francis-convery-hindsight/
Francis Convery RSA (2021) Freewheeling (Deeside Cycle Path). Mixed media on canvas 200 x 140cm. The artist continued to work successfully from home throughout the pandemic.
Drawn to this altered 'water world,' Convery sought objective observation in this newly unfamiliar landscape. Throughout the exhibition, a sense of change and fluidity in daily life is present, with Convery's sense of 'hindsight' constantly underwriting this notion. Relying on intuition, rapid revisions, painted, with swathes of paint, sweet harmonies and explosive, contrasts, his paintings are captured recollections, full of colour and life, within swathes of evocative and stimulating ranges of colour to encapsulate life… I felt drawn to the intuitive nature of his approach to painting, of his ability to construct a narrative layer by layer through textural mark making with innately organic and instinctive relating. https://www.francisconvery.com/biography
Francis Convery RSA (2020) Flood 2 Mixed media on canvas 50 x 60 cm. Framed in a grey stained wood frame.
Convery is an intuitive painter, interweaving the shapes, textures, and colours of the landscape with a gestural touch that relates to the abstracted lines of the Edinburgh School, namely William Gillies RSA and Robin Philipson PPRSA, but also to the bold colours of John Bellany HRSA and Alan Davie HRSA. However, the elegance of Convery's composition defines his style. Often using a geometry of serpentine trees to add lofty verticality or bridges and paths to bring strong diagonal thrust, Convery marks out a stage set for each scene. Reminiscent of Uccello and the Renaissance masters, this depth of field renders the viewer surrounded, wholly engulfed by the ethereal landscape.
Also particular to Convery's style is the use of pattern, decorative shape and collage which seemed to resonant with me, of the influence of the famous textile trade of his hometown of Paisley. The artists use of collage, pattern and shape were specifically appealing given my own creative practice in textiles. Convery very much champions the use of these mixed media techniques in painting which has had a considerable impact on other artists and continues to influence younger generations of artists across several disciplines beyond painting into textiles and mixed media. I was struck with his relationship to painting, of the use of both his emotional state and sense of place to realise his thoughts and processes, of nature reclaiming environments, of a pattern of work increasingly based upon abstract expressionism.
Francis Convery reflected upon his relationship with the RSA, of the first time he exhibited at the RSA while still an art student at Edinburgh College of Art and how he has continued to exhibit annually thereafter to present day. He then spoke of how he felt honoured in doing so, of challenging himself to produce his best work as he considered such exhibition opportunities to be a highlight for him coupled with his enduring affinity with the annual exhibitions at the RSA. The artist spoke of his sense of responsibility to produce good work which entails many months of reflection and painting to ensure his work is properly resolved, sufficiently distilled yet accessible as a visualisation, but neither literal or illustrative, which captures a real sense of him, his experiencing and who he is.
Previous Textiles 3 Sustaining My Practice
Next Mary MacKay- Painting, Mixed Media & Printmaking Artist


In its normal condition, this watch is a simple horn armlet. Activated by pressing the side of the housing, it reveals the time for a few seconds. The armlet is combined with a watch in a rubber back housing on the inside of the armlet. It was first shown at the "Passionswege" at the VIENNA DESIGN WEEK 2009, where the curator group "Neigungsgrupe Design" brought Wehsely-Swiczinsky together with the horn manufacturer Thomas Petz.


text:
You'll Never Stop Me Loving You, Sonia!
Back in 1989, new hits did not spread like wildfire on Twitter. As an eager 11-year old I bought import copies of pop magazines Number One and Smash Hits, and managed to catch wind of the pop sensation Sonia.
I covered Sonia and 'You'll Never Stop Me Loving You' back in January 2010, only realizing that this is the perfect time as it was a summer hit of 1989. Bowing at No.54 on 24th June that year, three years later it became Sonia's first ever UK chart-topper.
Written and produced by the immensely popular trio Stock, Aitken & Waterman, the track was one of many chart-toppers from the trio during the '80s. As noted in my previous post, one of the words was omitted from the title as Sonia actually sang you'll never stop me from loving you. This was also applied to her later hit 'Counting Every Minute' where Sonia sings counting every single minute.
Today, Sonia is 42 years old and wrapped her career with a Greatest Hits set back in 2007. Her career spans over 18 years old and includes a cover version of 'Be Young, Be Foolish, Be Happy.' Originally recorded by the Atlanta vocal group The Tams back in 1968, Sonia bested the original peak of No.32 finally reaching No.11 in 1991. It also earned her a Stateside hit as it climbed the Billboard Adult Contemporary Chart (it peaked at No.13).
The odd thing is that the bank Abbey International used the track in its commercial dubbing it 'Be Young, Be Foolish, Be Abbey.' Even more odd that the commercial lasted 52 seconds!
Abbey International Ad (1991)
In 1993, Sonia was the sole contender in the UK contest Song for Europe, alas the UK leg of the Eurovision Song Contest. I was actually in London at the time, witnessing the singer performing all competing songs. It wasn't particularly nerve-wrecking as she was destined to win, and her entry 'Better the Devil You Know' managed to place second behind Niahm Kavanagh's 'In Your Eyes.' Sweden's entry that year was Arvingarna's 'Eloise' (No.7).
Throughout Sonia's career, she placed two other singles in the UK top ten – 'Listen to Your Heart' (1989) and 'Only Fools (Never Fall in Love)' (1991). Her final single was 'Fool for Love' in 2009, which never managed to chart.
The Sonia Infographic
Sonia's Career | Create infographics
Music blogger with a passion for travelling, photography & food.
Whatever Happened to '80s Sensation Sonia?
The pop artist Sonia was discovered by the production team Stock, ...
Lauryn Hill Sued by Guitarist4 januari, 2010
Kelly Clarkson's Controversial Republican Support Spikes Sales4 januari, 2010
Max Martin and RedOne Rule Billboard Hot 1004 januari, 2010


The 16th biennial Meeting of the Ottawa Group is being hosted by the Getulio Vargas Foundation (FGV) and the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE).
The meeting will take place at the FGV Headquarters in Rio de Janeiro on May, 8-10 2019 and will be preceded by the lecture "Quality Adjustment and Hedonics: A unified approach" by Prof. Erwin Diewert on May, 7 2019.
The Ottawa Group provides a forum for specialists and practitioners who work for, or are advisors to, national statistics agencies or international organizations to exchange their experiences and thoughts on crucial problems of measuring price change. The group´s strenght is based on its professional authority, independence, and usefulness to nacional and internacional statistical agencies.


Today's audiobook news & reviews from all around the web. If we missed your link, leave a comment and we'll add it.
The last 24 hours of audiobook news & reviews all in one place!
We are participating in this year's #boutofbooks! Today's challenge is a Resolution challenge, by The Book That... !
Special Halloween Giveaway: High Midnight AND Call Me Grim!
Happy Halloweek from ListenUp! To celebrate, we are giving away TWO audiobooks this week! You could win a digital audiobook download of Call Me Grim AND High Midnight!


The revised Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) management system standard ISO 45001 FDIS has beed passed in the recent ballot. The official standard ISO 45001:2018 is expected to publish in Q1 2018, which is to replace OHSAS 18001:2007. Following the publication of the international standard, a 3-year transition period is anticipated.
The objective of ISO 45001 OHS certification is to help organizations in designing and implement management system to prevent or reduce injury and ill health, regardless of size or industry. All of its requirements are designed to be integrated into an organization's overall management processes, following the so-called ISO High Level Structure, already adopted by ISO 9001:2015 and ISO 14001:2015. Experts from DQS related organizations have contributed to the development of standards.
DQS Academy is providing professional public internal auditor and standard understanding training courses to facilitate clients to transition to the new standard. The internal auditor training course includes the primary local laws related to OHSMS.
0 responses on "Update of ISO 45001 投票通過"


text:
Q: Why static data member is showing this error? I was learning static data members in c++ and I wrote this code but on compilation, it is giving me this error:

main.cpp:21:12: error: 'int Test1::a' is private within this context

 Test1::a=50;
        ^

main.cpp:17:5: note: declared private here
int Test1::a;

But I don't know why this error is coming and how to solve this.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Test1{
    static int a; //declaration
};
int Test1::a; // definition

int main()
{
    Test1::a=50;
    cout<<"a= "<<Test1::a<<endl;
}

A: You declared static int a as private member in the class, which can be accessed only within class. Class members are private by default. You should have declared it as public.
class Test1{
public:
    static int a; //declaration
};
int Test1::a=0;
.
.
.
.
//whatever

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Marko Stojković (en serbe cyrillique : Марко Стојковић), connu sous son nom de scène MC Stojan est un chanteur et rappeur serbe né le  à Lučani.

Biographie

Marko Stojković naît le  à Lučani, dans le district de Moravica.

En septième année primaire, il écrit une hymne pour sa classe qu'il a intitulé « VII 2 Je Mafija » alors qu'il ne savait pas encore qu'il travaillerait dans la musique. Après avoir fini le lycée dans sa ville natale, il emménage à la capitale où il commence à étudier dans une école d'économie. Il en sort diplômé.

Carrière

Sous son nom de scène MC Stojan, il commencera sa carrière musicale en 2005 avec Bičuj Me, Stojane.

Discographie

Albums

Compilations

Singles

Sources
 biografija.org
 discogs.com

Chanteur serbe
Rappeur serbe
Naissance en février 1983
Naissance en Serbie
Nom de scène

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Located at Bali "the Mother Temple of Basakih or Pura Besakih", known for' its famed terraced rice paddies, remarkable man-made creations meshed in an emerald-green natural setting', Le Grande Bali is perfect for both business & leisure travelers.
There is no shortage of things to do or food to try within the vicinity of Le Grande Bali. Within short distance from the property are attractions and restaurants travellers can enjoy.
Lovely place. Transport is rather essential due to its location. Great value for money. I loved that they provided everything at the complex. Awesome pool. Location a little bit far from town.
"Great Hotel and Great Staff"
True ZEN :) Hotel is part of complex in golf area. Very quiet. Good for relaxation. If you want crowded space don't go there because it's a little far from main road, but if you want perfect relaxation it's just the right place for you. Rooms are big, only little downside is that they are bit warn out but for this money you can't expect more. Breakfast is excellent!! Everything that you can imagine is served. People that work there are happy to help you with everything. Would definitely recommend and stay there again.
Outstanding value for money but with room for improvement Outstanding value for money. The location is close enough to a few beaches. You would need to get taxi for other places regardless of where you stay anyway. In general, the hotel could do with better maintenance. We loved the bath but the water was unclean (was brown) and only lukewarm so could not use it.
Perfect 10 Had the most amazing stay! What a fabulous hotel - big gorgeous room, amazing pool, spa, helpful courteous staff. All this at the most reasonable rate. This hotel scores a 10 from me!
Amazing Our first night was a bit annoying as the aircon didn't work but as soon as we notified the manager and staff they were very helpful and did everything to make our stay very enjoyable. We had a free yoga class in the morning and they also provided us with tradition ceremonial wear for us to be dressed in later that day. (Apart of their daily activities) Chris was the manager and couldn't thank him and his staff enough for this amazing stay. It was such a beautiful holiday, we will be back.
- Extra bed can be provided at additional cost. Subject to availability at the time of check in.


text:
G2A.COM G2A News Features Top 2010 PC Video Games
Best 2010 Video Games for PC
In the video game industry, some years are better than the others, but even the ones that are considered mediocre usually bring some cool stuff for players to enjoy. Was 2010 a bad or a good year for
games?
We can't answer this question objectively, but we can show you some interesting titles that were released during that time. If you're interested in learning about some of the best 2010 video games, take a look at our list down below.
Mass Effect 2 Digital Deluxe Edition 2010-01-27 Action & Shooter BioWare 92% Read more
Fallout New Vegas Ultimate Edition 2010-10-21 Adventure Obsidian Entertainment 74% Read more
Sid Meiers Civilization V Complete Edition 2010-09-23 Economy Aspyr (Mac, Linux) 76% Read more
Battlefield Bad Company 2 2010-03-02 Action & Shooter DICE Read more
Super Meat Boy 2010-11-30 Indie Team Meat 88% Read more
Call Of Duty Black Ops 2010-11-08 Action & Shooter Treyarch 0% Read more
Bioshock 2 2016-09-15 Action & Shooter 2K Australia 76% Read more
Tom Clancys Splinter Cell Conviction 2010-04-29 Adventure Ubisoft Montreal Read more
Fifa 11 Sport Read more
Football Manager 2011 54% Read more
Dragon Age Origins Awakening 2010-03-17 Adventure BioWare 3% Read more
Prince Of Persia The Forgotten Sands 2010-06-10 Fighting Ubisoft Montreal 71% Read more
Mafia Ii Definitive Edition 2020-05-19 Action Hangar 13 77% Read more
Lara Croft And The Guardian Of Light 2010-09-28 Adventure Crystal Dynamics 81% Read more
Warhammer 40000 Dawn Of War Ii Chaos Rising 2010-03-11 Strategy Relic Entertainment 81% Read more
Ruse Strategy Read more
The Settlers 7 Paths To A Kingdom Deluxe Gold Edition 2010-03-24 Economy Blue Byte 62% Read more
Dead Rising 2 2010-09-27 Horror Capcom Vancouver 72% Read more
Greed Corp 2010-12-10 Arcade & Platform Vanguard Games 79% Read more
Singularity 2010-06-30 Horror Raven Software Read more
Split Second 2010-05-18 Action & Shooter Black Rock Studio 79% Read more
Battlefield Bad Company 2 Vietnam 2010-12-18 Action & Shooter DICE 52% Read more
Darksiders 2010-09-23 Adventure Vigil Games 86% Read more
Just Cause 2 2010-03-23 Adventure Avalanche Studios 86% Read more
Vvvvvv 2010-09-07 Terry Cavanagh 84% Read more
Supreme Commander 2 2010-03-01 Strategy Gas Powered Games 66% Read more
Need For Speed Hot Pursuit Remastered 2020-11-06 61% Read more
Medal Of Honor 2010-10-13 Action & Shooter Electronic Arts 61% Read more
Transformers War For Cybertron 2010-07-09 Action & Shooter High Moon Studios Read more
Sam Max The Devils Playhouse 2010-04-15 Adventure Telltale Games 84% Read more
Victoria Ii 2010-08-30 Strategy Paradox Development Studio 94% Read more
Genre: Action & Shooter
Developer: BioWare
Let's start with Mass Effect 2 – a game that continues the story of Commander Shepard as he tries to stop the intergalactic crisis.
Mass Effect 2 is an action role-playing game that focuses on the character of Commander Shepard – the first human member of the Spectre, special tactics agents of the Citadel Council. As it turns out, the Reapers' threat is not yet gone, and Shepard must assemble a team of trusty companions who will follow him to the decisive battle. As opposed to its predecessor, ME2 is more shooter-oriented, and the role-playing elements were significantly simplified to make the game more accessible for those who are specifically looking for some solid action in space. The story is still on a very high level and you'll see a lot of returning characters during the play.
A sci-fi action role-playing game that puts a strong emphasis on combat
Several unique classes to choose from, each with its own specializations to further customize gameplay
A morality system that allows you to role-play your character better
Great level design and music that create an amazing atmosphere
Genre: RTS
If you are even just a casual real-time strategy genre enjoyer, there is no way you didn't hear about StarCraft before – and there's a good reason why the sequel appears on this list.
StarCraft II is undoubtedly one of the most popular real-time strategies ever made and a vast number of people play it to this day – modern RTS games rarely come close to the level of awesomeness featured in SC2. The game allows players to pick one of the three distinctive races – Terrans, Zerg, and Protoss – and fight against the opponents. The core of gameplay is to build the base, gather resources, train units, and use micromanagement skills to command an army and outsmart the enemies. StarCraft II managed to balance the races so they're equally powerful, yet they require different tactics – this way everyone can find a race that will suit his or her playstyle best. Although the game offers content-rich single-player campaigns, it's the multiplayer mode that's praised the most – a real treat for those who love some competitive action.
One of the best and most popular RTS games up to date
Three different playable races to choose from – all equally powerful, but with an entirely different playstyle
Engaging gameplay focused on base building, resource gathering, and managing the troops
Addictive multiplayer mode for those who love competitive action
Developer: 2K Australia
BioShock received a sequel in 2010 – although it did some things differently, it's still considered a significantly improved game that retained the spirit of the original title.
BioShock 2 is a first-person shooter that will allow you to once again dive into the underwater city of Rapture – a dystopian, secluded place, ruined by a mysterious drug that gave people all kinds of superpowers, but also divided the society because of its high addictivity. This time, however, you will be able to control one of the famous Big Daddies – but don't feel too cocky or powerful, because you're about to face dangers, against which even your thick steel armor can prove to be rather ineffective. Explore the obscure city inspired by the architecture from the 1940s and collect powerful plasmids to get the upper hand in the upcoming encounters.
A first-person shooter set in the underwater dystopian city of Rapture
Gameplay that focuses on combat with the use of a variety of weapons and special superpowers
Character progression with upgradeable skills and abilities
Unforgettable atmosphere and memorable underwater locations
Genre: Economy
Developer: Aspyr (Mac, Linux)
The year 2010 also gave life to a new installment in the Civilization franchise. The new game came with various changes and gameplay improvements that met with a positive response from the community.
Civilization V is a turn-based strategy that allows people to control one of many available civilizations, help it grow and flourish through millennia, and ultimately lead the commanded nation to a brighter future, where it becomes one of the world's most influential powers. The game features over a dozen playable civilizations, and each has its own unique perks and bonuses that slightly alter the gameplay, which encourages players to try out different strategies. And finding alternative strategies is important because Civilization V, similarly to other Civilization games, allows players to win the game in a variety of ways – conquering the land and wiping out the opponents is not always the most efficient solution.
A turn-based strategy that allows players to lead their chosen civilization to glory and prosperity
Various playable civilizations to choose from – pick the one that will complement your playstyle
Different ways to win the game – conquer your enemies, build and launch a spaceship, or spread your culture and religion to other countries
Addictive gameplay that will easily rob you of all your free time
Developer: Team Meat
If you didn't hear about Super Meat Boy before, it may not look like one of the best 2010 games at first sight. But there's a good reason why it appeared on the list.
Super Meat Boy is a platform game that will test your reaction time and eye-hand coordination skills to the limit. As an adorable piece of meat, you will have to complete a ton of increasingly difficult levels in order to rescue your character's girlfriend. The game is incredibly hard and it's not uncommon for players to repeat a certain sequence over and over again, so don't get discouraged if you can't pass each level on a first try. Fast hands are undoubtedly a must, especially if you want to complete the entire game and collect everything there is. Thankfully, Super Meat Boy also features some high-quality music that perfectly fits the theme, so hopefully, the pain caused by constant deaths will be slightly more bearable.
A surprisingly addictive platform game with a fitting, eye-catching background music
Gameplay that revolves around completing hundreds of short levels, where it's expected from you to die and repeat them a lot
Responsive controls, smooth animations, and fluid transitions
Extremely difficult, especially if you want to fully complete the game and unlock everything
Mount & Blade: Warband
Developer: TaleWorlds Entertainment
If you ever wanted to become a leader of your own private medieval army and personally lead your men on the battlefield, this game is for you.
Mount & Blade: Warband is an action role-playing game that allows players to take control over an army of men in a believable medieval setting, where they can do whatever they want due to the game's sandbox nature. After creating your character, you will be spawned into the land of Calradia right away and your adventure will begin. Recruit people to your warband, train your character, upgrade your troops, manage your equipment, battle other armies, and siege enemy castles – you bow before no one, so take the lead and fight your way to fame and glory.
A great combination of an action role-playing game with a strategy game in a realistic, medieval setting
Sandbox, open-ended gameplay focused on recruiting troops and fighting against other armies in real time
Smooth combat that involves the use of both melee and distance weapons that can be used while on foot or from a horse's back
Multiplayer mode for those who want some extra competition
Developer: Capcom Vancouver
2010 was also the year when Dead Rising 2 came out – a slightly humorous take on action games with a zombie apocalypse setting.
Dead Rising 2 is an action-adventure game where your main objective is to have fun by slaughtering hordes of zombies in a number of different ways. Of course, there are missions that need to be done, and there's even a story, but it's all just a filler and it's there only to justify what you'll be doing during the game. Don't expect too much realism from Dead Rising 2 – it's not there. But it's not a bad thing, as it allowed developers to go full bananas with gameplay, which is much more enjoyable this way. You can use knife gloves as a weapon, for example, making you look like a superhero taken out straight of the Marvel Comics universe. Just remember that melee weapons break easily, so don't get too cocky or you may be left defenseless in the middle of a zombie horde.
A great action-adventure game that combines a zombie apocalypse setting with a rather light-hearted atmosphere
Gameplay focused on pure, unrestricted fun – kill as many zombies as you can, and get creative while doing so
Hundreds of available weapons to find, discover, and make use of, including some ridiculous ones
Melee combat is highly favored and encouraged
Developer: Avalanche Studios
Speaking of rather ridiculous games, one can't forget about Just Cause 2 which adds the element of badassness to the mix.
Just Cause 2 is an action-adventure game that is played from a third-person perspective. As agent Rico Rodriguez, you will be tasked with putting an end to the dictator's reign on the huge tropical island of Panau. The game features an open-world environment and allows players to freely explore it all at their own pace. Moving around the playable area can be done on foot, but there are also vehicles for more convenient travel. There is also a grappling hook that can be used to easily attach yourself to virtually any surface you want, including moving vehicles. You can even use the hook to tether two vehicles or people together, which opens up some interesting strategies on the battlefield.
An extremely fun action-adventure game with a badass protagonist
A huge open-world environment with a variety of landscapes and beautiful views
Gameplay that favors full-blown action and arcade playstyle over realism
A grappling hook and parachute combo that allows players to quickly travel between distant places
Developer: Ubisoft Montreal
Having a list of the best 2010 PC video games without mentioning Assassin's Creed II on it would be inappropriate – so here it is.
Assassin's Creed II is a sequel to the original action-adventure game, where the descendant of one of the members of the ancient Assassin Brotherhood, Desmond Miles, tries to thwart the plans of the Templar Order. AC2 begins a well-received trilogy in the Assassin's Creed franchise, where Desmond will go back in time and relive the past of Ezio Auditore da Firenze in order to find information that could hopefully help him gain the upper hand in the current times. Gameplay-wise it's still a stealth-heavy title that favors a silent approach and staying low, but it also introduces a variety of ways to fight your way through to your destination. It's also worth noting how well the game blends real-world historical characters and famous places into the fictional world – a true masterpiece.
An addictive action-adventure game from one of the most popular assassin-related franchises ever made
Smooth and satisfying combat combined with parkour and stealth tactics
A story that focuses on the never-ending conflict between Assassins and Templar Order
Beautiful open-world environment, heavily inspired by the Renaissance architecture
Developer: Obsidian Entertainment
The final entry on the list is nothing else but Fallout: New Vegas. You didn't think that we forgot to include something for fans of nuclear wastelands, did you?
Fallout: New Vegas is an action role-playing game from the popular Fallout series. It is, however, slightly different from its predecessors, mainly because it's a spin-off and not a major entry. Obsidian did a great job and managed to retain numerous qualities of Fallout 3 while adding some new gameplay mechanics and fresh elements, making it a great game not only for newcomers but also for the veterans of the franchise. Among notable improvements and changes, it's worth mentioning overhauled combat, simplified character creation, new weapons, the larger impact of skills on conversations, many more crafting options, reintroduction of reputation, better companions, a slightly altered third-person camera, and an optional hardcore mode.
An amazing action role-playing game in a nuclear wasteland environment
A huge open world that can be roamed freely
Crafting, companions, character progression, satisfying combat, interesting story, and more
An optional hardcore mode for those who are looking for an extra challenge
The Best 2010 Video Games for PC
2010 was the year when a lot of great video games were released. There were some new series appearing on the horizon, while some others received sequels and spin-offs. Some games were successful, and some were not. But there were also some masterpieces that are worth remembering because they were often an inspiration for future generations of games. In other words – if some of these games weren't made, we wouldn't be able to enjoy what we have today.
If you're looking for some of the best video games released in 2010, our list should give you all the answers you need. Take your time and appreciate all the good stuff we were given back then.
best games of year series
10 Best Sci-Fi Games of All Time


We are Mónica and Fernando, founders and CEOs of the Real Estate Agency "ForSale Negocios Inmobiliarios", a project that was in the making for many years and that was finally materialized in 2011.
We both were born in 1972, we met and got married in the 90`s and we started out working in the advertising industry and executive assistance services environment.
We define ourselves as a couple with great dedication to service, as well as passionate about life and keeping a positive attitude always.
We are Uruguayan citizens as well as U.S. citizens, who emigrated from Uruguay years ago to expand our business horizons, and then, in 2009 we decided to return to our hometown to meet our relatives and friends once again.
Therefore, we began our own Real Estate business company, with the intention of becoming, with your trust, the company to accompany you hereafter to realize your dreams in your Real Estate project.
The primary goal of ForSale Negocios Inmobiliarios is to ensure the satisfaction of our customers and to meet their needs in regards to their Real Estate requirements.
Our strategy to achieve that is reflected on our core values of respect, trust and professionalism. We keep these values in mind to provide a customized service to our customers and to build the trust and friendship that emerges over time. We specialize in buying and selling Real Estate properties. We are passionate about our job so we are focused on the maximization of our personal and professional potential to get the job done. We are dedicated to helping you with our team of local and foreign professionals and with the support of other resources such as media, social networks, as well as on line and outdoor advertising.
We look forward to meeting you at our office located at Del Navío Ave. and Sagitario Ave. / La Paloma, Rocha, Uruguay.


JamesEdition makes it easy to find Aquanaut European Voyager Classic 1700 yachts you're looking for, we feature Aquanaut European Voyager Classic 1700 for sale by dealerships around the world. Our search technology instantly finds Aquanaut European Voyager Classic 1700 for sale from our database of thousands of luxury and exotic yachts. Compare prices on Aquanaut European Voyager Classic 1700, read specifications and descriptions and see Aquanaut European Voyager Classic 1700 images from our global listings. JamesEdition is the world's smartest online marketplace for new and used premium yachts.