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Tomb Raider – The Legacy of Lara Croft
November 15, 2018 November 13, 2018 / Ryan Cheddi
Good day and welcome to another edition of Games with Coffee! As a part of my friend NekoJonez's "Writer's Raid" collaboration, today I'll be talking about the first game of the Tomb Raider series titled Lara Croft: Tomb Raider. We'll cover the history of the game, my experiences with it and I'll be delving deeper into the enduring legacy of Lara Croft herself, one of gaming's most iconic characters.
Lara Croft: Tomb Raider's development started back in 1993 by the now defunct Core Design, a British-based developer consisting of six people. The director, Toby Gard, was the individual credited for Lara's creation; he initially started with a male character but then added in a female character to give players a choice on who to play as. Realizing that the second character would double the work required for cutscenes, Gard cut the male character and instead developed the female further, intending to counter the stereotypes surrounding female video game characters. He notes that Lara was inspired by Swedish songwriter/rapper Neneh Cherry and the comic book heroine, Tank Girl. He also cited Virtua Fighter as an influence, saying:
"It became clear to me watching people play Virtua Fighter, which was kind of the first big 3D-character console game, that even though there were only two female characters in the lineup, in almost every game I saw being played, someone was picking one of the two females." – Toby Gard
Originally, Lara was to have a cold and militaristic personality and hail from South America under the name "Laura Cruz." Gard and his team decided instead that she should be British and for her personality to be a combination of Indiana Jones and a proper, English lady. This expanded Lara's character and showed players that she was more than some grave robbing adventurer with a knack for murdering vicious creatures using dual-wielded pistols. We'll go into this a bit later.
As for her first adventure, bringing Tomb Raider to life was not an easy task. Programmer Gavin Rummery explained that the game was only possible by building it on a grid-like system. It's the reason why squares, rectangles, slopes and planes are so integral to the gameplay, in terms of lining up for jumps, finding pathways through levels and even discovering secrets, among others.
Musically, the game was scored like a film, playing at certain times for dramatic emphasis, like finding secrets or during action sequences. For the most part, the only audio that was played throughout the game were atmospheric in nature, such as footsteps, Lara's grunts the growls of animals, rushing waterfalls and the like. It made Lara's journey far more isolating and increased tension within the player, forcing them to listen closely to see what may or may not be ahead.
Tomb Raider was released for both the Sega Saturn and the Sony Playstation. Despite the game being developed for both systems, it was first released for the Saturn as a timed exclusive as part of a deal between Sega and Core. Timed exclusivity meant that the game would only be released exclusively on one console and would be released on other consoles after the exclusivity period expires. After its release, Core Design discovered that the Saturn version was riddled with bugs that would also affect the Playstation version. Since the game was a timed exclusive, the team was able to fix the bugs for the Playstation version. While three sequels were released for the Playstation, no subsequent titles were released for the Saturn.
Tomb Raider was critically acclaimed on its release in 1996. The cinematic approach with its gameplay and music combined with state-of-the-art graphics was a sight not seen in gaming until its release. Major publications, like GameSpot and EGM praised the title, with GameSpot calling it a potential Super Mario 64 killer, referencing the iconic Nintendo game released in the same year. Finally, Lara Croft, the Tomb Raider herself, cemented herself as one of gaming's greatest icons, her appeal as a character and as a strong, independent woman captivating gamers and non-gamers alike.
The Legacy of the Tomb Raider
Lara Croft was considered a revolutionary when her first adventure was released. Her introduction changed the conversation about women in video games, in that their games can tell a story similar to or even surpassing that of their male counterparts at a time when female protagonists were scarce. Just like what Chun-Li in the Street Fighter series did for female representation in fighting games, Lara too was instrumental in ushering in a new age of games starring charismatic and strong female protagonists.
Lara is a statuesque and athletic individual with brown eyes and auburn hair traditionally tied in a plait or a ponytail. Her standard outfit consists of a turquoise tank top, brown shorts, calf-high hiking boots, fingerless gloves, a backpack to hold various items and holsters for her arsenal of weapons, such as her iconic dual pistols. She is highly intelligent, having excelled in various scholarly pursuits and is fluent in several languages; useful for navigating the locales of where her next raid is going to take place. Unlike the stereotypical female characters gamers we were used to seeing before, Lara was not a woman to be trifled with, thanks to her no-nonsense attitude and her dry wit and it really showed itself in her first game.
Throughout the campaign, Lara had to face insurmountable hurdles in recovering the fabled Scion of Atlantis. Examples include deadly traps that activate if Lara makes a wrong move, tricky puzzles that required logic, speed and a little luck to solve and a plethora of nasty beasts out to kill her, either for food or for sport. However, she faced them all, head-on and, most importantly, on her own. Lara required no help from anyone – male of female – to overcome the challenges in front of her. I believe that her strength, her determination and her perseverance in overcoming anything and anyone that stands in her way garnered her claim to fame more than her looks.
Culturally, Lara forged a path for more female leads in video games. Without her, we would never have had the opportunity to experience the stories of other strong and inspiring women, like Aloy in Horizon: Zero Dawn, Lightning in Final Fantasy XIII, Yuna in Final Fantasy X, Faith Connors in Mirror's Edge and 2B in NiER Automata. Even video game heroines from established series, like Samus Aran from the Metroid series for instance, had their characters further fleshed out. Lara's influence extended beyond gaming and into mainstream media: she currently has three live-action movies under her belt, has been featured on several hundred magazine covers, been involved in various print and television advertisements and has been a spokesperson for various causes. Furthermore, she has several Guinness World Records to her name, including most recognized female video game character and most official real world stand ins.
Furthermore, even though the game was developed with a male audience in mind, Lara ended up garnering a serious female audience. Authors from several publications stated that the character appealed to women and drew them more into gaming simply because they see in Lara an emancipated heroine that they could emulate.
However, with accolades also comes controversy and Lara's introduction to the gaming industry sparked quite a bit of it over the years.
Much of the controversy surrounding Lara centers around her looks. Lara is an attractive, tall and buxom woman and has been described as a sex symbol because of those traits, despite Toby Gard originally intending for her to be "sexy only because of her power." Critics have argued that Lara reinforced unrealistic ideas about the female body and that she was developed as the embodiment of male fantasies. That latter point fueled rumors in print magazines and the internet about a potential code to remove her clothing; it was revealed that there never was one in the first place. There was, however, an unofficial patch that could be used on the PC version known as "Nude Raider" that was used to remove Lara's clothes. Eidos eventually shut down the website hosting the patch, but the damage was done nevertheless and it remains as an infamous footnote in her history. Further criticisms include that the character was developed in a way to make male gamers feel like "chivalrous protectors" who were trying to protect Lara from harm and that her character's appearance does nothing to detract men from the notion that women are sex objects.
The Last Drop
I've first started playing Tomb Raider in 1998, right around the time that puberty hit. I'll admit, I had a huge crush on her when I first played the game; she was extremely attractive, not just in looks but in attitude as well. However, I'm sad to say that at that young of an age I felt that I gravitated more to her looks than to her character, which was in line with the criticisms noted above. As I grew older and more mature, I revisited the character and found that I resonated more with her spirit, her determination and the fact that she could do such impressive feats of physical and mental strength. She was really like the female version of Indiana Jones (a character that I rather enjoyed) and I found myself wanting to learn more about her, beyond the original versions (which I found to be a bit one-dimensional). To that end, I've picked up Tomb Raider Anniversary – a remake of the original taking place in the rebooted world of Tomb Raider: Legend and the recently rebooted (again) Tomb Raider (2013), an origin story featuring a more realistic depiction of Lara. I've played through the majority of the Anniversary edition and I've yet to play the Square-Enix reboot, but I'm looking forward to it.
I do want to argue that, despite the various criticisms surrounding her, Lara represents a step in the right direction towards more female representation in video games. As a guy myself, I personally want to see more stories of women in gaming, as their stories are just as important (and in some cases, more important) than the stories of overly-masculine, broody and square-jawed males (think Joel, Nathan Drake, Cole MacGrath, etc.) that have been the focus for the last decade or so. I, for one, feel like the future of women in gaming is a bright one, all thanks to Tomb Raider and one Lara Croft.
Hope you enjoyed this introspective into Lara Croft: Tomb Raider! If you want to delve further into the Writer's Raid, I suggest you check out the hub at NekoJonez's blog for the full list of other posts written by other amazingly talented bloggers!
With that, this is Ryan from Games with Coffee, reminding you to Keep Gaming and Keep Brewing!
action adventure, core designs, eidos, lara croft, playstation, tomb raider, writers raid
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3 thoughts on "Tomb Raider – The Legacy of Lara Croft"
Pingback: Tomb Raider – Writer's Raid | NekoJonez's Gaming Blog
Joren
I really enjoy your take on this. As for the last part, for me it has never been just Joel; It's always been Joel and Ellie. Taking one away from the other they would be a lot less enjoyable (this being much more true for Joel than for Ellie).
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It's #SonicSunday! And while I've been busy preparing for my new venture in streaming, I figured I'd get in a little Sonic Adventure. 😁. . Speaking of the stream, I've got a name that I'm workshopping: check my story and vote yay or nay if it's any good or not! . I'll also be running a test stream next Sunday at 9:30 pm EST. As the date grows closer, I'll provide the deets on where you can catch it. Looking forward to those comments and criticisms 😅. . What were you up to on this Sonic Sunday? . #sonicfan #SONIC2020 #sonicthehedgehog #sega #sonicadventure #steam #streaming #blog #gamer #videogames #gaming
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It's #SonicSunday and this time I want to bring this to everyone's attention. . If you've never heard anything about Humble Bundle, you should know that they offer a bundle of select games for the low, low price of $1! Or however many dollars you can spare, as the more you spend, the more games you can pick up! Y'see, the money you spend to pick up these bundles goes towards various charities and who doesn't want to give to charity, especially during this time of year? . This time around, Humble Bundle is offering a wicked Sonic themed bundle! It comes with a slew of awesome games that you can play on Steam, like Sonic 3 and Knuckles, Sonic CD, Sonic Generations and much much more! BUT it's only here for a limited time (in fact, less than a day and 15 hours at time of posting!) So if you're looking to get some Sonic games and support charity, then do yourself a favour and get this Bundle ASAP! I'll put a link in my bio. . #humblebundle #Sonic #charity #gaming #sonicthehedgehog #steam #sonicfan #gamers #videogames #sega #sonicteam
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Connecting a New Era


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Introducing RLCS X
July 1, 2020 Ian Nowakowski esports
The Rocket League Championship Series (RLCS) has created countless memorable moments, but as the esport grows each season, the RLCS needs to follow suit.
RLCS X will represent the most fundamental changes to the RLCS since its inception in 2016. On top of a huge $4,500,000+ overall prize pool, we're making sweeping changes to the league and its structure to build a foundation for competitive Rocket League for the years ahead. RLCS X represents our first step toward a brand-new vision for the RLCS.
Introducing the New RLCS
Let's begin with how we're changing the RLCS. We're moving away from the League Play format and bi-annual seasons. RLCS X will be an open event-based circuit format that culminates in an annual Rocket League World Championship. We believe this format strikes a healthy balance between open competition and rewarding consistent, high-level performance. It also gives us the flexibility to continue to award points towards World Championship qualification if live international events are not possible during the season due to world wide health concerns.
Let's break down what RLCS X will look like:
Three Splits constitute a full season (Fall, Winter, and Spring)
Each Split will feature three standalone Regional Events for both North America and Europe (six between the two regions for a total of 18 Regional Events per season)
All Regional Events will begin with an Open Qualifier on Battlefy
Each Split will culminate with a Major (three Majors per season)
All three Splits will showcase a different tournament format
The Fall Split is a 32-team tournament format
The Winter Split will be a 24-team format
The Spring Split will be a 20-team format
Regional Events will provide $100,000 in prizing per event
Majors will provide $250,000 in prizing per Split
The Rocket League World Championship will provide $1,000,000 in prizing
By the end of the season, more than $4,500,000 in prizing will be awarded across all regions
As mentioned above, each Split will showcase its own format. Here's a look at what you can expect from the Fall Split. We'll reveal additional details about the Winter and Spring Splits later on.
Fall Split
Each Regional Event will have 32 teams
Teams that earned their spot from RLCS Season 9 will be auto-invited (bypassing Open Qualifiers)
Teams that earned their spot from the previous Rival Series season will be auto-seeded into Day 3 of the Open Qualifiers
The 32 qualified teams will be placed into two groups of 16 with each playing a Swiss format
The top eight teams from each group will proceed to another 16-team Swiss format
The top eight teams from that group will move on to a single-elimination bracket
All events in the Fall Split will be online
Sign ups are open now and will close on July 24 for each region's first Regional Event
Broadcasts for the Fall Split will begin on August 1 with the first European Regional Event
Every event in RLCS X grants points towards World Championship qualification. Regional Events grant fewer points and will also be used to qualify for Majors, which grant more points. It's important to note that points will reset between Splits for Major qualification, but points accumulated over all three Splits will still serve for World Championship qualification. This helps keep competition for Major qualification healthy each Split, while rewarding teams with World Championship qualification for long-term competitive consistency.
Speaking of the World Championship, it's getting bigger and better. Along with the $1,000,000 prize pool, we're also expanding the World Championship to 16 teams (six from North America, six from Europe, two from South America, and two from Oceania).
We're working with South American and Oceanic tournament organizers to create their own circuit of events that will serve as official pathways to Majors and the World Championship. They'll have their own point systems and their prize pools are being increased across the board. More information will be available soon.
RLCS: The Grid
Another big change to our competitive ecosystem is The Grid, a new weekly tournament circuit that brings top teams together to battle for Grid Points, prize money, better seeding, and a spot at the Majors. The Grid was inspired by the motorsport concept of 'starting grids,' and this league reflects that philosophy, with results informing RLCS Regional Event seeding and qualifying top-performing teams for RLCS Majors.
Nine weekly tournaments per RLCS Split
Teams earn Grid Points and a cut of a $10,000 (per region) weekly prize pool
The Grid will inform seeding for RLCS Regional Events
The team with the highest accumulated Grid Points will qualify for that Split's Major
At the end of each Split the top ten teams retain their spots, while the bottom six teams will have to fight for their spots in The Grid
The 16 teams invited to the first season of The Grid are the teams that earned RLCS and Rival Series auto-qualifications via their performance in Season 9
Grid Points will reset after each Split and can't be used to qualify for the World Championship.
We're also opening up The Grid broadcasts to allow individual teams to stream, making it easy to follow your favorite team's run. We'll share more details on this as we get closer to the start of The Grid.
RLCS X is our first step towards a new, exciting way for players and fans to experience professional Rocket League.
Battlefy's expertise will help us deliver a better tournament experience while also tracking results, points earnings, and more in real-time. In fact, you and your team can head over to our landing page and sign up RIGHT NOW on Battlefy before the deadline on July 24 at 10 a.m. PT (5 p.m. UTC)! So, get to practicing and don't miss your shot at competing in RLCS X.
We'll have more information to share as we get closer to the season so stay tuned to Rocket League Esports on Twitter! But, in the meantime, make sure to assemble your squad and sign up today. We'll see you on the RLCS pitch!

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Our lack of natural connection with each other has lead to the manifestation of technological devices as an attempt to compensate for it. Our lack of patience and presence has lead to the manifestation of vehicles and other methods of transportation to get us to places quicker... Places that we get to quicker than ever before, but still have the lack of patience and presence to enjoy it. Greed and the illusion of power and ownership has lead to the manifestation of killing off the land where fruit and vegetation was abundant and FREE, all so we can bring much less to one place and then even charge people for what was originally free. Every road on the planet was once filled with plants, trees, animals and a system that freely provided for everyone. More than enough. There was never lack.. Since we forgot that, weve desperately been manifesting sub-par replicas. Things that cant possibly take the place of the original.


Natural wine producer Sclavos is making some of Greece's most interesting wines. The Sclavos family had roots in Cephalonia but moved to Ukraine, returning after the Russian revolution to plant grapes in the Paliki peninsula. Currently, third generation vigneron and trained agronomist Evriviadis Sclavos is farming 6 hectares, and sources from another 4 hectares in Robola. Farming is biodynamic. Soils are limestone in Robola, and clay/limestone with some sandstone in Paliki. The wines are made naturally with low sulfites.
Complex and powerful with lovely lemon and tangerine fruit, but there's a hint of mousiness. Not rated.


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Le transport de l'eau dans les plantes est un processus au cours duquel les plantes absorbent l'eau et les minéraux par leurs racines, les transmettent à travers les vaisseaux conducteurs du xylème et libèrent l'eau sous forme de vapeur par transpiration au travers des stomates sous les feuilles.

Histoire de la recherche
Aucun sujet en physiologie végétale n'a une histoire plus longue ou une littérature plus volumineuse que la montée antigravitationnelle de l'eau dans les plantes supérieures. La théorie la plus récente postule que l'eau est tirée à travers le xylème par des gradients de tension produits par la perte d'eau par transpiration. Cette hypothèse est appelée « théorie de la cohésion » et a été introduite par Henry Horatio Dixon et John Joly (1894, 1895) et  (1895). La théorie de la cohésion est aujourd'hui remise en question par certains physiologistes : la pierre d'achoppement concerne les pressions négatives importantes dans le xylème et les phénomènes de cavitation de l'eau induits, que la théorie de la cohésion implique.

A priori historique

L'arbre fut d'abord envisagé sous le rapport de l'économie. L'idée ancienne voulait que la sève redescende dans les racines le temps de l'hiver.  La sève « naturellement riche en matières putrescibles » avait la réputation de corrompre le bois après coupe: le bois coupé « en sève », donc en période estivale, n'était donc pas réputé aussi bon pour être mis en œuvre. Aussi, la coupe « hors sève » était-elle recommandée ; le bois devait être aussitôt séché ; la coupe  « hors sève » avait aussi la réputation de faciliter la formation des rejets de souche, pour la formation des taillis. Cette idée ancienne se retrouve dans le Recueil des édits et ordonnances concernant les eaux et forêts de 1610 de Saint-Yon, maître des requêtes, qui établit que le rejet  . L'abattage hors sève, qu'il soit ou non efficace pour contrer la pourriture ou obtenir des bois de construction durs, est ancré dans les usages, et même transposé dans la loi (Un règlement de la Table de marbre du  défend aux adjudicataires des ventes « et autres personnes quelconques de couper aucun bois dans les forêts en temps de sève, savoir depuis la mi-mai jusqu'à la mi-septembre sous peine de confiscation»). Ainsi depuis le  ou depuis le  mai, jusqu'au « dernier septembre » les forêts était fermées, même aux propriétaires.

L'idée que l'on se fait de la sève demeure fort vague. Encore en 1763, pour Duhamel du Monceau la sève: : les pleurs de la vigne, la sève qui sort de l'érable pour produire le sirop d'érable, l'eau de bouleau, celle du noyer ou du charme sont qualifiés de « lymphe », la résine que l'on tire d'autres arbres est qualifiée de « suc propre »). Au , tous les physiciens d'autre-part sont divisés sur la question de l'origine de la rosée que l'on confond alors avec la guttation.  Pieter van Musschenbroek distingue trois espèces de rosée, la première qui tombe du ciel, la seconde qui émane de la terre et la troisième qui est suée par les végétaux. . Musschenbroek dans ses Essais de physique ajoute que la rosée:

L'hypothèse dominante à partir du , est calquée sur les travaux de William Harvey (1578-1657), qui a établi et fait la démonstration de la circulation sanguine générale (de Motu Cordis, 1628). Les botanistes déduisent des travaux de Harvey qu'il existe chez les plantes une circulation de la sève analogue à la circulation du sang chez les animaux: la sève irait ascendante à l'intérieur du tronc ou de la tige, et descendante à la périphérie du tronc. Dans les années 1660  (1634-1693) suggère l'analogie,  (- 1672) écrit sur la circulation du liquide dans les plantes sensibles et recherche au microscope les équivalents structuraux des valves cardiaques, et Nicaise Le Febvre (1610-1662) compare les fonctions de la sève et du sang. Dans les années 1670 et 1680, Nehemiah Grew  (1641-1712) et Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) ont impressionné le monde botanique avec leurs études systématiques de l'anatomie et de la physiologie des plantes. Mais ce sont Edme Mariotte (1620-1684) et Claude Perrault (1613-1688) qui poussent l'analogie entre le sang et la sève à ses limites, débat parrainé par l'Académie des sciences, et qui marque le premier effort systématique d'application de la théorie circulatoire aux plantes. L'incapacité à trouver des organes équivalents a évidemment sérieusement affaibli l'analogie, un circuit de sève est toutefois établi. Perrault, Mariotte, et Duclos qui s'est joint au débat, publient leurs points de vue sur la théorie, Mariotte dans son Premier essai : De la végétation des plantes en 1679. En l'absence d'une alternative convaincante, les botanistes trouvent une analogie partielle meilleure que si elle n'avait pas existé. Ceci jusqu'à la Statique des végétaux de Stephen Hales. L'hypothèse de la circulation de la sève a tout du moins le mérite d'attirer l'attention sur un problème central de la botanique, à savoir le transport de la sève.

Les connaissances les plus récentes démontrent que les tubes du xylème qui transportent l'eau (trachéide essentiellement), contiennent une colonne d'eau continue, réfutant l'idée de valves intermédiaires. De plus les cellules du xylèmes sont des cellules mortes.

Après que le physicien italien Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) ait démontré vers 1644 que l'air a un poids (que la nature n'a pas horreur du vide, et, par là, démontré la hauteur de pompage limite à  de n'importe quelle pompe aspirante), certains ont suggéré que l'eau était entraînée à travers les plantes par la pression atmosphérique sur les racines. Mais il a été tout de suite évident que de nombreuses atmosphères de pression auraient été nécessaires pour conduire l'eau des profondeurs de la terre au sommet des grands arbres.

Pour le botaniste allemand  dans son Neu- und nie erhörter doch in der Natur und Vernunfft wohlgegründeter Versuch der Universal-Vermehrung aller Bäume, Stauden, und Blumen de 1716-1717, la circulation de la sève est une variante du modèle circulatoire emprunté à ses prédécesseurs où l'éther — thème ancien que vient de rafraichir Newton pour expliquer la gravitation — et la pression atmosphérique ont un rôle à jouer, dans un mouvement perpétuel:

L'exploitation hivernale des arbres désormais se fonderait d'autre-part sur l'axiome corrigé: .

Stephen Hales

Stephen Hales (1677-1761), un disciple d'Isaac Newton, étudie expérimentalement le mouvement de l'eau dans la plante (, 1727, la Statique des végétaux traduit en français par Buffon en 1753, en allemand : , 1748). Il se rend compte que ce n'est pas principalement - comme on le supposait précédemment - la pression racinaire qui entraîne la sève, mais la transpiration des feuilles .

Hales estima la surface des feuilles de la plante ainsi que la longueur et la surface des racines. Cela lui permit de comparer l'afflux d'eau calculé dans la plante avec la quantité d'eau quittant la plante par transpiration à travers les feuilles. Il mesura également — the force of the sap — la force de la sève ou la poussée radiculaire. Hales fit remarquer —  —que les plantes tirent très probablement à travers leurs feuilles une partie de leur nourriture depuis l'air. Dans Vegetable Staticks, Hales préfigurait la théorie de la cohésion du mouvement de l'eau dans les plantes, bien que ses idées n'aient pas été comprises à l'époque ; il n'a donc pas influencé le débat sur le transport de l'eau dans les plantes au . Il émit également l'hypothèse que les plantes pourraient utiliser la lumière comme source d'énergie pour la croissance (la photosynthèse), sur la base de la suggestion d'Isaac Newton selon laquelle —  — les corps grossiers et la lumière pourraient être interconvertibles.

Dans Vegetable Staticks, Hales également décrivit des expériences qui montrèrent que —  — l'air pénètre librement dans les plantes, non seulement avec le principal fond de nourriture par les racines, mais aussi à travers la surface de leurs troncs et les feuilles. Les travaux de Hales sur la chimie de l'air semblent primitifs selon les normes modernes, leur importance cependant fut reconnue par Antoine Lavoisier, le découvreur de l'oxygène. L'invention de Hales de la cuve pneumatique pour collecter les gaz sur l'eau est également considérée comme une avancée technique majeure. Des formes modifiées de la cuve pneumatique ont ensuite été utilisées dans leurs recherches par William Brownrigg, Henry Cavendish et Joseph Priestley.

Dans la théorie de la cohésion-tension proposée au  par Henry Horatio Dixon une tension d'aspiration est créée par la transpiration. Quand l'eau s'évapore hors des pores de la paroi cellulaire des feuilles, une énorme pression de  se crée pour un arbre moyen (Dans les liquides il est possible de créer des pressions négatives qu'il n'est pas possible de créer dans les gaz. Pour un solide, cela équivaudrait à créer une tension mécanique dans le matériau par traction.). À l'interface du pore, une pression de 1 atmosphère est assurée par l'atmosphère terrestre et  de l'autre côté. Le ménisque du pore, la forme incurvée à l'intérieur d'un tube capillaire qui se forme à l'interface entre l'eau et l'air ne se brise pas sauvé par la petitesse du diamètre des trachéides, de l'ordre de deux à cinq nanomètres de diamètre. Un gradient de pression s'établit vers le bas; à hauteur des racine la pression est de une atmosphère. Se pose éventuellement la question de la mise en cavitation de la sève qui est empêché par la continuité liquide de la colonne d'eau.

Duhamel du Monceau (1700-1782) dans La Physique des arbres de 1763, se place en vulgarisateur de Hales. Il mène aussi différentes expériences sur la qualité des bois relativement à leur période d'abattage et écorne au passage les traditions en vigueur. Il trouve qu'il y a du moins autant de sève dans les arbres en hiver qu'en été. Rumford lui-même arrive par ses propres expériences à la conclusion que la sève est en quantité moins importante en été (et il la trouve si étrange, cette observation heurte tellement les opinions reçues, qu'il n'en tient pas compte et préfère l'). Pour justifier l'exploitation des arbres en hiver nous dit en 1863, Antoine-Auguste Mathieu, inspecteur des forêt,.

Ce qui se passe réellement dans la plante, jusqu'à la fin du , n'est qu'en grande partie l'objet de spéculations, qui se manifestent encore dans l'opposition entre vitalistes et physiciens. Jamin (1860) et Godlewsky (1884) expliquent le phénomène de la monté de la sève, en supposant que les cellules des plantes ont des propriétés particulières.

Recherche moderne

La façon dont les racines absorbent l'eau et les nutriments minéraux n'est devenue disponible à l'étude que dans la seconde moitié du  lorsque Julius Sachs (1832-1897) introduit l'. Il détermine quels éléments chimiques sont nécessaires à la croissance des plantes et sont absorbés par les racines. Il découvre que les poils racinaire (rhizodermes) fins des racines absorbent l'eau et les nutriments.

En 1891, Eduard Strasburger montre que la montée de la sève dans le xylème s'explique purement physiquement et ne nécessite aucune cellule vivante. Dans les années suivantes, beaucoup de scientifiques allemands s'attellent à la question; l'ancien assistant de Strasburger, Henry Horatio Dixon et d'autres, développent la théorie de la cohésion-tension pour expliquer la montée de la sève, selon laquelle une tension d'aspiration, causée par la transpiration, entraîne la sève. Cependant, cette théorie demeure longtemps controversée car de nombreux botanistes rejettent une explication purement physique, et ils peuvent se réfugier dans des phénomènes tels que la guttation, qui ne peuvent être expliqués de cette manière.

La théorie de la cohésion-tension proposé en 1894 par John Joly et Henry Horatio Dixon , est une théorie de l'attraction intermoléculaire qui explique le processus d'écoulement de l'eau vers le haut (contre la force de gravité) à travers le xylème des plantes.

L'eau est une molécule polaire. Lorsque deux molécules d'eau se rapprochent, l'atome d'oxygène légèrement chargé négativement de l'une forme une liaison hydrogène avec un atome d'hydrogène légèrement chargé positivement dans l'autre. Cette force d'attraction, avec d'autres forces intermoléculaires, est l'un des principaux facteurs responsables de l'apparition de tension superficielle dans l'eau liquide. Il permet également aux plantes de puiser de l'eau de la racine à travers le xylème jusqu'à la feuille.

L'eau est constamment perdue par la transpiration de la feuille. Lorsqu'une molécule d'eau est perdue, une autre est entraînée par les processus de cohésion et de tension. La traction de transpiration, utilisant l'action capillaire et la tension superficielle inhérente de l'eau, est le principal mécanisme du mouvement de l'eau dans les plantes. Cependant, ce n'est pas le seul mécanisme impliqué. Toute utilisation d'eau dans les feuilles oblige l'eau à y pénétrer.

La transpiration dans les feuilles crée une tension (pression différentielle) dans les parois cellulaires des cellules mésophylles. En raison de cette tension, l'eau est tirée des racines vers les feuilles, aidée par la cohésion (la traction entre les molécules d'eau individuelles, due aux liaisons hydrogène) et l'adhérence (le caractère collant entre les molécules d'eau et les parois cellulaires hydrophiles des plantes). Ce mécanisme d'écoulement de l'eau fonctionne en raison du potentiel de l'eau (l'eau s'écoule d'un potentiel élevé vers un potentiel faible) et des règles de diffusion simple.

La théorie de la cohésion-tension proposée, basée sur la recherche classique de Dixon-Joly (1894), Eugen Askenasy (1845-1903) (1895), et Dixon (1914, 1924), est malgré de nombreuses objections, la théorie la plus largement acceptée pour le transport de l'eau à travers le système vasculaire d'une plante. La théorie de Dixon est cependant oubliée pendant un demi-siècle avant de faire à nouveau l'objet des travaux de J. A. Milburn, M. H. Zimmermann et Melvin T. Tyree à partir des années 1970-1980.

Avec la découverte du transport actif des ions à travers les membranes cellulaires vers 1930, un autre mécanisme sera ajouté, qui peut provoquer un léger flux de sève, sans transpiration.

Au cours du , de nombreuses recherches furent menées sur le mécanisme du transport de la sève du xylème; aujourd'hui, la plupart des phytotechniciens continuent à s'accorder sur le fait que la théorie de la cohésion-tension explique le mieux ce processus. Mais des théories multiforce qui émettent l'hypothèse de plusieurs mécanismes alternatifs ont été suggérées, notamment des gradients de pression osmotique longitudinaux cellulaires et du xylème, des gradients de potentiel axial dans les vaisseaux et des gradients interfaciaux supportés par des bulles de gaz .

Histoire évolutives des végétaux

Transport d'eau dans les plantes
L'assimilation du  dans les plantes par les chloroplastes via les stomates, est accompagnée inévitablement d'une perte d'eau par transpiration. Entre le sol et la surface d'évaporation située dans les feuilles, l'eau doit traverser un premier massif cellulaire dans les racines, un système conducteur qui transporte l'eau de la racine vers les feuilles (le xylème, constitué de cellules vides de 100 à 500 micromètres de diamètre, et de quelques centaines de μm à quelques millimètres de longueur), et enfin un massif cellulaire dans les feuilles.

L'eau traverse les cellules au travers de barrières membranaires, ou elle contourne la cellule en circulant dans la paroi cellulosique. À travers la racine, la circulation radiale de l'eau peut se faire par voie apoplastique (parois pectocellulosiques et espaces vides entre cellules), par voie symplastique (par l'intermédiaire des plasmodesmes) ou par voie vacuolaire (l'eau est obligée de passer deux fois à travers le cytoplasme et ses membranes). Ces barrières cellulaires (membrane hémiperméable) sont essentielles pour entretenir le phénomène d'osmose.

La circulation de l'eau dans la plante est corrélée à l'existence d'un gradient de potentiel hydrique : l'eau circule dans le sens des potentiels hydriques décroissants. Un certain nombre de phénomènes physico-chimiques : interaction osmotique, capillaire, action de pression ou de tension externes au système, modifient le potentiel hydrique, en forment les composantes. Les potentiels hydriques en série décroissante induisent une force motrice responsable du déplacement de l'eau dans la plante.

Absorption d'eau dans la racine

Des trois organes de base — feuille, tige et racine — la racine est spécialisée dans l'absorption de l'eau et des ions du sol, et est donc normalement souterraine. Cette tâche est effectuée en particulier dans la zone du rhizoderme par les poils racinaires, qui offrent une grande surface d'échange de substances dans cette zone. En plus de l'absorption d'eau, l'absorption des ions est également une fonction centrale. Ceux-ci sont très dilués (10 -4 mol/l) et, de plus, ne sont pas dans le rapport exigé par la plante. La concentration des ions (sels nutritifs dissous) est un processus énergivore.

Il existe différentes formes d'eau dans le sol. L'eau souterraine est inaccessible à de nombreuses plantes, car leurs racines ne s'enfoncent pas assez profondément. Dans les couches supérieures du sol, l'eau est présente sous forme d'eau de rétention (adsorbée par les particules du sol, également connue sous le nom d'eau de , voir aussi le retrait-gonflement des argiles), sous forme d'eau capillaire (liée par forces capillaires) et d'humidité (vapeur d'eau issue de l'air). Le potentiel capillaire de l'eau de rétention est généralement si négatif qu'il est inaccessible à la plante. Les plantes utilisent l'eau capillaire pour répondre à leurs besoins.

Le sol et ses pores sont en équilibre d'humidité avec l'environnement. Au niveau des eaux souterraines, l'humidité est de 100%; dans l'espace aérien au-dessus de la surface de la terre elle est fonction de l'humidité de l'air (par exemple 40%). Entre les deux existe un gradient d'humidité, en raison duquel une diffusion capillaire ou une aspiration capillaire peut avoir lieu (C'est l'une des raisons du processus de chromatographie sur couche mince en chimie). La compensation (Ausgleich) est basée sur la dépendance en température de la pression de vapeur de saturation en vapeur d'eau. Les principaux mécanismes de transport de l'humidité sont la gravitation, la diffusion de vapeur d'eau et le transport de liquide par les forces capillaires, et, dans une moindre mesure, les effets des champs électriques et des gradients de concentration ionique.

L'absorption d'eau par la racine est possible si le potentiel hydrique Ψ de la racine est plus faible (c'est-à-dire plus négatif) que celui du sol environnant, car l'eau se déplace des endroits à fort potentiel hydrique vers des endroits à faible potentiel hydrique.

Le potentiel hydrique du sol n'est pas déterminé à partir du potentiel osmotique, car les ions sont généralement trop dilués, mais principalement à partir du potentiel capillaire (potentiel capillaire =  Travail requis pour extraire une unité de masse d'eau fixée par les forces capillaires — constante de tension superficielle ou force de succion — d'une unité de masse du sol,  s'exprimant en hauteur d'eau négative). Plus le sol est sec, plus le potentiel hydrique baisse, c'est-à-dire que l'absorption d'eau par la racine devient plus difficile. Le potentiel hydrique du sol est typiquement compris entre Ψ = −0.01  MPa et Ψ = −1,5  MPa. Ψ = −1,5  MPa est appelé point de flétrissement permanent car la plupart des plantes ne peuvent plus extraire l'eau du sol à cette valeur  . Dans les sols salins, il peut être inférieur à −0,2  MPa, dans les sols secs à -2  MPa, et dans les déserts et les steppes salines il peut être beaucoup plus faible. En revanche, il peut également se situer autour de 0 après les précipitations ou à proximité des nappes phréatiques. Le potentiel hydrique des racine peut varier considérablement selon les espèces en raison de substances osmotiquement actives. Cela permet aux plantes de s'adapter à leur environnement afin de continuer à absorber l'eau. (si l'eau du sol est plus salée que la sève, le sol absorbe l'eau de plante qui se désèche). Le potentiel osmotique est basé d'une part sur les ions absorbés par le sol, en particulier les ions potassium, et d'autre part sur les composés organiques en solution dans la cellule. Le potentiel hydrique d'une racine normale est entre Ψ = −0,2  MPa et Ψ = −0,5  MPa, pour les halophytes inférieurs à -2  MPa et même en dessous de −10 MPa pour les plantes du désert. Le potentiel hydrique de la sève brute est généralement compris entre −0,5 et −1,5   MPa, dans les feuilles entre −0,5 et −2,5  MPa. L'eau passe des feuilles dans l'air, car il s'y trouve un potentiel hydrique de -94 MPa à une humidité de 50%, par exemple.

L'eau peut pénétrer dans la racine de trois façons: par l'apoplasme, par le symplasme et de manière transcellulaire (c'est-à-dire à la fois par l'apoplasme et par le symplasme). Tout d'abord, l'eau de l'apoplasme est transférée vers le symplasme. Cela entraîne une baisse du potentiel hydrique de l'apoplasme, et l'eau peut s'écouler du sol directement adjacent. Cela réduit également son potentiel hydrique; et l'eau peut s'écouler également des environs. Cependant, en raison de la conductivité limitée de l'eau du sol, ce processus est limité au maximum à quelques cm. Dès que l'approvisionnement en eau à un moment donné est épuisé, la racine suit l'eau en retrait, par la croissance, vers d'autres régions qu'elle exploite - il en va de même pour les ions. À basses températures (cela inclut des températures juste au-dessus du point de congélation dans de nombreuses espèces), la résistance au transport de l'eau dans le sol augmente, la perméabilité à l'eau de la membrane plasmique diminue et la croissance des racines diminue. À des températures inférieures à zéro, l'eau de rétention même gèle. Le manque d'eau qui en résulte, connu sous le nom de dessication par le gel (), est souvent interprété à tort comme un gel.

Lorsque le potentiel hydrique diminue vers le cylindre central, l'eau diffuse dans cette direction. Cependant, la voie apoplasique est bloquée par la barrière de Caspary dans l'endoderme, et l'eau est forcée dans les symplastes. S'il y a beaucoup d'eau et qu'aucune eau n'est éliminée par transpiration, une pression hydrostatique positive peut s'accumuler dans le cylindre central, la pression racinaire. Comme un sceau, la bande Caspary empêche la pression de s'égaliser par l'eau qui retourne dans le parenchyme de l'écorce. Alors l'eau monte. La façon exacte dont la pression racinaire est établie n'a pas encore été clarifiée ; il faut, en tout cas, de l'énergie pour la générer. Elle est probablement causée par l'incorporation active secondaire d'ions inorganiques dans les vaisseaux de guidage du xylème du parenchyme xylème. La poussée radiculaire est normalement de 0,1 MPa, pour certaines espèces, comme la tomate, mais elles peut aussi atteindre plus de 0,6 MPa. En cas de défaut de l'approvisionnement en eau, ou de forte transpiration, il existe cependant une pression hydrostatique négative dans la zone racinaire, qui détermine principalement un potentiel hydrique négatif, et non plus osmotique. Normalement, la poussée radiculaire prédomine la nuit, mais la transpiration aspire rapidement après le lever du soleil.

Les racines des plantes peuvent également absorber l'eau et les nutriments via des mycorhize des champignons symbiotiques .

Transport et livraison d'eau
Alors que la racine absorbe l'eau, le reste de la plante perd de l'eau dans son environnement par la transpiration. Cette transpiration est inévitable si la plante a un potentiel hydrique plus élevé que son environnement. La transpiration n'a pas lieu uniquement si la plante et le milieu extérieur sont en équilibre l'un avec l'autre, c'est-à-dire qu'ils ont un potentiel hydrique identique. Cela se produit à 20 °C uniquement à partir d'une humidité relative de 99 à 97,5%. Une telle humidité relative élevée est rarement atteinte, par exemple en raison d'un refroidissement nocturne, peu de temps avant d'atteindre le point de rosée. L'humidité relative est généralement de 40 à 60% pendant la journée. Si la plante n'est pas en équilibre avec son air ambiant, elle perdra définitivement de l'eau. Elle perd cela dans une faible mesure (jusqu'à 10%) via la cuticule et surtout les stomates. La perte d'eau à travers les stomates, est liée à l'absorption nécessaire de CO2 via celui-ci. Puisqu'il n'y a que quelques traces de dioxyde de carbone dans l'air (0,037%), la plante perd plusieurs centaines de molécules d'eau pour chaque molécule de CO2 qu'elle absorbe.

L'eau que l'épiderme perd dans l'environnement est aspiré des parties internes de la plante. Cette aspiration se poursuit à travers les conduits du xylème, jusqu'à la racine, et elle se réalise ainsi de la racine jusqu'aux extrémités des feuilles. Cet effet est appelé aspiration de la transpiration (), selon la théorie de la cohésion. L'aspiration de la transpiration n'est pas seule responsable du débit d'eau dans les plantes, mais elle serait suffisante en termes de force. Pour élever une colonne d'eau de dix mètres contre la gravité, une pression négative de 0,1 MPa doit être atteinte et 0,2  MPa supplémentaire sont nécessaires pour surmonter les forces de friction de l'eau dans le xylème.

La perte d'eau par transpiration conduit donc à une aspiration de la sève brute et,  de là, à un écoulement d'eau de la racine à la cime, le flux de transpiration. La transpiration profite à la plante de plusieurs manières: d'une part, les feuilles sont refroidies par le froid évaporatif, d'autre part, les ions (sels nutritifs dissous) sont transportés dans le xylème. Cependant, les plantes n'ont montré aucun problème de croissance dans les expériences, même avec une transpiration réduite de 15 fois. Même sans transpiration, il existe un débit d'eau interne qui est tout à fait suffisant pour le transport des ions. Ceci causé par la pression racinaire, l'eau de croissance () et le cycle interne de l'eau dans le phloème et le xylème, ainsi que la guttation dans certains cas particuliers. L'eau de croissance () est de l'eau qui sert à augmenter le volume de la plante. Cela peut être le cas des plantes herbacées, surtout dans les phases de croissance, représentant une proportion importante (par exemple 10-20%) des eaux de transpiration. Le cycle interne de l'eau dans le phloème et le xylème est généré par l'eau dans le xylème s'écoulant vers le haut, et dans le phloème pour le transport de la sève élaborée dans la direction opposée, les deux systèmes étant inter-connectés. La transpiration n'est donc pas principalement utilisée pour le transport, mais est tout simplement inévitable, notamment en raison de l'absorption inévitable du dioxyde de carbone.

Cavitation de l'eau
Induits par la transpiration, la théorie de la cohésion considère que l'eau est tirée exclusivement par des gradients de pression négative de plusieurs mégapascals à travers des colonnes d'eau continues depuis les racines jusqu'au feuillage. L'eau sous de telles pressions négatives est extrêmement instable, en particulier compte tenu de l'hydrophobicité des parois internes du xylème et de la composition de la sève (lipides, protéines, mucopolysaccharides, etc.) qui empêche le développement de pressions négatives stables supérieures à environ -1 MPa.

Pour les plus grands arbres du monde, qui ont plus de 110 mètres (Sequoia sempervirens en Californie), 3 MPa doivent être appliqués en pression négative pour assurer l'écoulement de l'eau vers les cimes. Le problème crucial ici est la résistance à la traction de l'eau.

Si la pression négative est plus forte que le pouvoir cohésif de l'eau, l'eau se retrouve dans un état métastable et peut caviter, avec l'apparition brutale de bulles. L'eau en ébullition ne s'oppose pas seulement aux forces de cohésion entre les molécules individuelles, mais également aux forces d'adhérence à la paroi du vaisseau conducteur.

Dans les expériences dans un tube de verre, l'eau sans gaz a résisté à des pressions allant jusqu'à  avant de se déchirer. Dans le tissu dominant des plantes, les pressions tombent rarement en dessous de −4 MPa,  mais une embolie se produit toujours en raison de la formation de bulles de gaz, parce que l'eau transportée est contaminée par des gaz et des ions dissous. Ces embolies sont un problème grave pour la plante car elles bloquent le transport de l'eau .

La théorie de la cohésion érigée comme la vérité absolue et universelle est remise en question par certains physiologistes: la pierre d'achoppement concerne les pressions négatives importantes dans le xylème et les phénomènes de cavitation de l'eau induits, que la théorie de la cohésion implique. Il existe de nombreuses preuves que l'approvisionnement en eau du feuillage supérieur des grands arbres est réalisé par une interaction finement réglée de diverses forces agissant dans le xylème, dans les multiples phases du tissu et aux interfaces liquide/gaz. Différentes stratégies supplémentaire seraient prises par les grands arbres pour maintenir les différentes forces (y compris la tension) à des valeurs modérées (prouvées par le modèle).

Voir aussi

Liens Web

 Tötzke, Christian: Untersuchungen über den Zustand tensilen Wassers in Bäumen, Dissertation.- FU Berlin, 2008.- 177 S.

 La circulation de l'eau à travers la plante. Water movement through the plant. André Berger. Département de Physiologie Ecologique, CEPE,. CNRS. 1978
Derek Muller. Veritasium How Trees Bend the Laws of Physics. youtube

Notes

Références

Bibliographie

Physiologie végétale
Pages avec des traductions non relues

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
INVESTMENT IN LONDON OFFICES DEFIES EU JITTERS IN FIRST QUARTER
Global capital investment into London's office market remained strong in the traditionally subdued first quarter, with a total of £3.5 billion invested in the first three months of the year, according to CBRE, the world's leading global real estate advisor.
Total investment volumes were down 14% in Q1 following a particularly strong end to 2015, but remained on a par with the first quarter of last year. Following this strong start to 2016, CBRE projects investment volumes will be more subdued in Q2, as some investors delay decision-making in the run up to June's EU referendum, but expects volumes will rebound in the second half of the year, as long as Britain remains in the EU
There were 43 transactions in Q1, the lowest number since 2010, but the highest number of large deals above £100 million in value in any comparable quarter since CBRE records began in 1985.
The market continues to be dominated by international investors, who were involved in 67% of all transactions, down from 71% in Q4 2015. Overseas buyers accounted for more than £2.4 billion of investment, with many taking advantage of the weak pound and lower competition over prime locations. In March, London retained its status as the most popular EMEA destination in CBRE's Investor Intentions Survey.
Stock levels in London rose by £1.4billion to £4.8billion at the end of Q1. Prime yields remained flat at 4.3% across Central London, and prevailed at record low levels of 3.5% in the West End, and 4% in the City of London.
Some investors are experiencing a degree of political and economic uncertainty at the moment, so it's heartening to report that this hasn't caused much in the way of turbulence in the London office market in the first quarter of the year. Yields are stable, and the prevailing conditions are in some cases making investment at this time a more attractive prospect.
Nevertheless, we are already seeing some buyers hold off on deals until they know the result of June's EU vote, so we expect to see Q2's transaction volumes dip, before bouncing back in the second half of the year, provided Britain stays in the EU.
Jamie Pope, Head of London Capital Markets


Bainisteoir agus iar-imreoir sacair Albanach is ea Sir Alex Ferguson OBE (rugadh Alexander Chapman Ferguson ar 31 Nollaig, 1941 i nGovan, Glaschú). Bhí Ferguson ina bhainisteoir ar Manchester United F.C. ó 1986, agus is é an bainisteoir is rathúil i sacar Sasanach. Bhí Ferguson ina bhainisteoir freisin leis na foirne Albanacha Aberdeen F.C., East Stirlingshire, St. Mirren agus an fhoireann náisiúnta féin ar feadh tamaill, tar éis báis Jock Stein.
Bhí tréimhse beagán rathúil ag Ferguson mar imreoir níos luaithe, ag imirt le Queen's Park, St. Johnstone, Dunfermline AFC, agus Falkirk. D'fhógair go raibh sé le héirí as Manchester United sa bhliain 2013.
Tugadh an leathanach seo cothrom le dáta an 24 Feabhra 2018 ag 06:47.


Is the tide turning for Tony Abbott?
October 23, 2011 October 7, 2013 by Drag0nista11 Comments on Is the tide turning for Tony Abbott?
It's a truism in politics that while one opinion poll might evoke an interesting point, it's the trend in poll findings that reveals much more.
The same could be said for opinion pieces written by journalists who report federal politics. Each piece has its own merit (or not), but when there's a trend in the opinion being advanced, then this is something worth noticing.
Why? Because the appearance of a theme in a string of opinion pieces suggests, not that several journalists autonomously and simultaneously came to the same conclusion, but that an external action or actor initiated that thought.
The external factor could range from something as innocent as journalists musing aloud to colleagues over coffee, to something more Machiavellian like a political operative briefing against opponents. Either way, it's worth taking note when a trend appears in political opinion pieces.
Such a trend appeared this weekend. At a time when there is seemingly unending mainstream media criticism of the PM and her government, not one but five senior political reporters appeared to significantly escalate their scrutiny of Tony Abbott's tactics and policies.
In his weekend column, SMH Political Editor Peter Hartcher ran the rule over the Coalition's known policy positions and found "the Coalition is changing from the free-market, pro-business, economically sound party of Howard and Costello to a populist party under the influence of Abbott and Barnaby Joyce.
Hartcher's stablemate, Lenore Taylor, pointed in her weekend column to the new heights in spin being employed by Abbott, "ignor[ing] facts altogether" to score political points.
And over in the News Ltd camp, somehow foreseeing this trend, The Weekend Australian's National Chief Reporter Tom Dusevic contributed a feature on Abbott that examines his policy credentials.
What does this mean? It's not that these pieces are the first to canvass the need for Abbott to show policy depth and integrity. Incoming Liberal Senator, Arthur Sinodinos, advanced it in his weekly Australian column back in early September. Canberra Press Gallery doyen, Laurie Oakes, covered it in his opinion piece last week on politicians lying.
But other columnists did not pick up the point until now. And all at the same time.
What does this mean? Do the reporters in question regularly chat, and decided last week that it was time to turn the heat up on Abbott's policy credentials? Is this an indication that the tide is turning for Abbott in the Canberra Press Gallery? Perhaps.
Or has the Prime Minister's newly-appointed Communications Director turned the heat up on journalists and demand parity in policy scrutiny? Maybe, but he has not yet officially started in that post.
We'll never know how this alignment of political opinion pieces came about. Whether through independent thought, osmosis or suggestion, they do suggest a turning point; the beginning of a new phase for the Opposition Leader in which he is expected to do more than just oppose.
Time will soon tell whether a new trend has emerged. Stay tuned for more: it will be fascinating to watch.
Postscript: One week later – this from the Financial Review's political editor, Laura Tingle. And then this from Laurie Oakes. Other notable pieces since then include this from The Australian's Paul Kelly (paywalled), and this from Michael Gordon.
Astroturfing denotes political, advertising, or public relations campaigns that are formally planned by an organization, but are disguised as spontaneous, popular "grassroots" behavior. The term refers to AstroTurf, a brand of synthetic carpeting designed to look like natural grass.
At any given point in time activists, political parties or business interests are at the forefront of techniques carefully honed to influence public opinion. We never really know for sure which of these has the ascendancy until one of the combatants blows another's cover.
The nature of the "disguise" has changed over the years. Decades ago, when a vested interest provided a public rationalisation for their actions, they would automatically be met with a variation of the Mandy Rice-Davies response: "well you would say that, wouldn't you".
It was clear at this time that those who sought to influence opinion could not credibly do so in their own right. Alternative methods were identified and explored.
As the art of influence became more sophisticated, the players took note of market research that indicated people were most likely to believe what scientists and esteemed scientific institutions such as the CSIRO had to say about contemporary and controversial public policy issues. This finding heralded the "battle of the boffins" era.
This era saw governments and corporates mobilise behind the scenes to identify, solicit and enlist scientifically credentialed third parties to "endorse" their preferred position. Activist and pressure groups refined this dark art even further by strategically placing a number of their field-savvy campaigners into scientific roles in academic institutions, as well as establishing their own think-tanks and creating their own "independent panels of concerned scientists".
This approach proved to be counter-productive for all concerned. Faced with scientific boffins squabbling over what were generally seen to be esoteric issues, ordinary people turned their backs on the divided scientific community and looked inwards to their core values for guidance.
Arising from this introspective mood is the phenomenon we now know as astroturfing. At its heart, astroturfing is a fake grass roots campaign.
Once the vested interests realised that they had lost the community's hearts and minds with their battling boffins, they undertook more market research and found that people had reverted to focusing on the mitigation of tangible issues at the local level. Those seeking to influence public opinion studied and learned from the successes of Landcare and Rotary and then established faux local interest groups to support and promote their own interests.
Activist and interest groups followed swiftly with the establishment of similar entities. Some did not make much effort to hide this sleight of hand, with some "local interest" groups publicly sharing fax numbers and postal addresses with high profile activist groups.
Today, the casually interested observer in political and public policy issues is confronted with an array of information sources, some of who may or may not be who they say they are. No wonder there is little confidence in the credibility of most public information sources.
The huge irony in all this, is that people are now demanding that vested interests step forward and publicly defend their own positions. Many people have moved on from the Rice-Davies form of skepticism to a new variation that says "if you are not prepared to publicly defend your own position, product or party then there must be something indefensible about it".
Activists, political parties and business interests should take note of this change in community expectations. Throw away the Astroturf and step forward. Being prepared to publicly defend your position is the first step in winning new hearts, minds and supporters.
It's not that the Member for Watson, Tony Burke, isn't big enough or tough enough to defend himself. In fact I suspect he's more than capable, being a member of the NSW Right. But after watching the (not so) lighthearted journo jabs at his tweets in my Twitter-stream today, I feel compelled to jump to his defence.
It's not easy for a politician to hit the right note on Twitter. Some think its just another megaphone with which to blast criticisms at their opponents. Others use it to mouth their own party's meaningless pap and propaganda.
But Burke has got the balance right. He uses it to make real connections with real people. How do I know this? Because I talked to him about it.
I first started to take notice of Burke's Twitter-style when he began to tweet about his road trips to Canberra each Sunday before a parliamentary sitting. The old political campaigner in me thought "How clever, to send such an innocuous tweet with such a powerful subliminal message." In my mind's eye I could see those of Burke's constituents on Twitter nodding with approval that their MP drove himself to Canberra rather than take the easier limosine-plane-limosine option.
When I commended Burke on this cunning strategy he demurred. He claimed that he tweets his movements for more modest reasons (1) to let his constituents know where he is and what he is doing, (2) to let journalists know when he is on a plane so they know when he is uncontactable and (3) to let his staff, friends and colleagues know when it is a good time to call him.
Whether he does it for political or practical reasons, I think Burke tweets well.
And I'm surprised that the journos making fun of him today (@BernardKeane "I've grabbed a coffee on my way to the study) didn't think to look a little further into Burke's objectives before making fun of him.


text:
package info.re4k.asfc.croudia.api;

import info.re4k.asfc.croudia.CroudiaException;
import info.re4k.asfc.croudia.Friendship;
import info.re4k.asfc.croudia.Relationship;
import info.re4k.asfc.croudia.ResponseList;
import info.re4k.asfc.croudia.User;
import info.re4k.asfc.croudia.param.RelationshipParam;
import info.re4k.asfc.croudia.param.UserMultiParam;
import info.re4k.asfc.croudia.param.UserParam;

public interface Friendships{
	User createFriend(UserParam p) throws CroudiaException;

	User destroyFriend(UserParam p) throws CroudiaException;

	Relationship showFriend(RelationshipParam p) throws CroudiaException;

	ResponseList<Friendship,UserMultiParam> lookupFriend(UserMultiParam p) throws CroudiaException;
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
New York's MTA Responds to First Snowfall of 2022
The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) announced it took a range of measures to deliver safe service for the Friday morning commute during the first snowfall of 2022.
MTA personnel made preparations prior to and during the snowfall to keep the system safe for customers.
Precautionary measures included salting platforms and stairs at stations, chaining articulated buses, and keeping track switches and third rail clear of snow.
MTA Bridges and Tunnels ensured roadways were clear for customers who had to travel this morning.
The authority announced its preparations on Thursday which included Metro-North Railroad operating on a Saturday schedule with additional trains during the morning and evening peak periods.
New York City Transit and Long Island Rail Road operated on regular weekday schedules with minimal delays.
Related: MTA's Graduation Day for a New Class of 90 Bus Operators


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text:
Whereof One Can Speak
Nothing special, one post at a time since 2012
About This Thing
Tag Archives: Insurrection
When Seeing Is Not Believing
Posted on January 17, 2021 by L Franz
In case we were thinking that a violent insurrection encouraged by the president to overturn the results of an election he lost might serve as a wakeup call for our Republican friends, here are the opening paragraphs of "How Republicans Are Warping Reality Around the Capitol Attack" (New York Times):
Immediately after the attack on the U.S. Capitol, all corners of the political spectrum repudiated the mob of President Txxxx's supporters. Yet within days, prominent Republicans, party officials, conservative media voices and rank-and-file voters began making a rhetorical shift to try to downplay the group's violent actions.
In one of the ultimate don't-believe-your-eyes moments of the Txxxx era, these Republicans have retreated to the ranks of misinformation, claiming it was Black Lives Matter protesters and far-left groups like Antifa who stormed the Capitol — in spite of the pro-Trump flags and QAnon symbology in the crowd. Others have argued that the attack was no worse than the rioting and looting in cities during the Black Lives Matter movement, often exaggerating the unrest last summer while minimizing a mob's attempt to overturn an election.
The shift is revealing about how conspiracy theories, deflection and political incentives play off one another in Mr. Txxxx's G.O.P. For a brief time, Republican officials seemed perhaps open to grappling with what their party's leader had wrought — violence in the name of their Electoral College fight. But any window of reflection now seems to be closing as Republicans try to pass blame and to compare last summer's lawlessness, which was condemned by Democrats, to an attack on Congress, which was inspired by Mr. Txxxx.
Posted in Politics	| Tagged 2020 Election, Insurrection, Republican Party, The President
A Republican Explains Her Vote to the People Back Home
Jaime Herrera Beutler is one of the ten Republicans in the House of Representatives with enough integrity, courage or patriotism (or disgust) to vote to impeach the president. Some of her constituents weren't too clear on why she voted that way, so she offered a brief summary of the case against him on Twitter:
In conversations w/residents about this week's impeachment vote, some are unclear on what transpired before & during that involved President Txxxx.
Here are the indisputable and publicly available facts
The president helped organize the January 6 rally. Example:
Peter Navarro releases 36-page report alleging election fraud 'more than sufficient' to swing victory to Trump https://t.co/D8KrMHnFdK. A great report by Peter. Statistically impossible to have lost the 2020 Election. Big protest in D.C. on January 6th. Be there, will be wild!
For months, he insisted the election had been stolen and consistently urged people to "fight" in order to change the results: "WE HAVE JUST BEGUN TO FIGHT!!!" (Tweet, Dec. 12)
"@ senatemajldr and Republican Senators have to get tougher, or you won't have a Republican Party anymore. We won the Presidential Election, by a lot. FIGHT FOR IT. Don't let them take it away!" (Dec. 18)
"The 'Justice' Department& the FBI have done nothing about the 2020 Presidential Election Voter Fraud, the biggest SCAM in our nation's history despite overwhelming evidence. They should be ashamed. History will remember. Never give up. See everyone in DC on January 6th"(Dec. 26)
He led Americans to believe that Mike Pence could overturn the Electoral College results, even though the VP does not have that power. On Jan. 5 he tweeted, "The Vice President has the power to reject fraudulently chosen electors."
He told supporters at Georgia rally that day, "I hope Mike Pence comes through for us, I have to tell you. I hope that our great Vice President, our great Vice President, comes through for us. He's a great guy. Of course if he doesn't come through I won't like him quite as much."
During the president's rally on January 6, he repeated phrases like "fight like hell," and "we're going to have to fight much harder."
Many coming to the rally did intend to fight, with physical violence. Leading up to the rally, specific threats were numerous. Hundreds of TikTok videos promoted violence. Thousands of used hashtags promoting a second civil war.
One said, "Take your motherf—ing guns. That's the whole point of going." Another online comment said: "travel in packs and do not let them disarm someone without stacking bodies."
Rather than take any action to curb the threats, the president at his rally said, "When you catch somebody in a fraud, you are allowed to go by very different rules." He said "You'll never take our country back with weakness."
While the riot was in full swing & a mob was in the Capitol hunting Mike Pence, the president tweeted: "Mike Pence didn't have the courage to do what should have been done to protect our Country and our Constitution, giving States a chance to certify a corrected set of facts, …. not the fraudulent or inaccurate ones which they were asked to previously certify."
The mob at the Capitol chanting "Hang Mike Pence."
Trump supporters threaten to hang Mike Pence at Capitol – YouTube
This one of the mob attacking a Capitol Police officer. As we know, many were beaten and one died because of his injuries.
Mob beating Capitol Police officer – YouTube
The commander in chief's primary job is to protect U.S. citizens. While this mob hunted for Pence, who had fled to a secure location, the only action we know the president took was calling GOP Senators, seeking their support to delay the Electoral College certification.
Hours after the Capitol was breached, the president released a pathetic video denouncing the violence but telling the perpetrators "I love you," and "you are special."
Unquote.
Those are some of the indisputable, publicly available facts. One I hadn't heard before is how the president exploded the prices at his Washington hotel for inauguration week. This report was published by the Independent on January 1st:
The rooms initially opened at higher prices than usual, ranging from doubles for $886 to suites at $2,225.
However, the prices seem to have been hiked further, as the hotel's website now says a two-night minimum is required for guests visiting during the week of inauguration, with even the cheapest rooms priced at $2,225 a night for 19 and 20 January.
Make a buck. Make a coup. It's all the same to him.
Posted in Politics	| Tagged Insurrection, The President
Garry Kasparov and Alexandra Petri on What Should Come Next
Garry Kasparov, former world chess champion, left Russia in 2013, fearing persecution for his political views. He became a citizen of Croatia and now lives in New York City. He has some thoughts post-January 6th:
As terrible as the events of Jan. 6 were — and I'm on the record warning of "the unimaginable" — I'm going to repeat what I said after Election Day: It's not over.
There will be more violence, especially if the Capitol perpetrators and those who incited them — starting with the President — are not held accountable.
The correct response is the dispassionate application of the law. Not political persecution, but not politically motivated leniency, either. We don't have to choose between unity and justice. Avoiding doing the right thing will only prolong the crisis and give aid and comfort to enemies of the state and of the peace.
[The] Founding Fathers failed to resolve the historical challenge of slavery, passing a bloody Civil War on to future generations. Despite Abraham Lincoln's assassination, Reconstruction allowed the South a "defeat with honor," decades of Jim Crow, and the pernicious Lost Cause mythology that persists today.
. . . No new mythology should be allowed to sprout from this vile transgression. The worst result would be letting the mutineers off the hook — and this includes the elected officials who encouraged them, . . . especially President Txxxx. That they, and scores of other Republicans, continue to attack the integrity of the election even now is beyond the pale. . . .
History teaches us the cost of well-meaning but shortsighted attempts to sacrifice justice for unity. Russians learned this in the hardest possible way after the fall of the Soviet Union. . . . They declined to root out the KGB security state in the interest of national harmony. It would be too traumatic, our leaders said, to expose the countless atrocities the Soviet security forces committed and to punish their authors.
A feeble truth commission was quickly abandoned by President Boris Yeltsin, and soon even the Soviet archives were closed, although not before researchers . . . revealed some of the KGB's atrocities. The KGB's name was changed to the FSB and its members quietly stayed in touch and intact. The result? A mere nine years after the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, Russia elected a former KGB lieutenant colonel, Vladimir Putin, to the presidency. It was the last meaningful election we ever had. We chose unity and we got dictatorship.
America should not make a similar mistake. The truth may hurt, but lies will do far greater damage in the end. Americans should be prepared for a long fight against these anti-democratic forces. The attack on the Capitol has opened every eye; there can be no more feigned ignorance of the crisis.
Many Americans were shocked by how many of their compatriots, including nearly all GOP officials, have been willing to go along with Txxxx's open assault on the pillars of their open society, from the free press to fair elections. . . . Demagogues don't find radicals to lead, they steadily radicalize their followers one outrage at a time. The culmination, so far, was January 6.
Hemingway wrote in "For Whom the Bell Tolls": "There are many who do not know they are fascists but will find it out when the time comes." The time has come, and we are finding them out. . . .
Alexandra Petri writes a humor column for The Washington Post. One of her columns last week was called "I See No Choice But to Resign from this Death Star as It Begins to Explode". Today she has "Now Is Not the Time to Point Fingers, Julius Caesar. Now Is the Time for Healing". She's very good at her job:
Now is not the time to cast blame and call out names. Now is the time for healing. Please stop bleeding on my toga; that is a sad reminder of a hurtful time I hope we can put behind us. The last thing we need is to be thinking about the past, when I have already dropped my dagger, forgotten every threatening or negative thing I ever said, and am, frankly, ready to move on. Now is the time to come together, for the good of Rome.
Posted in Life, Politics	| Tagged Alexandra Petri, Crime and Punishment, Garry Kasparov, Insurrection
According to The New York Times:
[A joint intelligence bulletin issued by federal authorities says] the deadly breach at the Capitol last week will be a "significant driver of violence" for armed militia groups and racist extremists who are targeting the presidential inauguration next week.
Disseminated widely to law enforcement agencies across the country, the bulletin is labeled "Domestic Violent Extremists Emboldened in Aftermath of Capitol Breach, Elevated Domestic Terrorism Threat of Violence Likely Amid Political Transitions and Beyond." [It says] anti-government militias and racists extremists "very likely pose the greatest domestic terrorism threats in 2021″.
The "boogaloo," a movement that seeks to start a second civil war, and extremists aiming to trigger a race war "may exploit the aftermath of the Capitol breach by conducting attacks to destabilize and force a climactic conflict in the United States," according to the bulletin.
The federal officials wrote that extremist groups have viewed the breach of the Capitol as a success and have been galvanized by the death of Ashli Babbitt, a QAnon follower who was shot by the police as she tried to enter the . . . Speaker's Lobby, just outside the House chamber. The extremists could perceive that death as "an act of martyrdom".
[The bulletin says] the Capitol breach, as well as conspiracy theories from QAnon, will likely inspire such extremists "to engage in more sporadic, lone-actor or small-cell violence against common" violent extremist "targets, including racial, ethnic, or religious minorities and institutions, law enforcement, and government officials and buildings".
The federal officials also wrote that "the shared false narrative of a 'stolen' election," the false claim perpetuated by President Txxxx, "may lead some individuals to adopt the belief that there is no political solution to address their grievances and violent action is necessary."
The Jan. 6 rally in Washington, D.C., and subsequent breach of the Capitol also offered an opportunity for militia members and extremists from different groups to meet, which could increase the extremists' "willingness, capability, and motivation to attack and undermine a government they view as illegitimate."
So some parts of the federal government are already conveying accurate information. It's a step forward that people at these agencies were allowed to point out that their (current) boss is lying about winning the election and that right-wing extremists are the most dangerous domestic threat (as they've been for years).
In other good news, Jim Acosta of CNN tonight referred to the president as "Lord of the Lies". But where was he with that phrase the past four years when we really needed it?
Posted in Politics	| Tagged Domestic Terrorsm, Federal Government, Insurrection, Lord of Lies, National Security
Last Wednesday and the Grotesque Old Party
Paul Krugman's last two columns dealt with the insurrection and the Republican Party. I've taken apart "This Putsch Was Decades in the Making" and "Appeasement Got Us Where We Are" and rearranged some of the pieces:
So, is it finally OK to use the F-word?
One shouldn't use the term "fascist" lightly. . . Mitch McConnell's brand of politics has, in my view, greatly damaged America; but cynical legislative maneuvers aren't the same thing as threatening and encouraging violence, and I wouldn't call McConnell a fascist.
Dxxxx Txxxx, however, is indeed a fascist — an authoritarian willing to use violence to achieve his racial nationalist goals. So are many of his supporters. If you had any doubts about that, Wednesday's attack on Congress should have ended them.
And if history teaches us one lesson about dealing with fascists, it is the futility of appeasement. Giving in to fascists doesn't pacify them, it just encourages them to go further.
One striking aspect of the Capitol Hill putsch was that none of the rioters' grievances had any basis in reality.
No, the election wasn't stolen — there is no evidence of significant electoral fraud. No, Democrats aren't part of a satanic pedophile conspiracy. No, they aren't radical Marxists — even the party's progressive wing would be considered only moderately left of center in any other Western democracy.
All the rage is based on lies. But what's almost as striking as the fantasies of the rioters is how few leading Republicans have been willing, despite the violence and desecration, to tell the MAGA mob that their conspiracy theories are false.
Bear in mind that Kevin McCarthy, the House minority leader, and two-thirds of his colleagues voted against accepting the Electoral College results even after the riot. (McCarthy then shamelessly decried "division", saying that "we must call on our better angels.")
Or consider the behavior of leading Republicans who aren't usually considered extremists. On Sunday Senator Rob Portman declared that we need to "restore confidence in the integrity of our electoral system." Portman isn't stupid; he has to know that the only reason so many people doubt the election results is that members of his party deliberately fomented that doubt. But he's still keeping up the pretense.
And the cynicism and cowardice of leading Republicans is, I would argue, the most important cause of the nightmare now enveloping our nation.
Of course we need to understand the motives of our homegrown enemies of democracy. In general, political scientists find — not surprisingly, given America's history — that racial antagonism is the best predictor of willingness to countenance political violence. Anecdotally, personal frustrations — often involving social interactions, not "economic anxiety" — also seem to drive many extremists.
But neither racism nor widespread attraction to conspiracy theories is new in our political life. The worldview described in Richard Hofstadter's classic 1964 essay "The Paranoid Style in American Politics" is barely distinguishable from QAnon beliefs today.
There's only so much to be gained from interviewing red-hatted guys in diners; there have always been people like that. If there are or seem to be more such people than in the past, it probably has less to do with intensified grievances than with outside encouragement.
For the big thing that has changed since Hofstadter wrote is that one of our major political parties has become willing to tolerate and, indeed, feed right-wing political paranoia.
This coddling of the crazies was, at first, almost entirely cynical. When the G.O.P. began moving right in the 1970s its true agenda was mainly economic — what its leaders wanted, above all, were business deregulation and tax cuts for the rich. But the party needed more than plutocracy to win elections, so it began courting working-class whites with what amounted to thinly disguised racist appeals. . . .
But it's not just about race. Since Ronald Reagan, the G.O.P. has been closely tied to the hardline Christian right. Anyone shocked by the prevalence of insane conspiracy theories in 2020 should look back to "The New World Order," published by Reagan ally Pat Robertson in 1991, which saw America menaced by an international cabal of Jewish bankers, Freemasons and occultists. Or they should check out a 1994 video promoted by Jerry Falwell Sr. called "The Clinton Chronicles," which portrayed Bill Clinton as a drug smuggler and serial killer.
What has changed since then? For a long time Republican elites imagined that they could exploit racism and conspiracy theorizing while remaining focused on a plutocratic agenda. But with the rise first of the Tea Party, then of Dxxxx Txxxx, the cynics found that the crazies were actually in control, and that they wanted to destroy democracy, not cut tax rates on capital gains.
And Republican elites have, with few exceptions, accepted their new subservient status.
Consider a few milestones on the way to the sacking of the Capitol.
One big step happened in February, when every Republican senator other than Mitt Romney voted against convicting the president on impeachment charges despite clear evidence of his guilt. Susan Collins famously justified her vote by hoping that Txxxx had "learned his lesson." What he actually learned was that he could abuse his power with impunity.
Another big step came in the spring, when armed protesters, with Txxxx's encouragement, menaced Michigan authorities over Covid-19 restrictions. That dress rehearsal for this week's violence drew some tut-tutting from Republican politicians, but no serious pushback. Indeed, one of the leaders in these events — who was also involved in Wednesday's rioting — is in line to become co-chair of the Michigan G.O.P.
Again, the lesson was clear: Right-wing activists can get away with threatening elected officials, even when this includes brandishing weapons in public spaces.
Then came Txxxx's unprecedented refusal to accept electoral defeat. Many Republicans joined him in trying to reject the will of the voters . . .
But even those who didn't actively join his attempts to stage a coup tried to let Txxxx and his followers down easy. McConnell waited more than a month before accepting Joe Biden as president-elect. One senior Republican said to The Washington Post, "What is the downside for humoring him for this little bit of time?" Well, now we know the answer.
What happened on Wednesday? A Txxxxist attack during the confirmation of Biden's victory was completely predictable. So why was security so lax? Why were there hardly any arrests?
What we know suggests that the people who were in charge of protecting Congress failed to do so because they didn't want to be seen treating the MAGA mob as the danger it was. . . .
And even if the inauguration goes off smoothly, the threat will remain. If you imagine that the people who stormed the Capitol will just go away once Biden is installed in the White House, you're delusional.
You might have hoped that a significant number of sane Republican politicians would finally say that enough is enough, and break with their extremist allies. But Txxxx's party didn't balk at his corruption and abuse of power; it stood by him when he refused to accept electoral defeat; and some of its members are responding to a violent attack on Congress by complaining about their loss of Twitter followers.
And there's no reason to believe that the atrocities yet to come — for there will be more atrocities — will make a difference. The G.O.P. has reached the culmination of its long journey away from democracy, and it's hard to see how it can ever be redeemed.
So what can be done? It's time to stop appeasing the fascists among us. Law enforcement should seek to arrest as many of the participants in Wednesday's attack as possible . . . and anyone who tries to violently interfere with the transfer of power. . .
Finally, there needs to be an accounting for whatever crimes took place during the past four years — and does anyone doubt that Txxxx allies and associates engaged in criminal acts? Don't say that we should look forward, not back; accountability for past actions will be crucial if we want the future to be better.
Appeasement is what got us to where we are. It has to stop, now.
Posted in History, Politics	| Tagged Appeasement, Fascism, Insurrection, Republican Party, Sedition
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