text:
\section{Introduction} \label{sec:h_intro}
Magnetic fields are dynamically important in the interstellar medium (ISM) of the Milky Way \citep{Boulares1990}, and generally appear to be dynamically important within star forming galaxies similar to the Milky Way \citep[e.g.,][]{Beck2012}.
The most common method of estimating extragalactic magnetic field strengths is to use observations of synchrotron flux; if one assumes rough equality between the energy density in cosmic rays and magnetic fields, the synchrotron flux provides a measure of the magnetic field strength \citep{Beck2005}.
If one applies this same assumption to starburst galaxies, it suggests that magnetic fields are {\em not} dynamically important in starburst galaxies \citep{Thompson2006}.
There is evidence, however, that the assumption of equality between cosmic ray and magnetic field energy density breaks down in some environments, including starburst galaxies \citep{Thompson2006,McBride2014} and radio jets \citep{Hardcastle1998,Croston2003,McBride2014a}.

Zeeman splitting measurements provide an alternative method to probe the role of magnetic fields in some extragalactic environments, though its use is presently limited because Zeeman splitting is typically quite weak.
The only existing detections of extragalactic Zeeman splitting are in an H~I absorption line in a high velocity system toward the Perseus cluster \citep{Kazes1991,Sarma2005} and in OH maser lines in 15 starburst galaxies \citep{Robishaw2008,McBride2013} that host OH masers so powerful they are called OH megamasers \citep[OHMs;][]{Lo2005}.
While \citet{Sarma2005} used the Very Large Array (VLA), the other observations of Zeeman splitting all used single dish telescopes, and none of the Zeeman detections directly provided spatial or structural information on the fields they detected.
Moreover, OHM emission is often very complex, and overlapping features at the same velocity may blend, weakening the Zeeman splitting signal.

Dual-polarization very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) observations of OHMs are uniquely able to directly and accurately measure magnetic fields on small spatial scales in other galaxies.
OHMs are found almost exclusively in merging galaxies in the midst of a starburst phase \citep{Willett2011a,Willett2011}; high infrared luminosities pump the OH molecule, providing inversion for strong maser action \citep{Lockett2008}.
Therefore, measuring magnetic fields in OHMs is an opportunity to study the role of magnetic fields in star forming environments very unlike those found in the Milky Way.

\begin{figure*}
    \includegraphics[width=7in]{f1.eps}
    \caption{
        An integrated intensity map of Stokes $I$.
        In both the right-handed circularly polarized and left-handed circularly polarized data cubes, we clipped values at 3~mJy, which is 2.5 times the rms noise.
        We then summed the two polarizations to generate the Stokes $I$ cube, and then summed over all spectral channels.
        The contours are at 3,~6,~12,~24,~48 mJy~beam$^{-1}$.
        The FWHM of the beam, which is 28 x 8.0 mas, is shown in the upper left corner of the image.
        The labels E1, E2, W1, and W2, correspond to the labels used in \citet{Lonsdale1998}.
        There are two bright features in the box labeled E1, and one dim feature.
        We refer to the more western of the bright features as E1.1, and the bright feature to the east as E1.2.
    } \label{fig:i_map}
\end{figure*}

Arp~220 is the natural first target for dual-polarization VLBI observations.
Arp~220 is characteristic of OHMs, as it is in the midst of a merger, with two nuclei separated by roughly 1$\arcsec$, or 350~pc \citep{Graham1990,Condon1991}, that is driving a powerful starburst \citep[e.g.,][]{Smith1998,Parra2007}.
It was the first discovered OHM \citep{Baan1982}, and because of Arp~220's proximity (76~Mpc), it is the brightest known OHM (though not intrinsically the most luminous).
VLBI observations of Arp~220 have revealed multiple bright, compact maser spots with fluxes of $\sim$10--150~mJy and sizes of a few parsecs associated with both nuclei \citep{Diamond1989,Lonsdale1994a,Lonsdale1998,Rovilos2003}.
\citet[][hereafter RQH08]{Robishaw2008} used Arecibo to clearly detect Zeeman splitting associated with many narrow spectral features in the total single dish spectrum, which corresponded to magnetic fields with strengths $\sim$0.7--8~mG.
Despite the success of their observations, the lack of direct spatial information in the single dish spectrum, as well as potential line blending among features, complicates interpretation of their results.

In this paper, we have two primary aims: to test the accuracy of Zeeman splitting measurements derived from a single dish spectrum with many blended lines; and to directly probe the structure of magnetic fields in the two nuclear regions of Arp~220.
In Section \ref{sec:h_obs}, we describe our observations and data reduction. In Section \ref{sec:h_results}, we present magnetic field measurements for individual maser spots in Arp~220, and also present evidence for variability in the Arp~220 maser lines.
In Section \ref{sec:h_discussion}, we discuss the dynamic importance of the detected magnetic fields, and explore whether the observed variability is intrinsic or produced by interstellar scintillation within the Milky Way.
Finally, we briefly recapitulate our results in Section \ref{sec:h_conclusion}.

\section{Observations \& Data Reduction} \label{sec:h_obs}
We used the combined Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), phased VLA, 100-m Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope (GBT), and the 305-m William E. Gordon Telescope at Arecibo Observatory, in a configuration called the High Sensitivity Array (HSA), to observe Arp~220 in dual-polarization mode.\footnote{The Very Long Baseline Array, the Very Large Array, and the Green Bank Telescope are operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, which is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.}$^,$\footnote{The Arecibo Observatory is operated by SRI International under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation (AST-1100968), and in alliance with Ana G. M\'{e}ndez-Universidad Metropolitana, and the Universities Space Research Association.}
The observations occurred on June 20, 2008 with project code BR0125.
The correlator was configured to capture a 2~MHz band with 512 spectral channels, for a frequency resolution of 3.9~kHz ($0.73 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$).
We have 2.5 hours of Arecibo data, of which 2 hours was spent observing Arp~220.
For the VLBA and GBT, we have 4 hours of data, with 3 hours spent observing Arp~220.
As a result of low level radio frequency interference (RFI) from the Iridium satellite, the VLA did not phase properly, and thus did not provide usable data.

\begin{table*}
    \centering
    \caption{Selected Zeeman Splitting Fit Results} \label{tab:zeeman}
    \begin{tabular}{rrrrrrrrr} \hline \hline
        Feature &  Figure & Gaussian   &  RQH08 Gaussian   & $S$ & $v_{\odot}$ & $\Delta v$ & $\nu$ & $B_{\parallel}$ \\
                &  &  & & (mJy) & (km s$^{-1}$) & (km s$^{-1}$) & (MHz) & (mG) \\ \hline
    W1 & \ref{fig:1}  & 2 & 9 & $                        115.0 \pm   4.1$ & $      5352.0 \pm     0.3$ & $     11.2 \pm      0.4$ & $ 1638.115$ & $               -1.5 \pm   0.4$ \\
    W1 & \ref{fig:1}  & 5 & 3 & $\phantom{8}\phantom{8}    7.8 \pm   1.8$ & $      5455.8 \pm     0.7$ & $      4.0 \pm      1.0$ & $ 1637.558$ & $\phantom{-}     7.0 \pm   2.5$ \\
  E1.1 & \ref{fig:2}   & 1 & 4 & $              31.7 \pm   1.9$ & $      5426.3 \pm     0.2$ & $      7.9 \pm      0.5$ & $ 1637.716$ & $    -5.2 \pm   0.9$ \\
  E1.2 & \ref{fig:3}  & 4 & 4 & $              48.3 \pm   2.2$ & $      5428.4 \pm     0.2$ & $      9.8 \pm      0.7$ & $ 1637.705$ & $\phantom{ }    -3.0 \pm   0.6$ \\
    E2 & \ref{fig:4}  & 4 & --- & $              36.6 \pm   1.2$ & $      5403.0 \pm     0.1$ & $     16.7 \pm      0.4$ & $ 1637.841$ & $           \phantom{ }    -3.4 \pm   1.2$ \\ \hline
    \end{tabular}
    \vskip 0.25em
    \raggedright
    {{\bf Note: } The column labeled ``Gaussian'' specifies the component of the fit, as labeled in Figure \ref{fig:iv}.
        For instance, the feature E1.2 is shown in Figure \ref{fig:3}, and we fit Gaussian 4 to have a magnetic field $B_\parallel = -3.0 \pm 0.6$~mG.
        Though the feature for E2 is also labeled Gaussian 4, it corresponds to a different feature, shown in Figure \ref{fig:4}, which has $B_\parallel = -3.4 \pm 1.2$.
        The column labeled ``RQH08 Gaussian'' shows the label used in Table 8 and Figure 8 of \citet{Robishaw2008} that appears to match the feature we see in the VLBI data.
        The relevant information from Table 8 in RQH08 is reproduced here in Table \ref{tab:r08}.
The reported errors for the fits are purely statistical.}
\end{table*}

\begin{table*}
    \centering
    \caption{Relevant Zeeman Splitting Results from \citet{Robishaw2008}} \label{tab:r08}
    \begin{tabular}{rrrrrr} \hline \hline
      Gaussian & $S$ & $v_{\odot}$ & $\Delta v_{\odot}$ & $\nu$ & $B_{\parallel}$ \\
         & (mJy) & (km s$^{-1}$) & (km s$^{-1}$) & (MHz) & (mG) \\ \hline
    3 & $              10.1 \pm   1.0$ & $      5452.9 \pm     0.2$ & $      4.5 \pm      0.5$ & $ 1637.574$ & $    7.77 \pm   0.76$ \\
    4 & $              90.5 \pm   0.8$ & $      5425.6 \pm     0.1$ & $      11.0 \pm      0.1$ & $ 1637.720$ & $    -2.78 \pm   0.13$ \\
    9 & $              386.2 \pm   5.9$ & $      5351.2 \pm     0.1$ & $      16.5 \pm      0.2$ & $ 1638.119$ & $    -0.76 \pm   0.06$ \\ \hline
    \end{tabular}
    \vskip 0.25em
    \raggedright
    {{\bf Note:} Fits from RQH08 for which we see corresponding features in the HSA data. The Gaussian number here refers to the labels used in Table 8 and Figure 8 of RQH08.}
\end{table*}

We used the Astronomical Image Processing System \citep[AIPS;][]{Greisen2003} for all phase and amplitude calibration of the $uv$ data, including many of the VLBI~specific tasks described in Appendix C of the AIPS Cookbook.
We followed the general procedure for reducing polarized VLBI data provided in the Appendix of \citet{Fish2005}, though a few steps required for full-polarization data did not apply to our dual-polarization data.
We used 3C~286 as a bandpass calibrator and used J1532+2344\footnote{Flux information for J1532+2344 is available at \href{http://www.vlba.nrao.edu/astro/calib/vlbaCalib.txt}{http://www.vlba.nrao.edu/astro/calib/vlbaCalib.txt}} to calculate instrumental phases and delays.
We did not observe J1532+2344 frequently enough to solve for time varying phases, so we performed phase calibration using self-calibration of the brightest maser spot in Arp~220, and then applied that solution to the other spectral channels.
Neither of the calibration sources we observed are ideal flux calibrators; 3C~286 has resolved structure at our resolution, and J1532+2344 is dim and does not have a reported flux at our observed frequency.
Thus, for amplitude calibration, we used the recorded system temperatures for the telescopes in the array.
Comparing our measured fluxes for 3C~286 with the results from \citet{Kus1988}, we estimate $\sim$30\% systematic uncertainty in our amplitude calibration.\footnote{Magnetic field strengths derived from Zeeman splitting are independent of absolute amplitude calibration, as the Zeeman signal depends upon the relative amplitudes of Stokes $I$ and $V$.}

The system temperatures for the telescopes that contributed data ranged from 20--30~K.
The OH lines at their brightest have fluxes of $\sim$200~mJy.\footnote{As in RQH08 and \citet{McBride2013}, we use the classical definition of Stokes I, which is the sum of the left- and right-circularly-polarized emission. Some other work uses the average instead.}
For gains ranging from $\sim$0.1--10~K/Jy, the lines themselves thus make a minimal contribution to the rms noise, meaning any Stokes~$V$ signal we detect does not depend sensitively on artifacts from finding the difference of two relatively bright signals \citep{Liszt2002a}.

After applying all solutions, we used the AIPS task IMAGR to separately generate data cubes for the right-handed circular polarization ($RHCP$) and left-handed circular polarization ($LHCP$), and saved the images in FITS files for analysis elsewhere.
For both the $RHCP$ data cube and $LHCP$ data cube, the rms error was 1.2~mJy~beam$^{-1}$~channel$^{-1}$.
For the Stokes $I$ data cube, which is the sum of the $RHCP$ and $LHCP$, the rms error was 1.7~mJy~beam$^{-1}$~channel$^{-1}$.
The beam had a full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of $28 \times 8.0$~mas.
For a distance of 76~Mpc to Arp~220, the physical resolution is $10 \times 2.9$~pc.

\section{Results} \label{sec:h_results}

We identified prominent maser spots for Zeeman splitting analysis using a map of the total Stokes~$I$ emission.
To produce the map, which is shown in Figure \ref{fig:i_map}, we clipped the Stokes~$I$ data cube at 3 times the rms noise, and then flattened the image over all spectral channels.
The map is qualitatively similar to that presented in \citet[][hereafter, R03]{Rovilos2003}; we will compare our Stokes~$I$ results to theirs in Section \ref{sec:comp}.
\citet{Lonsdale1998} discussed the four brightest regions of emission, and labeled them W1, W2, E1, and E2, where ``W'' refers to the western nucleus, ``E'' to the eastern nucleus, ``1'' to the northern component, and ``2'' to the southern component.
We will follow their nomenclature, and labelled the spots accordingly in Figure \ref{fig:i_map}.
We also use two additional labels: E1.1 refers to the western of the two bright features in E1, and E1.2 refers to the eastern of the two bright features in E1 (there is a third dim feature in E1 that we do not discuss).

We then generated $RHCP$ and $LHCP$ spectra from their respective {\em unclipped} data cubes.
For each distinct maser spot, we selected the brightest pixel, and summed neighboring pixels in a region corresponding to 95\% of the beam power.
To account for the imperfect amplitude calibration of the $RHCP$ and $LHCP$ components, we solved for a single leakage solution for all maser spots.
With the leakage corrected polarizations, we then took $I = RHCP + LHCP$ and $V = RHCP - LHCP$.

\begin{figure*}
    \centering
    \subfigure[Stokes $I$ and $V$ for the OH maser spot at \newline W1 (15$^h$34$^m$57$^s$.225, +23$^\circ$30$\arcmin$11.562$\arcsec$).]{
        \label{fig:1}
        \includegraphics[width=3.0in] {f2.eps}
    }
    \subfigure[Stokes $I$ and $V$ for the OH maser spot at \newline E1.1 (15$^h$34$^m$57$^s$.295, +23$^\circ$30$\arcmin$11.235$\arcsec$).]{
        \label{fig:2}
        \includegraphics[width=3.0in] {f3.eps}
    } \\
    \subfigure[Stokes $I$ and $V$ for the OH maser spot at \newline E1.2 (15$^h$34$^m$57$^s$.296, +23$^\circ$30$\arcmin$11.240$\arcsec$).]{
        \label{fig:3}
        \includegraphics[width=3.0in] {f4.eps}
    }
    \subfigure[Stokes $I$ and $V$ for the OH maser spot at \newline E2 (15$^h$34$^m$57$^s$.292, +23$^\circ$30$\arcmin$11.115$\arcsec$).]{
        \label{fig:4}
        \includegraphics[width=3.0in] {f5.eps}
    }

    \caption{
        Within each sub-figure, Stokes $I$ (top panel) and $V$ (bottom panel) spectra are shown for different maser spots.
        Stokes $I$ is defined here as the sum of the cross-hand polarizations.
        In the top panel, the Stokes~$I$ spectra, smoothed by three channels, are represented with a solid line.
        The dashed line represents individual Gaussian fits; the corresponding numbers for each Gaussian are shown between the top and bottom panels.
        The thin solid line, offset from zero, shows the magnified residuals to the fitting.
        In the bottom panel, the solid line indicates the Stokes~$V$ spectrum smoothed by three channels, while the dashed line shows the total fit from all input Gaussians.
    } \label{fig:iv}
\end{figure*}

\subsection{Magnetic field derivation}

For OHM lines, the line splitting is generally smaller than the intrinsic line width, in which case the amplitudes of features in the Stokes $V$ spectrum are proportional to the derivative of the Stokes $I$ spectrum and the line-of-sight magnetic field strength, $B_\parallel$, with
\begin{equation}
    V = \left(\frac{\nu}{\nu_0}\right)\left(\frac{dI}{d\nu}\right)b B_\parallel + aI. \label{eq:narrow_split}
\end{equation}
Here, $b$ is the splitting coefficient, which sets the strength of the frequency splitting in the presence of a magnetic field \citep{Heiles1993}.
For the 1667~MHz line in OH, it is 1.96~Hz~$\mu$G$^{-1}$.
The coefficient $a$ accounts for leakage, so we set $a = 0$ as a result of already applying a leakage solution.

Many of the spectra associated with individual spots are quite complex, despite corresponding to small spatial scales.
For this reason, a single $B_\parallel$ solution that fits the total Stokes~$V$ profile to the derivative of the Stokes~$I$ profile generally did a very poor job of reproducing the observed Stokes~$V$ profile.
The reported fits had large errors relative to their magnitudes, and visually, the fitted Stokes~$V$ did not capture the Zeeman signal associated with the brightest parts of the Stokes~$I$ spectrum.

Instead of fitting a total magnetic field strength to each Stokes~$I$ and $V$ pair, we followed the procedure used in the single dish observations of RQH08 and \citet{McBride2013} to simultaneously fit multiple features to each spectrum, as follows.
We guess the minimum number of Gaussian features that adequately describe the structure in the Stokes $I$ spectrum, and then simultaneously fit all of the guessed parameters to the Stokes~$I$ spectrum.
Then, the Gaussian fits to a Stokes $I$ profile are used as inputs to fit the Stokes $V$ profile for that spot.
Each Gaussian component is permitted to take a different magnetic field strength, but is fixed in frequency and width to be the same as its corresponding feature in Stokes $I$.
While this approach means there is some degeneracy in solutions, we find that the derived $B_\parallel$ values we report are fairly insensitive to the exact input guesses we make.
Somewhat different combinations of Gaussian parameters that still adequately fit the Stokes~$I$ and $V$ profiles yield comparable estimates of the magnetic field strength associated with the brightest features in the Stokes $I$ and $V$ spectra.

\subsection{Magnetic field detections}

We summarize our most notable Zeeman splitting results in Table \ref{tab:zeeman}, which includes three detections and two intriguing fits that fall short of the threshold for detection.
We decided not to report every fitted Gaussian for all features, a total of $\sim$$40$ components.
For the maser spots discussed in the text (W1, E1.1, E1.2, and E2), the upper limits for other components are all much larger than the values for the components in Table \ref{tab:zeeman}.
The spectra from which these fits were derived are shown in Figure \ref{fig:iv}.
The data plotted in Figure \ref{fig:iv} are smoothed by three channels, but all fits that we report are to the unsmoothed data.
The fits listed in the first, third, and fourth rows are the only three fits for which the fitted magnetic field strength was larger than 3 times the error associated with the fit.
The detections are not a result of particularly strong fields; the three detected fields are found among the four brightest features in the Arp~220 spectrum at any spatial location.
For ease of comparison with the results of RQH08, Table \ref{tab:r08} shows selected Zeeman splitting results from RQH08 for which there are corresponding features in the HSA data.

The third and fourth rows in Table \ref{tab:zeeman} show fits to the two bright features along the northern ridge in the eastern nucleus (E1.1 and E1.2).
The two features are at very similar velocities, and have magnetic fields oriented in the same direction, though with different strengths.
These features combined appear to correspond to Gaussian 4 from RQH08, which we show here in the second row of Table \ref{tab:r08}.
RQH08 fit a feature with $v = 5425.6 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$, $\Delta v = 11 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$, and $S = 90.5$~mJy (the flux they report, 0.90~mJy, is a typo) that has $B_\parallel = -2.78 \pm 0.13$~mG.
Their $B_\parallel$ is in good agreement with one of the two features we see, and somewhat lower than the other.
If we take the weighted mean of the two features we measure (using the variance in the magnetic field measurement), this gives $B_\parallel = -3.7 \pm 0.5$~mG, which is not significantly different from the value reported in RQH08.

For the brightest individual feature, in W1, we find $B_\parallel = -1.5 \pm 0.4$~mG.
By comparison, RQH08 found $B_\parallel = -0.76 \pm 0.06$~mG for the corresponding feature in their spectrum (Gaussian 9, in the third row of Table \ref{tab:r08}).
While these values are not in perfect agreement, they are of comparable magnitude, and have the same orientation.
Along with the results for E1, this result suggests that while line blending may reduce the value of fitted fields in single dish Zeeman observations of OHMs, the effect of blending is, at most, moderate.
Thus the previous interpretation of single dish results appears reasonable, though a more extensive comparison between single dish and VLBI results would still be valuable.

\begin{figure*}
    \centering
        \subfigure[Spectrum 1 from Figure 5 of R03 (E1.1), located at \newline
        15$^h$34$^m$57$^s$.295 +23$^\circ$30$\arcmin$11.235$\arcsec$.]{
     \label{fig:rovi1}
    \includegraphics[width=3.2in]{f6.eps}
    }
    \subfigure[Spectrum 2 from Figure 5 of R03 (E1.2), located at \newline
    15$^h$34$^m$57$^s$.296 +23$^\circ$30$\arcmin$11.240$\arcsec$.]{

     \label{fig:rovi2}
    \includegraphics[width=3.2in]{f7.eps}
    } \\
    \subfigure[Spectrum 5 from Figure 5 of R03 (E2), located at \newline
    15$^h$34$^m$57$^s$.292 +23$^\circ$30$\arcmin$11.115$\arcsec$.]{
     \label{fig:rovi5}
    \includegraphics[width=3.2in]{f8.eps}
    }
    \subfigure[Spectrum 8 from Figure 5 of R03 (W2), located at \newline
    15$^h$34$^m$57$^s$.227 +23$^\circ$30$\arcmin$11.260$\arcsec$.]{
     \label{fig:rovi8}
    \includegraphics[width=3.2in]{f9.eps}
    }
    \caption{In each subfigure, we compare our spectra (solid black) at different locations to the spectra from R03 (dashed cyan) at the same location.
We assume that they used the more common definition of Stokes $I$, and thus halve our fluxes in this figure for the purpose of comparison.
        In making these comparisons, we summed flux in boxes that replicate those used in R03 as closely as possible.
    Experimenting with different boxes indicates that our results are not sensitive to our choice of boxes.
A larger source of error is that R03 were unable to provide spectra;
what we show here was digitized from Figure 5 in their paper.} \label{fig:comps}
\end{figure*}

The second row in Table \ref{tab:zeeman} shows a comparatively modest feature, also in W1, that has an amplitude of 7.8~mJy.
While its fitted magnetic field is not statistically significant, the feature appears to match the RQH08 fit shown in the first row of Table \ref{tab:r08}, for which they reported a magnetic field of 7.77 $\pm$ 0.76~mG.
The two lines have very similar amplitudes (7.8 $\pm$ 1.8~mJy, 10.1 $\pm$ 1.0~mJy) and velocity widths ($4.0 \pm 1.0 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$, $4.5 \pm 0.5 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$).
Their velocity centers are statistically significantly different, however, with centers of $5455.8 \pm 0.7 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$ and $5452.9 \pm 0.2 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$.
Given the similarities in the other features, however, and the lack of any other compelling match for Gaussian 3 from RQH08 in the HSA data, we consider it very likely that the features are physically the same, and that the masing cloud that produces this narrow line accelerated in the time between the observations of RQH08 in 2006 and the HSA observations discussed here, from 2008.

If the identification of the two features is correct, it emphasizes the complexity of structure along the line-of-sight in a few parsec-sized cloud.
The two features that we fit for W1, in Table \ref{tab:zeeman}, are at the same location, yet are roughly $100 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$ apart in velocity, and have oppositely oriented magnetic fields whose magnitudes differ by a factor of $\sim$4.
It also confirms that the magnetic fields measured from maser lines correspond to the fields in the masing clouds themselves, rather than probing the field on larger scales in the ISM.

The fifth row in Table \ref{tab:zeeman} shows a feature from the spectrum of the bright maser spot in E2, though its corresponding $B_\parallel$ fit is not a detection.
Though it is bright, this feature is not easily identifiable in the single dish spectrum; there is no clear analog in the fits to the single dish spectrum in RQH08.
Thus, while single dish observations are capable of providing significant information on magnetic fields in other galaxies, VLBI observations will be vital to fully understanding the detailed structure of magnetic fields.

\subsection{Evidence for variability} \label{sec:comp}
\citet{Lonsdale1998} performed VLBI observations of Arp~220 on November 13, 1994.
Their sensitivity was similar to ours, but as result of their superior $uv$ coverage, their observations are of higher spatial resolution.
R03 then presented more detailed maps and spectra of Arp~220 made from the same 1994 data set.
Given the evidence for time variability in OHMs \citep{Darling2002b}, including weak variation in the single dish spectrum of Arp~220 \citep{McBride2013} and in VLBI observations of Arp~220 \citep{Lonsdale2007}, we evaluate evidence for variations between the VLBI observations.

The location of maser spots is unchanged between our observations and those of R03.
We detect emission from each spot that was boxed in Figure 5 of R03, and do not see significant ($>$2~mJy) emission from any spot that did not appear in the R03 map.
We do, however, see evidence for variations in the amplitude and structure of spectral lines.
Figure \ref{fig:comps} shows four spectra from R03 compared to our spectra at the same locations.
\citet{Lonsdale1998} and R03 do not explicitly state their Stokes~$I$ definition, but based on their discussion of their data relative to other published work, including discussion in \citet{Lonsdale1994a}, they appear to use the more common definition of the average of the two cross-hand polarizations; we assume that they used the more common Stokes~$I$ definition going forward.
With this assumption, our amplitudes are lower for most major features that appear in the VLBI spectra.
We estimate that our amplitude scaling is $\sim$40\% lower than that in R03, based on minimizing the total difference between all features in our spectra and theirs and assuming a constant total flux in the VLBI components.
While this scaling is large, it is within reason, given moderate systematic uncertainty in our amplitudes as a result of using the system temperature for calibration, and the same systematic uncertainty in their observations.
We do not apply this scaling in comparisons we make below, but even if we did, it would not change any of the results that follow.

Despite uncertainty in absolute amplitude calibration, the relative amplitude changes provide strong evidence of variability.
R03 measured the three brightest features in the eastern nucleus to have peak flux densities of $\sim$22, $\sim$30, and $\sim$58~mJy. These respectively correspond to spectra 1 and 2 (along the ridge in E1) and spectrum 5 (E2) in Figure 5 of their paper, shown here in Figures \ref{fig:rovi1}, \ref{fig:rovi2}, and \ref{fig:rovi5}.
The relative brightness of the features has dramatically changed, as we now measure peak flux densities of 28, 28, and 22~mJy (using their likely definition of Stokes~$I$).
Changes in line structure are also apparent.
In Figure \ref{fig:rovi2}, their spectrum has three distinct peaks at velocities $\sim$5350, 5400, 5430~$\;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$, with moderate flux in between the three peaks, whereas in our spectrum the flux between the peaks falls all the way to zero.
Moreover, the relative amplitude of these features changes, with R03 measuring peak flux densities with ratios $\sim$3:1.5:1, compared to $\sim$5:1.25:1.
The most dramatic change in flux is shown in Figure \ref{fig:rovi8}, (spectrum 8 in Figure 5 of R03), which they measured to have a peak flux density of $\sim$30~mJy, and in which we measure a peak flux density of $\sim$4~mJy.
When they observed this feature, it spanned $\sim$5200--5450~$\;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$, while we measured positive flux from $\sim$5230--5370~$\;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$, and a separate, though difficult to see, feature at $\sim$5400--5440~$\;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$.

\begin{figure}
    \centering
    \includegraphics[width=3.5in]{f10.eps}
    \caption{Variation in the amplitude of OH lines for Arp~220 between 2006 and 2008 (positive values correspond to features that got brighter from 2006 to 2008).
        The two observations were made with Arecibo, and originally presented in RQH08 and \citet{McBride2013}; the single dish evidence for variability was also discussed in Section 5.1.2 of \citet{McBride2013}.
        We present a modified version of their plot for ease of comparison with the VLBI data.
        As in Figure \ref{fig:comps}, here we use the more typical Stokes~$I$ definition.
    } \label{fig:ao_comp}
\end{figure}

While errors in amplitude calibration may account for some of the differences between spectra shown in Figure \ref{fig:comps}, it cannot explain the significant relative variations of spectral features between the 1994 data presented in R03 and the data from 2008 that we present here.
The observed variation cannot be explained by phase calibration errors either.
If phase errors were significant, they would produce spurious maser spots, but the maser spots we observe are in the same locations as those R03 observed.
Finally, resolution differences are also unlikely to explain the observed changes.
We had a similar, though somewhat larger, synthesized beam than R03 had.

Our result is also broadly consistent with the previous evidence for variability in the narrow OH maser lines of Arp 220.
Over the course of only two years, from 2006 to 2008, the brightest features in the Arecibo spectrum of Arp~220 experienced amplitude changes of 5--10~mJy \citep{McBride2013}.
In Figure \ref{fig:ao_comp}, we show a modified version of Figure 3(d) from \citet{McBride2013}, which shows the variability they observed.
The most dramatic change in the VLBI spectra occurred in E2, shown in Figure \ref{fig:rovi5}, which dimmed by $\sim$50~mJy at velocities $\sim$$5370$--$5380 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$.
At the same velocity, \citet{McBride2013} observed a $\sim$10~mJy decline from 2006 to 2008.
The VLBI observations of \citet{Lonsdale2007} showed ``strong variability'' in a few spectral features that were observed 15 months apart.

While the sizes and luminosities of OH megamaser spots exceed those of galactic OH masers, variability in galactic OH masers provides another point of comparison.
There is evidence for strong variability on long timescales in a moderate fraction of galactic OH masers, and only a small fraction of galactic OH masers are highly stable over long periods of time \citep{Caswell2013,Caswell2014}.
The variability we present here, between data acquired $\sim$14 years apart, is dramatic, but is not out of line with previous work on variability of OH masers.

\section{Discussion} \label{sec:h_discussion}
\subsection{Magnetic fields in Arp 220}
With dual-polarization VLBI observations, we hoped to be able to directly study the structure of magnetic fields in Arp 220.
The significant decrease in flux in the southern masing components around both the eastern and western nuclei, and our lower than hoped for sensitivity as a result of RFI, make discussion of structure around the nuclei difficult.
That the two magnetic fields associated with E1.1 and E1.2 have the same direction and comparable amplitudes suggests at least the possibility of larger scale magnetic structure.
On the other hand, the two components in W1 that we discussed have oppositely oriented fields.
Though there may be structure in W1 along the line of sight, it may also indicate a disordered field.
Without additional detections, we will not speculate further.

\begin{table}
    \caption{Dynamic importance of detected fields} \label{tab:dynamic}
    \begin{tabular}{rrrrrr} \hline \hline
    feature & $\Delta v$ & $B_{\parallel}$ &  $R$ & $\mathcal{M} / \left|\mathcal{W}\right|$ & $\mathcal{M} / \mathcal{T}$ \\
            & (km s$^{-1}$) & (mG) & (pc) & & \\ \hline
(E1.1) & $7.9 \pm 0.5$ & $-5.18 \pm 0.88$ & 1 & 1.4 & 3.5 \\
(E1.2) & $9.8 \pm 0.7$ & $-2.96 \pm 0.61$ & 1 & 0.5 & 0.8 \\
(W1)  & $11.1 \pm 0.4$ & $-1.74 \pm 0.36$ & 1 & 0.2 & 0.2 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
    \vskip 0.25em
{{\bf Note: } We use the results of \citet{Lonsdale1998} for size estimates, as their spatial resolution was better than ours. They note that the full extent of W1 is 25 x 1 pc. Their position velocity diagram shows that the $5350 \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}$ feature peaks in the central few milliarcseconds, corresponding to a physical size of roughly a parsec.
    For the features in E1, \citet{Lonsdale1998} say that they are barely resolved with sizes 1--2~pc.
Thus we take 1~pc as a characteristic radius for all spots.
The ratios $\mathcal{M} / \left|\mathcal{W}\right|$ and $\mathcal{M} / \mathcal{T}$ are defined in Equations \ref{eq:mg} and \ref{eq:mt}, respectively.}
\end{table}

We can, however, address the dynamical importance of the magnetic fields we detect.
As in \citet{McBride2013}, we follow the \citet{Stahler2005} application of the virial theorem to a spherical cloud.
Assuming the cloud's mass is dominated by molecular hydrogen, the ratio of the magnetic energy density, $\mathcal{M}$, to the self gravitational energy, $\mathcal{W}$, is
\begin{equation}
    \frac{\mathcal{M}}{\left|\mathcal{W}\right|} \simeq 0.5 \left(\frac{B}{3 {\rm \;mG}}\right)^2 \left(\frac{R}{1 {\rm \; pc}}\right)^{-2} \left(\frac{n_{\rm H_2}}{10^5 \;{\rm cm}^{-3}}\right)^{-2}. \label{eq:mg}
    \end{equation}

Likewise, the ratio of the magnetic energy density to the turbulent energy density, $\mathcal{T}$, is
\begin{align}
    \frac{\mathcal{M}}{\mathcal{T}} & \simeq 0.8 \left(\frac{B}{3 {\rm \;mG}}\right)^2  \times \nonumber \\ & \left(\frac{\Delta v}{10 {\rm \; \;{\rm km\; s}^{-1}}}\right)^{-2} \left(\frac{n_{\rm H_2}}{10^5 \;{\rm cm}^{-3}}\right)^{-1}. \label{eq:mt}
\end{align}

The $\Delta v$ here is an internal bulk velocity dispersion within the cloud.
We use our measured linewidths as an estimate of $\Delta v$, though the two values are not precisely the same.
For the number density, $n_{\rm H_2}$, we conservatively take $10^5 \;{\rm cm}^{-3}$.
At densities much above $10^5 \;{\rm cm}^{-3}$, masing is shut down as OH molecules thermalize \citep[M. Elitzur 2013, private communication;][]{Elitzur1992book,Parra2005}.
As a point of reference, our assumed density is a factor of 30 larger than the value used by \citet{Parra2005} to model the combined compact and diffuse OHM emission in III~Zw~35, and a factor of 10 larger than the model density used by \citet{Lockett2008}.

Altogether, this allows us to estimate the relative energy densities of magnetic fields, gravity, and turbulent motions in Table \ref{tab:dynamic}.
With our measurements, and assumption about $n_{\rm H_2}$, magnetic fields in Arp~220 have energy density of order the gravitational energy and turbulent energy.
While a moderately higher number density would drive the value down, thermalization does not permit the density to increase significantly.
Moreover, our measured $B_\parallel$ represents a lower limit to the total magnetic field strength, $B$.
For a few different reasonable distributions of magnetic field strengths in a region, the mean or median $B_\parallel \simeq 0.5 B$ \citep{Heiles2005,Crutcher2010}.
Thus the evidence supports magnetic fields being dynamically important in masing clouds in Arp~220.

\subsection{Source of observed variability}
In the first, and most detailed, examination of variability in OHMs, \citet{Darling2002b} considered whether the variability they observed was produced intrinsically or via interstellar scintillation.
For the moderate variability they observed on short timescales, they concluded that the evidence was ambiguous, but interstellar scintillation placed less stringent constraints on source size, and thus was the interpretation they favored.
To evaluate whether the order unity variation we observed in Arp~220 can be explained as a result of interstellar scintillation within the Milky Way, we follow \citet{Darling2002b}, and use the results of \citet{Walker1998}.

At the galactic latitude of Arp~220 (b = 53.0$^\circ$), the scattering strength is unity at a frequency $\sim 8$~GHz, and the angular size above which a source cannot be considered a point source is $\sim 4$~$\mu$as \citep{Walker2001}.
In the strong scattering regime, the interstellar scattering disk along the line-of-sight to Arp~220 is then $\sim 0.13$~mas.
To produce order unity variation, as we observed, the source size must be smaller than this scattering disk.
Variation produced by interstellar scintillation thus requires the physical size of varying masing spots to be $\lesssim$0.05~pc.
As individual spots in E1, which have sizes 1--2~pc \citep{Lonsdale1998}, experienced order unity variations at some velocities, variation from scintillation would require significant substructure within the spots.
The alternative explanation is changes within the masing clouds over the 14 years that elapsed between observations.
With such a long period between observations, intrinsic variation is a much weaker constraint on source size/structure.
Thus the evidence suggests significant intrinsic variation in the compact masing regions of Arp~220.

\section{Conclusions} \label{sec:h_conclusion}
We detected magnetic fields associated with three masing clouds in Arp~220.
The measured strengths are in reasonably good agreement with previous single dish observations, though single dish observations of Zeeman splitting in OHMs may moderately underestimate the strength of magnetic fields.
This agreement supports past interpretation of the magnetic fields observed in OHMs using single dish radio telescopes.
The measured field strengths, and the sizes of clouds with which they are associated, are consistent with magnetic fields being dynamically important within the clouds.
Comparison of our results with previous total intensity VLBI observations reveals variability in the maser lines, in some cases order unity variations.
While this variability could either be intrinsic or due to interstellar scintillation, intrinsic variation appears to be the more likely cause in Arp~220, given the magnitude and timescale of observed variation. \\

\section{Acknowledgments}
We are very grateful to Vincent Fish for advice on reducing VLBI polarization data, and to Hans-Rainer Kl\"{o}ckner for his online reference for getting started with AIPS.
We thank Athol Kemball and Jon Romney for advice on VLBI spectropolarimetry experiments, Emmanuel Momjian, and Cormac Reynolds for help preparing observing scripts, and Tapasi Ghosh, Frank Ghigo, Jules Harnett, and Craig Walker for assistance observing.
J. M. received support from a NSF Graduate Research Fellowship and from a UC Berkeley Dissertation Year Fellowship.
This research used NASA's Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services, the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the NASA, and APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python.

\bibliographystyle{mn2ealt}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


I've activated website with JBZoo and gave it to the client. Can he use my subscription?
No. If you didn't give him your license information, he will be unable to get them from the website. Because entered login and password are reliably encrypted and attached to a domain. The password is not stored as plain text.
When the address of my website changes, JBZoo asks for an activation once again. Is it normal?


On Par was born in 2015 through a passion for marketing, advertising and, of course, the NZ golf industry. After seeing too many examples of poor quality tee signage and club websites, we knew we could bring more professionalism to the industry.
After many planning sessions around the dining table and too many coffees to count, we created a multi-platform advertising concept that would effectively connect local and regional business to each of our club partners; more specifically their golfing communities: members, corporates and captured green fee players.
Since Howick Golf Club became our first partner, and we developed a strategic partnership with NZ Golf, the business and product offering have gone from strength to strength.
We are very proud of the excellent team we have built who share our passions in delivering this unique concept. The team bring invaluable skills and expertise in marketing, campaign management, production and customer service to all they do.
We look forward to introducing you to this concept and showing how it can benefit your business.
Justin has his roots firmly in advertising and marketing. His career has spanned over two decades and multiple continents—New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom.
Over the years, Justin has offered and served his clientele with communication solutions in its many different forms. From print media, to online, and everything in-between. On Par Advertising is Justin's newest venture, which combines both his biggest passions: golf and marketing.
Louise originates from the UK and after travelling (extensively) her way through the world she stumbled across New Zealand and settled. Louise comes to On Par with a background in project management for organisations such as BNZ.
What do you go and see Louise for?...EVERYTHING! She is our problem solver, idea creator, quality control and excellentslice/cake maker. Louise's sense of humour keeps us all highly entertained, even when the British humour isn't quite understood.
Steph is our very own one eyed Cantabrian who moved to Tauranga a year and a half ago. She is still and forever will-be a Crusader supporter which we are completely ok with.
Steph has a bachelor in Applied Management majoring in Event Management andSport Management. Steph loves being around people, solving people's problems and helping her advertisers get the best possible service. She also has the best snack drawer in the office by far, we are lucky that she's a good sharer too!
James is passionate about the future of golf. He comes from a long family line of golfers playing from the age of 11 and seeing the changes and development of the game over the past 40+ years.
James represented Wellington golf and made the National golf coaching trial squid. He also won the Otaki senior club championship - proud memories.
Sales have played a major part in his life. More recently working for Diners Club and The Warehouse Group promoting the Diners Club Golf Credit Card throughout New Zealand.
James loves a chat and his passion and enthusiasm are infectious!
As rare as an albatross is, we scored one in Albi. He is the most perfect office pet that we could ever ask for. He is always there for entertainment, cuddles, playtime and morning tea (such an allrounder). Albi loves to chase rolled up bits of paper, anything that represents a snake and stays out all night making sure he keeps an eye on his turf.
To support golf courses in improving the standard of tee box signage and online solutions to enhance the golfing experience. To provide national and local business with cost effective advertising opportunities and a direct marketing channel to their target audience.
Create a business model that allows us to engage in our passion and love for the game of golf, while running a profitable business.
We are an active partner with NZ Golf who fully endorse our business and our goal of supporting golf courses throughout New Zealand. We work closely with their marketing and course liaison staff ensuring that the three most important stakeholders in our business benefit from their involvement.
the players themselves who enjoy informative tee box signage and exclusive offers.


text:
Official website of Russia's Presidency in BRICS
Russia and BRICS
Media Guidebook
Host city of the BRICS and SCO summits
Host city of summits
Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov's address at the opening session of the BRICS Global University Summit
27October 2015
BRICS Global University Summit
I am honoured to welcome the participants of the BRICS Global University Summit to the Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University). You are the university and research elite of the group's countries and of the academic communities from Europe, Asia, North America and Latin America. I wish you productive work at this summit.
This is the first BRICS Global University Summit, and we see it as a key event of Russia's BRICS Presidency. It is also evidence of the high level of interaction between our countries and the fruitful development of ties in research and education. We are grateful to the administration of MGIMO and its partner universities, namely Lomonosov Moscow State University, People's Friendship University of Russia and the MISiS National University of Science and Technology, for their contribution to promoting cooperation of the BRICS countries.
The summit's eventful agenda and the broad range of discussion issues that cover all aspects of BRICS operation show that our countries are interested in making full use of the powerful potential of their combined expert community and in strengthening ties between their academic circles. This meeting is an organic part of the BRICS efforts in this sphere. The BRICS Ministers of Science, Technology and Innovation will meet tomorrow. Participants in the BRICS Academic Forum, which Russia held as part of its Presidency in May 2015, have coordinated recommendations for the BRICS leaders to develop cooperation in these spheres. The BRICS Think Tank Council, where Russia is represented by the National Committee on BRICS Research, has been working productively. The BRICS Network University will be launched soon.
I fully agree with MGIMO Rector Anatoly Torkunov that the BRICS Global University Summit is a unique venue for an open dialogue and collective brainstorming on issues pertaining to the key elements of global development and, of course, the role and place of BRICS as a major factor of the rising polycentric world order. I am convinced that the universities represented here can easily provide the necessary intellectual support to the BRICS activities. As we know, your universities have generated many breakthrough ideas in various intellectual spheres.
The BRICS rules are fully in keeping with the requirements of the 21st century, when equality and a culture of consensus building must become the foundation for international relations. We are working on the principles of mutual understanding and respect, including for each other's interests, as well as solidarity and cooperation. The BRICS countries don't force anything on each other and are not guided by the bloc discipline of military and political alliances.
The BRICS agenda is wholly creative and is aimed predominantly at finding new sources of development and new ways to improve their nations' prosperity. These goals are linked inseparably to the tasks of fostering international stability and mutually beneficial multilateral interaction. The BRICS countries are committed to the fundamental principles and norms of international law and stand for strengthening the UN's central coordinating role in global affairs. We reject any attempts to settle problems through the use of force, pressurising and interference in the internal affairs of other countries, including through unilateral sanctions.
It is from this point of view that the BRICS foreign ministers discussed ways to pool international efforts against the threat of terrorism and extremism at their meeting on the sidelines of the 70th UN General Assembly in New York in September of this year. This threat has grown in the Middle East and North Africa because of the weakening of government institutions in a number of regional countries, including as a result of flagrant interference by external forces. Geopolitical engineering and action taken to remove undesirable governments have disrupted the work of security mechanisms and provoked chaos, anarchy and the risk of national collapse and the seizure of territories by terrorists.
It is clear that in this unstable global situation we need to discuss issues and search for compromises that alone can create a lasting and stable system of relations in all spheres. President Vladimir Putin spoke about this in detail at a meeting of the Valdai Discussion Club. Recent events have shown that collective action and refusal to seek unilateral advantages to the detriment of partners can boost progress in settling the most difficult and complex problems. I am convinced that Russia, just as all other BRICS countries, is willing to do this.
Shared interests and dialogue based on mutual respect form the basis for the BRICS countries' common stand on many global issues. This also concerns our contribution to the fight against international terrorism, which I have mentioned before, the drug threat, transnational organised crime and corruption, as well as to the peaceful settlement of conflicts, the strengthening of international information security and the development of information and communications technology. The BRICS countries are developing interaction in the economy, trade, finance, research and technology. During their summit in Ufa in July of this year, they approved a Strategy for BRICS Economic Partnership. We have also advanced an initiative to draft a BRICS Roadmap for Trade, Economic and Investment Cooperation and also social, humanitarian and cultural projects. We have been working jointly to promote the implementation of agreements to reform the global currency system, which were adopted five years ago but which our Western partners have not implemented in full yet. The BRICS New Development Bank and the Contingent Reserve Pool were created to contribute to strengthening international financial stability. All of these issues will be discussed at an informal BRICS summit, which will be held on the sidelines of the G20 Summit in Antalya, Turkey, in mid-November. We believe that the upcoming meeting of the BRICS leaders will further strengthen our future-oriented strategic partnership.
BRICS is not becoming introverted. On the contrary, it has demonstrated its openness to the world and has been working to make respect for cultural and civilisation diversity a pillar of the new world order, fully in keeping with the underlying idea of the UN Charter.
I wish the forum participants interesting and fruitful discussions, a productive exchange of opinions and all the best.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Notes on events that shook a nation
Remnants of a home lost
Play it again, Shyam
The piano men
SR Faruqi: The sun that set on Urdu literature
These are a few of my favourite reads
Guru and disciple: A tale of two film-makers
Ian Jack on the invention of the columnist
Pooja Bhula | Updated on May 08, 2020 Published on May 08, 2020
Taking note: Ian Jack believes documenting even small episodes in a diary improves one as a columnist - SPECIAL ARRANGEMENT
Writer and journalist Ian Jack on the newspaper column and how it has evolved over the decades
* The seemingly ubiquitous newspaper column has come a long way from its humble beginnings
*Ian Jack, former editor of the Independent on Sunday and Granta, has been a columnist for several publications, allowing him to trace the arc of the evolution of the newspaper column
With the explosion of columns accompanying the digital and social-media revolution, it might be tough to believe that columns emerged only a century or two ago. Or, that folks just two generations earlier wouldn't have been able to name you their favourite journalists or opinion writers because back then, bylines weren't common and anonymity was the norm. Ian Jack, an award-winning British journalist who was the editor of Independent on Sunday and Granta, as well as a columnist for The Telegraph (Calcutta) and, until recently, The Guardian, has been witness to the evolution of the newspaper column. Jack — currently based in London and working on a book on Scotland — traces the rise of the columnist, and ruminates on the importance of keeping diaries. Excerpts from an e-mail interview with BLink:
Tell us about your first column.
In 1965-66, I worked with East Kilbride News, a small local paper in Scotland. This paper and another one, the Cambuslang Advertiser (now defunct), shared an editorial staff of two. The editor generously allowed me to have a column. As I liked looking at and describing things, I called it 'Observed' and signed it 'Gillespie'. Pseudonyms were more fashionable then (I like how they free you from the burden of your own identity). My first column was a thousand-word account of the local agricultural show. I hope it was fair and didn't upset anyone, but you never know.
Who were the famous columnists whose work you followedwhen you were growing up?
Around 1960, a few British columnists appeared in popular newspapers and often had a special focus. 'Cassandra' (The Daily Mirror) was political, 'Beachcomber' (Daily Express) was brilliant and whimsical, and famed agony aunt 'Marjorie Proops' (The Daily Mirror) was for women. When I became a journalist — in 1965 — columns were still rare. I remember Michael Frayn in The Guardian and, at the end of the '60s, Jilly Cooper in The Sunday Times. When I joined it in 1970, apart from Jilly, there were perhaps three other bylined columns.
How did columns gain momentum and popularity within journalism?
Signed pieces began appearing in British and American newspapers in the 19th century. Anonymity was the rule for reporting then. 'Bylines' were rare. My guess is they emerged when newspapers became vehicles for entertainment as well as for reports of military victories and the rising price of onions. Around 1890-1900, newspapers began being aimed at a much broader and more numerous class of people than the old elite. Women, for example, and the lower middle-class. These 'popular papers' had higher circulations and worked hard at stunts to sell newspapers. Daily Mail and Daily Mirror in Britain, as well as many American newspapers came out of that time. It was the beginning of a new kind of popular culture — mass audience reached through the rotary press, early cinema and phonograph, all of which produced 'personalities' and 'stars'. Columns really began taking off in the '80s and '90s, the last golden age of newspapers when they were awash with advertising, which meant more pages and space. The peak is now. Thanks to the web and social media — blog, tweets, memes, etc. — we're all columnists.
Did economics play a role?
There was a narrow economic reason for more columns — columnists sit at home or in office and don't incur costs such as transport, lunches with contacts or hotel bills like reporters do. But I don't think that's the main reason. Columns offer readers intimacy with the newspaper — a voice readers can like or dislike, agree with or otherwise. And the climate of the time was very much for the individual — the "me decade" and all that. When the web arrived, it was also imagined, wrongly so, that newspapers didn't need information anymore, it could all be found online (as most of it can, but often incomprehensibly — a reporter's job being to verify information and make sense of it). So papers began to emphasise opinion, hence more columns.
What trends have you noticed in columns in recent decades?
Changes in columns reflect changes in British society over the past 60 years. In Indian society too, I suspect. Different ways of being were acknowledged. Taboos were lifted from conversations about such things as gender, sexuality and personal unhappiness. Matters once held to be deeply private became public. Many things you can say now, couldn't be said in 1960. Restraint has gone. Shyness is now seen as something needing medical treatment. Good in some ways, of course. But tiresome, too. And one or two things that could be said in 1960, I'm thinking particularly of race, couldn't be said now in the same way. Now, everybody is a columnist, or can be. Their pieces have access to huge audiences, attracted by their wit or their pungent/ repugnant opinions. Because the web is a platform rather than a publisher, the columnists don't necessarily have to worry about libel laws or public distaste. But the craftsmanship — the delight in the tricks of the written word — is often missing. Journalists of my generation came of age in a world of hot metal, where columns needed to fit a page, and therefore had limits to their length. There was a skill in all of this. I don't know if it matters that it's gone.
How did your own columns evolve? Any favourites or regrets?
I guess in all I've written 700, most of them for The Guardian, from 2001 to last year (when I took leave to write the book). I don't think I have a technique. I used to find writing much easier earlier than now, but to some extent the process has always been panic, write a bit, panic more, write more, and then send it down the line, hoping pathetically that someone in the office will say they quite like it. At The Guardian they began to be more retrospective and, I suppose, personal. There are some things I regret writing because they hurt people who didn't need hurting. Like a lot of journalists, I sometimes — not too often, I hope — had fun at another's expense. Or what I thought was fun at any rate. Like many people of a certain age, I have come to see kindness as a great human virtue.
Why do you have this need to take breaks from writing columns?
I have a great fear of boring people — including myself — which isn't a convenient attribute for a columnist.
You encourage aspiring columnists to keep diaries.
Diaries are useful for all kinds of writing. I have kept a diary sometimes. I regret not keeping one all the time — and not just because they help in writing. They help you remember how life was, simple things to do with family and friends as well as your reactions to public events.But diaries are hard things to write, they require a daily discipline and an ability to write without an audience in mind. 'Dear Diary' is the traditional way of solving this. As is describing one interesting thing a day. Alan Bennett writes very good diaries today (edited versions appear every year in the London Review of Books).
Could you name a few columnists who kept enviable diaries?
Khushwant Singh wrote a multi-item column (paragraphs about different things) that read a bit like a diary. His favourite subjects were gossip, women and whisky — or so I remember. He was a natural columnist — confident, breezy, slightly indiscreet and his column also seemed effortless, which I guess it was. Arnold Bennett was a good diarist too. Others include Harold Nicholson and Alan Clarke. But these were literary and political figures of last-century England, not columnists. The Daily Express had a gossip column called William Hickey. Few know the original William Hickey, an 18th-century nabob (a colonial British officer who made a fortune in India), who lived in Kolkata, and kept a diary of his disgraceful life and misadventures. Hair-raising! No columnist these days could compete with it.
Diary-keeping advice for aspiring columnists?
Write every day. Keep a diary if you can. It doesn't have to be soul-searching — it's often better if it isn't. Some small episode well described is probably more useful to you as a writer.
Pooja Bhula is a Mumbai-based journalist
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Australia: Drink driving: Can I avoid an interlock device?
by Harry Lollback (Wollongong)
If you have been charged with an alcohol related driving offence there is a high chance you will be entered into the mandatory interlock program. The interlock program requires those who have been convicted of drink driving to obtain a conditional licence permitting them to drive a vehicle with an interlock device installed.
The introduction of mandatory interlock programs is a positive for some drivers as the disqualification period available to the court is shorter. However, the interlock program can cause a significant difficulty for people who drive company cars or are required to drive multiple vehicles due to their employment.
Interlock Exemption Orders
Individuals can apply for an exemption to the interlock program which will allow them to serve a disqualification period and not have an interlock device fitted to their car. The legal test the court must consider when considering whether to grant an interlock exemption changes depending on whether the individual has been charged with mid-range drink driving or high range drink driving.
If you have been charged with mid-range drink driving and it is your first offence, the test for applying for an exemption is less onerous. An individual must prove that:
the interlock program will cause severe hardship; and
an exemption to the interlock program is more appropriate in all the circumstances.
If you have been charged with any other alcohol related offence, the test is more difficult. An individual must prove that:
they don't have access to a car; or
they have a medical condition preventing them from entering the program.
We have successfully argued for truck drivers and tradesman to be exempt from interlock orders due to the restrictions on their employment.
Harry Lollback
Australia Criminal Law Crime
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The Triangle Fire
Posted on Monday, 25 March 2013 by Mark ThomasJuly 28, 2020
The Triangle Fire: A prologue
Standing among the broken bodies of those forced from the 9 stories above, a NYC police officer looks up to the flames still pouring out of the Asch Building.
Though a coincidence, the Triangle Fire of 1911 is memorialized each March, designated as Women's History Month. While on each anniversary of the March 25 inferno that claimed 146 lives we remember those who died as innocent victims – which they were – there is a greater theme, one played out again and again throughout American history.
There are familiar parallels shared by all minority groups seeking recognition as deserving of basic human rights. Those making up a collective majority, therefore those who have achieved a voice of power within the social order of the day do not represent the true promise of democracy. The Triangle Waist Fire is part of an on-going narrative of how a distinct underclass, in this case of women, mostly poor, young, mostly non-protestant, recent immigrants from Eastern Europe, realized that waiting for the majority to act was futile.
Contemporary accounts often minimize or fail to mention the harrowing stand made by women working in manufacturing during the early 1900s as the cause for securing worker rights now accepted as routine. Today's standard of basic workplace conditions and compensation did not come easily, or without a high price.
Finally, the Triangle Fire serves as prologue. Though the disparity between the poorest and the affluent was both distinct and brutal in 1911, it pales by comparison with today's escalation of wealth inequality. The response to the scenes of the broken and charred bodies was initiated, not by a sudden awareness of the causes of the tragedy. These were all well known by those in positions of privilege long before the smoke appeared on the eighth floor of the Asch Building. The conditions that killed garment makers, steel and mine workers were tolerated by all but those most dependent on society to act, those who died.
1. Havdalah
This is the great divide
by which God split
the world:
on the Sabbath side
he granted rest,
eternal toiling
on the workday side.
Bet even one
revolution of the world
is an empty promise
where bosses
where bills to pay
respect no heavenly bargains.
Until each day is ours
Let us pour
darkness in a dish
and set it on fire,
bless those who labor
as we pray, praise God
his holy name,
strike for the rest.
From The Persistence of Memory,
Copyright © 1983 By Mary Fell
Used by permission of the author
Eighteen minutes
Six of the victims would remain unidentified until a full century later, a cruel metaphor for the 20,000 shirtwaist workers in New York at that time. For the complement of the other 140 dead, some became known to survivors only by the braid of singed hair, dental work or a ring, a family heirloom brought from Russia, or Italy or perhaps Poland.
The details of the Triangle Waist Company Fire are well documented with most of the material facts revealed relatively soon after the event of March 25, 1911.
The source of the fire will never be definitively known, but a carelessly discarded match or cigarette remain a common guess and one that has its own appeal for any desire to deflect culpability onto the dead.
For an industry in which a seamstress might routinely work sixty to more than eighty hours during a seven day week, (pay docked for time taken to attend religious services), that Saturday afternoon workday was ending at five. It was only twenty minutes before the end of work when smoke was noticed on the 8th floor of the ten story Asch Building in Greenwich Village. That floor and the two above were occupied by the Triangle Waist Company and on each floor's loft worked nearly 500 employees of owners Isaac Harris and Max Blanck.
Triangle Waist Company owners Blank and Harris
Like many of their own employees, both owners had emigrated from Russia and subsequently built not only a profitable company, but a reputation as the Shirtwaist Kings. The shirtwaist was the popular, tapered blouse ubiquitous among women of all classes who enjoyed the stylish look of the time. By 1911, Harris and Blank were facing increased competition from the other 500 shirtwaist manufacturers in New York alone and from changing styles that were cutting into the popularity of the shirtwaist. What they didn't face was much regulatory oversight by any level of government, all of which looked favorably upon the business owner and with stern disdain for any semblance of organized workers.
Among the several reasons the emergency exit on the 9th floor was locked was the precaution against any chance that union organizers might find their way in to speak to the employees. The owners had successfully rebuffed a strike by 20,000 shirtwaist worker more than a year earlier. The Triangle Waist Company remained an open shop with no obligation to even hear grievances by workers of unsafe working conditions, let alone pay and work hour matters. It was also customary to have foremen inspect the handbags of the women as they would depart the floor at the end of each shift, all in single file passing through the exit unlocked only for the survey of managers looking for pilfering and theft.
The three floors, the lower two used for manufacturing, the tenth for managerial operations, communicated by means of a switchboard located on the tenth floor. When eighth floor worker Dinah Lifschitz bravely remained long enough to call the switchboard and give the alarm at roughly 4:40 p.m., (the regular operator was not at work that Saturday), the woman who answered left the set to alert the owners of the fire and never returned to warn the workers on the 9th floor. It was on this floor from which most of the fire's victims were taken.
Only two workers from the 10th story died. The owners, whose children had come to visit that day, escaped with the employees from that floor by moving to the roof and escaping to an adjoining building. Most workers on the 8th floor managed to escape by the two freight elevators that continued to operate, rescuing workers until the heat of the fire buckled the tracks. By that time, though, few left on the 8th floor remained alive. For those as for scores on the floor above, a windowsill and the 90 foot drop to the street below was the only escape from the searing flames.
One of the hundreds who'd gathered on the streets below the Triangle lofts was United Press reporter William Shepherd who recorded in words his experiences as he watched helplessly.
As I looked up I saw a love affair in the midst of all the horror. A young man helped a girl to the window sill. Then he held her out, deliberately away from the building and let her drop. He seemed cool and calculating. He held out a second girl the same way and let her drop. Then he held out a third girl who did not resist. I noticed that. They were as unresisting as if he were helping them onto a streetcar instead of into eternity. Undoubtedly he saw that a terrible death awaited them in the flames, and his was only a terrible chivalry.
Then came the love amid the flames. He brought another girl to the window. Those of us who were looking saw her put her arms about him and kiss him. Then he held her out into space and dropped her. But quick as a flash he was on the window sill himself. His coat fluttered upward-the air filled his trouser legs. I could see that he wore tan shoes and hose. His hat remained on his head.
Thud-dead, thud-dead-together they went into eternity. I saw his face before they covered it. You could see in it that he was a real man. He had done his best.
Bodies, broken safety nets and debris lie strewn on Greene Street
More than twenty workers died when the fire escape ladder onto which they'd sought escape detached from the building, plunging its occupants nearly one hundred feet to their deaths.
With two minutes remaining in the workday, the fire had done its work. On Washington Place and Greene Street below were piled nearly a hundred crushed bodies of those who last moment of determination was to leave for their families a body for burial.
Firefighters initially tried to break the fall of those who jumped, but the laws of physics multiplied the weight of the workers as they plummeted through space. The nets gave way as if made from tissue when the falling bodies exceeded by many times the ability of the devices to capture the workers. Glass portions of the sidewalk were likewise penetrated by human missiles that finally came to rest in the Asch Building's cellar.
It was about midnight when the last remains of those who died on the 8th and 9th floors were lowered by block and tackle to the streets below. Policemen, no doubt some who had clubbed striking shirtwaist workers in late 1909, collected personal effects that would help in identifying the dead before being returned to loved ones.
At first, the bodies were taken to the Bellevue Morgue, which was quickly filled to capacity. In a warehouse located on an adjoining pier, a makeshift morgue and police station was established. The following day began the heart-wrenching process of identifying the dead.
The bodies were placed in simple coffins, the heads of those still recognizable were propped up so as to be more visible to the lines of grieving viewers searching for their lost ones.
The process of identification begins at the makeshift morgue
Several of those who jumped did survive the terrible fall. The lingered for hours and one for a few days until they, too, joined the ranks of their dead co-workers.
Aftermath, then and now
On April 5, a new post will pick up where today's entry pauses. The trials, both criminal and civil, against the owners will be discusses. The effect the Triangle Fire had on the labor movement will also be a major topic as will the great shirtwaist worker strike of 1909, an event referenced in this post.
Once again, in keeping with the theme of history as prologue, the full circle of manufacturer's success in ensuring open shops, or right to work laws, as was the case for the Triangle Waist Company employees, will be examined.
For today, however, I ask that we don't look away from not only the events of March 25, 1911, but from the lessons still waiting to be applied a century after the Triangle Fire.
2. Among the Dead
First a lace of smoke
decorated the air of the workroom,
the far wall unfolded
into fire. The elevator shaft
spun out flames like a bobbin,
the last car sank.
I leaped for the cable,
my only chance. Woven steel
burned my hands as I wound
to the bottom.
I opened my eyes. I was Iying
in the street. Water and blood
washed the cobbles, the sky
rained ash. A pair of shoes
lay beside me, in them
two blistered feet.
I saw the weave in the fabric
of a girl's good coat,
the wilted nosegay pinned to her collar.
Not flowers, what I breathed then,
awake among the dead.
3. Asch Building
In a window,
lovers embrace
haloed by light.
He kisses her, holds her
gently, lets her go
nine stories to the street.
Even the small ones
put on weight
as they fall:
eleven thousand pounds split
the fireman's net,
implode the deadlights
on the Greene Street side,
until the basement catches them
and holds. Here
two faceless ones are found
folded neatly over the steam pipes
like dropped rags.
I like the one
on that smoky ledge, taking stock
in the sky's deliberate mirror.
She gives her hat
to wind, noting its style,
spills her week's pay
from its envelope, a joke
on those who pretend
heaven provides, and chooses
where there is no choice
to marry air, to make
a disposition of her life.
4. Personal Effects
One lady's
handbag, containing
rosary beads, elevated
railroad ticket, small pin
with picture, pocket knife,
one small purse containing
$1.68 in cash,
handkerchiefs,
a small mirror, a pair of gloves,
two thimbles, a Spanish
comb, one yellow metal ring,
five keys, one
fancy glove button,
one lady's handbag containing
one gent's watch case
number of movement 6418593
and a $1 bill,
one half dozen postal cards,
a buttonhook, a man's photo,
a man's garter,
a razor strap,
one portion of limb and hair
of human being.
5. Industrialsist's Dream
This one's
dependable won't
under pressure doesn't
lie down on the job
doesn't leave early
come late
won't join unions
ask for a raise
unlike one hundred
forty six
others I could name
who couldn't
take the heat this one's
still at her machine
and doubtless
of spotless moral
character you
can tell by the bones
does what she's told
and you don't hear
her complaining.
6. The Witness
Woman, I might have watched you
sashay down Washington Street
some warm spring evening
when work let out,
your one thin dress
finally right for the weather,
an ankle pretty
as any flower's stem, full
breasts the moon's envy, eyes bold
or modest as you passed me by.
I might have thought, as heat
climbed from the pavement,
what soft work you'd make
for a man like me:
even the time clock, thief of hours,
kinder, and the long day
passing in a dream.
Cradled in that dream
I might have slept
forever, but today's nightmare
vision woke me:
your arms aflame, wings
of fire, and you a falling star,
a terrible lump of coal
in the burning street.
No dream, your hair of smoke,
your blackened face.
No dream the fist I make,
taking your hand
of ashes in my own.
Editor's Note: The final section of The Triangle Fire, Cortege, will appear in the April 5 post.
Posted in Labor History Tagged immigration, Labor movement, NYC, public safety, Triangle Fire permalink


Are there going to be projections for daily leagues for the playoffs? There are still daily fantasy leagues going on for these.
No, we will not be offering playoff projections. It's something we can look into doing next season, however.


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Food for thought: The single most important thing we can do to support our students
Heidi Crumrine
When students come to school hungry they struggle in nearly every facet of their day. (Getty Images)
The other day in my freshman English class, I announced that we had to move the lunch block. Normally, they eat at 11:42, but for what was a legitimate reason on this particular day, I needed to move it to 12:15. Or so I thought.
You would have thought that I had announced that I was canceling all vacations; there was practical mutiny. "What?! "We are hungry!" My efforts at reasoning weren't worth it and while I wasn't wrong, this change was not truly necessary. I could adjust.
I relented and we went to lunch at 11:42. It was not lost on me that no one would be productive on an empty stomach.
It seems like everyone has an opinion on what young people need in order to learn. Especially in the last few years, there have been lots of loud voices from people who think they know the magic solution. Our state houses have become full of those who are empowered to regulate our classrooms, or curriculum, or content decisions. Some of those ideas are helpful and some of them are harmful. Consider the fact that there are parents' bills of rights, books, concepts, and words being banned, voucher programs, and gun laws to name a few. Last year in New Hampshire alone, over 100 education bills were introduced in the Legislature. On both sides and right down the middle of the aisle, there is no question that everyone is talking about education.
However, there's one thing that hardly anyone is talking about: Food.
All these voices that are seeking to regulate education, and yet no one is willing to engage in a conversation that ensures kids have access to one of the most basic needs necessary for survival – sustenance. The single most important thing we can do to support our students is to feed them. Food is a basic need and without it, not much else can happen. Food levels the playing field. Food allows children to exist in a school (and the world) in a way that sets them up for success. Food gives them a sense of humanity that they might not have elsewhere.
When students come to school hungry they struggle in nearly every facet of their day. Research has repeatedly found a correlation between food insecurity and school performance, behavior, attendance, motivation, attrition, and mental and social emotional health for students from preschool through college. Students who are hungry do not perform as well as their fed peers and learn less during the school year. Further, it is also well-established that our Black and Hispanic children face higher rates of food insecurity than their white peers. It is not hard to imagine the negative impact of this compounded over time. We are perpetuating the cycle of poverty and inequity by not addressing food insecurity.
The free and reduced lunch program has always been available to children whose families apply for it, but it often undercounts who is eligible. Many families don't apply for it due to stigma and other factors. Further, free lunch is available only to children whose families make up to 130 percent of the federal poverty level, which is $36,075 for a family of four. That leaves out a lot of children who are coming to school hungry, embarrassed about it, and not performing well as a result.
Logical reasoning begs the question: Could providing our students two meals a day actually be a magic bullet? Interestingly, thanks to the pandemic, there is evidence to support a positive correlation between universal food programs and food insecurity.
With federal waivers from the USDA, at the start of the pandemic, the federal government covered the cost of food for all children in public schools. As a result, food was equitably accessible to all students. Nationally, 10 million children who would have had to pay for lunch during this time got it for free. It sounds remarkably simple, but the children came to school, we fed them, and they benefited in a variety of wonderful ways. All of them.
Unsurprisingly, recent data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture shows that food insecurity rates dropped across race and ethnicity during the pandemic. With all the concerning data about the gaps that emerged for our students during this time, this was one thing that improved and we know exactly why it happened.
On June 30, 2022, these waivers from the USDA ended and states had to decide if they wanted to fund universal meals programs. Vermont, Nevada, and Massachusetts have all adopted universal meals programs for at least the 2022-23 school year, California and Maine have made it permanent, and California has also erased all school lunch debt.
Unfortunately, New Hampshire is not following suit. Last year, in all of those 100+ bills introduced in the Legislature, only a few had to do with universal food programs. Of those introduced, none came to fruition and districts were left, yet again, trying to fill in the gaps.
Specifically, House Bill 1660, which would have required schools to offer both breakfast and lunch during the day, was voted down, 177-174; House Bill 1229, which would have created a study committee to study school meal programs in New Hampshire, was sent to interim study; and House Bill 1564, which would have required schools to offer breakfast during the school day, was also voted down, 185-152.
Further, the New Hampshire Education Department has not offered much in the way of support either. They did not support efforts to join a national pilot program to participate in Medicaid Direct Certification, which would automatically enroll children who are participating in Medicaid to the school meal program. The Legislature killed this amendment in the spring over fears that it would cost too much in adequacy. More recent data analyses suggest that the program would have given districts the opportunity to feed kids who otherwise qualify, but don't receive, school meals – meaning the cost to the education trust fund would have been lower than initial estimates.
Many of the opponents of these efforts have argued that it's an expensive mandate and that feeding children is the responsibility of their parents.
Not to sound too much like my students, but, "Bruh," as they say. Obviously it is the responsibility of a parent to feed their child. All parents want to feed their children. If a child is not getting enough to eat, it is not because their parent doesn't want to feed them, it is because their parent cannot feed them. It is not a choice, and it is arrogant and privileged to assume otherwise.
While I am well aware that there are no magic wands to fix all of the ills of society, and that these types of initiatives cost money, is this not the right thing to do? Yes, we can read research about how with access to food, student attendance and grades improve, but shouldn't we be more happy that their bellies are full? Some might refer to this as an entitlement program, however, how is access to food for children an entitlement. Is access to a bathroom also an entitlement program?
Yes, it costs money, but that's part of the point of school: To address what is preventing our students from learning. What if we just fed all children who attended public schools? What if it really was that simple?
And in the unlikely event any of my students in my Period 6 English 9 class are reading this, I really am sorry I tried to move your lunch block. I won't do it again. I swear.
by Heidi Crumrine, New Hampshire Bulletin
Heidi Crumrine is an English teacher and literacy coach at Concord High School in Concord, N.H., where she has taught since 2004. Before coming to CHS she taught for three years in the New York City Public Schools. The 2018 New Hampshire Teacher of the Year, Heidi's writing has been published in the Concord Monitor, Education Post, blogs for Teaching4Tomorrow, Heineman, and the National Network of State Teachers of the Year. In addition, her students' work has been featured on New Hampshire Public Radio and through the We Are America Project. Heidi also serves on the board of Reaching Higher NH.
Remarks by President Joe Biden on the Jan. 6 anniversary of… by Joe Biden January 6, 2022


We all have that favorite dress. We wear it with sandals in the summer, and boots in the fall with a cardigan over it, swapping out our jewelry for a little variety. Here are some ideas to help you get more use of our your wardrobe!
Forget the cardigan, and throw on a chunky cable knit. Everyone will think you have a cute new skirt.
Add a skirt over your dress! Instant. new top, and a little more volume to your skirt. Pleats are in at the moment!
The sleeveless blazer was very popular this fall, so throw it on over your dress to make it more trendy! Too cold? Wear one with sleeves! Don't have a or sleeveless blazer or jacket? Any vest will work! It will add variety and texture, breathing new life into your well loved dress.
Denim pairs perfectly over a dress! Wear it unbuttoned for a casual undone look, or button it up and fold it under itself, using a belt to hold it in place. It makes it look like you have tucked your shirt into a skirt!
This popular trend is starting to come back! Skip the skinny jeans and wear something with a wider leg. Jeans can always be an option, but they will look best under a dress with a neutral or similar color palate (like the navy in this dress). Don't think denim is your only option! Anything with a similar color palate will pair beautifully together, and keep your legs warm as winter rages.
Turtlenecks are all over the place this winter, and its one trend I am happy about. Winter in Maine can be brutal, and they are a great way to stay warm. Throw one under you dress to be cozy and trendy!
Wear your sleeveless dress over a button up shirt for an warmer, and not to mention work appropriate look! White is always classic, but a monochromatic color palate with different fabric textures can give you a more modern look!


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Same Sex Marriage Should Be Legal in All States
1390 WordsFeb 26, 20185 Pages
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