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What Caused the Accident?: Plenty of Blame to Share
July 1, 1996 By Rod Adams
The root cause of the accident is well understood. Investigators found the central control rod lying across the top of the reactor vessel. All the other rods were clamped in their fully inserted positions.
(Note from the editor: The following story is conjecture supported by interviews of first hand sources and a careful review of the written history. It is tempered with an understanding of reactor operations and human nature gained during more than six years in supervisory positions in military nuclear power plants. The mystery, however, is more than 30 years old and some clues might have been lost or overlooked.)
Post accident reconstruction of the core's reactivity condition at the time that the accident happened indicate that withdrawal of the central control rod to 40.6 cm (16.7 in) would cause SL-1 to go critical and withdrawal to 50.8 cm (20 in) would cause a prompt criticality and a severe power excursion.
There was conclusive evidence eliminating the possibility of an explosive charge which could have ejected just the central rod. The drive mechanisms were not capable of moving the rods fast enough to cause a severe transient.
The conclusion of the investigators was that the central rod was manually lifted by one of the technicians on duty.
Why Was the Rod Lifted?
There are several possible explanations for why the rod was lifted out of the core. The one that has been repeated most often, possibly because it appeals to the sensational appetites of newspaper readers and writers, is that one of the operators decided to use the reactor as a very novel murder/suicide weapon.
This explanation seems to have been subtly encouraged by the official investigators, possibly because the people who designed and approved the plant could not be held responsible for the actions of an unstable operator.
A second possibility is that the operators had some difficulty moving the rod during an ordered operation, and when it finally moved it moved much farther than expected. A third possibility is that the the operators had decided to do some preventative maintenance while they had the rod separated from its drive mechanism.
Murder/Suicide?
In order for one to believe the murder/suicide theory, one has to make a few assumptions. One assumption is that the operators on duty were aware that removal of a single rod could cause a prompt critical condition.
Since the reactivity condition of a core requires a rather sophisticated calculation, and since operators are normally trained how to make that calculation for only expected operating conditions, it is unlikely that the assigned operators (all of whom were technicians, not engineers or scientists) would know that simply removing one of the rods would cause an explosive condition sufficient to kill people.
Without knowing that the reactor could explode, it is unlikely that a military man would attempt an action that would certainly result in severe disciplinary action and peer censure in order to perform a task that would be more likely to be successful with a gun.
Additionally, one would have to assume that an operator could position himself in such a way as to get ready to rapidly lift a five meter long control rod assembly approximately 50 cm (20 in) without the other operators questioning his actions.
The top of the rod had no convenient grip, so the operator would have to position his hands one on top of another. Nukes have always been trained to work in pairs and to question actions that they do not understand. Such an action would probably have been questioned in time to prevent the accident.
Sticking During Planned Operation?
The men on duty during the accident had been assigned the job of reattaching the five control rods to their drive assemblies. The mechanisms had been removed earlier in the day to allow the insertion of some special test equipment into the core.
The reattachment procedure available to the operators is almost unbelievable from the viewpoint of someone trained in nuclear maintenance in the 1980s and 1990s. "Assembly of the rod drive mechanism, replacement of concrete blocks and installations of motor and clutch assembly are the reverse of disassembly. . ." [Thompson p. 661] It is especially incredible considering the fact that the people who were reattaching the rods were not the ones who detached them.
Part of what needed to be done included manually lifting each rod about 10 cm (4 in) to allow the attachment of a C-clamp to hold the rod while the operator attached a nut and washer. It is possible for an operator to overshoot this distance especially if the rod did not move freely.
It is a bit unlikely that a technician would move something 50 cm when he was shooting for 10 cm, but it is not beyond comprehension. The difference, though a factor of five, is only about an arm's length, which could happen if the rod was sticky and suddenly released.
Post accident analysis, however, appears to indicate that this did not happen. The pieces found indicate that the assembly process for the central rod had already progressed to the point where the only thing left to do was to lower the rod back into its fully scrammed position.
Preventative Maintenance?
As unlikely as it might seem to present day nuclear plant operators, SL-1 was being operated even though it was known to have significant problems with sticking rods. A review of the operating logs showed that the rods had exhibited stickiness more than 80 times (about 2 per cent of the times that movements had been attempted) and that they had failed to fall freely during a scram 46 times.
The difficulties seem to have been increasing, with more than 30 occasions of rod sticking during November and December of 1960, the last operational period before the accident occurred. Plans were underway for a core replacement, but in the meantime a temporary fix had been implemented. Here is an entry from the night order book (a set of instructions to operators from the plant superintendent) of December 20, 1960.
"Each shift will perform a complete rod travel exercise at approx. 4 hours after the start of each shift. This rod exercising will be required of each shift until further notice."
On December 22, a calibration power run was conducted and the night orders instructed operators not to perform the rod exercise evolution during the run. On December 23 the reactor was shut down for the Christmas shutdown.
Rods were dropped into the core to conduct the shutdown and the drop times were recorded in the engineering log. Of the five rods, three of them stuck during the shutdown and had to be driven into the core by the rod drive mechanisms.
The operators on duty on January 3, 1961 would have been well aware of these problems and could have decided to move the rods manually while they were working on them for other reasons. They might have been especially concerned about sticking since the rods had not been exercised for almost two weeks during the shutdown period.
Though present day nuclear plant operators would not consider taking independent action in such a circumstance, things were different during an era when three military technicians, one of whom was a trainee, would be assigned the job of reattaching reactor control rods during a back shift when no one else was on the reactor site.
It appears likely that the reason the central rod of the SL-1 was lifted about 50 cm on the night of January 3, 1961 was that a group of conscientious technicians had decided that exercising the rods might prevent any problems with sticking during the next reactor start-up. They did not forsee the deadly consequences of their action.
Letter from the Editor: Solving the SL-1 Mystery
Filed Under: Army Nuclear Program, Atomic Insights July 1996, Technical History Stories

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Austrey, Benjamin Franklin
Rank and Name, Chief Torpedoman Benjamin Franklin Autrey.
Unit/Placed in, USS Canopus (AS-9) Submarine Tender, United States Navy.
USS Canopus AS-9
The submarine tender USS Canopus (AS-9) received severe damage when hit by heavy bombers on December 29, 1941. She lost six of her crew in the attack, with another six wounded. She was later scuttled off Manila Bay rather than face capture by the enemy. Her crew was used in the defense of Bataan and Corregidor. A large number of her crew died in the Philippine Islands, during transport to POW camps in Japan, or in the camps themselves
The US Forces resorted to fighting together among Filipino forces when compelled to surrender on 9 Apr 1942.
Ctm. Autrey became a POW and was imprisoned at Pow Camp no record, he survived the Bataan Death March.
Arisan Maru
The Arisan Maru was a Hell Ships (former Cargo, used for Transport POW's to other Camps) sunk on Nov. 24, 1944.
The Arisan Maru, sailed from Manila on October 11, 1944 for Japan. This ship was sunk by the American submarine, USS Shark with three torpedoes, on 24 October, 1944. There were 1800 POWs aboard – nine men survived this sinking. Two days later, five of the survivors were rescued by a Chinese fishing junk. The Chinese helped them reach American Air Corps forces. Other survivors were recaptured by a Japanese destroyer and taken to Formosa.
This Hell Ship sank in the South China Sea making it the worst naval disaster in the history of the United States.
Benjamin is born approx. on 1911 in Georgia.
Father, James C. Autrey.
Mother, Lucy E. (Dockens) Autrey.
Sister(s), Vivian V. Minginetta J. Jennie G and Eady B. Autrey.
Brother(s), James M. and Louis D. Autrey.
Spouse, Anisia A. Autrey.
Benjamin enlisted the service in Georgia with service number # 201776.
Benjamin was KIA as a POW when the Arisan Maru was Torpedoed, he tried to escape and the Japanese guards shot him on Oct 24, 1944, he is honored with a Purple Heart, POW Medal, Combat Action Ribbon, Good Conduct Medal, Expeditionary Medal, American Campaign Medal, Navy & Marine Presidential Unit Citation, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, WW II Victory Medal.
Benjamin is buried/mentioned at Manila American Cemetery and Memorial Manila, Metro Manila, National Capital Region, Philippines.
Benjanin Franklin Autrey
His rank Chief Torpedoman
His unit USS Canopus (AS-9) Submarine Tender


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* Price: $295 to $595 per module; special prices for all nine modules.


Four million American babies will be born in 1998, joining their 12 million older preschool brothers and sisters. Recent research in the neurosciences and psychology tells us with ever greater clarity and specificity that nurturing and emotionally satisfying relationships with adult caregivers during the early years of life are of central importance in ensuring that these children develop their potential.
A child's education begins at day one. What children learn, and the habits of mind on which cognition, emotional well-being, and moral awareness depend, are the product of the thousands of little interactions that children have with the important people in their lives. To an extent that will never again be equaled over the life span, a child's learning depends critically on human relationships.
That babies are born helpless and dependent and need years of care is not disputed. But how American children are to receive the care they need is a subject of contentious debate. Well over half of mothers are back at work before their child is a year old. The vast majority of fathers haven't picked up a fair share of the time it takes to run a household and care for the children. Unlike nearly all other industrialized countries, U.S. corporate and government policies are woefully inadequate in addressing the child care needs of families with young children, and millions of children are being put at substantial risk because of inadequacies in the nation's child care system.
Excellent affordable care is very scarce. The majority of child care workers are poorly trained and poorly paid. Paid parental leave for work is almost nonexistent, and the 12-week unpaid leave afforded by recent legislation does not even apply to most mothers because they work in jobs exempt under the provisions of the law.


text:
package org.apache.aries.component.dsl.function;

import java.util.function.Function;

/**
* generated
*/
@FunctionalInterface
public interface Function10<A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,RESULT> {

    public RESULT apply(A a,B b,C c,D d,E e,F f,G g,H h,I i,J j);

    default public Function<A,Function<B,Function<C,Function<D,Function<E,Function<F,Function<G,Function<H,Function<I,Function<J,RESULT>>>>>>>>>> curried() {
        return a -> b -> c -> d -> e -> f -> g -> h -> i -> j -> apply(a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j);
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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text:
Philip Grange
Philip Grange studied with Peter Maxwell Davies between 1975 and 1981 both privately and at the Dartington Summer School of Music. In 1976 he entered York University where David Blake was his composition teacher. Among Grange's earliest pieces are Cimmerian Nocturne (1979), premiered at the St Magnus Festival and later performed at the Proms, and Variations (1986) which was featured at the International Rostrum of Composers in Paris in 1988. In the 1990s Grange completed two important BBC commissions, Focus and Fade (1991/2) for orchestra and Lowry Dreamscape (1992) for brass band. The decade ended with a Clarinet Concerto for the RNCM Wind Band and Grange's former clarinet teacher Alan Hacker. Since 2000 his compositions have included two BBC commissions premiered by the BBC Philharmonic, Eclipsing (2004) for orchestra and a Violin Concerto (2019) for Carolin Widmann, three string quartets, and major chamber pieces such as Shifting Thresholds (2016).
Grange's compositions have been performed throughout the world, most recently in Festivals in Taiwan, Korea, Hong Kong, Macau, Belgium, México, Switzerland and the U.S. In the UK his work has been performed at most major festivals, including the BBC Proms, Huddersfield, Aldeburgh and Cheltenham. A significant number of Grange's works have been recorded and released on CD and two of his three single-composer CDs with Gemini have been awarded Critic's Choice in Gramophone magazine. His large-scale wind ensemble piece Cloud Atlas (2009) was awarded a BASCA prize in 2010 and his compositions are published by Peters Edition. Grange is currently Professor of Composition at the University of Manchester, a position he has held since 2001.
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Celebrating the life of Keith Flint, the People's Playlist goes back to the early rave.
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text:
Posted by Harper Franklin | Last updated Aug 18, 2020 | Published on Nov 11, 2019 | 1870-1879, 19th century, decade overview
During the 1870s, women's clothing became increasingly complex, colorful, and restrictive, while menswear was marked by an industrious sobriety.
During the late 1860s, the volume of the skirt had begun to swing backwards, a departure from the circular skirts of the mid-century. This trend became fully realized in the 1870s, with the focus of clothing concentrated at the back, as skirts projected backwards and fell flat against the body in the front. The decade saw two distinct silhouettes in womenswear, both maintaining the focus on the back of the skirt.
The first silhouette of the decade began in 1870; the great, circular or oval crinolines of previous decades collapsed into the so-called first bustle style (Fig. 1). The bustle was a softly draped protrusion at the back of the waist, created by a manipulation of fabric and drapery (Tortora 386). This sloped bustle style was supported by horsehair-ruffled petticoats or crinolettes, an adaption of the earlier steel crinolines (Fig. 2). A crinolette consisted of rows of fabric-covered steel half-hoops (Cumming 35; Shrimpton 17-18). Bustled dresses of this period were frothy confections, with layers of ruffles, pleats, and gathers. Many featured looped overskirts or long bodices that were draped up over the hips; these were often referred to as "polonaise" style dresses (C.W. Cunnington 261). Fashion historian James Laver quoted a contemporary writer who declared in 1876:
"it is now impossible to describe dresses with exactitude: the skirts are draped so mysteriously, the arrangements of trimmings is usually so one-sided and the fastenings are so curiously contrived that if I study any particular toilette for even a quarter of an hour the task of writing down how it is all made remains hopeless." (190)
The silhouette of the first half of the 1870s was also defined by a higher than natural waistline and lower sloped shoulders. Bodices frequently featured basques, a kind of peplum extending past the waistline. Basques combined with the overskirts to create a layered look, and the trim on the basques usually matched that of the overskirts (Fig. 3) (Severa 301, 329). In the first years of the decade, the bell-shaped sleeves of the 1860s continued to be seen (Fig. 4) (C.W. Cunnington 258). Bodices were frequently quite as decorated as the skirts. Daytime bodices had high necklines, as was customary throughout most of the nineteenth century. During the early 1870s though, it became common for day bodices to open at the front into a V-neck or square neckline (Fig. 5). These open necklines were almost always trimmed with ruffles, ribbons, lace, or braid, usually echoing the trim of the skirt. Importantly, these revealing necklines caused a trend for prominent necklaces such as velvet chokers and jet pendants (Shrimpton 18-19).
Fig. 1 - Designer unknown (American). Dinner dress, 1870. Silk. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009.300.631a, b. Gift of the Brooklyn Museum, 2009. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Fig. 2 - Designer unknown (English). Women's Cage Crinolette Petticoat, 1872-1875. Wool plain weave, cotton plain weave, cotton-braid-covered steel, cotton twill tape, and wool-braid trim. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.2007.211.388. Purchased with funds provided by Suzanne A. Saperstein and Michael and Ellen Michelson. Source: Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Fig. 3 - Photographer unknown (American?). Young African American woman, standing with one arm resting on a table, ca. 1870-1875. Photographic print, tintype. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, PR 13 CN 1999:022, no. 5 [P&P]. Source: Library of Congress
Fig. 4 - William Powell Frith (English, 1819-1909). The Fair Toxophilites, 1872. Oil on canvas; (38.6 x 32.1 in). Exeter, U.K.: Royal Albert Memorial Museum. Source: Wikimedia
Fig. 5 - Alexander Bassano (English, 1829-1913). Mary 'Patsy' Cornwallis-West, 1873. Albumen print; 8.9 x 5.4 cm. London: Royal Collection Trust, RCIN 2911730. Source: Royal Collection Trust
Fig. 6 - James Tissot (French, 1836-1902). Evening, 1878. Oil on canvas; 91 x 51 cm. Paris: Musee D'Orsay, RF 2253. Source: Wikimedia
Fig. 7 - Designer unknown (possibly Italian). Two-Piece Walking dress, 1878-1880. Wool, silk. Florence: Costume Gallery of Palazzo Pitti. Source: Europeana Collections
Fig. 8 - Photographer unknown (American?). Full length portrait; young lady standing by chair, white neck piece, ca. 1876-1880. Photographic tintype. New Haven, CN: Yale University: Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, 2002144. From the Randolph Linsly Simpson African-American Collection. Source: Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library
The second silhouette of the 1870s began around 1876 (Laver 196). The bustle collapsed into the the "princess line" style (Fig. 6). Named for Alexandra, Princess of Wales, who popularized the look, it consisted of a dress without a horizontal waist seam, fitted instead with long, vertical tucks and darts to create an extremely slim, body-conscious look (Fukai 126, 214). Similarly, the princess line was echoed in the cuirass bodice (Fig. 7); it did not have a waistline seam and was lengthened to fit over the hips (Cumming 61; Tortora 386). Snug around the hips, princess line dresses and cuirass bodices lacked a bustle, with volume instead spilling from below the hips, and sometimes from below the knees (Fig. 8). This fullness could extend into long trains, even on day dresses (C.W. Cunnington 256).
The waistline dropped to the natural waist in princess line looks. Additionally, shoulder seams began to creep slowly upwards, and sleeves tightened, further accentuating the long, slim line. This newly figure-framing style required more severe corsetry (Fig. 9). Corsets lengthened over the hips to secure the body into the fashionable slim princess silhouette (P. Cunnington 179). The new process of steam-molding created corsets that fiercely formed the female body (Shrimpton 20). Additionally, the tightly fitted gowns required less bulky undergarments, and ladies began wearing combinations, a single garment that connected the chemise and drawers. While combinations had been available as early as the late 1850s, they only became commonly chosen in the 1870s (Tortora 386).
Throughout the decade, dresses generally followed the nineteenth-century customs delineating morning, afternoon, and evening wear. The chief differences were in the cut of the neckline and the length of sleeves (Font 26-28). Note the evening gowns in Beraud's Une soirée (Fig. 5 in the Menswear section below). It was not uncommon to have two bodices for each skirt, a day and an evening option (Coleman 45; Tortora 390). Outerwear changed during this period from earlier decades. Previously, shawls and capes had been the most fashionable, but the new bustle styles were better served by coats and jackets (Fig. 10). Some even borrowed from menswear styles; both the chesterfield, with its signature velvet collar, and the caped ulster became fashionable choices for women (Cumming 46, 213; Shrimpton 21; Tortora 392).
Fig. 9 - Designer unknown (American?). Corset, 1875-1885. Silk, cotton. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 2013.616. Gift of Mary Finnegan. Source: Museum of Fine Arts
Fig. 10 - Artist unknown. The Young Ladies Journal: Latest Parisian Winter Fashions, October 1878. Lithograph. London: Victoria & Albert Museum, E.515-1935. Given by Mrs. W.F.A. Ellison.. Source: Victoria & Albert Museum
Fig. 11 - Designer unknown (American). Day dress, 1870. Silk taffeta and velvet. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 64.1003a. Gift of Mrs. Henry P. Kendall. Source: Museum of Fine Arts
The first synthetic dye was invented in 1856, and by the 1870s, vivid, sometimes garish, colors were quite common and fashionable (Fig. 11) (Fukai 212). Bright purples, pinks, blues, and yellows could now be achieved with a vibrancy and permanence that had been impossible with natural dyes of previous eras. Frequently, a dress featured multiple colors, alternating between the bodice and trim, and layered bustle skirts (Fig. 10) (Shrimpton 19). Indeed, fashion historian C. Willett Cunnington wrote, "It is perhaps in their colors that the dresses of the '70s are most striking to the eye; the monochrome has vanished" (254). Trims became increasingly heavy as well; dresses were weighed down with flounces, bows, laces, tassels, braid, etc. All of these elements combined to create some of the most complex fashions of the century (C.W. Cunnington 255).
This complexity and restriction led to the introduction of tea gowns in the early 1870s. Meant to be worn at home, perhaps with female friends, these dresses were loose and allowed the wearer to forgivingly loosen their corset, or go without a corset altogether (Fig. 12) (Tortora 387). By the end of the decade, tea gowns could be elaborately trimmed with cascades of lace and frills (Laver 193). Some argue that the princess line developed from tea gowns, as they were usually made without a waist seam (Coleman 47).
Fig. 12 - Designer unknown (American). Tea Gown, 1875-1880. Silk, cotton. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009.300.3856a–c. Gift of the Brooklyn Museum, 2009. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Fig. 13 - Photographer unknown. Clara Morris, ca. 1878-1880. New York: New York Public Library, *T PHO A. Source: New York Public Library
Throughout the decade, bonnets, defined by the strings tied around the chin (Cumming 26), were seen alongside the ever more fashionable hat, differentiated by its lack of strings. By the 1880s, the bonnet was relegated to Sunday best ensembles and older women (Ginsburg 91). Hairstyles were elaborate during the first half of the 1870s. Women's hair, usually parted in the center and waved around the face, was piled up in intricate knots and braids with cascades of curls falling down the back; false hair was generally worn (C.W. Cunnington 296). This "waterfall hairstyle" pushed headwear up and forward to perch over the forehead (Figs. 4-5) (Tortora 393). These precariously tipped hats and bonnets were frequently heavily trimmed with falls of flowers and ribbons. The tumbling trim and curls echoed the softly draped bustle (Laver 191). Hairstyles simplified with the introduction of the princess line, and by the end of the decade, hair was worn in high, tight chignons without loose curls. Sometimes, a short curly fringe was cut in the front (Shrimpton 22). With the new, neat hairstyles, hats took on more definite shapes, created out of dense felts and straws (Fig. 13). In her history of millinery, Madeliene Ginsburg noted that "the trimmings were architectural in their clarity of form but naturalistic, horticultural, zoological, and even entomological in content" (92).
Fashion icon: Alexandra, Princess of wales (1844-1925)
Alexandra, Princess of Wales, and later Queen of England, held a uniquely powerful influence over nineteenth century fashion (Fig. 1). Born in 1844 in Denmark, Alexandra wed Queen Victoria's eldest son, Albert Edward on March 10, 1863. She immediately captured the attention of the public, and quickly became beloved by the British people, a population starved for royal youth and glamour (Strasdin introduction). By the 1870s, Alexandra's importance in nineteenth-century fashion was such that the "princess line" was named for her (Coleman 48; Fukai 126). Her trim figure was the beauty ideal of the time and was displayed to fantastic effect in this new style, which she did much to popularize it (Fig. 2). She was also associated with the emergence of the preference for tight chignons and curled fringe in the late 1870s (Shrimpton 22). Alexandra even kept up to date with the latest trends in color, never shying away from the newest bright hues (Strasdin ch. 3).
Throughout her life, especially during the 1870s and 1880s when she was at the height of her sartorial powers, Alexandra used opulent and fashionable dress to great effect. In contrast to the aging Queen Victoria, Alexandra kept a busy social calendar, always appearing in the latest mode. While Victoria dressed in British mourning fashion, Alexandra frequently bought and wore Parisian couture. Her modish, youthful style breathed new life into the British monarchy (Strasdin introduction). Fashion historian Kate Strasdin argues that Alexandra's popularity, supported through her clothing choices, may have had outsized effects on the stability of the monarchy, writing:
"As the epitome of a 'princess' her clever clothing choices meant that she was both regal as the event required, or through a general conformity of style she made herself more available as a public figure in a way that Victoria had ceased to be."
Fig. 1 - W & D Downey. Alexandra, Princess of Wales, with Princess Louise, September 1870. Albumen print; 8.5 x 5.5 cm. London: Royal Collection Trust, RCIN 2902294. Source: Royal Collection Trust
Fig. 2 - Photographer unknown. Princess Alexandra, ca. 1878. Source: Pinterest
Fig. 1 - Alexander Bassano (English, 1829-1913). Sir David Baird, 3rd Bt, ca. 1873. Glass negative. London: National Portrait Gallery, NPG x127994. Source: National Portrait Gallery
Fig. 2 - Parlor Gallery (American). Three quarter length portrait of man with mutton chop whiskers, in frock coat leaning on ivy pedestal, 1875. Photographic print on cabinet card; 17 x 11 cm. New Haven, CN: Yale University: Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, 2002294. From the Randolph Linsly Simpson African-American Collection. Source: Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Collection
In 1871, a tailoring trade journal observed, "Gentlemen dress as quietly as it is possible to do and there are no extremes in dress" (Shrimpton 35). Indeed, menswear in the 1870s was marked by sobriety and understated style. The overall silhouette slimmed a bit from the boxy, oversized jackets of the 1860s (Fig. 1). Shirts became plain, no longer pleated and heavily starched, which only underscored the crisp, clean line (Tortora 401). Men cropped their hair shorter than earlier years, and wore it neatly parted. A clean-shaven face was rare; full "muttonchop" whiskers or trim mustaches were the mode (Fig. 2). Fashion historian Jayne Shrimpton wrote:
"the average middle-class businessman carefully avoided exagerrated or effeminate fashions. With a gold watch chain displayed prominently across his waistcoat front, and bushy mutton-chop whiskers or a beard lending an air of authority, the sober-suited Victorian male aimed for a respectable, efficient, industrious image." (36)
The basic elements of menswear remained generally the same. The frock coat (Figs. 1-2), featuring a waist seam with a full skirt (Cumming 87), was the most formal daywear for business or formal calls in town (Laver 202; Shrimpton 37). In the first half of the decade, there was a trend for very short frock coats, with hemlines well above the knees (Foster 99). A less stuffy choice was the morning coat, a cutaway jacket with a waist seam (Cumming 135). During the 1870s, the morning coat, single or double-breasted, featured three or four buttons, and could be bound with silk braid for an elegant finish (Fig. 3). The morning coat possessed a surprising versatility, becoming formal when tailored in dark cloth paired with grey trousers or stylishly relaxed when made in tweed (Shrimpton 37).
Finally, the sack or lounge suit was increasingly fashionable, particularly among the working classes. The sack jacket, marked by its lack of a waist seam, was often paired with a matching waistcoat and trousers to make a coordinated suit (Fig. 4) (Tortora 401). This suit, most often worn with a plain white shirt featuring a turn-down collar and a four-in-hand tie, arguably formed the foundation for the modern three-piece suit (Shrimpton 37). Evening occasions called for the formal black tailcoat, featuring knee-length tails, a matching double-breasted waistcoat, starched white shirt and bow tie, and black trousers, usually with braid down the outer side seams (Fig. 5) (Tortora 402).
Fig. 3 - Designer unknown. Morning coat, vest and trousers, 1873-1875. Cotton, silk, wool. London: Victoria & Albert Museum, T.3-1982. Source: Victoria & Albert Museum
Fig. 4 - Artist unknown. Gentleman's Magazine Fashion Plate, 1876. London: Victoria & Albert Museum, E.978-1946. Source: Victoria & Albert Museum
Fig. 5 - Jean Béraud (French, 1849-1935). Une soiree, detail, 1878. Oil on canvas; 65 x 117 cm. Paris: Musee D'Orsay, RF 1994 15. Source: Musee D'Orsay
Fig. 6 - Gustave Caillebotte (French, 1848-1894). Paul Hugot, 1878. Oil on canvas. Private Collection. Source: Wikimedia
The chesterfield coat, edged with braid and silk velvet facings, was the most popular form of outerwear, cut knee-length in the 1870s (Fig. 6) (Cumming 46; Tortora 402). The top frock was an outer garment cut along the same lines as the frock coat underneath. Both the Inverness and Ulster coats featured attached capes, sometimes detachable (Laver 205; Tortora 402-403). For sporting, the double-breasted reefer jacket was increasingly worn (Fig. 7) (Laver 202). Regarding headwear, the top hat was the most formal style, worn with frock coats, fancy morning suits, and in the evening. The more democratic bowler hat was fashionable with morning and sack suits (Tortora 403). Accessories and jewelry were simple and elegant, including the four-in-hand necktie, a silk cravat fastened with a stick-pin, and a gold watch chain strung across the waistcoat (Shrimpton 36-38).
Fig. 7 - Thomas Rodger (Scottish, 1832-1883). Prince Leopold, October 1876. Albumen print; 13.8 x 9 cm. London: Royal Collection Trust, RCIN 2903079. Source: Royal Collection Trust
Fig. 1 - Photographer unknown. Miss Nellie Grant with Baby, 1876. Glass negative. Washington D.C.: Library of Congress, LC-BH826-1429. Source: Library of Congress
In the 1870s, as throughout most of the nineteenth century, boys and girls were almost indistinguishable from one another during infancy and toddlerhood (Olian v). Babies were dressed in white linen or cotton gowns with high necks and long sleeves (Fig. 1), reflecting the burgeoning attitude that newborns required extra warmth. As the child became old enough to walk, they progressed into short dresses usually featuring rows of tucks and smocking (Fig. 2) (Shrimpton 43).
Young girls simply echoed the fashions of adult women, with a shorter hemline that gradually fell to the floor through their adolescence (Olian 25-27). The early 1870s padded bustle effect was seen in girls' dresses with looped overskirts and large bows, all made in the bright colors and heavy trims that their mothers wore (Fig. 3) (Severa 345; Shrimpton 52). When the princess line came into vogue, girls dresses reflected that trend as well, collapsing into a narrow tube with tight sleeves. Frequently, the slim line was emphasized with a contrasting panel running down the center of the dress or bodice (Fig. 4) (Rose 85). Girls wore their hair long and curled, sometimes with a fringe in the front, similar to the waterfall hairstyle worn by adult women. In the late 1870s, when adult hairstyles became neatly tucked up into chignons, girls began wearing their hair up when they reached young adulthood, around sixteen years old. A young girl's accessories, from jewelry to millinery, also reflected adult fashions (Olian iv).
Fig. 2 - G Formosa. Children of the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh: Princess Marie, Princess Victoria, Prince Alfred, March 1878. Albumen print; 14.4 x 9.4 cm. London: Royal Collection Trust, RCIN 2903204. Source: Royal Collection Trust
Fig. 3 - Carolus Duran (French, 1837-1917). Mademoiselle Sabine, 1875. Source: Pinterest
Fig. 4 - Designer unknown. Girl's dress, ca. 1878. Silk. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, AC1999.46.22. Gift of Helen Larson. Source: Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Fig. 5 - Abraham Bogardus (American, 1822-1908). Unidentified Boy, ca. 1875. Albumen print; (3.75 x 2.25 in). New York: New York Public Library, 92PH020.496. Source: New York Public Library
Around the age of five, boys were "breeched," a rite of passage in which they are given their first pair of pants. After that, boys wore various suits, often distinguished from adult versions only by the length of the trousers. Boys wore knickerbockers, which buckled or buttoned under the knee. Like adult menswear, boys suits narrowed in the 1870s (Shrimpton 45-47). A common choice was a version of the adult sack suit (Fig. 5) (Olian 29). Alternately, knickerbockers paired with a matching belted jacket was fashionable (Mager 76). As throughout the second half of the nineteenth century, sailor suits were very popular for young boys. An example can be seen in figure 3 in the Menswear section above. Interestingly, the 1870s saw a particular trend for silk plush and velvet fabrics in boys' clothing (Fig. 6) (Shrimpton 47). In adolescence, boys graduated to long trousers and began to look very much like their fathers (Tortora 405).
Fig. 6 - Designer unknown. Boy's Suit, 1870-1879. Cotton velvet. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1976.60.8a–d. Purchase, Irene Lewisohn Bequest, 1976. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Coleman, Elizabeth Ann. The Opulent Era: Fashions of Worth, Doucet, and Pingat. London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd., The Brooklyn Museum, 1989. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/469409564
Cumming, Valerie ed., The Dictionary of Fashion History. New York: Berg, 2010. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1003643284
Cunnington, C. Willett. English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Ilustrations. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 1990. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/868281120
Cunnington, Phillis. The History of Underclothes. London: Michael Joseph, 1951. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/759766118
Font, Lourdes M. and Trudie A. Grace. The Gilded Age: High Fashion and Society in the Hudson Highlands, 1865-1914. Cold Spring, NY: Putnam County Historical Society & Foundry School Museum, 2006. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/77078793
Foster, Vanda. A Visual History of Costume: The Nineteenth Century. London: BT Batsford, 1984. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28405843
Fukai, Akiko, ed. The Collection of the Kyoto Costume Institute: Fashion, A History from the 18th Century to the 20th Century. Kyoto: Taschen, 2013. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/81452017
Ginsburg, Madeliene. The Hat: Trends and Traditions. London: Studio Editions, 1990. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22914760
Laver, James. Costume and Fashion: A Concise History, 5th ed. London: Thames & Hudson, Ltd, 2012. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/966352776
Mager, Alison, ed. Children's Fashions of the Past: In Photographs. New York: Dover Publications,1978. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/868272961
Olian, JoAnne, ed. Children's Fashions 1860-1912. New York: Dover Publications, 1994. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28963700
Rose, Clare. Children's Clothes: 1750-1985. London: BT Batsford, 1989. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/317672212
Severa, Joan L. Dressed for the Photographer: Ordinary Americans and Fashion 1840-1900. Kent, Ohio: Kent State UP, 1995. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/552147475
Shrimpton, Jayne. Victorian Fashion. Oxford: Shire Publications, 2016. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/896980798
Strasdin, Kate. Inside the Royal Wardrobe: A Dress History of Queen Alexandra. London: Bloomsbury, 2017. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1084717619
Tortora, Phyllis G. and Keith Eubank. Survey of Historic Costume, 5th ed. New York: Fairchild Books, 2010. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/865480300
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England: Queen Victoria (1837-1901)
Emperor Napoleon III (1852-70)
Paris Commune (1871)
Third Republic:
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President Patrice de Mac-Mahon (1873-79)
President Jules Grévy (1879-87)
Regent Francisco Serrano y Domínguez (1868-71)
King Amadeo I (1871-73)
4 Presidents of Spanish Republic(1873-74)
King Alfonso XII (1874-85)
Europe, 1871. Source: Omniatlas
1870 – Italy united
1870-71 – Prussians besiege Paris
1871 – Germany united under the Second Reich
1872 – The marcel wave is first developed by hairdresser Francois Marcel, and remains popular for more than 50 years.
1873 – First color photos appear
1874 – Impressionists hold first group show
1875 – Liberty Co department store opens in London.
1876 – Bell patents telephone
1879 – Edison invents the electric lightbulb
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1870-1879, 1880-1889, 1890-1899, 19th century, designer profile
1870-1879, 19th century, year overview
1870 – Berthe Morisot, The Pink Dress
1870 – Green silk day dress with tassel trim
1870-1879, 19th century, garment analysis
1872 – Emile Pingat, Visiting Dress
1872 – Mon. Vignon, Silk day dress
1873 – Édouard Manet, The Railway
1874 – Amédée François, Blue silk afternoon dress
1874 – Pierre-Auguste Renoir, La Loge
1875-1878 – Raimundo de Madrazo y Garreta, Masqueraders
1876-77 – Brass-colored silk day dress
1878 – James Tissot, Evening
cuirass bodice
1870-1879, 1880-1889, 19th century, B, C, term definition
Fashion Plate Collections (Digitized)
Costume Institute Fashion Plate collection
Casey Fashion Plates (LA Public Library) - search for the year that interests you
New York Public Library:
Costume — 1870s — American
Costume — 1870s — English
Costume — 1870s — French
Costume — 1870s — German
NYC-Area Special Collections of Fashion Periodicals/Plates
FIT Special Collections (to make an appointment, click here)
Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine, 1870-79 (TT500 .E6)
La Gazette Rose, 1872-79 (AP20.G37)
Les Modes parisiennes, 1872 (GT871.M6)
Costume Institute/Watson Library @ the Met (register here)
Journal des demoiselles, 1870-79 (AP20 .J76 RARE BOOK)
La Mode illustrée, 1870-79 (AP21.A3 M6 Q)
Overview of holdings
Apply for a library card here
Brooklyn Museum Library (email for access)
Womenswear Periodicals (Digitized)
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Arthur's Illustrated Home Magazine. Vol. 39. T.S. Arthur and Son, 1872. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015074636088.
Arthur's Illustrated Home Magazine. Vol. 39. T.S. Arthur and Son, 1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=v5bNAAAAMAAJ&.
Arthur's Illustrated Home Magazine. Vol. 43. T.S. Arthur and Son, 1875. http://books.google.com/books?id=GJfNAAAAMAAJ.
Arthur's Illustrated Home Magazine. Vol. 47. T.S. Arthur and Son, 1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=9VTQAAAAMAAJ.
Beeton's Book of Needlework. London: Ward, Lock and Tyler, 1870. http://books.google.com/books?id=lxHdK1ds8twC\.
Bow Bells. Vol. 18. London: John Dicks, 1873. https://books.google.com/books?id=mcwaAQAAMAAJ.
Bow Bells. Vol. 10. London: John Dicks, 1871. https://books.google.com/books?id=k70aAQAAMAAJ.
Bow Bells. Vol. 11. London: John Dicks, 1870. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.319510007314801.
Bow Bells. Vol. 13. London: John Dicks, 1870. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951000731482x.
Bow Bells. Vol. 15. London: John Dicks, 1872. https://books.google.com/books?id=hD8lAQAAMAAJ.
Bow Bells. Vol. 16. London: John Dicks, 1872. https://books.google.com/books?id=EMsaAQAAMAAJ.
Bow Bells. Vol. 17. London: John Dicks, 1873. https://books.google.com/books?id=GcwaAQAAMAAJ.
Bow Bells. Vol. 19. London: John Dicks, 1873. https://books.google.com/books?id=ncsaAQAAMAAJ.
Demorest's Family Magazine. Demorest Publishing Company, 1879. https://books.google.com/books?id=QGtNAQAAIAAJ.
Der Bazar : Illustrirte Damen-Zeitung. Berlin, 1872. http://digital.ub.uni-duesseldorf.de/ihd/periodical/structure/2997548.
El Correo de la moda, 1874. http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/results.vm?a=12276421&t=%2Bcreation&l=600&l=700&s=0&y=1874&lang=en.
Frank Leslie's Lady's Magazine. Vol. 27. New York, 1870. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433081676334.
Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine. Vol. 80–81. Philadelphia, 1870. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027389348.
Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine. Vol. 82–83. Philadelphia, 1871. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951d00322056l.
Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine. Vol. 88. Philadelphia, 1874. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000108702816.
Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine. Vol. 91. Philadelphia, 1875. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015004111087.
Etiquette Books (Digitized)
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A member of the aristocracy. Manners and Tone of Good Society. Or, Solecisms to Be Avoided. London: F. Warne and co., 1879. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/007958573.
Brinton, Daniel Garrison, and George H. Napheys. The Laws of Health in Relation to the Human Form. Personal Health. Springfield, Mass.: W.J. Holland, 1870. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011609586.
Cheadle, Eliza. Manners of Modern Society: Being a Book of Etiquette. London ; New York: Cassell, Petter & Galpin, 1892. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011159363.
Duffey, Eliza Bisbee. The Ladies' and Gentlemen's Etiquette: A Complete Manual of the Manners and Dress of American Society. Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1877. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/007126751.
Fox, George Patrick. [from old catalog]. Fashion: The Power That Influences the World. New York: American news company; [etc., etc.], 1872. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011204646.
Gow, Alexander M. Good Morals and Gentle Manners. For Schools and Families. Cincinnati, New York: Van ANtwerp, Bragg & co., 1873. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/002434282.
Hartley, Florence. The Ladies' Book of Etiquette, and Manual of Politeness: A Complete Handbook for the Use of the Lady in Polite Society. Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1872. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008679158.
Johnson, S. O., and Cairns Collection of American Women Writers. A Manual of Etiquette with Hints on Politeness and Good Breeding. Philadelphia: D. McKay, 1873. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/005777095.
Kernan, James. Perfect Etiquette, or, How to Behave in Society: A Complete Manual for Ladies and Gentlemen ... New York: A. Cogswell, 1877. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100485515.
Moore, Bloomfield H. Sensible Etiquette of the Best Society, Customs, Manners, Morals, and Home Culture. Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1878. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/007957836.
Powers, S. D. Behaving: Or, Papers on Children's Etiquette. Boston: D. Lothrop, 1877. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100557991.
Ruth, John A., and C. S. Snyder. Decorum, a Practical Treatise on Etiquette and Dress of the BestAmerican Society. Chicago: J.A. Ruth, 1877. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/007671336.
Thornwell, Emily., and J.B. Lippincott & Co. The Lady's Guide to Perfect Gentility: In Manners, Dress, and Conversation, in the Family, in Company, at the Piano-Forte, the Table, in the Street, and in Gentlemen's Society ; Also a Useful Instructor in Letter Writing, Toilet Preparations, Fancy Needlework, Millinery, Dressmaking, Care of Wardrobe, the Hair, Teeth, Hands, Lips, Complexion, Etc. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1876. http://hdl.handle.net/10111/UIUCBB:thorem0001ladgui.
Tomes, Robert. The Bazar Book of Decorum. The Care of the Person, Manners, Etiquette, and Ceremonials ... New York: Harper & Brothers, 1870. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/102133514.
Wells, Samuel R. How to Behave; a Pocket Manual of Republican Etiquette, and Guide to Correct Personal Habits... Hand-Books for Home Improvement,No. III. New York: S. R. Wells, 1872. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001921276.
La Vraie Politesse et Le Bon Ton plus Particuliè Rement à l'usage Des Élèves Des Collèges, Pensionnats, Etc., Etc., et de Tous Ceux Qui Entrent Dans La Société. CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series = CIHM/ICMH Collection de Microfiches ;No. 36736. Montréal? s.n.], 1873. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100275186.
High-Life: Usi e Costumi Della Vita Elegante, 1879. Milano: Direzione generale della Raccolta Daugnon, 1879. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100223990.
The Habits of Good Society: A Handbook for Ladies and Gentlemen: With Thougts, Hints and Anecdotes Concerning Social Observances, Nice Points of Taste and Good Manners ... Hand-Books of Society ;2. New York: G.W. Carleton, 1872. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/012454830.
The Manners That Win. Minneapolis: Buckeye Pub. Co., 1879. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/012393095.
Menswear Periodicals / Etiquette Books (Digitized)
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Gazette of Fashion, and Cutting-Room Companion [Afterw.] Minister's Gazette of Fashion, 1870. https://books.google.com/books?id=FSgGAAAAQAAJ.
Gazette of Fashion, and Cutting-Room Companion [Afterw.] Minister's Gazette of Fashion, 1871. https://books.google.com/books?id=ziIGAAAAQAAJ.
Gazette of Fashion, and Cutting-Room Companion [Afterw.] Minister's Gazette of Fashion, 1871. http://dbooks.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/books/PDFs/555043828.pdf.
Gazette of Fashion, and Cutting-Room Companion [Afterw.] Minister's Gazette of Fashion, 1873. https://books.google.com/books?id=7SIGAAAAQAAJ.
The Gentleman's Magazine of Fashion. London: Simpkin, Marshall & Company, 1873. https://books.google.com/books?id=_xcGAAAAQAAJ.
The Gentleman's Magazine of Fashion. London: Simpkin, Marshall & Company, 1870. https://books.google.com/books?id=wRcGAAAAQAAJ.
The Gentleman's Magazine of Fashion. London: Simpkin, Marshall & Company, 1871. https://books.google.com/books?id=4BcGAAAAQAAJ.
The Gentleman's Magazine of Fashion. London: Simpkin, Marshall & Company, 1878. https://books.google.com/books?id=SBgGAAAAQAAJ.
Hartley, Cecil B. The Gentlemen's Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness: Being a Complete Guide for a Gentleman's Conduct in All His Relations towards Society: Containing Rules for the Etiquette to Be Observed in the Street, at Table, in the Ball Room, Evening Party, and Morning Call: With Full Directions for Polite Correspndence, Dress, Conversation, Manly Exercises, and Accomplishments: From the Best French, English, and American Authorities. Boston: Locke, 1871. http://hdl.handle.net/10111/UIUCBB:hartce0001genboo.
Hartley, Cecil B. The Gentlemen's Book of Etiquette, and Manual of Politeness: Being a Complete Guide for a Gentleman's Conduct in All His Relations towards Society. Boston: Locke, 1871. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100605672.
The West-End Gazette of Gentlemen's Fashions. Vol. 11, 1873. https://books.google.com/books?id=3RUGAAAAQAAJ.
The West-End Gazette of Gentlemen's Fashions. Vol. 8, 1870. https://books.google.com/books?id=sxUGAAAAQAAJ.
Also see the 19th-century overview page for more research sources... or browse our Zotero library.
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Wikipedia. "1870s in Western Fashion," n.d. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1870s_in_Western_fashion&oldid=815201005.
Krick, Jessa. "Charles Frederick Worth (1825–1895) and the House of Worth." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, n.d. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm.
Les Arts Décoratifs. "Chronologie de La Mode 1715-1914," n.d. http://madparis.fr/francais/musees/musee-des-arts-decoratifs/collections/dossiers-thematiques/chronologie-de-la-mode-1715-1914/.
The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. "Chronology," n.d. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/chronology/#?time=10.
Vintage Fashion Guild. "Fashion Timeline: 1870 To 1880," n.d. https://vintagefashionguild.org/fashion-timeline/1870-to-1880/.
Victoria and Albert Museum. "History of Fashion 1840 - 1900," July 11, 2013. http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/h/history-of-fashion-1840-1900/.
Victoria and Albert Museum. "Introduction to 19th-Century Fashion," January 25, 2011. http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/i/introduction-to-19th-century-fashion/.
Glasscock, Jessica. "Nineteenth-Century Silhouette and Support." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, n.d. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/19sil/hd_19sil.htm.
History of Fashion and Dress. "Victorian Era: First Bustle and Natural Form (1870-1883)," n.d. http://www.maggiemayfashions.com/firstbustle.html.
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Arnold, Janet. Patterns of Fashion 2: Englishwomen's Dresses & Their Construction, 1860-1940. New ed. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1977. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/223335455.
Bailey, Colin B. Renoir, Impressionism, and Full-Length Painting. New York: Yale University Press, 2012. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/786139582.
Beukel, Dorine van den. Fashion Design 1850-1895. New York: By Design Press, 1997. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/743141113.
Blanc, Charles. Art in Ornament and Dress. New York: Scribner Welford and Armstrong, 1877. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/903437797.
Burnham, Helen. "Fashion and the Representation of Modernity: Studies in the Late Work of Édouard Manet (1832-1883)." Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 2007. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/226381287.
Cole, Daniel James, and Nancy Deihl. The History of Modern Fashion from 1850. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2015. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/900012311.
Costume Society. High Victorian Costume, 1860-1890 Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference of the Costume Society, March 1968. London: Victoria & Albert Museum, 1969. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/620413645.
Crawford, William T. [from old catalog. Crawford's System on the Science and Art of Garment Cutting. [Providence?, 1874. http://archive.org/details/crawfordssystemo00craw.
De Young, Justine. "Representing the Modern Woman: The Fashion Plate Reconsidered (1865-1875)." In Women, Femininity and Public Space in European Visual Culture, 1789-1914, edited by Heather Belnap Jensen and Temma Balducci, 97–114. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/876466633.
De Young, Justine. "Not Just a Pretty Picture: Fashion as News." In Getting the Picture: The Visual Culture of the News, edited by Jason E. Hill and Vanessa R. Schwartz, 109–15. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/987101210.
De Young, Justine. "Fashion and the Press." In Impressionism, Fashion & Modernity, edited by Gloria Groom, 233–43. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/843185621.
Dombrowski, André. "The Emperor's Last Clothes: Cézanne, Fashion and 'l'année Terrible.'" Burlington Magazine 148, no. 1242 (September 2006): 586–94. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20074554.
Flamant-Paparatti, Danielle. Bien Pensantes, Cocodettes et Bas Bleus : La Femme Bourgeoise à Travers La Presse Féminine et Familiale (1873-1887). Paris: Denoël, 1984. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/906468967.
Fukai, Akiko, ed. Fashion: A History from the 18th to the 20th Century. Köln: Taschen, 2006. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/857267477.
Furbank, Philip Nicholas, and Alex M. Cain. Mallarmé on Fashion: A Translation of the Fashion Magazine, Le Dernière Mode, with Commentary. New York: Berg, 2004. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/936905110.
Garb, Tamar. Bodies of Modernity: Figure and Flesh in Fin-de-Siècle France. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1998. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39651988.
Glencross, William [from old catalog. A Scientific Guide to Practical Cutting. New York, W. Glencross, 1873. http://archive.org/details/scientificguidet00glen.
Goldthorpe, Caroline. From Queen to Empress: Victorian Dress 1857-1877. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1988. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/464219264.
Groom, Gloria Lynn, ed. Impressionism, Fashion & Modernity. Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2012. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/794814340.
Hambourg, Maria Morris. Nadar. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/851034965.
Hansen, Dorothee. Monet und Camille: Frauenportraits im Impressionismus. Munich: Hirmer, 2005. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/489638739.
Iskin, Ruth. Modern Women and Parisian Consumer Culture in Impressionist Painting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/870650201.
Kinney, Leila W. "Fashion and Figuration in Modern Life Painting." In Architecture in Fashion, edited by Deborah Fausch, 270–313. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/660058424.
Koch, Augustus [from old catalog. The Cutters' Centennial Guide; Poughkeepsie, N.Y. [Printed at the office of the Poughkeepsie telegraph and daily press], 1876. http://archive.org/details/cutterscentennia00koch.
Lambert, Miles. Fashion in Photographs 1860-1880. London: Batsford, 1991. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/300306371.
Lansdell, Avril. Fashion à La Carte, 1860-1900: A Study of Fashion through Cartes-de-Visite. History in Camera. Princes Risborough, Aylesbury, Bucks, UK: Shire Publications, 1985. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/436041340.
Linthicum, William O. [from old catalog. Divisional and Exact Measurement Systems for Garment Cutting. New York, Morgan, Comes & Lawrence, stationers and printers, 1872. http://archive.org/details/divisionalexactm00lint.
Linthicum, William O. [from old catalog]. Divisional and Exact Measurement Systems for Garment Cutting. New York: Lawrence & Allen, stationers and printers, 1876. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009584972.
MacDonald, Margaret F., Susan Grace Galassi, Aileen Ribeiro, and Samuel Sachs. Whistler, Women, & Fashion. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/757386204.
Madison, J. O. (James Otis). Elements of Garment Cutting. Hartford, Conn., The Case, Lockwood & Brainard company, printers, 1878. http://archive.org/details/elementsofgarmen00madi.
Maeder, Edward, and Evelyn Ackerman, eds. Dressed for the Country, 1860-1900: Exhibition. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1984. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/562356615.
Matheson, H. [from old catalog. H. Matheson's Scientific and Practical Guide for the Tailor's Cutting Department. New York, H. Matheson, 1871. http://archive.org/details/hmathesonsscient00math.
Matheson, H. [from old catalog]. H. Matheson's Scientific and Practical Guide for the Tailor's Cutting Department. New York: H. Matheson, 1871. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009590484.
Matyjaszkiewicz, Krystyna. "Costume in Tissot's Pictures." In James Tissot, 64–77. Oxford: Phaidon, 1984. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/630471252.
McCauley, Elizabeth Anne. "Photography, Fashion, and the Cult of Appearances." In Impressionism, Fashion & Modernity, edited by Gloria Groom, 197–207. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/843185621.
Muller, Florence, Farid Chenoune, and Phillippe Thiébaut. Dior Impressions: The Inspiration and Influence of Impressionism at the House of Dior. New York: Rizzoli, 2013. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/876440735.
Olian, JoAnne, ed. 80 Godey's Full-Color Fashion Plates, 1838-1880. Mineola, N.Y: Dover Publications, 1998. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/868271404.
Olian, JoAnne, ed. Full-Color Victorian Fashions, 1870-1893. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1999. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40838676.
Piazza, Arianna, ed. Fashion 150: 150 Years, 150 Designers. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2016. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/961459695.
Ribeiro, Aileen. "The Art of Dress: Fashion in Renoir's La Loge." In Renoir at the Theatre: Looking at La Loge, edited by Ernst Vegelin van Claerbergen and Barnaby Wright, 45–63. London: The Courtauld Gallery, 2008. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/938162816.
Roskill, Mark W. "Early Impressionism and the Fashion Print." The Burlington Magazine 112, no. 807 (June 1970): 390–95. http://www.jstor.org/stable/876343.
Schirrmeister, Anne. "La Dernière Mode: Berthe Morisot and Costume." In Perspectives on Morisot, edited by T. J. Edelstein, 103–15. New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1990. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/463695207.
Selle, William [from old catalog. A Treatise on the Measurement of the Human Body and the Art of Cutting Materials for Gentlemen's Clothes. Chicago, Ill., C. F. Lichtner, book and job printer, 1873. http://archive.org/details/treatiseonmeasur00sell.
Selle, William [from old catalog. Die lehre der körpermessung und der kunst des zuschneidens von herrenkleidern. Chicago, Ill., Buch- und accidenz-druckerei von C. F. Lichtner, 1873. http://archive.org/details/dielehrederkrp00sell.
Severa, Joan L. Dressed for the Photographer: Ordinary Americans and Fashion, 1840-1900. Kent: Kent State University Press, 1995. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/552147475.
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"1800-1900 Patterns & Tutorials," 1800s. https://www.pinterest.com/pocketmuseum/patterns-tutorials-1800-1900/.
"Costume in Art - 19th Century," 1800s. https://www.pinterest.com/maellen/costume-in-art-19th-century/.
"Historic Costume - 19th Century," 1800s. https://www.pinterest.com/maellen/historic-costume-19th-century/.
Fox Historic Costume Collection. "1870-1889 (Bustle)," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/FoxHCC/1870-1889-bustle/.
"Bustle Era 1870-1889," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/jenrosbrugh/bustle-era-1870-1889/.
"Fashion Art - 1870's," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/tklein1014/fashion-art-1870-s/.
Salon of the Dames. "Inspiration | The Victorians," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/SalonofTheDames/inspiration-the-victorians/.
Pocket Museum. "1870s Fashion: Men," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/pocketmuseum/1870s-fashion-men/.
Pocket Museum. "1870s Accessories," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/pocketmuseum/1870s-accessories/.
Pocket Museum. "1870s Fashion," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/pocketmuseum/1870-s-fashion/.
Pocket Museum. "1870s Fashion in Photographs," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/pocketmuseum/1870s-fashion-in-photographs/.
Pocket Museum. "1870s Outerwear," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/pocketmuseum/1870s-outerwear/.
Pocket Museum. "1870s Portrait Paintings," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/pocketmuseum/1870s-portrait-paintings/.
Pocket Museum. "1870s Fashion Plates," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/pocketmuseum/1870s-fashion-plates/.
Pocket Museum. "1870s Wedding Fashions," 1870s. https://www.pinterest.com/pocketmuseum/1870s-wedding-fashions/.
Previous1963-1969 – André Courrèges, Coat
Harper Franklin
Harper holds a Masters degree in Fashion and History Studies: History, Theory and Museum Practice from the Fashion Institute of Technology. She has focused much of her research on the nineteenth century, particularly millinery and theatre costume. Deeply passionate about history and the arts, Harper is dedicated to bringing stories from the past to life.
1884 – John Singer Sargent, Madame X (Virginie Gautreau)
1867 – White piqué afternoon dress with black cording
Last updated Oct 14, 2018 | Published on Mar 24, 2017
Downtown, Uptown: From the Dry Goods Store to the Palace of Consumption