A new crowdfunding platform, SaveOurCommunityTheaters.org, has launched to help rural movie theaters make the migration from analog to digital media. In a move that is expected to save billions in distribution costs for movie studios, by the end of 2013 Hollywood plans to to stop distributing movies on 35-millimeter film and convert entirely to digital movie distribution.
This conversion will save billions for studios, which will no longer need to deliver cumbersome film. Most movie theaters in large cities have already converted to digital media, but more than 3,000 throughout rural America have not made the change due the cost of installing new digital movie equipment.
Michael Hurley , owner of the Colonial Theater in Belfast, Maine estimates that 20% of all theaters in North America could be lost.
Community theaters are fundamentally important to the health and wellbeing of communities. Often these theaters have been around for generations and are part of the fabric of the town. They provide history, a meeting place, and employment, said Wilson.
SaveOurCommunityTheaters.org has fundraising project ideas, web assistance, promotional suggestions and utilizes next generation fundraising technology – Circlefunding – to assist small town theaters.
Unlike many other Crowdfunding sites, which promote a variety of projects, SaveOurCommunityTheaters.org focuses entirely on community theaters.
Launched as a piece of zero-budget, webcam-shot fun in 2008, the series is set in the months after a worldwide zombie apocalypse, applying a healthy dose of wry British humour to the adventures of three incompetent survivors more interested in video blogging than survival techniques.
Blogging and Brains and Beans: How 3 idiots survived a Zombie Apocalypse.
Over four years it picked up hundreds of thousands of views online and a dedicated fan base including genre legends like effects guru Tom Savini, Walking Dead comics artists Charlie Adlard, SFX Magazine and zombie film directors Marc Price (Colin) and Dominic Brunt (Before Dawn).
Original creators Hannah Bungard, Tony Hipwell and Miles Watts, fresh from micro budget features Crimefighters and Whoops! that were highlighted by reviewers at Empire, Time Out and Sight & Sound, have now teamed up with producer Steve Piper at British indie mainstay Coffee Films to reboot the series in a feature length format.
"It's been a great few years and we feel very lucky to have been able to keep progressing making films which edge the budgets and production values up every time, but it's difficult making the jump from micro-budget tens of thousands to the hundreds of thousands an adaptation needed," comments Watts.
The four filmmakers began developing a feature length screenplay almost a year ago, investing in development time to avoid the back-to-back-episodes feel many series adaptations fall into.
Promising to keep everything fans of the much loved web series delivered, scaled up to a true long-form storyline, the concept has already picked up interest from distributors and turned to crowd-funding to bridge the gap from screenplay to production.
The Zomblogalypse crowd funding campaign runs through April looking to raise £10,000 to meet pre-production costs, and has already pulled 15% of that within a few days of launch. Check it out yourself to reserve a DVD or fulfill a dream to be a screen zombie at http://igg.me/at/zomblogalypse/x/1907888.
HOLLYWOOD, CA–(Marketwire – Nov 30, 2012) – EarlyShares (www.EarlyShares.com), America's premier Equity Based Crowdfunding platform, announced today the formation of a strategic partnership with Five by Five Media, Inc. (www.5x5mediainc.com), the West Hollywood production company with five TV series set to air in 2013 and a slate of 12 feature films. EarlyShares will allow people to invest in entertainment projects, with their favorite actors, and/or subjects at an early stage. EarlyShares and Five by Five Media will be partnering to fulfill the promise of Equity Based Crowdfunding for the creation of premium, entertainment content to be delivered across all platforms, on all devices, everywhere and at any time.
In addition to writing the press release, which is what we call the shotgun approach because press releases that are written with the right SEO strategies in mind push information to hundreds of media outlets and blogs everywhere.
Pushing PR messages out via a professional news wire service is the first step, but we go one step further for our clients. We also are experts at using strategic media relations to pitch news stories to key reporters, which most marketing folks would say is a pull marketing strategy.
To summarize, we push our client's stories to the masses using press releases which reach many readers directly via Google, and then pull the PR messages through the channel (media outlets) by working closely with the most appropriate media outlets to secure positive media coverage.
Melodika.net- Cutting Edge Crowdfunding Site, EarlyShares cuts deal with Hollywood Studio..
Crowdsourcing.org, Investment Crowdfunding Platforms. Who's Funded?
When written correctly a press release can literally wind up on hundreds of blogs, newspapers, magazines, and TV media news outlet websites. Clip here to see the full Marketwire clip report. This story was picked up by 210 media outlets with a total audience of 83.7 million viewers.


Villa Farnese is an interesting example of an Italian styled garden which varies significantly from British ideas of gardening. RBGE has a wide collection of plants, plant labels and flowers, using contrasting colours and ensuring the plants remain the focus of the garden's structure. In comparison, Italian gardens utilise other aspects of composition like sculptures, statues, religious connotations, artwork, and the views of the surrounding mountains.
Italian renaissance gardens use green plant life to contrast with ancient grey statues alongside the flowing waters of fountains. Historical evidence proves flowering plants were used in earlier centuries but, due to the gardens being neglected for years, it was the geometric shrubs which remained, therefore explaining why the gardens remain so green today.
The villa is filled with fifteenth century religious allegory in art work. This is shown through the presence of frescoes (a form of mural painting) which covers the walls and ceilings in every room of this large manor. The map of the world was especially fascinating and I enjoyed immersing myself in its details.
The humility in being able to look at something that someone 300 years before you has created is astounding. One can't help but be grateful that it has managed to persist through time. Who else has seen this? Did it look different when they created it? I wonder what they would think of the world now. It is easy for the mind to wander.
Walking out into the garden from the first floor bridge of the villa, you see the grotto from a distance. These natural or artificial limestone caves are famous in Italy and France as garden features. Reclaimed by nature, ferns find homes in the crevices of the stone.
A woodland trail of old Cupressus sempervirens, Castanea sativa and Picea abies guides you towards the beginning of the show piece, a large fountain which invites you into the formal part of the garden. Grass covered stairs lead you up as water tumbles down the lichen wrapped stone corden.
Fontana Del Bicchiere (or 'Cup Fountain') progresses to the 'Caryatids' in the upper part of the garden, complete with parterres. The Casina Del Piacere – 'lodge of pleasure' – is now a casino.


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Thankfulness beats winter doldrums
By FATHER JIM
As January bids farewell and February advances in a cloudy, chilled way — though short of days — some complain and feel only the harshness mid winter.
But a spirit and heart of thankfulness, even an attitude of gratitude, really carry the faithful person of any age toward the promise of spring.
They say money can't buy everything, but it can buy a lot of things. The thrill to shoot an endangered rhino in Africa goes for $250,000. For some people, a doctor's private cellphone number goes for $1,500 in large cities.
Much can be bought, but not thankfulness. Thankfulness is an acquired gift, a virtue like any gift or talent that needs practice.
A prominent Duke University Medical Center researcher said, "If thankfulness were a drug, it would be the world's best-selling product because of its health benefits for every major human organ system."
For some who practice this art and virtue, it means, simply, living with a sense of gratitude and taking time to recognize and focus on the things we have instead of the things we wish we had.
The Word in scripture we celebrate so often takes the idea of thankfulness to a deeper level. The act of giving thanks causes us to recognize the God who provides our ordinary and special blessings (Epistle of James 1:17)
Thankfulness cannot be bought or purchased. Sure, you might wish ice, slush and windy cold instantly could be changed to blue sky and a warm breeze. But being grateful for bare tree branches painted with a brushing of white snow or crystal-like ice reminds one of the Creator's surprises.
Even in mid winter, there's Good News and more — Good News, especially for the person of faith who sees with a spiritual eye.
The famous painting by the Italian artist Giotto, "St Francis Preaching to the Birds," glows with vivid color and shows the saint leaning toward the birds perched in branches and the birds leaning toward Francis, as if the saint and God's humble creatures are fascinated and thankful for the gift of each other.
More winter days and weather are ahead of us, and always more sad moments, setbacks, problems and challenges in our ordinary living, but let's polish up and practice the gift of being grateful and what we can say "thanks" for.
Just a suggestion!

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


A Goodman car rental allows you to go where you want, when you want. You'll be able to explore all the sights, and even see what else the rest of Wisconsin has to offer. We've collected the most frequently asked questions about renting a car in Goodman. Find out how to get the best rates on your ideal vehicle.
How can I get a bargain rental car in Goodman?
What rental companies have outlets in Goodman?
From budget-friendly brands like Payless and Fox to global names like Avis and Enterprise, CarRentals.com has some of the best brands in the business. Look through the online reviews to help you figure out which one is best for you.
What type of rental car should I get for my trip to Goodman?
What age do you have to be to rent a car in Goodman?
Generally, the age limit for renting a car in Goodman is 21. However, there might be an added fee if you are under the age of 25 or for larger or higher category cars in particular. Go over the supplier's terms to find what the exact fee is before you book your rental.
Will I need insurance to get a car rental in Goodman?
When driving in Goodman or the rest of the United States, you will need insurance. Many suppliers require that you show proof of insurance before you rent a car. Many countries require the driver to have insurance. You may be able to buy temporary insurance with the rental supplier. Otherwise, as a U.S. citizen, you can also book Collision Damage Coverage with CarRentals.com at checkout.
Many major card issuers, like Visa or American Express, offer some coverage, but there are usually restrictions. For example, they may not cover your rental car if you reserve a larger or luxury vehicle. Be sure to check the rental car company's policy before you decide.
What is the fuel policy for Goodman rental cars?
Many rental car suppliers offer a variety of fuel policies. However, full-to-full is our stand-out winner. It simply means returning the car with the same level of gas as you got it with, so you'll never pay for anyone else's road trips through the Goodman.
Use CarRentals.com to get yourself the best wheels Goodman has to offer. Before you know it, you'll be driving between the highly-rated restaurants, world-famous landmarks, and all the marvelous sites in Goodman.


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Beacon Journal/Ohio.com editorial board: Ohioans in deep poverty need assistance
What is the result of welfare reform, now two decades later? That is the worthy question addressed in a report, released on Monday, by the Center for Community Solutions. Tara Britton and Brie Luscheck of the Cleveland-based think tank find that the safety net for the poorest Ohioans has been shrunk substantially and disappeared for many.
Consider that in 2005, 180,000 Ohioans received cash assistance. By April of this year, the number of recipients had dropped to 93,000, with 90 percent children. The share of Ohioans living in deep poverty who receive cash assistance declined from 28 percent in 2010 to 15 percent last year. Deep poverty translates to an income at 50 percent or less of the federal poverty level ($10,390 a year for a family of three).
All the while, the state's poverty rate has increased since 1997 from 11.6 percent to 14.6 percent today. More, as the study notes, the state has $522 million sitting in its Temporary Assistance for Needy Families fund, the replacement program to aid the needy created through welfare reform.
Why isn't more of that funding going to help the poorest Ohioans?
The study reminds that reducing poverty isn't a stated goal of the TANF program. Welfare reform established work requirements and time limits for cash assistance. The federal government set its limit at 60 months. Ohio allows 36 months. Thus, many of the poorest Ohioans do not meet the work requirements or their access to cash assistance has expired.
As it is, the state wants to drive a larger portion of the TANF money into child care. That sounds reasonable. Child care, as the study notes, is a key work support for poor households, and the state has a promising initiative, Step Up To Quality, that seeks to enhance the education component of its licensed providers.
It also is true that Ohio already outpaces 46 states in the share of funding directed to child care. The study adds that while child care resources can be tapped elsewhere at the state and federal level, TANF dollars are the lone option for direct income support. Research shows income support works when linked to well-conceived and implemented work requirements. Children benefit through improved classroom performance, increased high school graduation and college entry.
That goes even for the average TANF cash assistance of $203.58 a month in Ohio.
How, then, to get that assistance to more Ohioans in deep poverty, better utilizing the dollars available? The study recommends, among other things, more fully using the hardship exemption permitted in state law, making available an additional 24 months of cash assistance. The state currently provides exemptions to 0.3 percent of eligible families. The law allows up to 20 percent.
Adding to the exemptions isn't something that would break the state or somehow see taxpayers exploited. These Ohioans are in dire need. A small sum of money would elevate lives, however modestly. After two decades, welfare reform offers a lesson. While it makes sense to encourage work, and that also can be done better, the poor are still with us. They deserve help.


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Alabama man fed meth to caged 'attack squirrel': Cops
Postmedia NewsMore from Postmedia News
'VERY WELL DRAWN': Nine-year-old's drawing help police solve package theft case
BARRHAVEN: Man, 28, arrested hiding in basement after break-and-enter
Male, 17, charged after fight near Algonquin College
An Alabama man allegedly kept a caged "attack squirrel" in his apartment, feeding it methamphetamine to ensure that it stayed aggressive.
Authorities say they rescued the furry, four-legged meth addict during a drug bust in Athens, Ala., on Monday.
Deputies were aware of the "attack squirrel" in the apartment prior to executing a search warrant of the man's home, Limestone County Sheriff's Office spokesman Stephen Young said in a press release.
The squirrel was found in a cage, and after consulting with state conservation officials, was released in a wooded area nearby, Young said.
Methamphetamine, drug paraphernalia and body armour were seized in the bust.
It is illegal in Alabama to have a pet squirrel.
Authorities said there was not safe way to test the rodent for meth.
One man was arrested on drug charges, but investigators are looking for 35-year-old Mickey Paulk, the resident of the home.
Mickey Paulk is wanted in Limestone County on drug charges, authorities say. (Limestone County Sheriff's Office)
He is wanted on multiple charges including possession of a controlled substance.


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Chapter 418: The Battle of the Sea Creature Clan (9)
Posted on August 17, 2020 by King-Kong
Such a scene naturally made many people look pale immediately.
At this moment, a blue-haired Beastkin Clan man in the front of the crowd, after his facial expression changed, he finally could not bear the huge pressure brought by the giant evil beast on the opposite and suddenly exploded a talisman in his hand. He was wrapped by a blue light, then it turned into a light ball that flew into the sky.
The one of the big python heads of the six-headed evil beast suddenly opened its mouth and sucked in the direction of the blue-haired man.
"Poof".
A yellow ray of light surged out from the giant mouth, and it immediately shrouded the person under it.
"Senior Lan, save me!" The blue-haired man flew in the opposite direction suddenly after letting out a piercing cry for help. He was sucked directly into the mouth of the python, then he was chewed into pieces and swallowed into the evil beast's belly.
Seeing the scene in front of him, Lan Xi was expressionless. He didn't intend to help at all. Everyone behind him could not help but take a deep breath.
However, because of this person's interruption, when the evil beasts rushed over, it walked past them quickly without stopping.
Such a scene naturally made several other slave miners, who initially wanted to escape, broke into sweats while thinking that they were lucky!
So the people continued to stand still as if they were stones in the river.
After half a cup of tea, the last row of evil beasts also passed by them and gradually left.
Only then everyone looked relieved, and most of their clothes were already soaked in sweat.
After the evil beasts went far away, Lan Xi flew up again without saying a word. He continued to fly forward in the direction indicated by the jade disk in his hand.
After the people looked at each other for a while, they could only take off in succession and followed closely behind Lan Xi.
At this time, Liu Ming took a breath. The Bone Wind Awl that he was holding tight suddenly disappeared in a flash.
In the underwater world.
"Boom" a loud noise.
A qirin-like giant monster that trapped in the magic circle faced, its transparent body finally shattered like glass under the overwhelming attacks of the Crystallization Period powerhouses and soldiers of the Sea Creature Clan.
At this point, no qirin-like giant monster could be found on the battlefield.
After an hour of melee combat, after paying the cost of the death of several Crystallization Periods, the Sea Creature Clan Army had already killed all Beastkin Clan who resisted in the underwater world.
The remaining people were the Crystallization Period Beastkin Clan powerhouses, such as Qing Qin and the others, who were gathered on an empty space in front of the Sea Emperor Palace. They formed a small magic array. They barely resisted the waves of attack by the Sea Creature Clan by using the enchantment of the Sea Emperor Palace and the four giant puppets.
Fortunately, although the Sea Creature Clan attack was abnormally rapid and ferocious, they also lost some Crystallization Period powerhouses, and the others had expended most of their spiritual power. They couldn't break through the defense of the Beastkin Clan powerhouses for a while.
"Zhen Tian. Meng Zuo, you two go and take down the Sea Emperor Palace." On the giant boat behind the Sea Creature Clan army, the Sea Region Royal Family old man with the golden crown was finally a little impatient. Then, he said with a gloomy face.
"Yes, Your Majesty!"
The figure behind the old man flashed. A woman in colorful robe and a Sea Creature Clan man had appeared behind the old man and responded while cupping their fists.
It was the two famous Pseudo Pellet State hall masters of the Sea Region Royal Family.
Previously, the old man with the golden crown didn't let them go because he wanted the six hall masters to be at their best so that they could have a final battle with Siren King.
However, just when the two hall masters of Sea Creature Clan were about to fly out of the giant boat, a figure flashed at the gate of Sea Emperor Palace. A young man in white robe appeared silently.
"Siren King!"
The old man with the golden crown exclaimed as he saw the young man.
Qing Qin and the others were surprised and delighted when they turned around and saw Siren King.
"You all have done well. You can leave the rest to me now."
Siren King's face was slightly pale. After simply saying a sentence, his figure blurred and disappeared.
The next moment, the sky above Sea Emperor Palace fluctuated together. The young man in white robe appeared there like a ghost. His robe was fluttering in the air. His eyes glanced across the Sea Creature Clan army and looked everything in the underwater world in his eyes.
However, the initial prosperous and magnificent underwater world was ruined at this moment. Except for the Sea Emperor Palace and the four giant puppets that were half squatting, the other places had already become pieces of dilapidated houses.
At this moment, on the ruins, either there were the dense Sea Creature Clan giant ship, giant monster, or there were corpses and broken limbs all over the ground, or the wreckage of some giant chariots and giant boats.
This scene clearly showed the intensity and tragicness of the war just now.
Looking at the underwater world, that he had been managing for hundreds of years, being ruined by the Sea Creature Clan army, the young man in white robe had a layer of frost on his handsome face. His lonely figure floating in the air gave people an inexplicable feeling of beautiful, solemn and stirring in contrast to the surrounding Sea Creature Clan army and ruins.
"Okay, great! I didn't expect that you can push me to this point." For a moment, Siren King's expression returned to normal, and he said lightly.
"Hmph, our royal family has been planning hard for more than ten years for this siege. Only then we can succeed. Siren King, today will be your death!" The old man with the golden crown on the giant boat snorted and said instead. Although the voice wasn't loud, it still clearly reached everyone's ears.
Then the old man raised his one hand, and a loud trumpet sound immediately sounded behind him. The Sea Creature Clan army that encircled the Sea Emperor Palace retreated like tide. The encirclement was doubled in size.
At the same time, the six figures at the rear of the Sea Creature Clan Army flashed like lightning. The next moment, they appeared around the young man in white robe. The aura that they released was vague. They were actually the Pseudo Pellet State hall masters of the Great Sea Region Royal Family!
As Siren King saw this, his eyes flashed coldly. When he was about to say something, there was a rumbling loud noise coming from behind.
The Sea Creature Clan army felt a huge quake in the space behind him, then the sky above him was suddenly covered by several huge dark figures. The entire sky was dull for a moment.
After a few seconds, when the dark figures passed through, everyone only discovered in shock that these giant figures were the giant monsters with a mountain-like body size.
The giant monster leading in front was a giant octopus with faint purple demonic patterns all over its body. The front of its head was a beautiful face of a woman. Its eight tentacles in the size of a thousand meters long could travel for a thousand meters distance as they stretched out. The momentum was amazing.
The sea monster under the foot of the Sea Creature Clan soldiers actually shivered slightly at the moment.
"It's a holy beast!" Someone in the Sea Creature Clan suddenly shouted; the voice was trembling slightly with agitation.
As soon as this sentence came out, it immediately caused commotion among the Sea Creature Clan army. Everyone's eyes looked fiery. Only the Sea Creature Clan knew what it meant when this holy beast, that was worshipped by them for numerous generations, was summoned.
In addition to this human-faced octopus, there were a pair of snow white giant sharks; a few golden flying fish; transparent squids; a total of twelve holy beasts.
Seeing this scene, Siren King, who was floating in midair, couldn't help but look gloomy. But at the next moment, he raised his eyebrows and sneered. He suddenly raised an arm into the sky, and a tremendous aura soared into the sky. He opened his five fingers and cast a layer of faint blue flowing light.
This flowing light was circulating indefinitely like a living creature. It was spinning faster and faster in his palm, and it turned into a faint blue giant vortex in an instant.
After the young man in white robe shouted silently, the center of the vortex immediately made a rumbling sound. Circles of blue hurricanes swept all around, making his black hair flutter in the wind.
At the same time, the sea water held up by the blue light curtain above his palm suddenly rolled violently and formed a vortex. Blue light silks shot out from the light curtain and went into the vortex in Siren King's palm. It faintly condensed into clusters of fish-size blue liquid. They were as clear as crystal.
At this moment, the young man in white robe arm waved down in the air suddenly. The faint blue flowing light paused, then the giant vortex in his palm collapsed and disappeared, leaving only more than ten blue liquids floating quietly in the air.
The young man blasted out blood silks from his hand, and the blood silks went into the blue liquids, turning them into a bright red color.
The young man in white robe made a gesture and pointed in the air.
The blood-red liquid rotated and transformed into dozens of bloody dragons in an instant. They were just about an inch size, but they suddenly became five hundred meters huge.
They wandered around Siren King ferociously. From the aura emanating from them, each one had the strength of the early stage of the Crystallization Period.
Not only that, but after Siren King's sleeves shook again, his hands were shining brightly. He took out a long flag with silver rune patterns on it. He threw it into the sky, then he made a gesture to turn it into the size of an attic.
After the young man in white robe chanted, the giant flag released a strong silver light. At the same time, mysterious runes were looming on the flag. There were also dense silver light spots revealing from it, and they turned into numerous giant puppets with silver armor after a flash. They were twenty meters tall and looked expressionless. There were hundreds of them.
At that moment, the bloody dragons around the young man in white robe kept roaming, and silver light shone from the puppets were scattering across the sky above the entire Sea Emperor Palace. The momentum was astonishing.
Previous chapter: Chapter 417: The Battle of the Sea Creature Clan (8)
Next chapter: Chapter 419: The Battle of the Sea Creature Clan (Ten)
Thanks for the chapter KING-KONG! Wonder if Ye Tianmei will use this opportunity to deal a blow to the Siren King.


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Title: Bolivia
Subject: List of mountains in the Andes, 2012–13 Club Bolívar season, List of Bolivian records in swimming, 2011 Davis Cup Americas Zone Group III, Current events/Latin America/Inclusion
Collection: Andean Community, Andean Community of Nations, Bolivia, Countries in South America, Former Spanish Colonies, Landlocked Countries, Member States of the Union of South American Nations, Member States of the United Nations, Republics, Spanish-Speaking Countries and Territories, States and Territories Established in 1825, World Digital Library Related
Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (Spanish)
Buliwya Mamallaqta (Quechua)
Wuliwya Suyu (Aymara)
Tetã Volívia (Guaraní)
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "¡La unión es la fuerza!" (Spanish)
"Unity is Strength!"[1]
Anthem: Himno Nacional de Bolivia (Spanish)
Wiphala of Qollasuyu[nb 1]
Capital Sucre (constitutional)a La Paz
Official languages[2]
and 34 other native languages
Ethnic groups (2010[3])
55% Amerindianb
30% Mestizo
15% White
Unitary presidential constitutional republic
- President Evo Morales
- Vice President Álvaro García Linera
Plurinational Legislative Assembly
- Upper house Senate
- Lower house Chamber of Deputies
Independence from Spain
- Declared 6 August 1825
- Recognized 21 July 1847
- Current constitution 7 February 2009
- Total 1,098,581 km2 (28th)
424,163 sq mi
- Water (%) 1.29
- 2014-03-25 estimate 10,556,102[4] (83rd)
- Density 9/km2 (221st)
23/sq mi
- Total $59,195 billion[5]
- Per capita $5,364[5]
Gini (2010) 53[3]
high · 14
medium · 113th
BOT (UTC−4)
a. See below. Seat of government La Paz
b. Quechua, Aymara and 34 other ethnic groups.
Bolivia (, Spanish: Bolivia , Quechua: Buliwya, Aymara: Wuliwya), officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia (Spanish: Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia locally: ),[7][8] is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay and Argentina to the south, Chile to the southwest, and Peru to the west.
Prior to Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was a part of the Inca Empire, while the northern and eastern lowlands were inhabited by independent tribes. Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During most of the Spanish colonial period, Bolivia was known as Upper Peru and administered by the Royal Court of Charcas. After the first call for independence in 1809, 16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Bolivia has since endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of various peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre, parts of the Gran Chaco and its coast.
Modern Bolivia is a democratic republic that is divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands, situated within the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent.[9] Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing goods such as textiles, clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin.
The Bolivian population, estimated at 10 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, Europeans, Asians and Africans. The main language spoken is Spanish, although the Guarani, Aymara and Quechua languages are also common, and all four, as well as 34 other indigenous languages, are official. Bolivia's diversity has contributed greatly to its rich art, cuisine, literature, and music.
Pre-colonial 2.1
Colonial period 2.2
Independence and subsequent wars 2.3
Early 20th century 2.4
Late 20th century 2.5
Democratic transition 2.6
Sustaining water supplies 3.1
Geology 3.2
Climate 3.3
Biodiversity 3.4
Politics and government 4
Capital 4.1
Law and crime 4.2
Foreign relations 4.3
Military 4.4
Administrative divisions 5
Transport 6.1
Ethnicity 7.1
Indigenous peoples 7.1.1
Language 7.2
Religion 7.3
Largest cities 7.4
Cuisine 8.1
Artistic and popular references 8.2
Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence.[10] The leader of Venezuela, Antonio José de Sucre, had been given the option by Bolívar to either keep Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) under the newly formed Republic of Peru, to unite with the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, or to formally declare its independence from the Viceroyalty of Peru that had dominated most of the region. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support, named it in honor of Simón Bolívar.[11]
The original name was Republic of Bolívar. Some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed: "If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia" (Spanish: Si de Rómulo Roma, de Bolívar Bolivia). The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825.[12] In 2009, a new constitution changed the country's official name to "Plurinational State of Bolivia" in recognition of the multi-ethnic nature of the country and the enhanced position of Bolivia's indigenous peoples under the new constitution.[13]
Tiwanaku at its largest territorial extent, AD 950.
The region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,000 years when the Aymara arrived. Present-day Aymara associate themselves with an advanced civilization situated at Tiwanaku, in Western Bolivia. The capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village.[14]
The community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes. According to early estimates, the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometres (2.5 sq mi) at its maximum extent and had between 15,000 to 30,000 inhabitants.[15] In 1996 satellite imaging was used to map the extent of fossilized suka kollus (flooded raised fields) across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, arriving at population-carrying capacity estimates of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people.[16]
Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally dominant force to a predatory state. Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its culture and way of life to many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. Tiwanaku was not a violent culture in many respects. In order to expand its reach, Tiwanaku exercised great political astuteness, creating colonies, fostering trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependent), and instituting state cults.[17]
The empire continued to grow with no end in sight. William H. Isbell states "Tiahuanaco underwent a dramatic transformation between AD 600 and 700 that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population."[18] Tiwanaku continued to absorb cultures rather than eradicate them. Archaeologists note a dramatic adoption of Tiwanaku ceramics into the cultures which became part of the Tiwanaku empire. Tiwanaku's power was further solidified through the trade it implemented among the cities within its empire.[17]
Tiwanaku's elites gained their status through the surplus food they controlled, collected from outlying regions and then redistributed to the general populace. Further, this elite's control of llama herds became a powerful control mechanism as llamas were essential for carrying goods between the civic centre and the periphery. These herds also came to symbolize class distinctions between the commoners and the elites. Through this control and manipulation of surplus resources, the elite's power continued to grow until about AD 950. At this time a dramatic shift in climate occurred,[19] causing a significant drop in precipitation in the Titicaca Basin, believed by archaeologists to have been on the scale of a major drought.
As the rainfall decreased, many of the cities further away from Lake Titicaca began to tender less foodstuffs to the elites. As the surplus of food decreased, and thus the amount available to underpin their power, the control of the elites began to falter. The capital city became the last place viable for food production due to the resiliency of the raised field method of agriculture. Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000 because food production, the main source of the power elite's control, dried up. The area remained uninhabited for centuries thereafter.[19]
Inca Expansion (1438–1527).
Between 1438 and 1527, the Inca empire, during its last great expansion, gained control over much of what is now western Bolivia. The Incas would not maintain control of the region for long, as the rapidly expanding Inca Empire was internally weak.
The Spanish conquest of the Inca empire began in 1524, and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was known as "Upper Peru", and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata—modern Sucre). Founded in 1545 as a mining town, Potosí soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming the largest city in the New World with a population exceeding 150,000 people.[20]
By the late 16th century Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the Spanish Empire.[21] A steady stream of natives served as labor force under the brutal, slave conditions of the Spanish version of the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita.[22] Upper Peru was bounded to Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776. Túpac Katari led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to La Paz in March 1781,[23] during which 20,000 people died.[24] As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew
Independence and subsequent wars
One of the first coins produced in Bolivia after the Declaration of Independence in 1825.
The struggle for independence started in the city of Sucre on 25 May 1809, with the first cry of Freedom in Latin America. Chuquisaca Revolution (Chuquisaca was then the name of the city). That revolution, which created a local government Junta, was followed by the La Paz revolution, during which Bolivia actually declared independence. Both revolutions were short-lived, and defeated by the Spanish authorities, but the following year the Spanish American wars of independence raged across the continent. Bolivia was captured and recaptured many times during the war by the royalists and patriots. Buenos Aires sent three military campaigns, all of which were defeated, and eventually limited itself to protecting the national borders at Salta. Bolivia was finally freed of Royalist dominion by Antonio José de Sucre, with a military campaign coming from the North in support of the campaign of Simón Bolívar. After 16 years of war the Republic was proclaimed on 6 August 1825.
The first coat of arms of Bolivia, formerly named as the Republic of Bolívar in honor of Simón Bolívar.
In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, General Luis José de Orbegoso. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector. Following tension between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on 28 December 1836. Argentina, Chile's ally, declared war on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories during the War of the Confederation: the defeat of the Argentine expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city of Arequipa.
On the same field, the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army surrendered unconditionally and signed the Battle of Yungay. After this defeat, Santa Cruz resigned and went to exile in Ecuador and then Paris, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.
Following the independence of Peru, Peruvian president General Agustín Gamarra invaded Bolivia. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the Battle of Ingavi on 20 November 1841 where Gamarra was killed. The Bolivian army under General José Ballivián then mounted a counter-offensive, capturing the Peruvian port of Arica. Later, both sides signed a peace treaty in 1842, putting a final end to the war.
A period of political and economic instability in the early-to-mid-19th century weakened Bolivia. In addition, during the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Chile occupied vast territories rich in natural resources south west of Bolivia, including the Bolivian coast. Chile took control of today's Chuquicamata area, the adjoining rich salitre (saltpeter) fields, and the port of Antofagasta among other Bolivian territories.
Thus, since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries.[25] It also lost the state of Acre, in the Acre War; important because this region was known for its production of rubber. Peasants and the Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories, and facing the prospect of a total war against Brazil, it was forced to sign the Treaty of Petrópolis in 1903, in which Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it that Bolivian president Mariano Melgarejo (1864–71) traded the land for what he called "a magnificent white horse" and Acre was subsequently flooded by Brazilians which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of war with Brazil. In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability.
During the early 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first thirty years of the 20th century.[26]
Living conditions of the native people, who constitute most of the population, remained deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines and in large estates having nearly feudal status, they had no access to education, economic opportunity, and political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932–35), where Bolivia lost a great part of the Gran Chaco region in dispute, marked a turning-point.[27][28][29]
The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR), the most historic political party, emerged as a broad-based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR, having strong popular pressure, introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin mines.
12 years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President René Barrientos Ortuño, a former member of the junta who was elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by the rising Popular Assembly and the increase in the popularity of President Juan José Torres, the military, the MNR, and others installed Colonel (later General) Hugo Banzer Suárez as president in 1971. He returned to the presidency in 1985–1989, 1993–1997, and 2002–2003.
The CIA had been active in providing finances and training to the Bolivian military dictatorship in the 1960s. The revolutionary leader Che Guevara was killed by a team of CIA officers and members of the Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967, in Bolivia. Félix Rodríguez was a CIA officer on the team with the Bolivian Army that captured and shot Guevara.[30] Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian presidential execution order, he told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim carefully, to remain consistent with the Bolivian government's story that Che had been killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian army." Rodriguez said the US government had wanted Che in Panama, and "I could have tried to falsify the command to the troops, and got Che to Panama as the US government said they had wanted", said Mr Rodriguez, but he chose to "let history run its course" as desired by Bolivia."[31]
Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups d'état, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, General Luis García Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo", or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]."[32] After a military rebellion forced out Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress, elected in 1980, and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, Hernán Siles Zuazo again became president, 22 years after the end of his first term of office (1956–60).
Democratic transition
Former President, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada
Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform was the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises in return for agreed upon capital investments.
In 1993, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada ran for president in alliance with the Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement, which inspired indigenous-sensitive and multicultural-aware policies.[33] In 1993, Sanchez de Lozada introduced the Plan de Todos, which led to the decentralization of government, introduction of intercultural bilingual education, implementation of agrarian legislation, and privatization of state owned businesses. The plan explicitly stated that Bolivian citizens would own a minimum of 51% of enterprises; under the plan, most state-owned enterprises (SOEs), though not mines, were sold.[3][34] This privatization of SOEs led to innovative neoliberal structuring that acknowledged a diverse population within Bolivia.[35]
The Law of Popular Participation gave municipalities the responsibility of maintaining various infrastructures (and offering services): health, education, systems of irrigation, which stripped the responsibility away from the state.
The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare Central Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers.
In the 1997 elections, General Hugo Banzer, leader of the Nationalist Democratic Action party (ADN) and former dictator (1971–78), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police-units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan).[36] The Banzer government basically continued the free-market and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for export commodities, and reduced employment in the coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.
Between January 1999 and April 2000, large-scale Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez completed the final year of his term.
In the June 2002 national elections, former President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate and native peasant-leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9%. A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on 6 August he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion.
In 2003 the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On 12 October 2003 the government imposed martial law in El Alto after 16 people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes. Faced with the option of resigning or more bloodshed, Sanchez de Lozada offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted and his vice president, Carlos Mesa, invested, he left on a commercially scheduled flight for the United States.
Evo Morales' inauguration as President.
The country's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on the international stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa attempted to resign in January 2005, but his offer was refused by Congress. On 22 March 2005, after weeks of new street protests from organizations accusing Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again offered his resignation to Congress, which was accepted on 10 June. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, Eduardo Rodríguez, was sworn as interim president to succeed the outgoing Carlos Mesa.
The indigenous population of the Andean region was not able to benefit from government reforms.[37]
Evo Morales won the 2005 presidential election with 53.7% of the votes, an absolute majority, unusual in Bolivian elections On 1 May 2006, Morales caused controversy when he announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets. Fulfilling a campaign promise, on 6 August 2006, Morales opened the Bolivian Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority.[38]
In August 2007, more conflicts arose in Sucre, as the city demanded the discussion of the seat of government inside the assembly, hoping the executive and legislative branches could return to the city, but the assembly and the government said this demand was overwhelmingly impractical and politically undesirable. In May 2008, Evo Morales was a signatory to the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations. In the 2009 national general elections, Evo Morales was re-elected with 64.22% of the vote. His party, Movement for Socialism, also won a two-thirds majority in both houses of the National Congress.
Satellite image of Bolivia
Bolivia is located in the central zone of South America, between 57°26'–69°38'W and 9°38'–22°53'S. With an area of 1,098,581 square kilometres (424,164 sq mi), Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country,[39] extending from the Central Andes through part of the Gran Chaco as far as the Amazon. The geographic center of the country is the so-called Puerto Estrella ("Star Port") on the Río Grande, in Ñuflo de Chávez Province, Santa Cruz Department.
The geography of the country exhibits a great variety of terrains and climates. Bolivia has a high level of biodiversity, considered one of the greatest in the world, as well as several ecoregions with ecological sub-units such as the Altiplano, tropical rainforests (including Amazon rainforest), dry valleys, and the Chiquitania, which is a tropical savanna. These areas feature enormous variations in altitude, from an elevation of 6,542 metres (21,463 ft) above sea level in Nevado Sajama to nearly 70 metres (230 ft) along the Paraguay River. Although a country of great geographic diversity, Bolivia has remained a landlocked country since the War of the Pacific.
Bolivia can be divided into three physiographic regions:
The Andean region in the southwest spans 28% of the national territory, extending over 307,603 square kilometres (118,766 sq mi). This area is located above 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) altitude and is located between two big Andean chains, the Cordillera Occidental ("Western Range") and the Cordillera Central ("Central Range"), with some of the highest spots in the Americas such as the Nevado Sajama, with an altitude of 6,542 metres (21,463 ft), and the Illimani, at 6,462 metres (21,201 ft). Also located in the Cordillera Central is Lake Titicaca, the highest commercially navigable lake in the world and the largest lake in South America;[40] the lake is shared with Peru. Also in this region are the Altiplano and the Salar de Uyuni, which is the largest salt flat in the world and an important source of lithium.
The Sub-Andean region in the center and south of the country is an intermediate region between the Altiplano and the eastern llanos (plain); this region comprises 13% of the territory of Bolivia, extending over 142,815 km2 (55,141 sq mi), and encompassing the Bolivian valleys and the Yungas region. It is distinguished by its farming activities and its temperate climate.
The Llanos region in the northeast comprises 59% of the territory, with 648,163 km2 (250,257 sq mi). It is located to the north of the Cordillera Central and extends from the Andean foothills to the Paraguay River. It is a region of flat land and small plateaus, all covered by extensive rain forests containing enormous biodiversity. The region is below 400 metres (1,300 ft) above sea level.
Bolivia has three drainage basins:
The first is the Amazon Basin, also called the North Basin (724,000 km2 (280,000 sq mi)/66% of the territory). The rivers of this basin generally have big meanders which form lakes such as Murillo Lake in Pando Department. The main Bolivian tributary to the Amazon basin is the Mamoré River, with a length of 2,000 km (1,200 mi) running north to the confluence with the Beni River, 1,113 km (692 mi) in length and the second most important river of the country. The Beni River, along with the Madeira River, forms the main tributary of the Amazon River. From east to west, the basin is formed by other important rivers, such as the Madre de Dios River, the Orthon River, the Abuna River, the Yata River, and the Guaporé River. The most important lakes are Rogaguado Lake, Rogagua Lake, and Jara Lake.
The second is the Rio de la Plata Basin, also called the South Basin (229,500 km2 (88,600 sq mi)/21% of the territory). The tributaries in this basin are in general less abundant than the ones forming the Amazon Basin. The Rio de la Plata Basin is mainly formed by the Paraguay River, Pilcomayo River, and Bermejo River. The most important lakes are Uberaba Lake and Mandioré Lake, both located in the Bolivian marshland.
The third basin is the Central Basin, which is an endorheic basin (145,081 square kilometres (56,016 sq mi)/13% of the territory). The Altiplano has large numbers of lakes and rivers that do not run into any ocean because they are enclosed by the Andean mountains. The most important river is the Desaguadero River, with a length of 436 km (271 mi), the longest river of the Altiplano; it begins in Lake Titicaca and then runs in a southeast direction to Poopó Lake. The basin is then formed by Lake Titicaca, Lake Poopó, the Desaguadero River, and great salt flats, including the Salar de Uyuni and Coipasa Lake.
Sustaining water supplies
Deforestation in upper river basins has caused environmental problems, including soil erosion and declining water quality. An innovative project to try and remedy this situation involves landholders in upstream areas being paid by downstream water users to conserve forests. The landholders receive $20 to conserve the trees, avoid polluting livestock practices, and enhance the biodiversity and forest carbon on their land. They receive $30, which purchases a beehive, to compensate for conservation for two hectares of water-sustaining forest for five years. Honey revenue per hectare of forest is $5 per year, so within five years, the landholder has sold $50 of honey.[41] The project is being conducted by Fundación Natura Bolivia and Rare Conservation, with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network.
The geology of Bolivia comprises a variety of different lithologies as well as tectonic and sedimentary environments. On a synoptic scale, geological units coincide with topographical units. Most elementally, the country is divided into a mountainous western area affected by the subduction processes in the Pacific and an eastern lowlands of stable platforms and shields.
Los Yungas, La Paz.
The climate of Bolivia varies drastically from one eco-region to the other, from the tropics in the eastern llanos to a polar climate in the western Andes. The summers are warm, humid in the east and dry in the west, with rains that often modify temperatures, humidity, winds, atmospheric pressure and evaporation, yielding very different climates in different areas. When the climatological phenomenon known as El Niño[42][43] takes place, it causes great alterations in the weather. Winters are very cold in the west, and it snows in the mountain ranges, while in the western regions, windy days are more common. The autumn is dry in the non-tropical regions.
Llanos. A humid tropical climate with an average temperature of 30 °C (86 °F). The wind coming from the Amazon rainforest causes significant rainfall. In May, there is low precipitation because of dry winds, and most days have clear skies. Even so, winds from the south, called surazos, can bring cooler temperatures lasting several days.
Altiplano. Desert-Polar climates, with strong and cold winds. The average temperature ranges from 15 to 20 °C. At night, temperatures descend drastically to slightly above 0 °C, while during the day, the weather is dry and solar radiation is high. Ground frosts occur every month, and snow is frequent.
Valleys and Yungas. Temperate climate. The humid northeastern winds are pushed to the mountains, making this region very humid and rainy. Temperatures are cooler at higher elevations. Snow occurs at altitudes of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft).
Chaco. Subtropical Semi-arid climate. Rainy and humid in January and the rest of the year, with warm days and cool nights.
Bolivia, with an enormous variety of ecosystems, is part of the "Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries".[44]
Bolivia's variable altitudes, ranging from 90–6,542 metres (295–21,463 ft) above sea level, allow for a vast biologic diversity. The territory of Bolivia comprises four types of biomes, 32 ecological regions, and 199 ecosystems. Within this geographic area there are several natural parks and reserves such as the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, the Madidi National Park, the Tunari National Park, the Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve, and the Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area, among others.
Bolivia boasts over 17,000 species of seed plants, including over 1,200 species of fern, 1,500 species of marchantiophyta and moss, and at least 800 species of fungus. In addition, there are more than 3,000 species of medicinal plants. Bolivia is considered the place of origin for such species as peppers and chili peppers, peanuts, the common beans, yucca, and several species of palm. Bolivia also naturally produces over 4,000 kinds of potatoes.
Bolivia has more than 2,900 animal species, including 398 mammals, over 1,400 birds (70% of birds known in the world, being the sixth most diverse country in terms of bird species)[45], 204 amphibians, 277 reptiles, and 635 fish, all fresh water fish as Bolivia is a landlocked country. In addition, there are more than 3,000 types of butterfly, and more than 60 domestic animals.
Bolivia has gained global attention for its 'Law of the Rights of Mother Earth', which accords nature the same rights as humans.[46]
The government building of the National Congress of Bolivia at the Plaza Murillo in central La Paz.
Bolivia has been governed by democratically elected governments since 1982, when a long string of military coups came to an end. Presidents Hernán Siles Zuazo (1982–85) and Víctor Paz Estenssoro (1985–89) began a tradition of ceding power peacefully which has continued, although two presidents have stepped down in the face of popular protests: Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada in 2003 and Carlos Mesa in 2005. Bolivia's multiparty democracy has seen a wide variety of parties in the presidency and parliament, although the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement, Nationalist Democratic Action, and the Revolutionary Left Movement predominated from 1985 to 2005. The current president is Evo Morales, the first indigenous Bolivian to serve as head of state. Morales' Movement for Socialism – Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Peoples party was the first to win an outright presidential majority in four decades, doing so both in 2005 and 2009.
The constitution, drafted in 2006–07 and approved in 2009, provides for balanced executive, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers, as well as several levels of autonomy. The traditionally strong executive branch tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system as well as increasing decentralizing powers to departments, municipalities, and indigenous territories.
The executive branch is headed by a President and Vice President, and consists of a variable number (currently, 20) of government ministries. The president is elected to a five-year term by popular vote, and governs from the Presidential Palace (popularly called the Burnt Palace, Palacio Quemado) in La Paz. In the case that no candidate receives an absolute majority of the popular vote or more than 40% of the vote with an advantage of more than 10% over the second place finisher, a run-off is to be held among the two candidates most voted.[47]
The Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional (Plurinational Legislative Assembly or National Congress) has two chambers. The Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies) has 130 members elected to five-year terms, seventy from single-member districts (circunscripciones), sixty by proportional representation, and seven by the minority indigenous peoples of seven departments. The Cámara de Senadores (Chamber of Senators) has 36 members (four per department). Members of the Assembly are elected to five-year terms. The body has its headquarters on the Plaza Murillo in La Paz, but also holds honorary sessions elsewhere in Bolivia. The Vice President serves as titular head of the combined Assembly.
The Supreme Court Building in the capital of Bolivia, Sucre.
The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Tribunal, the Judiciary Council, Agrarian and Environmental Tribunal, and District (departmental) and lower courts. In October 2011, Bolivia held its first judicial elections to choose members of the national courts by popular vote, a reform brought about by Evo Morales.
The judicial election in October 2011, and five municipal special elections held in 2011.
Bolivia has its constitutionally recognized capital in Sucre, while La Paz is the seat of government. La Plata (now Sucre) was proclaimed provisional capital of the newly independent Alto Peru (later, Bolivia) on 1 July 1826.[49] On 12 July 1839, President José Miguel de Velasco proclaimed a law naming the city as the capital of Bolivia, and renaming it in honor of the revolutionary leader Antonio José de Sucre.[49] The Bolivian seat of government moved to La Paz at the turn of the twentieth century, as a consequence of Sucre's relative remoteness from economic activity after the decline of Potosí and its silver industry and of the Liberal Party in the War of 1899.
The 2009 Constitution assigns the role of national capital to Sucre, not referring to La Paz in the text.[47] In addition to being the constitutional capital, the Supreme Court of Bolivia is located in Sucre, making it the judicial capital. Nonetheless, the Palacio Quemado (the Presidential Palace and seat of Bolivian executive power) is located in La Paz, as are the National Congress and Plurinational Electoral Organ. La Paz thus continues to be the seat of government.
There are 53 prisons in Bolivia which incarcerate around 8,700 people as of 2010. The prisons are managed by the Penitentiary Regime Directorate (Spanish: Dirección de Régimen Penintenciario). There are 17 prisons in departmental capital cities and 36 provincial prisons.
Despite losing its maritime coast, the so-called Littoral Department, after the
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Fagan, Brian (2001). The Seventy Great Mysteries of the Ancient World: Unlocking the Secrets of Past Civilizations. Thames & Hudson.
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^ "Conquest in the Americas". MSN Encarta. 28 October 2009. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ "Bolivia – Ethnic Groups". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
^ Nicholas A. Robins; Adam Jones (2009). Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice. Indiana University Press. pp. 1–2.
^ "Rebellions". History Department, Duke University. 22 February 1999. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ McGurn Centellas, Katherine (June 2008). For Love of Land and Laboratory: Nation-building and Bioscience in Bolivia. Chicago. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
^ David Rabanus. "Background note: Bolivia.". Bolivien-liest.de. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ Harold Osborne (1954). Bolivia: A Land Divided. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs.
^ History World (2004). "History of Bolivia". National Grid for Learning.
^ Juan Forero (7 May 2006). "History Helps Explain Bolivia's New Boldness". New York Times. Retrieved 26 April 2010. (PDF), University of Wisconsin–Madison, Department of Geography
^ Grant, Will (8 October 2007). "CIA man recounts Che Guevara's death". BBC News. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
^ "Foreign Relations of the United States, Volume XXXI, South and Central America; Mexico".
^ Brian Boyd (20 January 2006). "Astroturfing all the way to No 1".
^ "1994 CIA World FactBook". Retrieved 4 March 2010.
^ "Historia de la República de Bolivia". Retrieved 4 March 2010.
^ Kohl, Benjamin (2003). "Restructuring Citizenship in Bolivia: El Plan de Todos". International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 27 (2): 337.
^ "Ethnicity and Politics in Bolivia" (PDF). Ethnopolitics 4(3):269–297. September 2005. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ Lucero, José Antonio (2009). "Decades Lost and Won: The Articulations of Indigenous Movements and Multicultural Neoliberalism in the Andes". In John Burdick; Philip Oxhorn; Kenneth M. Roberts. Beyond neoliberalism in Latin America?. Palgrave Macmillan.
^ "Push for new Bolivia constitution". BBC News. 6 August 2006. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
^ "Country Comparison :: Area".
^ "Lake Titicaca".
^ "Payments for Watershed Services – A Drive of Climate Compatible Development".
^ "Fortalecimiento de las Capacidades locales para enfrentar El Fenómeno del Niño en Perú y Bolivia" (PDF). itdg.org.pe. Archived from the original on 8 March 2005. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ "Deja 56 muertos "El Niño" en Bolivia". elfinanciero.com.mx. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ "LIKE MINDED MEGADIVERSE COUNTRIES". Retrieved 6 January 2014.
^ "Bolivia es el Sexto País con la Mayor Cantidad de Especies de Aves en el Mundo" [Bolivia is the Sixth Country with the Highest Number of Bird Species in the World] (in Spanish). Bolivia.com. 10 June 2009. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
^ Solon, Olivia (11 April 2011). "Bolivia Grants Nature Same Rights as Humans".
^ a b "Political Constitution of the State, First Part, Title I, Chapter One: Model of State" (PDF). Nueva Constitución Política del Estado. p. 4. Archived from the original on 19 June 2009. Retrieved 14 July 2013. I. Sucre is the Capital of Bolivia."
^ "Posesionan a cuatro Vocales del Tribunal Supremo Electoral". La Jornada. 16 August 2010. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
^ a b "Sucre.", Sociedad Geográfica (1903). Diccionario geográfico del Departamento de Chuquisaca: contiene datos geográficos, históricos y estadisticos. Impr. "Bolívar" de M. Pizarro. pp. 296–97.
^ "Bolivia". Oas.org. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ , near the Peruvian town of Ilo"Bolivia Mar"Satellite view in Wikimapia of . Retrieved 25 October 2014.
^ "Bolivia Military Profile 2006". Index Mundi. 2006.
^ Carroll, Rory (28 August 2008). "Bolivia's landlocked sailors pine for the high seas". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 26 April 2010.
^ Political Constitution of Bolivia, Article 271
^ Mark Weisbrot, Rebecca Ray and Jake Johnston (December 2009). "Bolivia: The Economy During the Morales Administration". CEPR – Center for Economic and Policy Research.
^ Crabtree, J.; Buffy, G.; Pearce, J. (1988). "The Great Tin Crash: Bolivia and the World Tin Market". Bulletin of Latin American Research (Bulletin of Latin American Research, Vol. 7, No. 1) 7 (1): 174–175.
^ "Economy of Bolivia". US State Government. 23 October 2012. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ Hattam, Jennifer (September 2001). "Who Owns Water?". Sierra 86 (5). Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ "Leasing the Rain". PBS Frontline/World. June 2002. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ "Anti-Morales protests hit Bolivia". BBC News. 10 September 2008. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
^ "Bolivia's lithium mining dilemma". BBC News. 10 September 2008. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
^ "Amaszonas". Amaszonas. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
^ "Principales resultados del censo nacional de población y vivienda 2012 (CNPV 2012) – Estado plurinacional de Bolivia". Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE). July 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
^ "Bolivian Reforms Raise Anxiety on Mennonite Frontier". New York Times. 21 December 2006. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ Fogel, Robert William; Engerman, Stanley L. (1995). Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery. W W Norton & Company Incorporated. pp. 33–34.
^ Article 5, Paragraph I of the Bolivian Political Constitution.
^ "Bolivia religion". USA: Department of State. 14 September 2007. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
^ "Ateos en números". InterGlobal. Retrieved 2009.
^ "Pachamama y los Dioses Incaicos". Catamarcaguia.com.ar. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ "El Tata Santiago, un santo en Guaqui con vena de general". Bolivia.com. Retrieved 2009.
^ a b c "Background Note: Bolivia".
^ Alethia, Caroline. Plant Teacher. Viator. United States. (2011) ISBN 1468138391. ASIN B006QAECNO.
^ "Bolivia Declares Literacy Success".
^ a b "Country Comparison :: Life Expectancy at Birth".
^ "Amnesty International Report 2007 – Bolivia".
^ "Bolivia".
^ Article 6, section II of the new Bolivian constitution establishes the Wiphala as a national symbol of Bolivia (along with the flag, national anthem and coat of arms). See "Bandera indígena boliviana es incluida como símbolo patrio en nueva Constitución", 21 October 2008, United Press International.
Outline of Bolivia
Index of Bolivia-related articles
Women in Bolivia
Based on 2013 The World Factbook estimates, Bolivia is ranked 161st in life expectancy with a number of 68.2 years.[76] Life expectancy for men is 65.4 and for women is 71.1.[76] A study by the United Nations Development Programme and United Nations International Emergency Children's Fund reported over 230 babies died per day in Bolivia through lack of proper care.[77] The majority of the population has no health insurance or access to healthcare.[1] Demographic and Health Surveys has completed five surveys in Bolivia since 1989 on a wide range of topics.[78]
Bolivia has public and private universities. Among them: Universidad San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca USFX – Sucre, founded in 1624; Universidad Mayor de San Andres UMSA – La Paz, founded in 1830; Universidad Mayor de San Simon UMSS – Cochabamba, founded in 1832; Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno UAGRM – Santa Cruz de la Sierra, founded in 1880; Universidad Tecnica de Oruro UTO – Oruro, founded in 1892; and Universidad Autónoma Tomás Frías UATF – Potosi, founded in 1892.
In 2008, following UNESCO standards, Bolivia was declared free of illiteracy, making it the fourth country in South America to attain this status.[75]
Literacy class in the El Alto section of La Paz.
The 2011 Caroline Alethia novel Plant Teacher takes place in Bolivia from 2007 to 2008. The novel explores such themes as politics, indigenous religions, and narcotourism.[74]
Artistic and popular references
Cuisine in Bolivia stems mainly from the combination of Spanish cuisine with traditional indigenous Aymara/Inca ingredients, with the addition of later influences from German, Italian, Basque, Russian, Polish, and Arab immigrants.
Entertainment includes football.
Bolivia has a rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at Tarabuco.[73] The best known of the various festivals found in the country is the "Carnaval de Oruro", which was among the first 19 "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity", as proclaimed by UNESCO in May 2001.
Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include María Luisa Pacheco, Roberto Mamani Mamani, Alejandro Mario Yllanes, Alfredo Da Silva, and Marina Núñez del Prado.
The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local native and mestizo builders and artisans, developed into a rich and distinctive style of architecture, painting, and sculpture known as "Mestizo Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown stonecutters, woodcarvers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An important body of Native Baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.[73]
The Diablada, dance primeval, typical and main of Carnival of Oruro a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2001 in Bolivia (File: Fraternidad Artística y Cultural "La Diablada").
The cultural development is divided into three distinct periods: precolumbian, colonial, and republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, El Fuerte de Samaipata, Inkallaqta and Iskanawaya. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.[73]
Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the Quechua, the Aymara, as well as the popular cultures of Latin America as a whole.
Bolivian children playing tarka.
Largest cities or towns of Bolivia
Census 2012, INE
El Alto 1 Santa Cruz de la Sierra Santa Cruz 1,453,549 11 Montero Santa Cruz 109,518
2 El Alto La Paz 848,840 12 Trinidad Beni 106,422
3 La Paz La Paz 764,617 13 Warnes Santa Cruz 96,406
4 Cochabamba Cochabamba 630,587 14 Yacuíba Tarija 91,998
5 Oruro Oruro 264,683 15 La Guardia Santa Cruz 89,080
6 Sucre Chuquisaca 259,388 16 Riberalta Beni 89,003
7 Tarija Tarija 205,346 17 Viacha La Paz 80,388
8 Potosí Potosí 189,652 18 Villa Tunari Cochabamba 72,623
9 Sacaba Cochabamba 169,494 19 Tiquipaya Cochabamba 53,062
10 Quillacollo Cochabamba 137,029 20 San Ignacio de Velasco Santa Cruz 52,276
Much of the indigenous population adheres to different traditional beliefs marked by inculturation or syncretisim with Christianity. The cult of Pachamama,[71] or "Mother Earth", as well as the adoration to the Virgin of Copacabana, Virgin of Urkupiña and Virgin of Socavón, are notable. There also are important Aymaran communities near Lake Titicaca that have a strong devotion to James the Apostle.[72] Other deities worshiped in Bolivia include the Ekeko, the Aymaran god of abundance and prosperity, whose day is celebrated every 24 January; and Tupá, a god of the Guaraní people.
According to the 2001 census conducted by the National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia, 78 percent of the population is Roman Catholic, followed by 19 percent Protestant and 3 percent non-religious (either agnostic or atheist).[69][70]
Bolivia is a secular state and guarantees freedom of religion. The Constitution establishes that "the state respects and guarantees the freedom of religion and of spiritual beliefs, in concordance with their world view. The state is independent of the religion."[2]
Religious inculturation between the cult to Pachamama (represented by the Cerro Rico) and the adoration to Virgin Mary, reflected on the painting "La Virgen del Cerro" of 1720.
Plautdietsch, a German dialect, is spoken by about 70.000 Mennonites in Santa Cruz and some Portuguese is spoken mainly in the areas close to Brazil.
The main indigenous languages are: Quechua (28% of the population in the 2001 census), Aymara (18%), Guarani (1%), other (4%) including the Moxos in the department of Beni.
Spanish is the most spoken official language in the country, according to the 2001 census;[68] as it is spoken by 88.4% of the population, as a first language or second language in some indigenous populations. All legal and official documents issued by the State, including the Constitution, the main private and public institutions, the media, and commercial activities, are in Spanish.
Bolivia has great linguistic diversity as a result of its multiculturalism. The Constitution of Bolivia recognizes 37 official languages, aside from Spanish. These include the languages of the native indigenous nations of Bolivia, which are Aymara, Araona, Baure, Bésiro, Canichana, Cavineño, Cayubaba, Chacobo, Chiman, Ese Ejja, Guaraní, Guarasuawe, Guarayu, Itonama, Leco, Machajuyai-Kallawaya, Machineri, Maropa, Mojeño-Trinitario, Mojeño-Ignaciano, Moré, Mosetén, Movima, Pacawara, Puquina, Quechua, Sirionó, Tacana, Tapiete, Toromona, Uruchipaya, Weenhayek, Yaminawa, Yuki, Yuracaré and Zamuco.[67]
Geographic distribution of the indigenous languages of Bolivia.
Ethnicities of the Eastern Lowlands
Guaraníes. Formed by: Guarayos, Pausernas, Sirionos, Chiriguanos, Wichí, Chulipis, Taipetes, Tobas and Yuquis.
Tacanas: Formed by: Lecos, Chimanes, Araonas and Maropas.
Panos: Formed by: Chacobos, Caripunas, Sinabos, Capuibos and Guacanaguas.
Aruacos: Formed by: Apolistas, Baures, Moxos, Chané, Movimas, Cayabayas, Carabecas, Paiconecas or Paucanacas.
Chapacuras: Formed by: Itenez or More, Chapacuras, Sansinonianos, Canichanas, Itonamas, Yuracares, Guatoses and Chiquitos.
Botocudos: Formed by: Bororos y Otuquis.
Zamucos: Formed by: Ayoreos.
Andean ethnicities
Aymara people. They live on the high plateau of the departments of La Paz, Oruro and Potosí, as well as some small regions near the tropical flatlands.
Quechua people. They inhabit mostly the valleys on Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. They also inhabit some mountain regions in Potosí and Oruro. They divide themselves into different Quechua nations, as the Tarabucos, Ucumaris, Chalchas, Chaquies, Yralipes, Tirinas, among others.
Uru people
The Indigenous peoples of Bolivia can be divided into two categories of ethnic groups; the Andean groups, which are located in the Andean Altiplano and the valley region, and the lowland ethnic groups, who inhabit the warm regions of central and eastern Bolivia, including the valleys of Cochabamba Department, the Amazon Basin areas of northern La Paz Department, and the lowland departments of Beni, Pando, Santa Cruz, and Tarija, including the Gran Chaco region in the southeast of the country. Large numbers of Andean peoples have also migrated to form Quechua, Aymara, and intercultural communities in the lowlands.
There are small numbers of European citizens of Germany, France, Italy and Portugal, as well as coming from other American countries, as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, United States, Paraguay, Peru, Mexico and Venezuela, among others. There are important Peruvian colonies in La Paz, El Alto and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
Asians are mainly Japanese (14,000), Chinese (4,600), Koreans and Lebanese.
Afro Bolivians, descendents of African slaves which arrived in the times of the Spanish Empire, inhabit the department of La Paz, and located mainly in the provinces of Nor Yungas and Sud Yungas. Slavery was abolished in Bolivia in 1831.[66]
Whites are usually concentrated in the largest cities; La Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba, but as well in some minor cities like Tarija. In the Santa Cruz Department there are several dozen colonies of German-speaking Mennonites with about 40,000 inhabitants in 2012.[65] Whites represent 15% of the total Bolivian population.
Mestizos are distributed throughout the entire country and compose the 26% of the Bolivian population. Most people assume their mestizo identity while at the same time identifying themselves with one or more indigenous cultures.
Indigenous, also called "originarios" ("native" or "original") and less frequently, Amerindians, can be Andean, as the Aymaras and Quechuas (which formed the ancient Inca Empire), which concentrate in the western departments of La Paz, Potosí, Oruro, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. There also is an important oriental ethnic population, composed by the Guaraní and Moxos, among others, and that inhabit the departments of Santa Cruz, Beni, Tarija and Pando. The indigenous people compose the 60% of the Bolivian population.
The ethnic composition of Bolivia is diverse. The largest of the approximately three dozen native groups are the Quechuas (2.5 million), Aymaras (2 million), then Chiquitano (180,000), and Guaraní (125,000). So the full Amerindian population is at 55%; the remaining 30% are mestizo (mixed Amerindian and white), and around 15% are white.[3]
Macheteros.
The largest population center is located in the called "central axis" and in the Llanos region. Bolivia has a young population. According to the 2011 census, 59% of the population is between 15 and 59 years old, 39% is less than 15 years old. Almost 60% of the population is younger than 25 years of age.
Some 62.43% of Bolivians live in urban areas, while the remaining 37.57% in rural areas. The most part of the population (70%) is concentrated in the departments of La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba. In the Andean Altiplano region the departments of La Paz and Oruro hold the largest percentage of population, in the valley region the largest percentage is held by the departments of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, while in the Llanos region by Santa Cruz and Beni. At national level, the population density is 8,49, with variations marked between 0,8 (Pando Department) and 26,2 (Cochabamba Department).
In the last fifty years the Bolivian population has tripled; reaching a population growth rate of 2.25%. The growth of the population in the inter-census periods (1950–1976 and 1976–1992) was approximately 2.05%, while between the last period, 1992–2001, it reached 2.74% annually.
According to the last two censuses carried out by the Bolivian National Statistics Institute (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, INE), the population increased from 8,274,325 (from which 4,123,850 were men and 4,150,475 were women) in 2001 to 10,027,254 in 2012.[64]
Festival in Sucre.
People in La Paz city centre.
The three largest, and main international airports in Bolivia are Jorge Wilstermann International Airport in Cochabamba.
Although a civil transport airline, TAB – Transportes Aéreos Bolivianos, was created as a subsidiary company of the FAB in 1977. It is subordinate to the Air Transport Management (Gerencia de Transportes Aéreos) and is headed by an FAB general. TAB, a charter heavy cargo airline, links Bolivia with most countries of the Western Hemisphere; its inventory includes a fleet of Hercules C130 aircraft. TAB is headquartered adjacent to El Alto International Airport. TAB flies to Miami and Houston, with a stop in Panama.
A similar airline serving the Beni Department with small planes is Línea Aérea Amaszonas,[63] using smaller planes than TAM.
TAM – Transporte Aéreo Militar (the Bolivian Military Airline) is an airline based in La Paz, Bolivia. It is the civilian wing of the 'Fuerza Aérea Boliviana' (the Bolivian Air Force), operating passenger services to remote towns and communities in the North and Northeast of Bolivia. TAM (a.k.a. TAM Group 71) has been a part of the FAB since 1945.
The General Directorate of Civil Aeronautics (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil—DGAC) formerly part of the FAB, administers a civil aeronautics school called the National Institute of Civil Aeronautics (Instituto Nacional de Aeronáutica Civil—INAC), and two commercial air transport services TAM and TAB.
The income from tourism has become increasingly important. Bolivia's tourist industry has grown gradually since about 1990.
Once Bolivia's government depended heavily on foreign assistance to finance development projects and to pay the public stuff. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign creditors, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development banks. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the Paris Club mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises have undercut Bolivia's normally good record. However, by 2013 the foreign assistance is just a fraction of the government budget thanks to tax collection mainly from the profitable exports to Brazil and Argentina of natural gas.
The US Geological Service estimates that Bolivia has 5.4 million cubic tonnes of lithium, which represent 50%–70% of world reserves. However, to mine for it would involve disturbing the country's salt flats (called Salar de Uyuni), an important natural feature which boosts tourism in the region. The government does not want to destroy this unique natural landscape to meet the rising world demand for lithium.[62] On the other hand, sustainable extraction of Li is attempted by the government. This project is carried out by the public company "Recursos Evaporíticos" subsidiary of COMIBOL.
Bolivia has the second largest natural gas reserves in South America.[61] The government has a long-term sales agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through 2019. The government held a binding referendum in 2005 on the Hydrocarbon Law.
In April 2000, Hugo Banzer, the former President of Bolivia, signed a contract with Aguas del Tunari, a private consortium, to operate and improve the water supply in Bolivia's third-largest city, Cochabamba. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water rates in that city, an action which resulted in protests and rioting among those who could no longer afford clean water.[59][60] Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract.
Young miners at work in Potosí
A major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a drastic fall in the price of tin during the early 1980s, which impacted one of Bolivia's main sources of income and one of its major mining industries.[57] Since 1985, the government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the customs service has significantly improved transparency in this area. Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market-liberal policies, especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment.[58]
Bolivia's estimated 2012 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled $27.43 billion at official exchange rate and $56.14 billion at purchasing power parity. Economic growth was estimated to be at about 5.2%, and inflation was estimated at about 6.9%. Bolivia was rated "Repressed" by the 2010 Index of Economic Freedom.[55] Despite a series of mostly political setbacks, between 2006 and 2009 the Morales administration has spurred growth higher than at any point in the preceding 30 years. The growth was accompanied by a moderate decrease in inequality.[56] A surplus budget of 1.7% (GDP) was obtained by 2012, the government runs surpluses since Morales administration reflecting a prudent economic management.
Graphical depiction of Bolivia's product exports in 28 color-coded categories.
Territorial division of Bolivia
1 Pando Cobija
2 La Paz La Paz
3 Beni Trinidad
4 Oruro Oruro
5 Cochabamba Cochabamba
6 Santa Cruz Santa Cruz de la Sierra
7 Potosi Potosí
8 Chuquisaca Sucre
9 Tarija Tarija
There are four levels of decentralization: Departmental government, constituted by the Departmental Assembly, with rights over the legislation of the department. The governor is chosen by universal suffrage. Municipal government, constituted by a Municipal Council, with rights over the legislation of the municipality. The mayor is chosen by universal suffrage. Regional government, formed by several provinces or municipalities of geographical continuity within a department. It is constituted by a Regional Assembly. Original indigenous government, self-governance of original indigenous people on the ancient territories where they live.
According to what is established by the Bolivian Political Constitution, the Law of Autonomies and Decentralization regulates de procedure for the elaboration of Statutes of Autonomy, the transfer and distribution of direct competences between the central government and the autonomous entities.[54]
Bolivia has nine departments—Pando, La Paz, Beni, Oruro, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Potosi, Chuquisaca, Tarija.
The Bolivian Air Force ('Fuerza Aérea Boliviana' or 'FAB') has nine air bases, located at La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Puerto Suárez, Tarija, Villamontes, Cobija, Riberalta, and Roboré.
Though it is landlocked Bolivia keeps a navy. The Bolivian Naval Force (Fuerza Naval Boliviana in Spanish) is a naval force about 5,000 strong in 2008.[53]
The Bolivian army has around 31,500 men. There are six military regions (regiones militares—RMs) in the army. The army is organized into ten divisions.
The Bolivian military comprises three branches: Ejército (Army), Naval (Navy) and Fuerza Aérea (Air Force). The legal age for voluntary admissions is 18; however, when the numbers are small the government recruits anyone as young as 14.[3] The tour of duty is generally 12 months. The Bolivian government annually spends $130 million on defense.[52]
Two Lockheed T-33s in formation – Bolivian Air Force.
, which is directly connected to the Atlantic Ocean. Paraná River. This port is located on the Rosario, Argentina in Bolivian Free Port for a period of 99 years starting in 1992; once that time has passed, all the construction and territory revert to the Peruvian government. Since 1964, Bolivia has had its own port facilities in the [51] under its administration and operationPeru, Ilo, called Mar Bolivia ("Sea Bolivia"), where Bolivia may maintain a free port near hectares (ZEEBI) is a special economic area of 5 km of maritime coast, and a total extension of 358 Special Economical Zone for Bolivia in Ilo, to improve access of Bolivian products to the ports. The railway between Arica and La Paz was signed, and Chile agreed to build a Treaty of Peace and Friendship. In October 1904, the Arica, and freed the payment of export rights in the port of Antofagasta which declared that the Bolivian problem is a hemispheric problem. On 4 April 1884, a truce was signed with Chile, whereby Chile gave facilities of access to Bolivian products through [50]
Colombia, Caracas, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil
Colombia, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Brazil
Cochabamba Department
Departments of Bolivia, Cochabamba, Spanish language, Bolivia, Chuquisaca Department
French language, Colombia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Catalan language
Bolivia, Argentina, Chuquisaca Department, Potosí, Israel
List of mountains in the Andes
Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, Colombia
List of Bolivian records in swimming
Bolivia, Istanbul, Sucre, Karen Torrez, Santa Cruz, Bolivia
2011 Davis Cup Americas Zone Group III
Bolivia, Aruba, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, The Bahamas, Barbados
Current events/Latin America/Inclusion
October 31, 2007, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil


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Mom Approved: Nature-Based Activities to Get Outside this Winter!
I've been thinking a lot about winter activities as I find, as a mother of a four-year-old, that winter can be a more challenging season to get outside and explore.
Some of the best nature experiences that I've had with my daughter have been just exploring in the forest and seeing what emerges.
Make a healthy homemade suet as a fun activity to feed those backyard visitors. Even when it's difficult to get outside, we still observe what the birds are doing. Break out those binoculars to identify the birds and look at their field marks or coloration.
Snowshoeing is a healthy, fun way to explore the forest and get some exercise in the winter months.
Tracking is an engaging way to learn about wildlife to demystify where they've been, where they're going, and what they've been doing. By looking at tracks, you can identify which animals made these tracks or try to trace the origin of the tracks by following them.
Nature journaling can direct our attention to 'place' and changes over time, and can be done indoors and outdoors. It's a way to cultivate our inner naturalist or those feelings of feeling connected to the natural, more-than-human world.