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Law Enforcement Responses to
People with Mental Illnesses:
A GUIDE TO RESEARCH-INFORMED
Melissa Reuland
Matthew Schwarzfeld
Council of State Governments Justice Center
This project was supported by Grant No. 05-82376-000-HCD, awarded by the John D. and Catherine T.
MacArthur Foundation.
Points of view or opinions in this document are those of the authors and do not represent the official position or
policies of the MacArthur Foundation or the Council of State Governments members.
The MacArthur Foundation reserves the right to reproduce, publish, translate, or otherwise use and to authorize
others to publish and use all or any part of the copyrighted material contained in this publication.
The Council of State Governments Justice Center is a national nonprofit organization that serves policymakers at the
local, state, and federal levels from all branches of government. The Justice Center provides practical, nonpartisan
advice and consensus-driven strategies, informed by available evidence, to increase public safety and strengthen
communities.
Council of State Governments Justice Center, New York 10005
© 2009 by the Council of State Governments Justice Center
All rights reserved. Published 2009.
Cover design by Mina Bellomy. Interior design by David Williams.
Executive Summary..............................................................................................v
Acknowledgments..............................................................................................vii
Introduction........................................................................................................ 1
SECTION ONE:
Encounters Between Law Enforcement and People with Mental Illnesses........... 3
SECTION TWO:
Specialized Law Enforcement Strategies............................................................ 9
SECTION THREE:
Future Research Topics and Implications for Policy and Practice...................... 13
Conclusion........................................................................................................ 15
Appendix A: Understanding Apparent Inconsistencies in
Law Enforcement Research................................................................................ 17
Appendix B: Detailed List of Research Questions............................................... 19
Notes................................................................................................................ 21
Bibliography..................................................................................................... 23
he complex nature of law enforcement responses to people with mental
illnesses has become an issue of national concern. These calls for service are
often time-consuming and difficult to resolve, and, on relatively rare occasions, result in tragic
injuries or deaths. Policymakers, community leaders, and the public are demanding better
outcomes from these encounters. In the face of this mounting pressure, and with a desire to improve
their interactions with people with mental illnesses, law enforcement officers are turning to specialized
responses. These efforts show great promise for increasing the safety of everyone involved and connecting
individuals to needed mental health supports and services when appropriate. However, policymakers
generally implement these programs without the benefit of research and data documenting the scope
and nature of the problem in their community, the weakness of past response models, and the relative
importance of specific program features.
To ensure law enforcement policies and practices related to people with mental illnesses are data
driven and well-informed, this guide summarizes the available research on law enforcement encounters
with people with mental illnesses and strategies to improve these interactions.
Encounters Between Law Enforcement and People with Mental Illnesses
Officers' encounters with people with mental illnesses are relatively infrequent, but they can be
particularly challenging. These encounters
•	often take much more time than other calls for service,
•	require officers to have special training and skills,
•	may depend on the availability of community mental health resources for successful outcomes,
•	typically involve repeat contacts with the same individuals who have unresolved mental health needs,
•	are mostly in response to a person with mental illness committing a minor or "nuisance" offense,
•	occasionally involve volatile situations, risking the safety of all involved.
Officers generally have broad discretion in how they address minor offenses, or calls when no crime
has been committed but citizens or business owners want them to "do something" about an individual
whose actions are causing concern. Officers handle a majority of these incidents informally by talking
to the person at the scene without taking him or her into custody. These encounters provide officers
an opportunity—sometimes missed—to link individuals to effective interventions, which may prevent
subsequent law enforcement encounters.
Executive Summary v
Specialized Law Enforcement Strategies
Law enforcement–based specialized responses can create positive changes for all individuals involved,
including the following:
•	improving officer safety
•	increasing access to mental health treatment, supports, and services
•	decreasing the frequency of these individuals' encounters with the criminal justice system
•	reducing certain costs incurred by law enforcement agencies
Future Research Topics and Implications for Policy and Practice
The research presented in this guide is a useful foundation for making data-informed decisions about
policies and practices related to law enforcement encounters with people with mental illnesses. But it
is just that—a starting point. It does not negate the need for each community to conduct an analysis
of its unique strengths and challenges. Once policymakers identify programmatic goals that specifically
respond to the findings from this analysis, they can design, implement, or modify a program that best
fits their community's needs. A research-based response will support program sustainability and help
achieve systemwide efficiencies when people with mental illnesses are prevented from cycling through the
criminal justice system.
vi Law Enforcement Responses to People with Mental Illnesses
his report could not have been written •	Mr. Adam Kirkman, Project Associate, Policy
without the support and leadership of Research Associates, Inc.
the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur •	Officer Joan M. Logan, Crisis Intervention
Foundation and, in particular, Program Team Coordinator, Montgomery County (Md.)
Associate Steven Casey. His guidance was instru- Police Department
mental in framing the issue and ensuring the
document's relevance to the field. •	Ms. Susan E. Salasin, Public Health Advisor,
Center for Mental Health Services, Substance
The National Institute of Mental Health
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administra-
(NIMH), National Institutes of Health, U.S.
tion, U.S. Department of Health and Human
Department of Health and Human Services,
also provided support for the initial meeting
of researchers and for the development of early •	Dr. Melissa Schaefer Morabito, Postdoctoral
document drafts. Ms. Denise M. Juliano-Bult of Research Fellow, Center for Mental Health
NIMH's Services Research and Clinical Epidemi- Services and Criminal Justice Research, Rutgers
ology Branch was especially helpful during this University and the University of Pennsylvania
critical phase of the project. •	Dr. Henry J. Steadman, President, Policy
Thanks are also due to the members of the Research Associates, Inc.
project advisory board.* These leading research- •	Dr. Jennifer Teller, Professor, Department of
ers, practitioners, and policymakers (listed Sociology, Kent State University
alphabetically below) provided early guidance on
the implications of the research and the frame- •	Dr. Amy C. Watson, Assistant Professor, Jane
work of the document. Addams College of Social Work, University of
Illinois at Chicago
•	Mr. Stephen Baron, Director, District of
Columbia Department of Mental Health Special thanks must also be given to Coun-
•	Dr. Gary Cordner, Professor, College of Law cil of State Governments Justice Center Director
Enforcement, Eastern Kentucky University Michael Thompson, Health Systems and Services
•	Dr. Jeffrey Draine, Associate Professor, School Policy Director Fred Osher, and Consensus Proj-
of Social Policy and Practice, University of ect Director Nancy Fishman for their leadership
Pennsylvania in shaping the scope and direction of this pub-
lication and ensuring its value to policymakers.
•	Mr. Robert Hendricks, Acting Senior Policy Justice Center Director of Communications
Advisor for Mental Health, Bureau of Justice Martha Plotkin was instrumental at each phase of
Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. development; her input made this a more reader-
Department of Justice friendly and useful contribution to the field.
*Advisory board members' titles and agency affiliations reflect the
positions they held at the time of their involvement with the project.
Acknowledgments vii
"Mentally Ill Man with Gun is Shot and Killed by Police" 1
"Bed Shortage Forces…County Mental Health Staff to Rely on Police" 2
"Mom Knows Anguish of Calling Police to Deal with Mentally Ill Son" 3
eadlines such as these appear every day mental illnesses. However, they generally are
in newspapers across the country. The developed without the benefit of research and
stories focus on safety issues when law data documenting the scope of the problem they
enforcement officers encounter an indi- are designed to address, the weaknesses of the
vidual whose behavior appears to be related to traditional response, and the relative importance
a mental illness. They also focus on how officers of specific program features. Rather, they have
come in contact with the same person with men- spread as many such innovative practices do:
tal illness again and again, often without positive practitioners and advocates provide anecdotal
results. They all express a common theme: the information attesting to the need and effec-
complex nature of law enforcement responses to tiveness of the programs and then work with
people with mental illnesses has become an issue policymakers to adapt other jurisdictions' suc-
of national concern, and policymakers, com- cesses. This "from-the-ground-up" process may be
munity leaders, and the public are increasingly appropriate for initial innovators, but, ultimately,
demanding improved outcomes. programs developed based on data and research
In the face of mounting pressure and the are more effective and easier to sustain.
desire to better serve people with mental illnesses, Modest research on law enforcement
law enforcement officials are turning to special- encounters with people with mental illnesses
ized responses to people with mental illnesses. In and specialized responses does exist. As national
these programs—the most common of which is attention to this issue has grown, so too has the
known as a Crisis Intervention Team (CIT)—law pool of studies examining the various aspects of
enforcement agencies partner with mental health these approaches; however, there are still rela-
and community groups to train police respond- tively few comprehensive or in-depth studies.
ers to use crisis de-escalation strategies and to In addition, as more and more communities
prioritize treatment over incarceration when implement the CIT model and other types of
appropriate. Although specialized responses are responses, an increasing number of local law
relatively new, hundreds of communities have enforcement agencies and their research partners
implemented them since they first appeared in have collected data to inform their own program's
the 1980s.* development. Unfortunately, the results often
Specialized responses increasingly are present an incomplete or complex story that
regarded as having great potential to improve does not necessarily translate into clear policy
law enforcement encounters with people with recommendations.
*Agencies engaged in "law enforcement–based" responses to people procedures. This guide does not examine practices that rely solely on
with mental illnesses have implemented programs that require mental health agencies to respond to incidents involving people with
significant changes in law enforcement department policies and mental illnesses.
In response to these perceived gaps, this and their outcomes. The data provide readers
guide summarizes and helps translate the avail- with the context to understand the impact of
able research on law enforcement encounters these strategies on communities and the poten-
involving people with mental illnesses and strate- tial effects on officers' attitudes.
gies to improve these encounters. Based on an
•	Section Three: Future Research Topics and
extensive review of the research by experts in the
Implications for Policy and Practice highlights
field, this document presents illustrative examples
the gaps in the current body of research that
from a range of studies representing diverse per-
could help law enforcement better design its
spectives on this subject. It is not meant to be an
programs and policymakers determine how
exhaustive inventory of the literature, but rather
best to allocate resources that would support
a guide to what the research tells us about law
these efforts. It also outlines the implications of
enforcement's response to people with mental ill-
the findings presented in this guide for policy
nesses, with support from studies that reflect the
and practice.
body of knowledge in that area. This guide also
outlines questions left unanswered by current
research. In so doing, the intention is to make Each section is organized around the ques-
sense of the information in a way that will inform tions policymakers most often pose, and, in
policy and program design decisions and suggest Sections One and Two, the guide provides
future topics for researchers to explore. This guide succinct answers that draw on existing research.
is divided into three sections. The policy statements summarizing the
•	Section One: Encounters Between Law research were developed with a group of experts—
Enforcement and People with Mental Illnesses leading researchers, law enforcement and
explores the extent, nature, and outcomes of mental health practitioners, and policymakers—
law enforcement interactions involving people who participated in an advisory panel to provide
with mental illnesses. The data demonstrate the input on which studies to include, how to inter-
scope of the problem and illustrate the chal- pret the research, and the implications for policy
lenges and risks involved with these incidents. development. With their help, this document is
meant to bridge the gap between research and
•	Section Two: Specialized Law Enforcement practice, and to provide a springboard for policy
Strategies examines a range of law enforcement makers interested in supporting research-based
responses specially designed to improve officers' practices.
encounters with people with mental illnesses
Limitations and Details of the Research
The authors did not approach this project with defined criteria for "acceptable"
research methodologies, but chose to include data derived using a wide variety of methodologies,
some more rigorous than others. Because of the varied design sophistication, findings reflect a range
of validity and generalizability, and readers are urged to consider a specific study's methodology when
extrapolating from these data.
This document presents the most recent data available. Certain topics and questions have not
been explored in depth in the past decade, so some studies from the 1980s and 1990s are included
to provide a thorough picture of the scope of research. The time period can be an important factor
when considering relevance, and readers should take this into account when examining the findings.
For more information about the challenges and apparent inconsistencies of law enforcement
research, see Appendix A.
2 Law Enforcement Responses to People with Mental Illnesses
S E C T I O N O ne
Encounters Between Law Enforcement
and People with Mental Illnesses
Law enforcement encounters with people with mental illnesses are relatively infrequent, but they can be
disproportionately time-consuming and complex. They often involve repeat contacts with individuals sus-
pected of low-level crimes or exhibiting nuisance behavior, without positive outcomes. Some encounters
do involve volatile situations that may place officers, the person with mental illness, and others at risk.
aw enforcement officers engaged in today's the individual will find much-needed treatment,
community policing efforts inevitably continue in his or her current situation, or enter
provide citizens with services that go well the criminal justice system.
beyond enforcing laws or maintaining Experience in the field has led frontline
public safety and order. Law enforcement offi- officers to acknowledge they need more resources
cers are first-line, around-the-clock, emergency and training to respond to these challenging calls.
responders, mediators, referral agents, counsel- Experts in the mental health field—including
ors, youth mentors, crime prevention actors, practitioners, advocates, and individuals with
and much more. Among their growing list of mental illnesses and their families—agree and
responsibilities is the need to effectively respond can offer broad anecdotal support. Policymakers,
to people with mental illnesses. All too often, however, need more than personal experi-
individuals' inadequately treated mental illnesses ences; they need data that quantify the nature
are manifested in ways that can result in their and extent of the problem in order to commit
contact with law enforcement—sometimes with resources and energy toward a potential response.
tragic results. How law enforcement responds to This section highlights the research available to
these individuals can have a tremendous impact address this need by exploring the scope and scale
on how encounters are resolved and what future of law enforcement encounters with people with
these individuals can expect. Law enforcement's mental illnesses.
actions and perceptions often determine whether
Section One: Encounters Between Law Enforcement and People with Mental Illnesses 3
Trends of People with Mental Illnesses in the Criminal Justice System
Few institutions have attempted so complete a change in recent years as has the United
States' mental health system. In 1964, driven in part by fiscal reality, political realignment, philosoph-
ical shifts, and medical advancements, Congress passed the Community Mental Health Centers Act.
Since then, the system has shifted its emphasis almost entirely from institutional care and segrega-
tion to providing community-based support for individuals with mental illnesses. In 1955, there were
339 state psychiatric beds for every 100,000 people in the population. By 2005, this number had
dropped to 17 per 100,000.4 This process is referred to as "deinstitutionalization."
Some observers suggest that deinstitutionalization is a main cause of the increased number
of people with mental illnesses in contact with the criminal justice system. In fact, no study has
definitively shown a transition of this population from mental health institutions to jails and prisons.
Other trends in criminal justice and mental health policy—for example, higher arrest rates for drug
offenses and underfunded community-based treatment—are likely to account for this population's
increasing contact with law enforcement, courts, and corrections.
1. What types of encounters do law enforcement officers have
involving people with mental illnesses?
a. The majority of law enforcement encounters with people with mental
illnesses are with individuals suspected of committing low-level,
misdemeanor crimes, or who are exhibiting nuisance behavior.* Law
enforcement may receive calls when a business owner or community
member wants officers to "do something" about a person—whether or
not a crime was committed.
	Based on 148 contacts between police and people believed to have mental illnesses during one month
in 1994 in Honolulu (Hawaii) city and county, officers determined that the majority of individuals either
had committed no criminal offense (45.3 percent) or had exhibited disorderly conduct (27.7 percent).
The person's conduct most frequently included "loud or obnoxious behavior" or "untidiness."5
	Ina study conducted in a large Midwestern city in 1980 and 1981, the majority (71 percent) of police
encounters with people who were "mentally disordered" involved individuals known to officers either as
"neighborhood characters," "troublemakers," or "relatively unobtrusive" individuals.6
b. Law enforcement officers encounter people with mental illnesses at risk of
harming themselves.
	In the first nine months of 2006, the Los Angeles (Calif.) Police Department made 46,129 contacts
with people suspected of having a "mental disorder." Of those, 709 had attempted suicide and 4,686
were taken into custody for an emergency evaluation.7
	The Albuquerque (N.Mex.) Police Department's CIT program reported that in one year 15 percent of CIT
calls involved individuals attempting suicide, and 30 percent involved individuals threatening suicide.8
Understanding "Suicide-by-Cop"
A 2006 literature review determined that available data on incidents in which individuals intend
to end their own lives by engaging in criminal behavior to prompt a lethal response by law enforce-
ment officers—known colloquially as "suicide-by-cop"—are too flawed by methodology to provide a
reliable understanding of this phenomenon. However, when considered in its entirety, the body of
research does suggest that a mental illness and history of substance abuse, coupled with substance
use at the time of the incident, are relevant factors in these events.9
*"Nuisance behavior" refers to those actions that violate community norms by causing damage, annoyance, or inconvenience. Examples include
public drunkenness and loitering.
c. Of all calls for service involving people believed to have mental illnesses,
law enforcement officers encounter individuals at risk of harming someone
else relatively infrequently.
	The Albuquerque (N.Mex.) Police Department's CIT program reported that in one year 14 percent of
calls for service involved a suspect possessing a weapon.10
	Police officers in Honolulu (Hawaii) city and county noted that a person's behavior was "assaultive or
violent" in 12.2 percent of their 148 encounters with people believed to have mental illnesses.11
Understanding Mental Illness and Violence*
The stereotype that people with mental illnesses are more likely than the general popu-
lation to be violent is not fully supported by the evidence.12 Several large-scale research projects found
a weak statistical association between mental illness and violence.13 The association becomes stron-
ger, however, when a person with a mental illness has a co-occurring substance use disorder and/or is
not taking his or her medication.14 Still, it is important to note that research focusing solely on people
with mental illnesses who were involuntarily committed to a psychiatric facility may distort the rela-
tionship between violence and mental illness as these individuals represent only a small fraction—the
most severely ill—of this group.15
Although data are scarce on the precise number of law enforcement field contacts with some-
one with a mental illness who is exhibiting violent or aggressive behavior, research shows that officers
do respond to calls for service that involve people with mental illnesses whose violent behavior is at
issue.16 For law enforcement policymakers, the critical question is not whether people with mental ill-
nesses are dangerous, but how best to maintain safety when violent or dangerous behavior results in
calls to law enforcement.
2. What is the extent of law enforcement officers' encounters with
people with mental illnesses?
a. A relatively small percentage of total law enforcement contacts are in
response to calls that involve individuals who officers believe have mental
illnesses.
	In a six-year period (1998–2004), the Akron (Ohio) Police Department responded to 10,004 calls
related to a "mental disturbance." This represents 6.55 percent of the total call load (1,527,281 calls)
during that period.17
	Approximately 12,000 emergency calls for service to the Los Angeles (Calif.) Police Department (2.3
percent) annually are coded as "mental disturbance calls."18
*This sidebar was adapted from Reuland, M., "Police Use of Force and People with Mental Illness." In J. Ederheimer (Ed.) Strategies for Resolving
Conflict and Minimizing Use of Force. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum, 2007.
	Threepercent of more than 12,000 police field encounters in two large cities involved someone who
was "mentally impaired."19
	In174 U.S. police departments serving more than 100,000 people examined in 1998, approximately
seven percent of all police contacts—including both investigations and complaints—involved a person
believed to have a mental illness.20
b. Law enforcement officers repeatedly respond to a small subset of
individuals whom they believe have mental illnesses.
	Twenty percent of 507 calls for service identified as involving a person with a mental illness in one year
in Lexington (Ky.) occurred in just 17 locations; police responded to each of the 17 locations three or
more times in that year.21
	In Santa Fe (N.Mex.), an analysis of a random sample of individuals taken into police custody—either
through arrest, protective custody (for example, for intoxication) or involuntary mental health hold—
indicates that people detained due to mental health or substance use problems generated significantly
more police contacts during the two-year study period than did those without ascertainable mental
health or substance use disorders. Individuals who had multiple prior detentions for mental health or
substance abuse problems or prior treatment for those problems were significantly more likely to be
taken into custody—either through arrest or involuntary hold—in the future.22
	The Los Angeles (Calif.) Police Department identified 67 people with mental illnesses who had a
minimum of five contacts with law enforcement during the first eight months of 2004. This resulted in
a total of 536 calls for service during this time period.23
	In 148 incidents involving people believed to have mental illnesses, police officers in Honolulu (Hawaii)
city and county "recognized the person on sight" in 94 of these encounters.24
c. Although the amount of time varies by disposition, officers can spend
significant time trying to resolve situations involving people with mental
illnesses, during which they cannot respond to other calls for service. The
most time-consuming disposition is when law enforcement transports an
individual to an emergency medical facility and waits for medical clearance
or admission.
	The Lincoln (Neb.) Police Department handled more than 1,500 "mental health investigation cases" in
2002 and found that it spent more time on these cases than on injury traffic accidents, burglaries, or
felony assaults.25
	Officers in Honolulu (Hawaii) spent a significant amount of time resolving incidents involving people
believed to have mental illnesses, varying by disposition. When transporting a person to a hospital for
an emergency evaluation, the officer spent an average of 145 minutes on the incident. When arresting
a person with a mental illness, the officer spent an average of 64.2 minutes on the incident. When
officers executed informal dispositions, incidents were resolved in 23.3 minutes on average.26
	The Los Angeles (Calif.) Police Department reported spending more than 28,000 hours a month on
calls involving people with mental illnesses.27
	In1986, a suburban Colorado police department reported spending an average of 74 minutes
addressing each of the 60 "mental health-related calls" studied.28
3. What are the outcomes of law enforcement officers' responses
to people with mental illnesses?
a. Though violent outcomes are relatively rare, law enforcement has reported
that these encounters can present risks for all involved.
	According to FBI Uniform Crime Reporting statistics, during a ten-year period (1997–2006) 1,058
officers were assaulted and 13 officers feloniously killed in the line of duty when "handling persons
with mental illnesses." This represents approximately 1.8 percent of all assaults and 2.3 percent of
felonious killings during this period.29
	In the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) 2004 study of 28 police departments with specialized
responses to people with mental illnesses, nearly half of the departments reported that a tragic
incident involving a person with a mental illness served as a main impetus for developing the program.30
	Officers surveyed in a study on police use of force considered "mentally impaired" people significantly
more "threatening" during arrests and "required more effort to arrest," but did not consider this
population more likely than individuals without "mental impairments" to inflict injury on officers.31
b. Officers handle a majority of incidents informally by talking to the people
with mental illnesses, without taking them into police custody or connecting
them to treatment.*
	Seventy-two percent of situations involving a person believed to have a mental illness in Honolulu
(Hawaii) were handled informally by "counseling and releasing" the individual at the scene (52 percent)
or with "no action" (20 percent).32
	Findings from an observational study conducted in a large Midwestern city in 1980 and 1981
demonstrated that officers handled informally more than 70 percent of incidents involving people
with mental illnesses.33
c. Officers sometimes take people with mental illnesses into custody, either
in the course of an arrest or to provide transportation to a medical facility.
The frequency of custodial actions varies by jurisdiction.
	Of calls for service involving someone with a mental illness during the two years before implementing a
CIT program, police officers in the Akron (Ohio) Police Department executed an arrest in three percent of
the calls and transported an individual to an emergency psychiatric facility in 26 percent of the calls.34
	Law enforcement officers in Florida transported more than 40,000 people with mental illnesses for
involuntary 72-hour psychiatric examinations under the Baker Act—the state's emergency evaluation
statute—in 2000. This exceeded the number of arrests in the state during the same period for either
aggravated assault (39,120) or burglary (26,087).35
	Officers in Honolulu (Hawaii) made an arrest in 14.9 percent of incidents involving individuals believed
to have mental illnesses. Officers were significantly more likely to arrest a person suspected of
committing a misdemeanor and known to have a criminal history.36
*Informal actions in which the individual is not linked to services may be a contributing factor in repeat calls for service.
SE C T I O N two
Specialized Law Enforcement
Law enforcement–based specialized response programs have been shown to improve officer safety;
increase access to mental health treatments, supports, and services; decrease the frequency of these
individuals' encounters with the criminal justice system; and reduce certain costs incurred by law enforce-
ment agencies.
ince the 1980s, law enforcement agen-
cies have increasingly collaborated with Calculating the Number of
mental health providers and advocates Law Enforcement Agencies
to design specialized responses to people with Specialized Response
with mental illnesses. In a 1996 survey of special- Programs
ized law enforcement–based response programs
(which studied U.S. law enforcement depart-
Estimates of the number of law
ments serving populations greater than 100,000), enforcement agencies with specialized
the authors identified two primary response programs vary widely. The CIT Center at the
models. The first type trains sworn officers to University of Memphis places the number
provide crisis intervention services and act as at around 1,050 communities, but oth-
liaisons to the formal mental health system; the ers have estimated far fewer.37 Differences
likely stem from two factors. First, those
Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) model, pioneered based on an online survey, such as the one
in Memphis (Tenn.), fits into this category. The from the Criminal Justice/Mental Health
second type partners mental health profession- Information Network (www.cjmh-infonet.
als with law enforcement at the scene to provide org) coordinated by the Council of State
Governments Justice Center, includes only
consultation on mental health-related issues and law enforcement agencies that submitted a
assist individuals in accessing treatments and survey.* Second, "program" can be defined
supports; this strategy is commonly referred to differently. Smaller estimates may refer to
as the co-responder model. Since both models agencies with fully implemented programs;
first emerged, the number of such specialized larger numbers may include agencies just
beginning program implementation.
programs has grown from fewer than 30 reported
in the 1996 survey to more than 1,050 agencies
*The Criminal Justice/Mental Health Information Network (InfoNet), includes examples of law enforcement–based specialized response
coordinated by the Council of State Governments Justice Center, programs throughout the United States.
Section Two: Specialized Law Enforcement Strategies 9
Although research has not yet documented for all relevant personnel.38 Another study sug-
which program features are most critical to a gests jurisdictions must have a "specialized crisis
successful program, agencies involved with spe- response site" to which officers can transport
cialized response programs report that certain people for formal mental health assessment.
key components of their programs contribute This allows law enforcement officers a quick
to their success, including strong collaborative turnaround, minimizing the time they spend
ties between law enforcement and mental health resolving these encounters.39
service providers and a broad range of training
Understanding Specialized Responses:
A Bureau of Justice Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice, Toolkit
The Council of State Governments Justice Center and Police Executive Research Forum
(PERF) developed a series of resources that foster improved law enforcement responses to people with
mental illnesses. One of these practical materials is The Essential Elements of a Specialized Law Enforce-
ment–Based Program, which describes the 10 critical features in any successful law enforcement–led
response.*
Other resources include a guide for overcoming common barriers to effective law enforcement
training on mental health responses, web-based information and peer-to-peer learning opportunities
(available on the InfoNet, www.cjmh-infonet.org), and case studies of statewide efforts to improve law
enforcement responses to people with mental illnesses. At this writing, an additional product in devel-
opment examines jurisdictions that designed law enforcement programs that have been tailored to
unique challenges and community supports and services.
*The findings in this document were corroborated through a The Essential Elements and related resources were supported by the
consensus-based project that resulted in the Essential Elements Bureau of Justice Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice, and are
(Schwarzfeld, Reuland, and Plotkin 2008) and involved multiple available online at the Justice Center's Consensus Project website,
reviews by expert policymakers and practitioners in several disciplines. www.consensusproject.org/issue-areas/law-enforcement.
10 Law Enforcement Responses to People with Mental Illnesses
1. What is the impact of specialized law enforcement responses
a. Departments employing specialized responses to people with mental
illnesses experience decreased injuries to officers.
	The San Jose (Calif.) Police Department's CIT program reported a 32 percent decrease in officer
injuries in the year following program implementation.40
	The Memphis (Tenn.) Police Department reported that in the three years before implementing a CIT
program the rate of injuries to officers responding to "mental disturbance calls" was 0.035 per 1,000
events (equal to one in 28,571 events). In the three years following program implementation, this rate
decreased to 0.007 per 1,000 events (equal to one in 142,857 events). Other types of disturbance
calls, including domestic violence calls, did not show a similar trend during this period.41
b. Specialized responses increase the frequency with which law enforcement
officers transport individuals to mental health facilities for evaluations and
treatment, resulting in greater access to needed crisis and noncrisis supports
and services.
	Ina study comparing the outcomes of calls handled by CIT-trained officers with those handled by non-
CIT trained officers in the Akron (Ohio) Police Department, CIT-trained officers transported people with
mental illnesses to psychiatric emergency services significantly more often than their non-CIT trained
counterparts.42
	The Memphis (Tenn.) Police Department's CIT program reported that during its first four years, the
rate of referrals by law enforcement officers to the regional psychiatric emergency service increased by
42 percent.43
	A three-city analysis comparing dispositions by responders in a CIT program, a co-responder program,
and a mobile crisis team revealed that officers in a police-based response were more likely than other
officers to transport individuals to mental health services or treatment and to resolve fewer incidents
informally.44
	In a four-site study comparing outcomes for individuals diverted by police with those for individuals
not diverted, diverted individuals had greater access to mental health crisis services: 31.6 percent of
men and women diverted used emergency room (ER) services and 35.6 percent used hospital services.
Of the nondiverted group, 25.7 percent used ER services and 20.6 percent used hospital services.
Diverted individuals likewise had greater access to noncrisis services: 81.6 percent received medication
and 57.5 percent received counseling. Of nondiverted individuals, 72.7 percent received medication
and 55.3 percent received counseling.45
Section Two: Specialized Law Enforcement Strategies 11
c. Individuals referred to mental health treatment by law enforcement officers
experience fewer subsequent contacts with the criminal justice system than
individuals who were not referred to services.
	In an article summarizing studies of one-year outcomes of pre- and postarrest diversion programs,
diverted individuals with mental illnesses spent more time in the community without a related increase
in arrests.46
d. Specialized law enforcement–based response programs have mixed effects
on the frequency with which law enforcement officers arrest people believed
to have mental illnesses.
	A study that compared the outcomes of calls handled by CIT-trained officers with those handled by
non-CIT officers in the Akron (Ohio) Police Department showed no difference between the two groups in
numbers of arrests.47
	Ina study examining two specialized police-based programs (CIT and co-response) in police
departments in Memphis (Tenn.) and Birmingham (Ala.), arrest rates of people with mental illnesses
were two percent and 13 percent, respectively.48 These rates can be compared with an earlier study
that noted a 16 percent arrest rate in a different community without a specialized police program.49
e. Specialized responses reduce certain costs incurred by law enforcement
agencies, including high-cost SWAT call-outs.
	In studies of outcomes of pre- and postarrest diversion programs, diverted individuals with mental
illnesses incurred lower criminal justice costs and greater treatment costs than those who were not
diverted.50
	The number of Tactical Apprehension Containment Team (TACT, similar to SWAT) calls in the Memphis
(Tenn.) Police Department has decreased by nearly 50 percent since the implementation of its CIT
program.51
	Sincethe implementation of CIT in the Albuquerque (N.Mex.) Police Department, the use of SWAT
teams involving a mental health crisis intervention has decreased by 58 percent.52
2. What is the impact of training on law enforcement officers'
attitudes toward people with mental illnesses?
a. Specialized training improves officers' understanding of mental illness and
the effects of mental illness on an individual's behavior.
	CIT training for law enforcement officers reduces "stigmatizing attitudes" toward people with
schizophrenia.53
S E C T I O N three
Future Research Topics and
Implications for Policy and Practice
here is still a lot to learn about law enforce- researchers must drill down into the specifics
ment encounters with people with mental of these interactions and their outcomes. (For
illnesses and specialized responses. The readers interested in a more detailed potential
research findings in Section One illustrate research agenda, see Appendix B.)
the need for more information on law enforce-
•	Although research to date indicates injury is an
ment responses to people with mental illnesses,
atypical outcome of these encounters, what is
and, although Section Two highlights some
the rate of injury to the officer, the person with
promising specialized practices, many gaps in the
mental illness, and bystanders across a broad
knowledge base remain. This section highlights
and diverse sample of jurisdictions?
some of those major knowledge gaps and dis-
cusses how the state of the research affects policy •	Law enforcement encounters involving people
and practice. with mental illnesses as offenders appear to be
relatively infrequent, but how often do officers
encounter people with mental illnesses as crime
Future Research Topics victims?
The research presented in this guide provides •	Connection to mental health treatment
a strong start to the study of law enforcement services can be an appropriate diversion for
encounters with people with mental illnesses. people suspected of committing low-level,
However, when considered as a whole, the body nuisance offenses, but what can the mental
of research also clearly reveals important gaps in health system do to improve the efficiency and
the knowledge base. To obtain a more complete effectiveness of this connection?
national picture of these complicated encounters,
A Call for Prospective Research
Most of the research has been "retrospective," relying on information about past experi-
ences. In contrast, "prospective research" assesses a program's impact by examining data collected
before, during, and after implementation of a given program. Data from prospective research are
generally more reliable in assessing whether a program is effecting the positive outcomes it seeks, as
they provide more accurate, consistent, and objective findings. The body of literature on law enforce-
ment–based specialized responses would benefit from methodologically rigorous, prospective research
designs that would examine the questions outlined here.
Section Three: Future Research Topics and Implications for Policy and Practice 13
•	Once an agency implements a specialized response program. No two communities are
response program, what information does it identical, and, although this research provides
need to collect to sustain it, and what are the a broad understanding of some common issues
best methods to carry out the process? many communities face, it does not obviate the
need for an in-depth review of local problems
These questions represent just a few of the and resources to address them. When deciding
many holes in the research that, if filled, can to design a specialized response program, policy-
build on the valuable foundation provided by makers must take into account a variety of issues
research efforts to date and help guide policy that can affect program design.*
makers and practitioners in their efforts to •	What is the impetus for change in the
improve law enforcement interactions involving community (for example, to reduce injuries
people with mental illnesses. or repeat calls for service)?
•	What characteristics of the jurisdiction make
Implications for Policy it unique (for example, demographics or
and Practice geographic distribution of resources)?
The information in this guide can provide a •	What mental health resources are available in
concise orientation to the issue and help policy- the community?
makers and practitioners interested in developing
research-based arguments adopt or change pro- The research presented in this guide plays
grams. As the findings suggest, law enforcement an important role in framing the discussion about
encounters with people with mental illnesses improving public safety, officer safety, and out-
present a wide range of challenges, and, although comes for people with mental illnesses, but it is
there is no single solution, specialized response still not well developed and should be just a start-
programs and training can increase positive ing point for community problem-solving efforts.
outcomes. Once policymakers identify programmatic goals
A pervasive limitation of the research that are specific to their community's needs and
presented in Sections One and Two is that the resources, they can use the data collected by law
results may not be generalized to other jurisdic- enforcement, mental health practitioners, and
tions. This lack of universal applicability of the others to supplement the research done to date.
findings suggests that each community needs to They can then consider the full range of strategies
study and examine its own unique circumstances to achieve their goals and plan or modify a pro-
when developing or enhancing a specialized gram to achieve desired outcomes.
*The Justice Center and PERF are developing a resource that examines Assistance, and is described in more details in the sidebar "Under-
jurisdictions that have developed a law enforcement program tailored standing Specialized Responses: A Bureau of Justice Assistance, U.S.
to their unique challenges and strengths. This product will be part of Department of Justice, Toolkit," on p. 10.
the suite of materials developed with support by the Bureau of Justice
he current body of research provides a win- illnesses. It can also justify the investment of
dow into how specialized law enforcement resources in determining the scope of the problem
responses to people with mental illnesses in a particular jurisdiction. Once the decision to
can contribute to greater safety for all those explore a specialized response is reached, the addi-
involved in encounters and provide better long- tional resources described in this guide can help
term results. Though study design issues—such as jurisdictions understand the essential elements
sampling, methodology, and reporting errors— and particular considerations for any success-
require cautious interpretation of the results, the ful initiative. Although there is still much more
findings can begin to inform defensible policy and information needed to guide decision-making,
practice. researchers and practitioners who have contrib-
Circumstances do not always allow time for uted to the current body of knowledge have put
policymakers to thoroughly investigate a problem us on track to create collaborative law enforce-
in their community before responding; tragic inci- ment strategies that are based on the best thinking
dents can require quick decisions. This guide can and evidence available. With the proper leadership
help ready policymakers for a quick, responsible at all levels of government, that work can be con-
response and assist them in communicating the tinued and carried out in jurisdictions across the
research-based benefits of instituting a specialized United States.
law enforcement response to people with mental
Conclusion 15
Understanding Apparent Inconsistencies
in Law Enforcement Research
esearchers face many challenges when more discretion to responding officers. This dif-
trying to explore and evaluate law ference in policies can have a major impact on
enforcement practices and policies. Spe- officers' handling of calls in which mental illness
cifically, when studying law enforcement may be a factor and, consequently, on arrest rates.
encounters with people with mental illnesses, a
researcher must first define mental illness. The dif- Calls for service: Data on the number of
ficulty of this task is illustrated by the inconsistent calls for service coded as potentially involving a
ways the studies cited in this guide define and person with a mental illness exclude field contacts
describe mental illnesses. Studies that use exist- that are not the result of an actual call for service
ing law enforcement agency data typically use (such as street encounters), calls inaccurately
nonclinical terms and often describe individuals coded (logged as a trespass but not involving a
"believed to have a mental illness," based on an person with mental illness), or incidents that
officer's impression. Studies that use data beyond responding officers could categorize as involving a
existing law enforcement reports tend to use person with mental illness only at the completion
more refined definitions. Similarly, language used of the call (a call for service is often not recoded
to describe mental illnesses differs in communi- to indicate the encounter did in fact involve a per-
ties and across the country and has changed over son believed to have a mental illness). As a result,
time. Throughout this guide, the authors preserve using calls for service data likely underestimates
both the original definitions and language used by the frequency of law enforcement encounters with
researchers. people with mental illnesses.
Another obstacle that researchers face is Total law enforcement contacts: When
deciding how to measure outcomes, or what the comparing different data illustrating the percent-
policy is trying to address, such as changes in ages of law enforcement encounters involving
arrest rates, calls for service, or total law enforce- a person with a mental illness compared with
ment contacts. Listed below are a few possible all law enforcement encounters, it is important
outcome measures and the difficulties associated to understand how different studies define "law
with each option. enforcement encounters." For example, the
authors from one study refer to the total number
Arrest rates: The arrest rates for people with
of calls for service, whereas another pair of authors
mental illnesses range from three to 16 percent.
considers calls for service in addition to other
The different policies that govern officer decision-
types of contacts, such as officers observing behav-
making in certain arrest situations could explain
iors while on patrol. Both methods are valid, but
this broad range. Some jurisdictions mandate
may still yield different results.
arrest in certain situations, whereas others provide
Appendix A: Understanding Apparent Inconsistencies in Law Enforcement Research 17
Some of the findings presented in this guide differences of time, place, and methodology, and
may appear contradictory or inconsistent because how these factors can affect study outcomes. For
of the reasons described above and other varia- those interested in reading more about a given
tions in terminology and methodology. This does study, refer to the Bibliography for the original
not mean only one set of findings is accurate, research citation information.
but rather that readers should take into account
Detailed List of Research Questions
hese research questions are not an exhaus- b.	What elements of the specialized response
tive list of potential avenues for new study, program are critical to the program's success
but rather are illustrative of the direction given a community's unique characteristics?
new efforts might take. The authors identi-
c.	How can rural jurisdictions adapt special-
fied these questions following discussions with
ized response models to be effective in their
consultants and reviewing the data that are cur-
community, particularly with limited access
rently available. These questions remain largely
to local mental health resources? And what
unanswered by the extant literature.
about very large urban jurisdictions' special
1.	Information needed to better understand concerns?
law enforcement encounters involving
3.	Information needed to better understand the
training involved with a specialized response
a.	What is the frequency of law enforcement program:
a.	What type and amount of training is most
as the victims, not perpetrators, of crime?
effective in changing officer attitudes and
b.	What measures can be collected to better behavior on scene?
identify the full scope and nature of all law
b.	How does the quality of dispatch informa-
enforcement interactions with people with
tion affect the response?
mental illnesses?
c.	What portion of the law enforcement agency
c.	How often are people injured—the officer,
should receive what level of training to be
the person with mental illness, a bystander—
most effective?
as a result of a law enforcement encounter
involving someone with a mental illness, and d.	What training protocol is most effective in
in what circumstances? ensuring an officer trained in de-escalation
is on scene quickly given local agency and
2.	Information needed to guide specialized community factors—training all patrol
response program development in a given officers extensively, training only a subset
jurisdiction: of officers extensively, or training all officers
a.	What aspects of community collaboration with de-escalation techniques while a subset
are most effective in developing these spe- receives more intensive training?
cialized programs (e.g., number and type
of partners, meeting structures, participant
activities, accountability measures, group
processes)?
Appendix B: Detailed List of Research Questions 19
4.	Information needed to better understand e.	What are the clinical challenges for people
the tactics, protocols, and procedures with mental illnesses who are arrested? How
involved in specialized responses: can they be minimized?
a.	What factors influence protocol f.	What police referrals and treatment proto-
effectiveness? cols are associated with long-term wellness
and reduced repeat encounters with police?
b.	What tactics are most effective in safely
de-escalating situations involving people 6.	Information needed to sustain a law
with mental illnesses? enforcement specialized response program:
c.	What protocols, tactics, or technologies are a.	What changes are needed in the law
most effective in safely de-escalating "criti- enforcement agency's policies, practices, and
cal incidents," those involving people with culture to support the specialized response
mental illnesses who have weapons or are program and the personnel who further its
violent? goals?
5.	Information needed to guide disposition b.	What are the financial implications of a
practices and policies: specialized law enforcement response?
a.	What is the range of appropriate 7.	Information needed to develop or enhance
dispositions? data collection and evaluation practices:
b.	What factors affect disposition choice? a.	What information should call takers obtain
c.	What is the safest way to transport people to facilitate on-scene response?
with mental illnesses in police custody b.	What information should be maintained in
that minimizes the stress and stigma of the database to facilitate program evaluation
confinement? and inform future calls?
d.	What procedures promote safe and efficient
custodial transfer at the mental health
facility and ensure effective triage and
referral?
1.	Vargas, Washington Post, May 16, epidemiological studies in the era of substance abuse in the criminal justice
2007. deinstitutionalization," 1998. system: Some implications for local
jurisdictions," 2006.
2.	Hennessey-Fiske, Los Angeles Times, 14.	Steadman et al., "Violence by people
November 21, 2008. discharged from acute psychiatric 23.	CSG Justice Center, "Law Enforcement
inpatient facilities and by others in the Responses to People with Mental Ill-
3.	Erwin, Sacramento Bee, November 11,
same neighborhoods," 1998; Swartz et nesses: Improving Outcomes," 2008.
al., "Violence and severe mental illness:
24.	Green, "Police as frontline mental
4.	NASMHPD Research Institute. 2006 The effects of substance abuse and
health workers: The decision to arrest or
State Mental Health Agency Profiles. nonadherence to medication," 1998.
refer to mental health agencies," 1997.
Alexandria, Va.: October 2007.
15.	Choe, Teplin, and Abram, "Perpetration
25.	Cordner, "People with mental illness,"
5.	Green, "Police as frontline mental of violence, violent victimization, and
health workers: The decision to arrest or severe mental illness: Balancing public
refer to mental health agencies," 1997. health concerns," 2008. 26.	Green, "Police as frontline mental
6.	Teplin, "Managing disorder: Police 16.	Panzarella and Alicea, "Police tactics
handling of the mentally ill," 1984. in incidents with mentally disturbed
persons," 1997; Solomon, Cavanaugh, 27.	DeCuir and Lamb, "Police response to
7.	Wall, Los Angeles Police Department,
and Gelles, "Family violence among the dangerous mentally ill," 1996.
personal communication with the
adults with severe mental illness,"
author, March 2007. 28.	Pogrebin, "Police responses for mental
2005; Swartz et al., "Violence and
health assistance," 1986.
8.	Bower and Petit, "The Albuquerque severe mental illness: The effects of
police department's crisis intervention substance abuse and nonadherence to 29.	U.S. Department of Justice, Federal
team: A report card," 2001. medication," 1998. Bureau of Investigation, Law Enforce-
ment Officers Killed and Assaulted,
9.	McKenzie, "Forcing the police to open 17.	Teller et al., "Crisis Intervention Team
2006, 2007.
fire: A cross-cultural/international training for police officers responding to
examination of police-involved, mental disturbance calls," 2006. 30.	Reuland and Cheney, Enhancing
victim-provoked shootings," 2006. Success in Police-Based Diversion
18.	Lodestar, Los Angeles Police Depart-
Programs for People with Mental
10.	Bower and Petit, "The Albuquerque ment Consent Decree Mental Illness
Illness, 2005.
police department's crisis intervention Project: Final Report, 2002.
team: A report card," 2001. 31.	Kaminski, Digiovanni, and Downs, "The
19.	Terrill and Mastrofski, "Situational and
use of force between the police and per-
11.	Green, "Police as frontline mental officer-based determinants of police
sons with impaired judgment," 2004.
health workers: The decision to arrest or coercion," 2002.
refer to mental health agencies," 1997. 32.	Green, "Police as frontline mental
20.	Deane et al., "Emerging partner-
12.	For a scholarly review, see Harris and ships between mental health and law
Lurigio, "Mental illness and violence: enforcement," 1999.
A brief review of research and assess- 33.	Teplin, "Managing disorder: Police
ment strategies," 2007. handling of the mentally ill," 1984.
13.	Angermeyer, Cooper, and Link, "Mental 34.	Teller et al., "Crisis Intervention Team
22.	White, Goldkamp, and Campbell,
disorder and violence: Results of training for police officers responding to
"Co-occurring mental illness and
mental disturbance calls," 2006.
Notes 21
35.	McGaha and Stiles, The Florida Mental 41.	Dupont and Cochran, "Police response 47.	Teller et al., "Crisis Intervention Team
Health Act (The Baker Act) 2000 to mental health emergencies— training for police officers responding to
Annual Report, 2001. barriers to change," 2000. mental disturbance calls," 2006.
36.	Green, "Police as frontline mental 42.	Teller et al., "Crisis Intervention Team 48.	Steadman et al., "Comparing outcomes
health workers: The decision to arrest or training for police officers responding to of major models of police responses to
refer to mental health agencies," 1997. mental disturbance calls," 2006. mental health emergencies," 2000.
37.	Cochran, Department of Criminology 43.	Dupont and Cochran, "Police response 49.	Teplin, "Managing disorder: Police
and Criminal Justice, University of to mental health emergencies— handling of the mentally ill," 1984.
Memphis, personal communication barriers to change," 2000.
50.	Ibid.
with the author, December 2008. 44.	Steadman et al., "Comparing outcomes
51.	Dupont and Cochran, "Police response
38.	Reuland, A Guide to Implementing of major models of police responses to
mental health emergencies," 2000. to mental health emergencies—
Police-Based Diversion Programs for
barriers to change," 2000.
People with Mental Illness, 2004. 45.	Steadman and Naples, "Assessing the
52.	Bower and Petit, "The Albuquerque
39.	Steadman et al., "A specialized crisis effectiveness of jail diversion programs
for persons with serious mental illness police department's crisis intervention
response site as a core element of
and co-occurring substance use team: A report card," 2001.
police-based diversion programs,"
2001. disorders," 2005. 53.	Compton et al., "Crisis intervention
team training: Changes in knowledge,
40.	Reuland, A Guide to Implementing
attitudes, and stigma related to
schizophrenia," 2006.
People with Mental Illness, 2004.
Angermeyer, M.C., B. Cooper, and B.G. Link. law enforcement." Psychiatric Services 50: 2000 Annual Report. Florida: Louis de la
"Mental disorder and violence: Results 99–101, 1999. Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, 2001.
of epidemiological studies in the era of
deinstitutionalization." Social Psychiatry DeCuir, Jr., Walter, and H. Richard Lamb. McKenzie, Ian K. "Forcing the police to open
and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33(13): "Police response to the dangerous mentally fire: A cross-cultural/international examina-
S1–S6, 1998. ill." The Police Chief October: 99–106, tion of police-involved, victim-provoked
1996. shootings." Journal of Police Crisis 6(1):
Bower, D.L, and G. Petit. "The Albuquerque 5–25, 2006.
police department's crisis intervention Dupont, R., and S. Cochran. "Police
team: A report card," FBI Law Enforcement response to mental health emergencies— NASMHPD Research Institute. 2006 State
Bulletin 70: 1–6, 2001. barriers to change." Journal of the Mental Health Agency Profiles. Alexandria,
American Academy of Psychiatry and Va.: October 2007.
Choe, J.Y., L.A. Teplin, and K.M. Abram. Law 28(3): 228–244, 2000.
"Perpetration of violence, violent Panzarella, R., and J.O. Alicea. "Police
victimization, and severe mental illness: Erwin, Diana Griego. "Mom knows anguish tactics in incidents with mentally disturbed
Balancing public health concerns." of calling police to deal with mentally ill persons." Policing: An International Journal
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Cochran (ret), Major Sam. Department of
Criminology and Criminal Justice, University Green, Thomas M. "Police as frontline Pogrebin, Mark R. "Police responses for
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the author, December 2008. arrest or refer to mental health agencies." Quarterly 58: 66–73, 1986.
International Journal of Law and Psychiatry
Compton, M.T., M.L. Esterberg, R. McGee, 20: 469–486, 1997. Reuland, Melissa. A Guide to Implement-
R.J. Kotwicki, and J.R. Oliva. "Crisis ing Police-Based Diversion Programs for
intervention team training: Changes in Harris, A., and A.J. Lurigio. "Mental illness People with Mental Illness. Delmar, NY:
knowledge, attitudes, and stigma related to and violence: A brief review of research and Technical Assistance and Policy Analysis
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1199–1202, 2006. Violent Behavior 12: 542–551, 2007.
Reuland, Melissa, and Jason Cheney.
Cordner, Gary. "People with mental illness." Hennessey-Fiske, Molly. "Bed shortage Enhancing Success in Police-Based
Problem-Oriented Guides for Police forces L.A. County mental health staff Diversion Programs for People with Mental
Problem-Specific Guides Series, 40, U.S. to rely on police." Los Angeles Times, Illness. Delmar NY: Technical Assistance
Department of Justice. Washington, DC: November 21, 2008. and Policy Analysis Center for Jail Diversion,
Office of Community Oriented Policing 2005.
Kaminski, Robert J., Clete Digiovanni, and
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Council of State Governments
Justice Center
100 Wall Street 4630 Montgomery Avenue 504 W. 12th Street
20th Floor Suite 650 Austin, TX 78701
New York, NY 10005 Bethesda, MD 20814 tel:	512-482-8298
tel:	212-482-2320 tel:	301-760-2401 fax:	512-474-5011
fax:	212-482-2344 fax:	240-497-0568
www.justicecenter.csg.org
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Big news from our research group! Many congratulations to Jan-Henning Klusmann, who will soon become a full professor and the department head of Pediatric Hematology / Oncology at the Universitätsklinikum Halle. He will assume his new role starting Janurary 2018, and trainees working on non-coding RNA projects will follow in March. They will be joining a node of non-coding RNA / RNA biology research in Germany, among other laboratories that also focus on this topic.
The Universitätsklinikum Halle hosts the RTG1591, a program dedicated to training graduate students in research concerning the post-transcriptional control of gene expression. It is funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) and is slated to gain Collaborative Research Centre (SFB) status in the near future. This new academic environment will provide many opportunities for collaboration, learning, and knowledge-sharing.


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Lodní výtah Niederfinow je nejstarší stále funkční lodní výtah v Německu. Leží na východním konci Odersko-Havelského průplavu u obce Niederfinow ve spolkové zemi Braniborsko. Do provozu byl uveden 21. března 1934.

Lodě jsou zdviženy a spuštěny v obrovské vodní vaně, aby překonaly výškový rozdíl 36 metrů. Budova je chráněnou průmyslovou památkou podle Haagské úmluvy o ochraně kulturních statků v případě ozbrojeného konfliktu z roku 1954. V prosinci 2007 obdržela od Spolkové komory inženýrů poprvé ocenění jako historická dominanta inženýrského stavebního umění v Německu.

Souběžně s původním lodním výtahem byl postaven lodní výtah Niederfinow Nord, vhodný pro větší lodě. Nový výtah byl uveden do provozu 5. října 2022 a postupně nahradí výtah původní, který bude zachován jako funkční technická památka.

Reference

Externí odkazy

Niederfinow
Dopravní stavby v Německu

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6 Things You Should Know About Quantum Physics
Quantum Physics is generally a bit overwhelming even for physicists who use it on a day to day basis. But it can be an easy to understand concept actually. Physics Tuition uses several innovative and time-tested methods to enable students to grasp the nuances of Physics in an all new way. Here are six things about quantum physics that will make it a more comprehensible.
1. Particles and Waves
Each object present in the universe has wave and particle properties. So, a particle can be in waveform or vice versa. This quantum particle has properties of wave and particle but is not really any of the two.
Quantum particles have particle properties where they have discrete energy and matter form. The particles also have wave characteristics exhibiting interference and diffraction.
2. Discrete Quantum State
All aspects of quantum physics are present in the discrete form.
For instance, A light beam can contain photons in integer state and not as decimals. Electrons can carry only particular discrete values of energy such as -3.4 or -13.6 electron volts and not a value of -7.5
The above-allowed states are the only states in the quantum system, irrespective of the changes you make.
3. Probability Rules
Using quantum mechanics for predicting results is only a probable outcome and not a definite one.
For instance, in an experiment identifying an electron placement, it can predict a certain percentage of probability for the position and not a specific position where it would be in, accurately. In quantum physics, every electron is a new experiment where the result is always at random.
4. Measuring Reality
This is explained as follows:
Until the time of measurement of a quantum particle's actual state, it remains indeterminate with different possible outcomes for it.
But after measurement, the particle state is a determinate one.
The subsequent measurements made will give an identical outcome only.
A wave function collapse, splitting of the universe into parallel worlds and other such happenings has a similar end result.
5. Non Local Correlation
According to this concept, The interaction between two specific quantum particles is the same, irrespective of the distance between the two.When two particles interact in quantum state, their states are dependent on each other.
You can have one particle in New York and another sent to Amsterdam, and have the particles measured at the same time. The particles are in indeterminate state until one of them is measured at which time both their states become determined absolutely irrespective of how far separated they are. However it has to be noted that the outcome of the measurement is random.
6. Everything is Possible
Every possible path can be taken by a particle in quantum state moving from one point to another. This includes the paths that are highly improbable. QED (quantum electrodynamics) includes all likely and unlikely processes.
There are several more aspects in quantum physics that will help you comprehend the subject. Attending lessons at JC Physics Tuition in Singapore is a great and fun way to learn complex physics concepts such as quantum physics.

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Click the button below to add the Gentlemens Folding Reading Glasses/ Men's .50 &.75 to your wish list.
Also comes with high tech aspheric lenses for a correct view.
MORE POWERS FROM 1.50 TO 6.00 AVAILABLE IN FOLDING CATEGORY.


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Try out our page on some of the top hiking backpacks where you'll be treated to individual pack reviews and an overall guide in to what to look for when buying a great one.
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For other great tips and additional information check out the section of content below where we talk about all sorts of great stuff like taking the best hiking photos with only a cell phone…and much more!


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Debate live blog!
By Scott A. Robinson, Editor
Filed Under Debates on Nov 22
I'll be posting analysis in five minute intervals of the CNN "National Security" Debate.
I came in five minutes late, blogging from the in-laws house in Alabama tonight. Apparently Wolf Blitzer is concerned with people not knowing his name. Then in the introductions Willard Mitt Romney said "Mitt really is my first name". Except it's not. Good one Willard.
Apparently the rule of law in our Republic is good with Newt Gingrich except when it comes to terrorism. That definition could become broad and scary very quickly. Blitzer wisely engaged Ron Paul who advocated not giving up our liberty in the name of security. Michelle Bachmann is giving a non-answer. Huntsman gets an answer in. I'm wondering of Blitzer is trying to get the non-competitive candidates out of the way early.
Romney quickly moves to bring himself close to Gingrich's answer. However, he clearly differentiated actions inside and outside of war. Gingirch's response sounded like he wanted absolute power when he deemed necessary. Rick Perry moves the question on TSA pat downs to privatizing airport security (which studies have shown is more effective) and thus eliminating the union. Rick Santorum advocated profiling in airports like the Israelis do. I completely agree with this. If you don't think this happens some today, you are crazy. Flight attendants are trained to do it every single day.
Ron Paul disagrees with profiling. One of the few areas I disagree with him. Herman Cain wants to "tweak" the Patriot Act. I could not disagree more. That act has taken away an unbelievable amount of individual rights! Cain says he wants to "trust the experts". That scares me more than anything. Who are his experts? He has never been able to name them before. I want Herman Cain to be a legitimate candidate, but he simply is not.
Bachman: "[Pakistan] is too nuclear to fail" so we should give them money. Do these people hear themselves talk? Rick Perry says give them the cash. Bachmann calls Perry naive because Pakistan's nukes could end up in the US. Huh?
The question is essentially what is the cost/benefit analysis of being in Afghanistan. That is an easy answer. We should not be there. When did we declare war through a Congressional vote? Romney says American approval in Afghanistan is 12% WHO FREAKING CARES?!?!?!?! Huntsman makes the correct point that we have no end game in Afghanistan. And my CNN streaming just died. However, where is Ron Paul on this question?
Newt Gingrich claims he is confused. In reality he is moving the scope of the question to give the answer he wants to give. Gingrich says we should tell the Pakistanis that we will kill who we want when we want, so join up or get out of the way. That is not the America I want. Ron Paul has not answered yet, but Rick Santorum lets us know he agrees with him on this question.
What a fantastic question. Would you launch a preemptive strike with Israel? Cain: It depends. He sounds like the 6 sigma "black belts" I work with. Ron Paul: No. I am honestly conflicted on this one. I believe the Iranian leaders when they claim to want to annihilate Israel. However, if Israel attacks, then what? The entire region and probably the entire world will suddenly be engulfed in war. As for Ron Paul, he does not believe Iranians and I think he is wrong to want to not support Israel.
Another great question. Despite all the sections, Iran is still on its way to develop a nuclear bomb. What sanctions are left? Perry says to go after their central bank. However, no sanctions will work because there will always be Russias and Chinas in the world that will trade with Iran.
Newt thinks we can break Iran within one year and that we should sabotage their oil refinery. This sounds like an act of war to me. As for breaking Iran, if we could, we would have already. Why wait until Iran virtually has the bomb to do it? What does the federal government handing money out to countries Africa have to do with this debate's theme, "national security"? Santorum love this stuff. So where do you draw the line on government spending? Private groups can handle the humanitarian aid. There is no need for the government to take the money away from some people in the US then redistribute it to other countries! Cain again answers with "it depends". He has learned quickly how to be a "politician".
Ron Paul says you can't give out foreign aid if you refuse to cut anything. I could not agree more. Though I would go further and cut all foreign aid. However, this isn't the real problem in the budget. Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, and Defense are the problems. Romney says if you eliminate Obamacare this will solve it all. Uh huh. This is a great debate so far with some serious questions. The current question is can we cut defense? The answer is of course. You can always drive efficiencies. Newt goes first and is nailing this, even invoking Lean and 6 Sigma. This is the best answer I have heard all night.
Wolf asks Newt if we should bomb Iran's nuclear facilities. He answers, "only as a last resort, but only if it also includes a regime change". No kidding Newt. No kidding. Huntsman brings us back to the deficits and debt and says everything should be on the table, including defense. This is the correct approach. One of the biggest problems of government compared with the private sector is that without the profit motive, there is no incentive for governments to drive efficiency.
Wolf is pushing the candidates on refusing any tax increases. There is a huge problem with this question. Define a "tax increase". Increasing base rates are one thing. However, eliminating, say, tax exemptions that provide favored status to only a few, such as the mortgage write-off, results in a net tax increase. I would slash exemptions in a heartbeat.
Nothing really all that exciting over the past five minutes.
Bachmann, Huntsman, and Santorum are getting unprecedented time. Why? I'm good with them being marginalized at this point. After a really long break we're back at 9:25.
Perry: "Within 12 months of the inaugural [sic] I'll close down the border with Mexico." Ron Paul: "Cancel the war on drugs…. Alcohol is a deadly drug…. Why don't we handle the war on drugs like we do alcohol?" Yup. A question on high-skilled immigration rather than low-skilled immigration. Another great one. Then Wolf goes to Santorum first. Why bother?
Newt wants and H1 Visa with every math, science, and engineering graduate degree. I like the concept, but specifying specific degrees is a mistake. We want all the talent we can find in the US to grow our economic pie as much as possible. Newt and Bachmann are arguing on the semantics of the DREAM Act and amnesty. Newt is walking the line. Bachmann is absolutely against any form of amnesty.
Romney has delivered the best answer here. Clearly stating that immigration is great and should be easy. He also says we should staple a green card to all those graduate diplomas Newt referred to, saying "we want those brains in our country". YES YES YES! The argument Newt is making is to allow some amnesty, but how do you draw that line? The real problem is there must be a one-time solution to accompany a new system. That will take some serious political courage to put in place. I agree that it would be tragic to tear apart families. But there will inevitably be some problems because you must draw a line somewhere.
Well that was a fun break. I'm streaming and CNN goes to complete silence.
Blah blah blah. Wolf is asking whether the Arab Spring will be a bad thing, referring specifically to what is happening in Egypt. Another easy answer. Duh, yes. Huntsman starts throwing around names and dates and answers the questions in an overly-intellectual way that won't exactly appeal to the common voter. Good grief. It looks like we are going the full two hours this time.
We are talking about no-fly zones. Meh. We are either at war or we are not. Ron Paul sums it up well: "Why don't we mind our own business?" Romney goes to a prepared answer going after Obama. Yes Mitt, we know you're running in the general election while also trying to win a primary. Now it's open-question lightning round time!
Santorum. Meh. Ron Paul. Let stop getting into new wars. Yes please. Perry. China is destined for the ash-heap of history "because it is not a country of virtue". Have you seen what has happened in the US over the past several years? Romney. Need to be concerned with Latin America. A complete non-controversial non-answer. Cain. Concerned with a cyber attacks. This is a bigger issue than Americans realize. Gingrich. Offers a list. Perry knows something about top 10 lists. Bachmann. Meh. Huntsman. China? Really? Glad you pulled up and went away from that. We don't believe in our own government. No kidding. You've said that twice tonight but how are you going to change that?
"Now time for Anderson Cooper 360 coverage, I'm John King in for Anderson Cooper". Solid intro right there. That's why you don't name a show after the host.
Thanks for joining again tonight.
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It's one of our all-time favorite comfort foods. On this edition of Food Friday, we take you to Ladles Moncks Corner, where more than 400 recipes of soup reign soupreme.
Virginia Councilman, Dr. Wes Bellamy, made national news after leading efforts to remove statues of Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson from city parks.
John Price Law Firm and FOX24 are proud to present the Student Athlete of the Month March honoree, Tyler Sumpter.
It's the perfect food when you're on the go, fishing with friends or training for a marathon. On this edition of Food Friday, we take you to Beef Jerky Outlet.
Race week has begun! The Cooper River Bridge Run is right around the corner.
There is only a little over two months left in the school year. Students missed more than two weeks of class due to Hurricane Florence and some South Carolina school districts are calling on lawmakers to help.
On this week's Food Friday, we take you to an eatery tucked away in Goose Creek that draws on southern inspiration.
An autopsy has been scheduled for ten-year-old, RaNiya Wright, who passed away Wednesday after a fight broke out at Forest Hills Elementary School.


PORTSMOUTH, Va. — Calvin and Zatera Spencer are having an amazing month.
First they won $1 million in the March 12 Powerball drawing.
Then on March 26, Calvin Spencer won $50,000 with 10 winning tickets in the Virginia Lottery's Pick 4 game.
The next day, shortly after dropping his wife off for an appointment, Spencer bought a Virginia Lottery Scratcher ticket – the $100 Million Cash Extravaganza – and won the $1 million prize.
"Baby, we did it again!" he told his wife.
The $1 million prize in $100 Million Cash Extravaganza is an annuity, which means the Spencers had the choice of taking the full $1 million prize over 30 years or a one-time cash option of $681,000 before taxes.
They chose the cash option. He bought the winning ticket at the 7-Eleven at 100 West 21st Street in Norfolk. The store received a $10,000 bonus from the Lottery for selling the winning ticket.
The $50,000 win came when the combination 6-6-6-6 was drawn in the March 26 Pick 4 day drawing. Since that's a popular combination, the Virginia Lottery paid out a total of $6 million to winners for that drawing.
Spencer had 10 tickets with 6-6-6-6. The top prize in Pick 4 is $5,000, which means he won a total of $50,000.
$100 Million Cash Extravaganza features prizes ranging from $20 up to $4 million.
The $1 million prize that the Spencers won is actually the second prize. As the name suggests, the game began with a total of $100 million in prizes available.
Spencer is the first $1 million winner to claim, which means three million-dollar tickets remain unclaimed.
and thay still git food stamps.
You think all black people get foodstamps? The truth be know there are more white people on food stamps then black people! It simple the majority of the people will use the majority of the resources! Clown Don't spread hate, educate.
Dont hate on winners…..congrats to them, but I hope they follow the golden rule and donate some back to their church and not spend it all on extravagant things because you will go bankrupt faster than you can win another lottery!