text:
\section{Introduction}

Polarization anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) provide a wealth of information about the early Universe. The Cosmology Large Angular Scale Surveyor (CLASS) is an array of polarization-sensitive millimeter wave telescopes that observes $\sim{}70\%$ of the sky at frequency bands centered near \SI{40}{\giga\hertz}, \SI{90}{\giga\hertz}, \SI{150}{\giga\hertz}, and \SI{220}{\giga\hertz} from the Atacama desert of northern Chile.\cite{Essinger-Hileman2014, Harrington2016} The primary science goals of CLASS are two-fold---to search for polarization B-modes\cite{Kamionkowski1997} as strong evidence of cosmological inflation and to make a measurement of the optical depth due to reionization, via polarization E-modes, with a sensitivity that is near the cosmic variance limit.\cite{Watts2015,Watts2018} The inflation paradigm postulates that the Universe underwent a period of exponential expansion in its first moments. Such inflationary expansion would produce tensor perturbations in the form of gravitational waves, which would leave an imprint on the CMB.\cite{Guth1981} The photons of the CMB were emitted during the period of decoupling that followed the epoch of recombination. Photons streaming through space collided with these free electrons, producing linear polarization via Thomson scattering. In the presence of the tensor perturbations induced by gravitational waves, this scattering produces B-mode polarization in addition to E-mode polarization, which is additionally produced by scattering in the presence of the dominant scalar perturbations. Thus, B-mode polarization in the CMB is evidence for gravitational wave-induced quadrupolar fluctuations during recombination, which is evidence for inflation. After a period known as the Dark Ages, the first stars formed, which reionized the neutral hydrogen in the Universe. This resulted in more Thomson scattering, which, in the presence of primordial gravitational waves, produces a second B-mode feature in the CMB, as well as additional scalar-sourced E-mode features.\cite{Hu1997} This polarization signal is at large angular scales, which CLASS is uniquely sensitive to among ground-based experiments.

CLASS, which has been successfully observing since 2016, seeks to accomplish its science goals by mapping the polarization of the CMB at large angular scales ($2 \lesssim \ell \lesssim 200$). Fast front-end polarization modulation, in the form of a variable-delay polarization modulator (VPM) as its first optical element,\cite{Chuss2012,Harrington2018} gives CLASS the stability necessary to measure the largest angular scales on the sky while also allowing most forms of instrument polarization to be rejected. Furthermore, the sky is observed at multiple frequencies to enable Galactic foreground signals, those from synchrotron and thermal dust in particular, to be disentangled from the primordial CMB signal.

In order to perform these measurements, software and computing and networking equipment are necessary to perform observations, collect time-ordered data, and package and transfer data for further analysis. To this end, this paper describes the architecture of the software used to control the telescopes, acquire data from the various instruments, schedule observations, monitor the status of the instruments and observations, create archival data packages, and transfer data packages to North America for analysis. The telescopes operate at a high-altitude site in northern Chile located on Cerro Toco and are connected to the internet via a facility in the nearby town of San Pedro de Atacama. Data are then transferred to a data server located on the Johns Hopkins University campus in Baltimore, Maryland for further analysis. The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. Section~\ref{sec:architecture} gives an overview of the network and software architecture, Section~\ref{sec:hardware} describes how this software is interfaced to some key subsystems, Section~\ref{sec:pipeline} details the data packaging and transfer pipeline, and Section~\ref{sec:web} outlines the web interface used to monitor status and schedule observations. Finally, we present some lessons learned in Section~\ref{sec:lessons} and conclude in Section~\ref{sec:conclusions}.

\section{Network and software architecture}
\label{sec:architecture}

With multiple receivers and numerous housekeeping systems, more than a dozen
computers are used to operate CLASS. Networking and a cohesive
software control suite are therefore required to coordinate the operation of these
systems such that science data can be collected, transferred off-site, and later
analyzed.

\subsection{Network layout}

The CLASS network is divided into two main components, the site network
on Cerro Toco and the supporting systems down the mountain in San Pedro de
Atacama. These components are connected using a wireless
network link operating at \SI{5}{\giga\hertz}. This approximately
\SI{43}{\km} line-of-sight radio link is provided by two Ubiquiti AF-5X
transceivers\footnote{Ubiquiti Inc.; \url{https://www.ui.com/}}
and is able to sustain data rates in excess of \SI{100}{Mbps}.
The site end of the wireless link is located on a tower \SI{\sim 170}{\meter} from the telescopes, at the edge of a cliff and with a clear line-of-sight to the San Pedro de Atacama end of the link. The site end of the link is powered via a solar panel and batteries and is connected to the rest of the site network via a fiber optic cable, providing complete electrical isolation, to protect against lightning damage.
All computers are
powered via uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) so that they remain online during the brief power
losses sustained while switching between the site's two generators. Similarly, the equipment in San Pedro de Atacama is powered with a UPS; this UPS is capable of providing several hours of backup power, which is necessary due to the frequency and duration of power outages at this location. A overview of the CLASS network is given in Figure~\ref{fig:network}.

\begin{figure}
\centering
\input{network-diagram.tex}
\caption{Network architecture overview. Network segments in San Pedro de Atacama and on Cerro Toco are connected via a wireless link; other segments are connected via either copper or fiber optic Ethernet cables.}
\label{fig:network}
\end{figure}

The San Pedro de Atacama portion of the network consists of a
router, an analysis computer, and a remote access computer.
The \textsc{analysis machine} is
used for doing preliminary analysis of data collected by the telescope.
Additionally, it is used to store telescope data once it is transferred
down the mountain, until the data are copied to North America.
The Cerro Toco portion of the network consists of three major segments: the
control room, the first mount, and the second mount. The \textsc{control room}
and \textsc{mounts} all use managed Ethernet switches, which provide gigabit connectivity over both copper and fiber optic cables, and are interconnected via fiber
optic cables. Each \textsc{mount} has an
additional switch for communication between the mount computers and the mount servo motors, which are
isolated from the primary network. The radio link to San Pedro de
Atacama is connected to the \textsc{control room} switch.
The \textsc{mounts} each contain two computers for controlling the mount; two
housekeeping computers, one for each cryostat; a star camera;
four servo motors, which are on an isolated network; and two \textsc{VPM controllers}, one for each telescope.
The \textsc{control room} contains a server rack with a
\textsc{central server}, a display and status computer, a command terminal, a
star camera host computer, and detector readout computers, one for each
detector readout unit.\footnote{The detector readout units are on the mount and interface with the detectors; they are connected to the readout computers via fiber optic cables.} Additionally, there are laptop
computers that can be moved around as needed, to fulfill miscellaneous needs. A Wi-Fi access point is also installed, although this is turned off during observations.

\subsection{Software structure}

CLASS's software infrastructure is currently built around the Ubuntu~16.04
Linux distribution\footnote{Canonical Ltd.; \url{https://www.ubuntu.com/}} and
the Python programming language,\footnote{Python Software Foundation;
\url{https://www.python.org/}} specifically version~3.5. These releases are
both supported through at least 2021.\footnote{An upgrade to a newer version of Ubuntu is planned.} Software is developed using the
Git\footnote{\url{https://git-scm.com/}} distributed version control system.
All machines run the Ubuntu~16.04 operating system, except for the cryostat virtual machines
that run Windows~7 for compatibility with vendor-provided proprietary software and the mount
computers that run the VxWorks\footnote{Wind River Systems Inc.; \url{https://www.windriver.com/}}
real-time operating system (RTOS). With the exception of some C code required to interface with some
hardware and a few shell scripts, all control and data acquisition software running on the Linux servers is
written in Python. The control scripts are run as \texttt{systemd}\footnote{\url{https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/systemd/}} services so that they start on boot.

The basic software structure consists of Python scripts running each of the
telescopes' subsystems, with a central \textsc{command script} to coordinate
operations. Since control and data acquisition software is running on multiple computers
on the network simultaneously, a control and communications system for these
distributed systems is required. The \textsc{Pyro}\footnote{\url{https://pyro4.readthedocs.io/}} package, version~4, was chosen for this
purpose. Each subsystem is operated by a separate Python script, which includes a \textsc{Pyro} interface. These  \textsc{Pyro} interfaces expose the scripts' control function to the network. The \textsc{command script} is
then able to call these exposed functions as if they were local functions, with
\textsc{Pyro} seamlessly taking care of all of the network communications. Thus, subsystems are controlled by calling the \textsc{command script}, which in turn uses \textsc{Pyro} to call a function on the corresponding subsystem.

Figure~\ref{fig:software-struct} contains an overview of the software
structure. All subsystems write data to the \textsc{central server} over the
network, and a centralized database is used to store metadata. A \textsc{scheduler} is used to execute preplanned observing
routines, and a web interface is used to monitor system statuses and control the
\textsc{scheduler}. The standard data format is the \textsc{dirfile} standard for
time-ordered data.\footnote{\url{http://getdata.sourceforge.net/dirfile.html}} This
filesystem-based, column-oriented format has been used for previous cosmology
experiments, including the Atacama Cosmology Telescope\cite{Switzer2008} and the EBEX\cite{Milligan2010} balloon-borne experiment. It is supported by its reference
\textsc{GetData} implementation\cite{GetData}, which includes the \texttt{pygetdata} Python bindings,
and can be easily visualized using the Kst plotting
software.\footnote{KDE e.V.; \url{https://kst-plot.kde.org/}}

\begin{figure}
\centering
\input{software-structure.tex}
\caption{Software structure overview. Boxes represent various components or locations, and arrows represent data or command flow. The software is structured around Python scripts, with a web interface used for user interaction and \textsc{dirfiles} used for data recording.}
\label{fig:software-struct}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Scheduling}
\label{sec:scheduling}

While a central \textsc{command script} is sufficient, and preferable, for
testing, its use for regular observations is highly inefficient and error-prone.
Instead, a scheduling system is needed so an observation can be planned
in advance. For a survey experiment like CLASS, once a reasonable
observation strategy is found and tested, it will be used again and again.
Therefore, a scheduling system that facilitates running such preplanned
observations needs to be devised.
One way to implement such a system would be to replace the \textsc{command
script} with a scheduler, calling the same \textsc{Pyro} functions as the command
script. Although this method has the appeal of being simple and
straightforward, it has the disadvantage of possibly producing different
behavior than the \textsc{command script}, which would lead to much confusion
once a schedule is created using commands that were first tested by hand using
the \textsc{command script}. Therefore, the CLASS \textsc{scheduler}
calls the \textsc{command script}, to ensure the exact same
behavior.\footnote{More specifically, it calls a symbolic link to the
\textsc{command script}. The \textsc{command script} uses this difference in
the name of the script called to log the fact that the call was made by the
\textsc{scheduler}. There is also an additional mode that evaluates
the command arguments but does not execute anything, which allows command syntax
to be verified.} The results of the commands are logged to a database. A
schedule entry is created using the arguments to the \textsc{command script},
exactly what would be typed into the command terminal.
These entries are combined with lines containing a simple time delta syntax,
relative to either the schedule's start time or the last time directive, as
well as optional comment lines. An example of the \textsc{scheduler} syntax can
be seen in Figure~\ref{fig:syntax}.

\begin{figure}
\centering
\setlength{\fboxsep}{12pt}
\fbox{\begin{minipage}{0.8\textwidth}
\emph{\# This is a comment}\newline
\texttt{MCEQ -autobias}\newline

\emph{\# The following sets the commands after it to be run 2 minutes}\newline
\emph{\# after the last time directive}\newline
\texttt{/+2m}\newline
\texttt{MCEQ -acqdata 50000000}\newline

\emph{\# The following sets the commands after it to be run}\newline
\emph{\# 2 days, 20 hours, 5 minutes, 30 seconds after the start time of the schedule}\newline
\texttt{/2d20h5m30s}\newline
\texttt{MCEQ -stop}
\end{minipage}}
\caption{Example of \textsc{Scheduler} syntax. Examples are shown of individual commands, comments, and relative and absolute time deltas.}
\label{fig:syntax}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Databases}

While the science data are written to disk, it is helpful to keep various
sorts of metadata in a database for easy access and manipulation. For
CLASS, metadata about chunks of science data are stored in a database as
well as a log of all commands executed and \textsc{scheduler} data.
Metadata for the science data collected are entered into a database to
facilitate both data transfer and analysis. Therefore, a distributed database
system is needed such that it can be accessed locally at the telescope site, in
San Pedro de Atacama, and in North America. Three desirable
properties for distributed computer systems, in this case a distributed
database, are consistency, availability, and partition tolerance. However,
Brewer's theorem states that only two of the three can be achieved by any one
system \cite{cap}. Consistency requires all copies of the database to return
identical results when queried, availability requires the database to always be
accessible, and partition tolerance requires the system to still function even
if the network link between the different copies is severed. For example, if a
database system enforces both partition tolerance and consistency, the database
will be read-only, and thus only partially accessible, if the network link goes
down, since the link is needed to keep the different copies consistent. For
CLASS, availability and partition tolerance are the most important
properties, since both the radio link to the telescope site and the internet
connection to North America might be unreliable, but this should not stop data
collection, which also involves adding metadata to the database. Although this
could in general lead to merging problems when the database system tries to restore
consistency once a severed network link is reestablished, the software running at CLASS's three
locations modify different database fields, so no conflicts will arise. Most
data are entered at the telescope site, with the software at the two auxiliary sites only
modifying fields pertaining to their local data storage locations.

To this end, the CouchDB database\footnote{Apache Software Foundation;
\url{https://couchdb.apache.org/}} was chosen for handling metadata, with a server at each
location running a database server instance that hosts a full copy of the
databases to allow for fast, low-latency database queries. CouchDB is
a NoSQL database that stores data as JSON documents and
is highly available and partition tolerant, with eventual consistency. NoSQL
databases differ from traditional SQL databases by not requiring a fixed,
predefined table structure; instead, each document can have any data keys it
needs, functioning more like a dictionary than a spreadsheet. Instead of using
structured queries to retrieve data, mapping and reduction functions are
written and used; in the CouchDB parlance, these are known as ``views'' and are
written in JavaScript.

The CouchDB instance hosts databases to store commands executed, schedules,
the results of commands executed for schedules, and
metadata about the science data products. The \textsc{commands database} records
commands executed by the \textsc{command script} along with a timestamp and Git
revision hashes for both the \textsc{command script} and the target script;
this logging happens regardless of how the \textsc{command script} was
called---directly or by the \textsc{scheduler}. Each commit in a Git repository
has a unique 160-bit SHA-1 hash \cite{sha1} associated with it; since all of
the site software is contained in a Git repository, recording these revision
hashes uniquely identifies the exact version of the scripts that were executed,
for future reference. The \textsc{schedules database} contains schedules for
use by the \textsc{scheduler}. Each entry contains the actual schedule entered,
a parsed copy of the schedule for use by the \textsc{scheduler}, an ID number,
descriptive tags, the schedule's author, a start time, and a status field. Once
the schedule finishes running, or fails, an end time is added. Failed schedules
also record the line that failed. These entries are created by the
\textsc{scheduler}'s web interface and are modified by it and the actual
\textsc{scheduler}. The \textsc{scheduler} also records the results of commands
executed in a \textsc{jobs database}; each entry contains the command executed,
a timestamp, the command's output, and if it failed. The final
database contains metadata for each packaged chunk of CLASS science
data.
In addition to this standard metadata, which are also kept with the data packages,
the database stores the location of the data packages at each site: Cerro Toco, San
Pedro de Atacama, and North America. Each site only modifies the location field
for itself, so synchronization issues after a network outage are avoided. These
location fields are used to facilitate data transfer and analysis.

\section{Hardware interfaces}
\label{sec:hardware}

To capture data, a physical instrument is required. To record these data and to
control these instruments and other hardware, computer interfaces to the
hardware are required, as is software to use these hardware interfaces.
Although the hardware of different CLASS subsystems differ considerably,
their software interfaces were designed to be similar, using a Python script that interfaces either directly with the hardware or through vendor-provided software to expose a \textsc{Pyro} control interface. Where custom electronics are used, such as for cryogenic diode-based thermometry, warm thermometry in the telescopes' optics cages, and for control of the telescopes' VPMs, these are designed around an Ethernet interface. While TCP is used for sending commands, UDP is used to stream data in a manner that is robust to connectivity interruptions and equipment restarts. For equipment that uses an RS-232 serial interface, such as AC resistance bridges (used for reading out ruthenium oxide cryogenic thermometers), magnetometers, the diesel tank level sensor, and the site weather station, Ethernet-to-serial converters are used to allow access over the site network; this simplifies operations, since the control scripts for these equipment can be run from the \textsc{central server}.\footnote{A USB-to-serial interface is used instead for the weather station, since it is mounted on the outside of the control room, a short distance from the \textsc{central server}.} Along with scientific instruments, other site infrastructure, such as the generators, can also be controlled remotely.

The only exceptions to this general control architecture are the cryostats. They are controlled using a proprietary GUI software provided by their manufacturer, Bluefors,\footnote{Bluefors Oy; \url{https://bluefors.com/}} which only runs under the Windows operating system and does not provide much in the way of a scriptable interface. Therefore, the cryostats are operated manually, with the \textsc{Remote Desktop Protocol} used to access the GUI. However, as the cryostats only need to be controlled when they are being cooled down or warmed up for maintenance, not during normal operation, this lack of integration with the rest of the site operations software does not impede observations.

\subsection{Detectors}

The telescopes' transition edge sensor detectors\cite{Denis2009, Dahal2020} are read out via time-division multiplexing using Multi-Channel Electronics (MCE) units\cite{Battistelli2008}
developed at the University of British Columbia.\footnote{\url{https://e-mode.phas.ubc.ca/mcewiki/index.php/Main_Page}} There is one MCE per receiver and currently one or two receivers per telescope mount, although the two mounts will eventually have two receivers each. The detectors are
connected to the MCE using a set of SQUID multiplexers at
the focal plane and a SQUID amplifier series array at the \SI{4}{\kelvin} stage of the cryostat.
The MCE is triggered using a \textsc{frame pulse}, delivered with a clock
signal over fiber optics from a \textsc{sync box}, one per telescope mount, which is a device used to synchronize data collection
by multiple MCEs and the telescope mount. The \textsc{frame pulse}
assigns a 32-bit ID number to the readout frame, which consists of a full focal
plane readout, and delivers pulses to trigger reading
out each detector. The \textsc{frame pulse} is delivered at
slightly over \SI{200}{\hertz}.\footnote{Running
slightly fast is preferable to running slightly slow, since it ensures the
recorded data chunks are less than ten minutes in length. This simplifies the
data packaging process, since it guarantees that a data chunk only needs to be
split once.} The MCE, mounted on the cryostat, communicates with a
\textsc{host computer} in the \textsc{control room} via fiber optics and a PCI
readout card. This \textsc{host computer} uses
\textsc{MCE acquisition software (MAS) scripts}, provided by the University of British Columbia, to
control the MCE and record data. A \textsc{Pyro} interface allows
use of these scripts over the network and also provides a routine for measuring $I$--$V$ response and applying appropriate detector biasing. Data are written to an NFS mount on the \textsc{central server}.

\subsection{Mount}

Each telescope mount is controlled by an industrial \textsc{mount computer}
running the VxWorks RTOS, which loads its software over the network at boot time. The \textsc{mount computer}, also known as the antenna control unit (ACU),
controls the mount's four servo motors, two for azimuth and one
each for elevation and boresight angle, over an isolated Ethernet network and also reads in various encoders and tiltmeters. The \textsc{mount computer} also receives \textsc{frame pulse}
information from the \textsc{sync box} over RS-485 (instead of the fiber optics used for the MCEs) for synchronization with the
MCE units and has a GPS receiver to obtain precise timing
information; as the MCEs only record \textsc{frame pulse} information and not time, the mount's timing information is also used to assign times to detector data when the data are packaged. The mount's position is determined using encoders that feed a pointing model,
and these data, as well as timing and status information, are written
to an NFS mount on the \textsc{central server}. The pointing model is derived from Moon and planet observations \cite{Xu2020}, although the initial pointing model was constructed using star camera observations processed using the Astrometry.net blind astrometric solver \cite{Lang2010}.\footnote{The star camera consists of a networked machine vision camera in a waterproof enclosure that is rigidly attached to the telescope mount.} The \textsc{mount computer} exposes a Telnet
interface and a TCP interface to the site network. The Telnet interface
allows for interactive control via a terminal and status monitoring, while the TCP interface is used for scripted control of the
mount. A \textsc{Pyro} interface running on the \textsc{central server} translates
this TCP interface into a standard \textsc{Pyro} interface for the
\textsc{command script}.

The mount monitor and control system, which is written in C++, implements the programs used for scanning in azimuth, with sun avoidance
to preclude the boresight from coming within \SI{20}{\deg} of the Sun; sky dips, for atmospheric
analysis; and drift scans of planets and the Moon, which are used for pointing and beam analysis.
The JPL DE430 ephemerides\cite{DE430} are used by the monitor and control system for tracking the Moon, Sun, and
planets. Parameters used by these programs are passed to the monitor and control system via the \textsc{Pyro} interface.

\subsection{Variable-delay polarization modulator}

The VPM consists of a fixed wire array and a movable mirror, to modulate
the incoming polarization signal. The mirror is driven by a closed-loop motion control
system. This system consists of voice coils to actuate the mirror and encoders
to measure its position. The encoder signals are duplicated, with one copy going to
the \textsc{VPM controller} and another copy going to the ACU. The \textsc{VPM controller}, built around an industrial applications processor and running a network-booted RTOS, uses this information to maintain proper
mirror position, while the ACU logs the encoder
data. This duplication is necessary because the \textsc{VPM controller} is not connected to the \textsc{sync box}, and the VPM encoder positions need to be recorded synchronously with the detector data. A control script running on the \textsc{central server} communicates
with and configures this \textsc{controller} via TCP over an Ethernet
connection. Finally, a \textsc{Pyro} interface exposes a standard network
interface for VPM control.

\section{Data pipeline}
\label{sec:pipeline}

In order to measure the polarization of the CMB, data need to be
acquired from the telescopes' detectors and various housekeeping systems,
combined, packaged, and transferred to North America for analysis. This
packaging needs to happen in real time, to prevent a backlog and maximize
observing time; furthermore, the process should be lossless and verifiable to
prevent data loss and identify potential data corruption.

\subsection{Acquisition}

Data acquisition starts with scheduling an observation and acquiring data from hardware instruments. As data are acquired, they are written as \textsc{dirfiles}
on the \textsc{central server}, either directly or using NFS mounts. These are structured with a directory for each computer acquiring data, with
subdirectories for each acquisition system. Individual \textsc{dirfiles} are named using
a timestamp formatted as \texttt{\%Y-\%m-\%d-\%H-\%M-\%S}, e.g.,
\texttt{2020-03-22-20-00-00}. \textsc{Dirfiles} consist of a directory that contains a plain-text
\textsc{format file} and separate binary files for each stream of time-ordered data.
Additional derived fields can be defined as linear combinations of existing
fields, e.g., to scale raw data to SI units; aliases, e.g., to label the
location of thermometers without having to edit the acquisition code; and
extracted bit-fields, e.g., to combine multiple status flags in one raw data
field.

Data are divided into ten-minute chunks as they are acquired. For asynchronous
housekeeping data, which are not acquired using the \textsc{sync box}, a new
chunk is started at clock-aligned intervals, e.g., at 00:00, 00:10, 00:20, etc., so the first data chunk in the series will be less than ten
minutes in length, e.g., six minutes if data collection started at twenty-four
minutes past the hour. These divisions are done when the time in seconds since
the Unix Epoch\footnote{\texttt{1970-01-01T00:00:00Z}} modulo 600 seconds rolls
over. Synchronous data are acquired in arbitrarily-aligned chunks of
approximately ten minutes in length.\footnote{The chunks are \num{120000} frame
pulses long, or just under ten minutes, ``redefining'' the second as 200
\textsc{frame pulses}.} All timestamps are in Universal Time, with asynchronous
data using the computer's NTP-synchronized system clock in UTC and
the mount using UT1, derived from GPS time; the detector data are not
acquired with timestamps, but they are synchronized with the mount data using the
\textsc{sync box}. The time is stored in the \textsc{dirfiles} as seconds since the
Epoch.

\subsection{Packaging}

Once data are acquired, they must be packaged into a standard data product. The
standard CLASS data product is a clock-aligned ten-minute \textsc{data
chunk} consisting of time-ordered data, with one \textsc{dirfile} per mount for
synchronous data and individual \textsc{dirfiles} for each asynchronous data acquisition
system. Synchronous data are combined in this data product, since this can be
done without altering any data or losing any information. Since the \textsc{dirfile}
format keeps each data field in a separate file and the \textsc{GetData} library does not
load the data until a specific field is read, this combining of data from
multiple receivers does not add any overhead when only one receiver's data
need to be read. Asynchronous data are kept separate
due to the losses inherent to resampling and interpolation. This is a trade-off
between making things simpler during analysis and preventing data loss, since
interpolation eventually needs to be done. A packaging script is run every ten minutes, at
00:02, 00:12, 00:22, etc. It processes data from two data periods
prior and before, e.g., the 00:32 run will only process data from the 00:10
period and before; this ensures that the non-ten-minute-boundary-aligned
synchronous data collection for the data period has finished. For example,
synchronous data collection might start at 00:19, which would include data in
the 00:10 period; this collection would not end until 00:29, unlike the
asynchronous data collection, which would start a new data chunk at 00:20.
Therefore, the maximum delay, plus a few minutes of buffer, is used.

\subsubsection{Synchronous}

The detector and ACU data sampling on a given mount is synchronized, but the two mounts are not synchronized with each other. An overview of the synchronous data packaging process can be seen in
Figure~\ref{fig:synchronous}.
The first step in packaging synchronous data is to divide them into CLASS's
standard ten-minute data intervals. This process starts with dividing each data
chunk collected by the ACU into two parts, \texttt{A} and \texttt{B}, where
seconds since the Epoch modulo 600 seconds rolls over; the ACU data must be the first processed, since they are
the only synchronous data that contain timestamps, instead of just \textsc{frame pulse} numbers. These divided chunks are
then combined to form ten-minute chunks aligned with the Epoch, with zero-padding added before, after, and between chunks when needed
to form a full ten-minute chunk. The field containing the \textsc{frame pulse}
number is filled in with the appropriate values instead of zero-padding like
the rest of the fields; this allows for easier synchronization with the
detector data. A status field is also added to the resulting
\textsc{dirfile} that shows where the ACU data are valid, as opposed to where they are
zero-padded, stored in an 8-bit integer field.

Next, the detector data from each MCE unit on the mount are divided using
the \textsc{frame pulse} numbers recorded in both the MCE data and the now aligned ACU data. As
with the ACU data, these chunks are then combined to form aligned ten-minute
chunks, again with zero-padding added before, after, and between chunks as
needed; again, a status field is added, but different bits in the 8-bit integer
field are used. Care must be taken, since the \textsc{frame pulse} counter
occasionally rolls over.\footnote{As the \textsc{frame pulse} is a \SI{32}{\bit}
unsigned integer, this happens roughly every eight months. This counter also resets any time the \textsc{sync box} is power-cycled.} Finally, the raw
data files in each of the MCE \textsc{dirfiles} are moved
into subdirectories in the ACU \textsc{dirfile}. The ACU \textsc{dirfile} \textsc{format file} is altered to include the MCE \textsc{dirfile} \textsc{format files} as child fragments, which prefix the MCE \textsc{dirfile} field names with the appropriate MCE name, and the data
valid status fields are combined using a bitwise \textsc{or}. After this
process is complete, the resulting \textsc{dirfile} can be treated as an asynchronous
data chunk in the next step of the packaging process.

The merged data are then compressed, with \texttt{gzip} compression used for the mostly floating-point ACU data and FLAC compression\footnote{Xiph.Org Foundation; \url{https://xiph.org/flac/}} used for the fixed-precision MCE data. As FLAC was designed as an audio compression codec, it does not support the 32-bit data recorded by the MCE, but \textsc{GetData} avoids this limitation by splitting each 32-bit integer into two 16-bit integers and compressing the data as two separate channels. However, this is still not optimal, since FLAC will treat these integers as smaller than 16~bits if the most significant bits are never used. CLASS operates the MCEs in \textsc{data mode~10}, which uses the lower 25~bits of the 32-bit integer to store low-pass-filtered detector data as a signed integer and the upper 7~bits to store a flux jump counter as another signed integer. Thus, when the flux jump counter is zero or positive, the upper half of the 32-bit integer is treated as having fewer than 16~bits, often as having as few as 9--10~bits, but is treated as having the full 16~bits when the flux jump counter is negative. Therefore, the data packaging script removes the 7-bit flux jump counter from the combined data stream and converts it to a separate 8-bit signed integer field, which is FLAC-compressed. The filtered detector data that remain in the original 32-bit field is then treated as a 25-bit integer when FLAC compression is applied. This scheme performs well on the CLASS data, reducing disk space usage while still providing rapid decompression and data access.

\begin{figure}
\centering
\input{synchronous-packaging.tex}
\caption{Overview of synchronous data packaging process. The procedure by which ACU (mount) and MCE (detector) data are aligned and joined is shown.}
\label{fig:synchronous}
\end{figure}

\subsubsection{Asynchronous}

Asynchronous data are recorded to timestamped \textsc{dirfiles} in a directory structure
based on the computer recording the data. However, the final data product
structure starts with a timestamped directory, with subdirectories for
different types of data, a hierarchy divorced from the computer systems used to
collect the data. Figure~\ref{fig:data-structure} contains an overview of this
structure. Therefore, the first step of the asynchronous data packaging
process, which includes the merged synchronous data, rearranges the
asynchronous \textsc{dirfiles} from their original structure to the final data product
structure, in a new location. As the vendor-provided software for operating the cryostats only records CSV files,
these data are converted to \textsc{dirfiles} at this step. While the \textsc{dirfiles} are originally recorded uncompressed, at this stage they are compressed using the \texttt{gzip} compression format to save space.\footnote{FLAC compression is not used for the asynchronous data, since many of the data fields involve floating point numbers, which FLAC compression does not support.} Images from each of the telescope site's monitoring cameras are also packaged, since this provides a method of checking for bad weather or unusual site activity should artifacts be found in the telescope data during analysis.

Next, the \textsc{dirfiles} are converted to uncompressed \textsc{zip} file\footnote{ISO/IEC 21320-1:2015} archives. An uncompressed \textsc{zip} file concatenates all of the files it contains together and then includes a file offset table that allows for its contents to be located and read in a manner that allows for random reads. Encapsulating the \textsc{dirfile} into a \textsc{zip} archive reduces the number of files in the data package by more than an order of magnitude, which provides significant speed improvements for data transfer and backup operations, due to the small size of many of the files contained in the unencapsulated \textsc{dirfiles}.\footnote{Unfortunately, this extended \textsc{dirfile} functionality is only available as a patch, since the \textsc{GetData} library seems to be abandoned. The author of this manuscript (M.A.P.) has not received a response from the \textsc{GetData} maintainer (D.V.W.) with either postings to the \texttt{getdata-devel@lists.sourceforge.net} mailing list or via private correspondence in more than two years, nor has there been any public activity on the project in that time frame.} Finally, a
JSON metadata file is created that contains basic information about the
\textsc{data chunk}, including the files included, their sizes, and SHA-1
checksums, for later verification; this file is saved in the root of the
\textsc{data chunk}. The location of the \textsc{data chunk} on disk is then
appended to the metadata information, and this information is saved to the
database.

\begin{figure}
\centering
\input{data-product}
\caption{Overview of the CLASS data product structure. Solid boxes represent
directories, dashed boxes represent \textsc{dirfiles}, and dotted boxes represent
other files. Only a subset of the \textsc{dirfiles} and images are shown. The subdirectories in the \texttt{async} directory contain asynchronous data associated with a specific receiver, while the \texttt{sync.zip} \textsc{dirfile} combines ACU data for a given mount with detector data from both of its receivers.}
\label{fig:data-structure}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Transfer}

Once the data are packaged, they need to be transferred off the mountain to San
Pedro de Atacama and then to North America. Data integrity needs to be
verified after each transfer, and old data eventually need to be deleted from the \textsc{central server} to
free up disk space. Data are transferred from the telescope site's \textsc{central server} to the
\textsc{analysis machine} in San Pedro de Atacama via the CLASS network's
radio link. A  synchronization script runs on the site's \textsc{central
server} every ten minutes, which transfers the data files using
\texttt{rsync}.\footnote{\url{https://rsync.samba.org/}}
This script uses a lock file to ensure only one copy of itself is running at a
time, and a certificate is used to authenticate with the \textsc{analysis
machine}. A verification script is also run every ten minutes on the
\textsc{analysis machine} in San Pedro de Atacama. This script checks each unverified
\textsc{data chunk} on the machine against the local copy of the database and
sees if the \textsc{data chunk} has a local path assigned to it. If it does not
have a local path, the \textsc{data chunk} is verified against the database,
and the \textsc{chunk}'s local path is added to the database. If the
verification fails, an error is thrown, and the local path is not added to the
database, so it is treated as if the data were never transferred. The corrupted
data might be fixed by \texttt{rsync} with the next synchronization run---else,
manual intervention is required to delete the corrupted data. If the
\textsc{data chunk} already has a local path, the data have already been
verified, so the \textsc{chunk} is ignored. Since the synchronization script
uses \texttt{rsync}'s delayed updates feature, files do not appear until the
transfer is complete, so issues with incomplete transfers are mitigated.
This process is repeated to transfer data from the \textsc{analysis machine} in San Pedro de Atacama
to a data server located in Baltimore.

\subsubsection{Archiving of data and deletion of old data}

While a permanent copy
of the data will be kept on the file server in Baltimore, the data will not be permanently kept on disk
on-site or in San Pedro de Atacama, as disk space will need to be freed for new
observations. On both the \textsc{central server} on Cerro Toco and the
\textsc{analysis machine} in San Pedro de Atacama, a script is run on a
daily basis to free up space by removing old \textsc{data chunks} that have
already been transferred and verified, to ensure a minimum amount of free disk
space; as long as enough space is free, data will not be deleted. When disk
space needs to be freed, the database will be checked for \textsc{data chunks}
that have already been transferred to San Pedro de Atacama in the case of the
telescope site's \textsc{central server} and transferred to North America in the case of the
\textsc{analysis machine}. Of these \textsc{data chunks}, data will be deleted
in chronological order, with the oldest data first, until enough free disk
space is available; currently, this threshold is set at 75\% of the disk capacity. If this process is not able to free enough space, an error will be
thrown, and manual intervention will be required. The only existing copy of a
\textsc{data chunk} will never be automatically deleted.

\subsubsection{Ensuring data integrity}

A number of steps are taken throughout the data packaging and transfer process
to ensure data integrity. At each step in the process, data are not deleted
until after the next step in the process has finished. Updating the database
with a \textsc{data chunk}'s location at a new location is always the last step
in the process, to avoid the possibility of the database showing that the data
are there when they are not actually there; if something goes wrong in the transfer
process, some or all of the data might be there, but the database will be
conservative and list the data as not being present.

As the last step in the packaging procedure, SHA-1 checksums are created for
each file and stored in the database. These checksums are unique, but
repeatable, 160-bit cryptographic hashes based on the data; if even one bit in
the source file changes, a completely different hash will be generated, so
transfer errors of either the data or the checksums are easily detected. After
each transfer step, new checksums are generated for each file, and these
checksums are compared to the copies stored in the database. If the checksums
match, the transfer was successful. If they don't match, the transfer failed,
and data corruption occurred; in this case, the data are treated as if they were
not transferred at all, and an error is thrown. Along with being replicated
across multiple locations, regular offline backups are made of the CLASS
CouchDB database that stores the science data product metadata.

The primary CLASS data server located in Baltimore utilizes a ZFS file system.\footnote{\url{https://openzfs.org/}} ZFS provides strong data integrity guarantees, including against silent data corruption, by making extensive use of checksums and through regular integrity checking. A \texttt{RAIDZ2} configuration is used to protect against disk failures, and regular file system snapshots are taken to protect against inadvertent data deletion, caused either by human error or malware. Nightly backups are made to a replica data server, located in a different location, to provide additional protection. These backups rely on ZFS's ability to efficiently send and receive file system snapshots and are configured in such a way that even if one of the two servers is compromised by a malicious actor, it would be difficult to erase both copies of the data. Finally, the data packages are additionally backed up to a cloud storage provider. As of November 2020, CLASS has \SI{16}{\tera\byte} of compressed data packages recorded to disk.

\section{Web interface}
\label{sec:web}

A web interface is run on the CLASS site's
\textsc{central server} to provide status information, facilitate execution of commands and scheduling of
observations, and provide a wiki to store site operations information and
documentation. Except for the wiki, which uses the MediaWiki software package,\footnote{Wikimedia Foundation; \url{https://www.mediawiki.org/}} the interface runs using Python and the
Django web framework\footnote{Django Software Foundation;
\url{https://www.djangoproject.com/}} and uses the Bootstrap\footnote{\url{https://getbootstrap.com/}} front-end framework.

The status display provides pertinent status information about the telescope
systems, including cryostat temperatures, pressures, and flows; available disk
space; and site environmental conditions.
A screenshot of the status display overview section can be seen in Figure~\ref{fig:status-display}, which provides a color-coded dashboard for quickly evaluating the current instrument health as well as sparklines\cite{Tufte2006} for evaluating how parameters have changed over the past day.
In addition to the overview, detailed pages are available for each cryostat and mount. Here, data are graphed client-side
using a JavaScript charting library; multiple time ranges can be selected, and real-time
updates are pushed using a WebSockets connection for the shortest time range. A
script continuously reads in housekeeping data from the currently recording
\textsc{dirfiles} and stores it in a day-long circular cache; this cache is flushed to
disk every ten minutes, so it will still contain data if the caching script
needs to be restarted. This caching script exposes a \textsc{Pyro} interface,
which the web interface back-end uses to access the data. The script
additionally triggers the pushing of the real-time updates over the WebSockets
connection. Due to the packaging process, only the currently recording \textsc{dirfile}
is accessible, necessitating the cache, which is also useful to improve performance. Although the web interface back-end
could directly cache the data, this is not done, since the web server runs
multiple, simultaneous copies of the back-end to maintain responsiveness; this
would cause duplicate disk access and, more importantly, cause duplicate
real-time updates to be pushed. In addition to providing information for the status display, the caching script also sends alerts\footnote{These are currently sent to a channel in the \emph{Slack} chat tool used by the CLASS collaboration, although the destination of the alerts can be easily changed.} for certain failures that require immediate attention, such as a cryostat warming up, although in some cases alerts are directly triggered by the corresponding hardware interface script instead. The status display also provides access to results from automated preliminary analysis scripts, which are run every morning on the \textsc{analysis machine} in San Pedro de Atacama, and to current views from the various site observation cameras, either as static images updated once per minute or as live video.

\begin{figure}
\centering
\frame{\includegraphics[width=0.95\textwidth]{status-page.pdf}}
\caption{Web status interface. This screenshot shows an example view from the web status interface overview section, which allows one to quickly evaluate instrument health.}
\label{fig:status-display}
\end{figure}

The \textsc{scheduler} interface provides an easy-to-use, graphical method for
scheduling observations on the telescopes. Login credentials are required to
access and use the \textsc{scheduler} interface. The main screen shows the
currently running schedule if one is running, the next pending schedule if no schedule is
currently running but one is pending, or the last schedule run if none are currently running or pending. Figure~\ref{fig:scheduler-main} shows this interface. A sidebar
provides a list of recent schedules and their status information, with a link
to a complete history of schedules. When viewed, each schedule can be displayed
either in the raw form it was entered in, with basic syntax highlighting, or in
a parsed form. Status, start time, title, author, schedule number, and tagging
information are also displayed. If a schedule completed, the end time is
shown. If a schedule failed to complete, the failure time and failed command
are displayed. Pending schedules can be edited, and pending or running
schedules can be canceled.
An interface for adding new schedules is also accessible from the main screen.
This prompts a user to enter metadata including a title, start time, and,
optionally, tags; a date and time picker is provided to assist the user with
start time entry. The author field is automatically filled in with the user's
name, but can also be edited.\footnote{The username of the user that entered the schedule is also recorded to the database as a separate field but is not displayed.} Then comes a box for entering the schedule; basic
syntax highlighting is provided. Any time in the editing process, the user can
switch between the edit box and a verification tab, which verifies the syntax
of the entered schedule; lines containing incorrect syntax are highlighted.
Once finished, the schedule can be submitted and will be run by the
\textsc{scheduler}. Previously-run schedules also provide a button for opening the new schedule interface with its fields pre-filled with data from the previous schedule. This interface for adding schedules can be seen in
Figure~\ref{fig:scheduler-add}. A separate interface is also provided for executing, and displaying the results of, commands outside the context of a schedule. This interface is normally locked out while a schedule is running to prevent accidental execution of commands, but it can be unlocked if necessary. Additionally, it displays a list of recently run commands and shows in real-time which other users have the command interface open, to encourage communication.

\begin{figure}
\centering
\frame{\includegraphics[width=0.95\textwidth]{scheduler-page.pdf}}
\caption{Web scheduler interface main screen. The main screen of the web scheduler interface is shown in this screenshot, displaying the currently running schedule.}
\label{fig:scheduler-main}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}
\centering
\frame{\includegraphics[width=0.95\textwidth]{new-schedule-page.pdf}}
\caption{Web scheduler new schedule interface. This screenshot shows a new schedule being written; metadata can be added, the start time can be adjusted, and the schedule can be validated before it is submitted to be run.}
\label{fig:scheduler-add}
\end{figure}

\section{Lessons learned}
\label{sec:lessons}

Some parts of the architecture described above were different when the first CLASS telescope was deployed in 2016, and other parts should have been done differently in hindsight or would be done differently without certain hardware interface restrictions. Other changes have been incremental updates, such as transitioning from Python~2 to Python~3.\footnote{Although Python~3 was fairly well established when software development started in 2014, Python 2 was originally used, since, at the time, the \textsc{GetData} library did not yet support Python~3.}
One lesson that was learned is that interfacing with instruments over Ethernet with a control script running on the \textsc{central server} is easier and more reliable than running a control script on another computer and writing data over NFS, since the former is a ``pull'' configuration, while the latter is a ``push'' configuration; ``pull'' configurations are less likely to run into issues if network connectivity is temporarily lost or if the \textsc{central server} needs to be rebooted. With this insight, thermometry data recording was transitioned from using USB interfaces to using Ethernet interfaces, which improved reliability. Ideally, this transition would be extended to its logical conclusion, using a single server to operate the telescopes and all the instruments. Unfortunately, limitations with the MCE interfaces and cryostat interfaces prevent this. MCE interface limitations additionally hamper improvements to data acquisition synchronization. Without these limitations, the detector, pointing, and VPM encoder data acquisition hardware could be configured to receive time information over the network via the precision time protocol standard, which allows for sub-microsecond time distribution. Data frames could then be synchronized with the start of GPS time seconds, as long as the data acquisition rate is limited to an integer number of samples per second, allowing for the elimination of the dedicated synchronization hardware that is currently used. Another lesson learned is that a large number of small files makes data transfer and backup operations much slower than they would otherwise be. This led to a transition from standard \textsc{dirfiles} to \textsc{dirfiles} encapsulated in \textsc{zip} files, which reduced the number of files stored on disk by more than an order of magnitude and significant performance improvements for data transfer and backup operations. In hindsight, it would have also likely been better if the data packages were based on hour-long chunks instead of ten-minute chunks for the same reason, but the current data package chunking scheme is too ingrained to change now for what would be a more incremental improvement.

\section{Conclusions}
\label{sec:conclusions}

The current CLASS control and systems software architecture has been described. This architecture is based around Python scripts, with \textsc{dirfiles} used to record data and the \textsc{Pyro} library used for network-based control interfaces. Data are packaged into ten-minute long chunks, which are aligned with the start of the hour. Scheduling and status monitoring are performed using a web interface. Throughout, there is a focus on ensuring data integrity.
It is our hope that our documenting of the CLASS software architecture here can help inform software development for future experiments. The CLASS software architecture has been successful at fulfilling its intended purpose and has proven to be sufficiently reliable.

\acknowledgments

We acknowledge the National Science Foundation Division of Astronomical Sciences for their support of CLASS under Grant Numbers 0959349, 1429236, 1636634, 1654494, and 2034400. The CLASS project employs detector technology developed in collaboration between JHU and Goddard Space Flight Center under several previous and ongoing NASA grants. Detector development work at JHU was funded by NASA grant number NNX14AB76A. ZX is supported by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. We acknowledge scientific and engineering contributions from Max Abitbol, Mario Aguilar, Fletcher Boone, David Carcamo, Francisco Espinoza, Saianeesh Haridas, Connor Henley, Yunyang Li, Lindsay Lowry, Isu Ravi, Gary Rhodes, Daniel Swartz, Bingie Wang, Qinan Wang, Tiffany Wei, and Ziang Yan. We acknowledge productive collaboration with Dean Carpenter and the JHU Physical Sciences Machine Shop team. We thank Mar\'ia Jos\'e Amaral, Chantal Boisvert, William Deysher, and Miguel Angel D\'iaz for logistical support. We further acknowledge the very generous support of Jim and Heather Murren (JHU A\&S '88), Matthew Polk (JHU A\&S Physics BS '71), David Nicholson, and Michael Bloomberg (JHU Engineering '64). CLASS is located in the Parque Astron\'omico Atacama in northern Chile under the auspices of the Agencia Nacional de Investigaci\'on y Desarrollo (ANID). The software described in this manuscript makes extensive use of NumPy.\cite{NumPy}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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This function ensures the same preset tilt position. There are four alternative settings (0°, 4°, 8° or 12°). Choose one position that is frequently used for activity and rest.
For 20″, 22″ and 24″ rear wheels. Provides a larger gripping surface. Available in black or red.
With anti-slide handle cover. 10 cm (4″) between the handle grip and brake lever.
Adjustable in height, depth and width. The arm support can be removed when the support is swung out. Ideal for side transfer. Cushion: Polyurethane.
Adjustable in height, depth and width. Easily removed and installed without tools. Cushion: Pollyurethane.
Reduces the seat width with 2.0 cm (3/4″). To be attached on the side guards.
Increases the width between the arm supports with 2.5 cm (1″).
Cell foam with Velcro attachment. Length: 13 cm (5″), Width: 9.5 cm (4″), Height: 2 cm (¾"). Sold per pair.
Cell foam with Velcro attachment. Length: 19 cm (7½"), Width: 12 cm (5″), Height: 2 cm (¾"). Sold per pair.
Cell foam with Velcro attachment. Length: 20 cm (8″), Width: 17 cm (6½"), Height: 2.5 cm (1″). Sold per pair.
Swing-away and detachable. With foldable calf supports, adjustable in height and depth. Cover: Hygiene fabric.
Detachable. Available in lengths of 20, 30 and 40 cm.
Length: 21 cm (8 3/4).
The platform provides a floor sensation and stimulates movement. Foldable and detachable.
Side folding, elevating. Assembly on fixed, elevating and angle adjustable leg support.
Transparent, mounted on the arm support.
Distance that enables two additional seat heights for 16″ rear wheels: 40 cm and 42.5 cm.
20″, 22″ or 24″. Solid tyres. Quick release hub, aluminum handrim. 16″ transport wheels.
Alternative fixing points on the frame.
To be combined with traditional head support.
The soft, padded side panels provide lateral support and creates a horizontal contoured shape. The centre panel follows the vertical shape of the kyphosis.
A kyphotic back often requires a lower back height. The Prio 3D back support can be adjusted from 45 to 60 cm.
The head can be positioned in front of the trunk. This puts demands on the depth adjustment of the head support.
The users´s back must be supported from the pelvic area and up. The dynamic pelvic support is just as important for a user with a kyphotic back since it enables pelvic and spinal variations.


Things to be Consider Hiring a Car at New York JFK Airport?
The first thing to do when collecting any rental car is to check it over for any damage and make sure this is documented by the hire company. Otherwise, they could charge you for the damage at a later date. You should return the vehicle with the same level of fuel as when you received it. If you do not, you might find yourself with a bill which will be at a higher cost than the fuel itself.
It's imperative to understand the road laws of your destination (which vary from state to state, so read up on these depending on how far you're going). Always drive responsibly just like you would at home, so naturally don't drink and drive, use a phone behind the wheel or drive tired.
JFK is used by six of the world's top car hire providers, and all have operations in each of the terminals' arrival levels. Most have a courtesy telephone. You will find your vehicle at the rental car lot, which you can reach via the AirTrain. Although you can book on the spot, it's much more economical to book in advance online and it will save time too.
The average price of unleaded gasoline in New York is $0.78 per litre. With a medium-priced vehicle such as the Smart for Two, which gives 67 miles to the gallon, your approximate fuel cost per 10 miles would be $1.17.
There are certain requirements and documents to produce before you can pick up a car. Usually you have to be 21 to hire, although Avis will lease to 18-year-olds and for Hertz you have to be 25. You should show your home country's Driver's Licence (along with your passport if the licence doesn't have a photo) together with your International Driver's Permit (IDP).
Enquire as to what insurance is included with your car hire – there may not be any third party cover, and if there is, it may only apply in New York State. There is usually a Collision or Loss Damage Waiver, but you should buy some excess insurance separately from a provider such as insurance4carhire.com so you do not have to pay an exorbitant excess in the event of any damage.
New York JFK is one of the most important airports in the world and the busiest airport in the United States. It saw over 53 million passengers pass through it in 2014. The airport lies 12 miles south-east of Lower Manhattan and is the biggest of New York's airports. As well as access to the city with a hire car, you could also explore the surrounding areas. The airport has a total of six passenger terminals, with four runways. It first opened in 1948 as New York International Airport, but was popularly known as Idlewild after the golf course it replaced. The airport was renamed shortly after the 1963 assassination of JFK. The terminals are numbered 1 to 8, but 3 and 6 are missing, having been demolished in recent years. Each plays host to a multitude of airlines, with almost 100 using the airport as a whole, from over 50 countries. Due to the range in ages of terminals they feature different designs but all have a plethora of shops, restaurants, bars, exchange facilities, and information points.
There are information booths handily located on the arrivals levels of all terminals, where you can obtain details about flights and other services throughout the airport.


At KPMG, we offer our people the opportunity to flourish both as professionals and as individuals: they enjoy a challenging career and get the most from their personal lives. They do so knowing that they are part of a responsible and positive culture that extends beyond them into the greater business, social and natural environment.
There are more than 50 people working at KPMG in Albania. Why not become one of them? Check out the opportunities in our Careers section.


Watching the excellent adaptation of Ronald Harwood's play The Dresser on BBC2, there were many moments that tickled our Shakespearean tastebuds.
Not least of these was when 'Sir' (Anthony Hopkins) inadvertently says "Macbeth" in the theatre, and a panic-stricken Norman (Ian McKellen) has to lead him through a strange theatrical ritual to negate the resulting 'curse'.
Interestingly, a new book, Anecdotal Shakespeare by Paul Menzer, suggests that the infamous "curse of Macbeth" that has supposedly plagued theatres for 400 years is in fact an invented tradition – with no records of it ever being mentioned earlier than 1937!
As The Dresser is set circa 1940, however, that would make it just about historically accurate to include the so-called curse of The Scottish Play.
On the other hand, this vintage clip from the BBC's Blackadder, which is set in the 18th century, although utterly hilarious, would seem to be somewhat lacking in historical verisimilitude.
But then, as Shakespeare might have said, why let the facts get in the way of a good story – or, indeed, a great gag?
Anecdotal Shakespeare is out now, published by Arden Shakespeare/Bloomsbury.


Is is okay to make an obscene gesture to someone when their back is turned? It could do no harm, right? Of course, it is still wrong, and disrespectful, and damaging. It is also damaging to the person making the gesture, even if it's never noticed by the intended victim.
But don't underestimate the readership of this forum, including the silent readers. I guarantee you that word of this has gotten back to Mr. Deck, and that it ruined his day or a portion thereof. That is a real injury, even if it doesn't seem significant to you.
Finally, the end does not justify the means. That moral truth seems especially rarely held these days, but it's still there.


Causses and the Cevennes, the agro-pastoralisme landscapes Mediterranean one registered on the list of the world heritage in 2011.
About convention concerning heritage protection world, cultural and natural, Causses and the Cevennes are reproduced on the list of the world heritage on the agro-pastoralisme topic Mediterranean one.
The site extends on 3,000 km ² South from the Massif Central to the doors from the Mediterranean.
Landscape of mountain crossed by many valleys, it is representative of the relation between the agropastoraux systems and their physical environment. That results in the presence of marked out open mediums of drailles, of ponds, used by the herds transhumants, and of an important floristic diversity.
The villages and the stone farmhouses located on the terraces of the Cevennes and the plates of Causses reflect the organization of the religious orders as from the 11th century. A pilot territory of an alive economy agropastorale, which is worth to him today its registration with the world heritage of Humanity.
Around this registered territory, are five cities, Ales, Ganges, Lodève, Mende and Millau, true departure gates towards Causses and the Cevennes, these very different cities are not therefore foreign from/to each other thanks to a History and a territory from now on registered voter who bind them.
The sector of Mende is concerned with this exceptional distinction since the city constitutes one of the main doors of this territory.
The Causses and the Cevennes present, within an imposing natural framework, a diversity of Mediterranean landscapes worked by the man since millenia.
Plates limestones of the large causses (Méjean Causse, Causse of Sauveterre, Black Causse…) notched by Throats (Tarn Gorges, throats of Jonte…) or of the valleys (Lot valley), tormented relief of the schistous Cevennes, the Lozere Mount and Aigoual granitic: for the visitor, it is a diversity of magic images born from the print of the rock and also of the domestication of this exceptional nature by the local, Cevennes peasants or caussenards, turned towards the agroone.
This culture, witness of a new agrarian history, is incarnated today in these landscapes of exception like in a built heritage of high quality (villages, architecture of the buildings of farm, drailles, sheep-fold, ponds, small vernacular heritage…) and immaterial heritage (ancestral knowledge-faires).
In this space completely preserved, partially covered by the Cevennes National Park and the Regional natural park of Large Causses, the visitor resource and discovers the thousand facets of a single territory in the Mediterranean arc.
Throughout excursions of exception put rhythm into by stages in the farmers who practise tourism with the farm or the landlords local, each one will be able to discover with the turning of a way the shepherd and his herd of ewe or goats, and to taste, in a repairing halt, Aren't Pélardon, the Roquefort, all kinds of delicious cheeses, the best testimony of this agro-pastoralisme dynamics and inventive?


With just two episodes left in FRINGE's third season, things are getting absolutely crazy.
First up, we have to deal with the conundrum of Sam Weiss. Last week, he recruited Olivia to take him to the machine and this week the duo are up to…something. Odds are it's not really good. And given the warning John Noble (Walter) gave Give Me My Remote about Sam, I'm a bit worried about what he's dragging Olivia into.
I'm confused and conflicted and completely blown away. Can't believe we have to wait another week.


The real estate market has seen some positive changes since September and this is expected to benefit many home buyers and renters. The changes are also affecting people's interest in applying for various housing loans and mortgages, Eghtesad Online reports.
The report shows that the number of home buyers increased in September for the first time this year (starting March 21) by about 17%. This is while the rate had consecutively declined for the first 5 months of the current Iranian calendar year.
According to statistics gathered from the electronic real estate data system, real estate purchase contracts recorded a 200% increase in May, which was not considered a natural growth as it occurred due to the implementation of the second phase of the subsidy reform plan (the first phase was implemented by the previous government leading to high inflation).
Yet, the market changes in the final days of summer indicated a turning point in real estate transactions and are a sign of a gradual return of investor confidence to the market. Only in September, 169,000 housing units were sold in Tehran, according to the same data.
The second positive change that impacted the market was the enactment by the government of an increase in the amount of loans granted for housing projects. According to that, the ceiling of loans has moved up from about 300 million rials to about 500 million rials provided that the project is carried out in city's older areas with dilapidated buildings. The move is aimed at directing the finances towards areas in which the construction costs and the final price for the newly built structures are relatively lower -- something that will lead to an increase in demand from home buyers among the low-income strata.
Considering the current stagnation in the housing and construction market, the recent increase in the amount of loans would serve as a strong stimulus for constructors to resume their projects. It is also expected to cut the period of stagnation, which was estimated by market analysts to last at least until the end of the current Iranian year (March 21, 2015).
The new ceiling for loans will consist 50% to 67% of the total cost of construction. According to the latest report released by the Central Bank of Iran (CBI), the cost of constructing one apartment at any place in the country except for Tehran is about 6 million rials per square meter and the average price of the land, per square meter, is about 51 million rials.
Since the share of land price from total construction costs is 4% for every square meter of the building, it is estimated that a 55-meter apartment will be built at the total cost of about 660 million rials.
In south Tehran, the overall cost of building a 55-meter apartment reaches up to 1 billion rials, taking into account the generally higher prices in the capital compared to any other big Iranian city.
Through its new enactment, the government has defined certain obligations for the banks. For instance, starting from next year, banks need to annually grant 300,000 of new housing loans during a period of 6 consecutive years.
Three floating ceilings for renovation loans have been defined in the enactment of the government for the "targeted strata" based on the situation of the cities or towns. Therefore, the loans allocated for building housing units in old neighborhoods for newly-wed young couples and low-income earners is equal to about 500 million rials in metropolises, 400 million rials in provincial capitals and towns with more than 200,000 population, and 300 million rials in other towns.
The interest rate for the new loans is 13%. The difference between this rate and the general interest rate of the banks (22%) will be paid to the banks by the government through the budget resources.
The third positive change in the real estate market affects new renters. According to the statistics published by the planning department of the ministry of roads and urban development, the rate of renting in Tehran increased gradually since the beginning of this year (starting March 21). The growth rate stopped in September and the average amount of rent for an apartment, with a 5% drop, reached 209,000 rials per square meter in the first half of the year (March 21-September 22). The figure indicates a 9.4% rise compared to the same period last year.
The studies conducted by the housing and construction office of the roads ministry signify that the rental amount is directly affected by economic factors and population growth. Economic factors include inflation rate and real estate prices, while the population component consists of marriage rate and the number of construction projects.
As Donya-e Eghtesad reported recently, the new changes have ended the downward trend in the rental market in the past few months.
As new data suggests, changes in inflation have the biggest impact on fluctuations in the rental amount. Therefore, the reduction in inflation this year has resulted in modest fluctuations in the rental market.
On the other hand, lower marriage rates in the past two years have resulted in a decrease in demand for rentals.
Besides, the rise in construction in residential areas in recent years and a decrease in housing prices have subsequently caused an increase in number of rental places and have stabilized prices.
However, critics of the new housing plan have cast doubt on the way the Rouhani administration aims to fund the plan.
"The interest rate applied to the new loans is about 13%, which is below the current average rate," said former CBI official Ahmad Mojtahedi in an interview with the Tejarat Farda magazine.
He questioned the availability of financial resources, the difference in interest rates applied, and the banks' ways of providing their share of the loans. "Will a specific credit line be opened for that, or is the government going to provide the banks with certain resources?" he asked.
Other critics say that there are not enough financial resources left for the government, except for the revenue generated from the subsidy reform plan, which amounts to over $100 billion per year, to finance its housing projects.
Mojtahedi rejected such assumptions, saying, "A good portion of the revenue generated from the subsidy reform plan is spent on cash handouts, and according to the law, the rest of the amount must be channeled into production and industry sectors." Therefore, he said, the entire government revenue from the subsidy reform plan is spent this way. "So, there seems to be no money left for the government to finance its housing project, which would need 300,000 loans per year," he added.


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Home » The Leadership Podcasts Every Shop Owner Should Consume
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The Leadership Podcasts Every Shop Owner Should Consume
KEYWORDS Bambi Crozier Frank Leutz Jimmy Alauria leadership leadership podcasts Leadership sources podcast
With busy lives and long commutes, the best way for some shop owners to hone their leadership style and gain information is to listen to podcasts. Time is everything and it's easy to get overwhelmed with the massive amounts of leadership sources that have become available.
"We are so overwhelmed and so inundated as entrepreneurs," says Frank Leutz, owner of Desert Car Care Center in Chandler, Ariz. "We can easily get burned out, so we have to have the proper method to distinguish what we can put into action."
Three shop owners share their favorite audio resources that they turn to in order to make their businesses better and to become better leaders. As well as what they have taken away from each podcast and how they've implemented those strategies into their shops.
The Podcast: Cardone Zone with Grant Cardone
The Reviewer: Jimmy Alauria, owner of 3A Automotive & Diesel in Phoenix, Ariz., a $1.5 million shop with an average monthly car count of 275.
The Takeaway: Get new ideas from professionals in other fields.
Alauria has always been one to pick up a self-help book over a science fiction novel, and that interest has made the seamless transition over to podcasts. He listens to leadership sources for a convenient way to improve his ability to lead his employees at his Pheonix shop. Alauria began listening to Cardone Zone with Grant Cardone and, soon after, enrolled in Cardone University, a series of business training lectures, to motivate his employees.
"Grant Cardone is one of the top sales motivation business educators out there," says Alauria.
Although Cardone has a background in the auto industry (he has consulted dealerships on how to increase their car sales), the podcast itself is more centered on business. What makes Cardone Zone unique and applicable are the individuals that join Cardone throughout the episodes. The podcast features interviews with people of all different verticals, from a gym owner to a real estate agent, to speak on their successes and leadership styles. The different perspectives give new ideas of how other industries are running their business, that can then be implemented into running an auto repair shop.
"Sometimes when we're just studying in our own industry, we get closed minded on what works," Alauria says.
He gives the example of how using a dentist's tips on how they get their patients to come back and give recommendations can be used for fresh ideas on getting the same in the auto repair industry.
Cardone Zone seems to be geared toward the younger entrepreneurs, Alauria says, but that's one of the reasons why he likes it. It gets him thinking with millennials.
"It's not just about business or finances, it's also about personal improvement," says Alauria
The Podcast: John Maxwell Leadership Podcast
The Reviewer: Bambi Crozier, owner of CAR Clinic in Lowell, Ark., set to hit $1 million in yearly revenue.
The Takeaway: Be aware of your leadership blind spots.
In 2012, Bambi Crozier opened up her Arkansas shop with almost no working knowledge of the industry. She spent the last decade working in call centers and communication sales for AT&T, before deciding to start a business with her husband. After debating on opening a daycare, British pub, or auto repair shop, they landed on the CAR Clinic. But Crozier had to make the transition from working in a business, to leading a business.
"I was a horrid leader," Crozier says. "I was really bad at something, I saw it in myself, and the only way to fix that is to go to the experts."
Crozier calls John Maxwell the "father of leadership;" he's written a plethora of leadership and team building books since the 1980s, and entered the podcast world in late June 2018. Maxwell speaks on everything surrounding being a good leader, from the four C's of leadership to the core values of a team. His tips are easily implemented, and can be applied almost immediately, says Cozier.
After listening to a few episodes on "leadership blind spots," Crozier realized she needed to start working on her business, instead of being focused on the customers as if she were a service writer. She needed to stop putting all her focus on her clients and put more on her employees. She began training her staff on becoming aware of the culture she wanted at CAR Clinic.
Now, she knows that her employees will take care of their customers in the same way she would have, and can put her focus elsewhere.
"People can get a thousand different things out of these podcasts," Crozier says.
The Podcast: Jocko Podcast
The Reviewer: Frank Leutz, owner of Desert Car Care Center in Chandler, Ariz., a seven-staff member shop with an average monthly car count of 400.
The Takeaway: Dial in the essence of your shop's culture.
Frank Leutz has spent the last 10 years listening to leadership-style audio books, and, in the last five, he began listening to podcasts. He wanted a way to take advantage of long commutes by consuming information. One of the many pieces of audio that he listens to during his drives is the Jocko Podcast. John Gretton "Jocko" Willink covers everything from holistic talent, to principles of war, to authors. The guests brought onto the Jocko Podcast are all individuals that have built their careers with one trait in common: they all have an innate sense of drive.
Leutz says the idea is for the podcast is to be able to present stories, and not to specifically teach the listener how to do something. It is then up to the listener to receive the information as they wish.
"The heartbeat of the author are the triggers to get you to act," Leutz says.
When Leutz hears something on the podcast that he wants to implement, he takes notes and then puts them into a file. He then sets a reminder in his Google Calendar for a week out. When the time comes, he receives the refresher and takes action.
One of the things that Leutz has implemented into his leadership style includes his business's culture. With the tendency to think that once one feels comfortable about their company's culture, it's set, Leutz has learned to really dial in to the essence of his shop's culture.
Time management is another area of growth that Leutz has been able to implement. By looking at his estimated time of interruptions, he has been able to cut that down by honing in on those time-wasted moments.
Jocko Podcast is one of the 8–10 podcasts that Leutz listens to per week. One of the things he enjoys most about the media form is that the stories come from the individual telling them. Some leadership books have great content, but the person behind the information sometimes isn't the best writer, Letuz says, whereas podcasts and other non-book sources create a more accessible platform.
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Home » About P&WC » Social Responsibility
Pratt & Whitney Canada (P&WC) is proud to make real contributions to communities through its community involvement.
We believe that our success as a company is inextricably linked to strong community ties. P&WC strives to be a good corporate citizen, which participates actively in community life in the areas in which its facilities and employees are located. The South Shore near Montreal, Montreal (Quebec), Ottawa and Mississauga (Ontario), Halifax (Nova Scotia), Lethbridge (Alberta) and West Virginia (U.S.) are considered as P&WC's primary areas of focus.
Our main areas of focus are education, arts & culture and environment.
P&WC has set itself the mandate of supporting the training of the next generation of engineers and researchers. It encourages college and university programs in engineering and physical sciences.
The company promotes excellence in the arts and supports programs that enhance the cultural life of our communities through the visual and performing arts. The company favours programs that produce exceptional works that express P&WC's own values of creativity, innovation and sustainability.
With regards to the environment, contributions are made to organizations that favour environmental sustainability in urban areas, emphasize sustainable construction practices, protect green spaces in urban areas and preserve natural habitats.


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