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SARTRE'S
BEING AND NOTHINGNESS
A Reader's Guide
SEBASTIAN GARDNER
Continuum International Publishing Group
The Tower Building
11 York Road
London SEI 7NX
80 Maiden Lane
www.continuumbooks.com
Sebastian Gardner 2009
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any
information storage or retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: HB: 0-8264-7468-3
PB: 0-8264-7469-1
Gardner, Sebastian.
Sartre's "Being and nothingness" : a reader's guide I Sebastian
Gardner.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
1 . Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980. Etre et Ie mant. 2. Existentialism.
3. Existential psychology. I. Title.
B2430. S33E8347 2009
1 1 1 -dc22
2008031 1 57
Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems Pvt Ltd, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Athenaeum Press Ltd,
of Mark Sacks
Overview of Themes
Reading the Text
(A) The basic ontology
(B) Fundamental structures of
the human subject
(C) Relation to the other
(D) Freedom, motivation and ethics
(E) Being as a whole
Reception and Influence
Bibliography and suggestions for further reading
What I have aimed to do in this short book is to provide a
commentary which will help Sartre's reader to feel at home
in the work, and at the same time to present Being and
Nothingness as setting forth a metaphysical system of a trad
itional kind. These aims are connected. While it is possible
to direct one's attention towards the phenomenologically res
onant, psychologically engaging, frequently cited passages in
B&N where Sartre gives free reign to his capacity for literary
expression of human experience, such an approach will leave
the reader with little more than an intuitive grasp of Sartre's
conceptions and the text itself will remain opaque. Sartre does
have, it goes without saying, a distinctive Weltanschauung,
one which, unlike many philosophical systems, allows itself
to be translated readily into a certain, powerfully felt picture
of the human condition, but this can be grasped more dir
ectly and effectively by reading his plays, novels, biographical
studies and literary and art criticism - the investment of time
and attention required to read B&N either in whole or in sub
stantial part makes sense only if the aim is to understand why
Sartre thinks that his vision possesses philosophical truth in
the strictest sense. Doubts may be entertained as to whether
it is possible for a deep and satisfying comprehension of the
human predicament to be given systematic philosophical
formulation, but so far as the task of understanding B&N
in accordance with its author's intentions goes, they are nei
ther here nor there, and I have endeavoured throughout to
show that the metaphysical system which Sartre presents is
(at the very least) coherent, cogent and philosophically well
motivated, and to give at least a remote sense of the work's
breathtaking profundity, subtlety and richness.
Although the structure that Sartre gives to B&N is by
no means arbitrary, there is no denying that the text has a
tendency to zigzag between levels and across distinctio ns of
topic, in ways that engage the reader but at the same time
make it hard to keep its overall argument in view. It is also
true that Sartre's divisions of B&N into chapters and sections
do not always correspond neatly to different stages in the
book's argument. In order to bring out more clearly the way
in which B&N progresses argumentatively and thus make
the systematic position which it presents easier to grasp, I
have divided the commentary into short sections designed
to highlight the work's central concepts, doctrines and argu
ments, and have departed to a minor degree from the order of
Sartre's text. I have not apportioned the amount of detail in
each section of the commentary to the corresponding number
of pages in Sartre's text: some topics which Sartre deals with
quickly but which are of high importance receive relatively
detailed commentary, while others which Sartre discusses at
length are given only brief summary. Constraints of space
in any case make it necessary to say regrettably little about
some large swathes of text - in particular, in the chapters on
temporality, the body and concrete relations with Others which would certainly benefit from elucidation, but which
can be read with adequate understanding once the main lines
of thought in B&N have been put in focus. In addition to
sketching the content of B&N, I have devoted space to the
exegetical and critical issues which seem to me to pose the
greatest obstacles to a sympathetic appreciation of Sartre's
philosophy, and indicated how one may attempt to address
these. Some sections break off from the textual commentary
in order to discuss themes and issues which concern B&N
as a whole. My departures from Sartre's textual order con
sist chiefly in holding over some material from Parts One,
Two and Three of B&N for discussion later in Part (D) of the
commentary; for those who wish to read B&N in a straight
linear order, the system of sub-headings with textual refer
ences allows the relevant sections of the commentary to be
located.
The notes serve chiefly to give references and suggestions
for further reading relating to the historical material and to
the writings of Sartre's either predating or postdating B&N
which I discuss in Chapters 1, 2 and 4. Secondary literature on
Sartre - on his philosophy as a whole and on individual topics
in B&N - is provided in the Bibliography.
References in the main text given in the form, e.g., '252/310',
are first to the English translation by Hazel E. Barnes, Being
and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (first
published, London: Methuen & Co, 1958; currently in print,
London: Routledge, 1995), and second to the original French
edition, L'Etre et Ie neant. Essai d'ontologie phenomenologique
(Paris: Gallimard, 1943). (Note that the latter carries different
pagination from the later Gallimard 'Tel' edition.) Some quota
tions from Barnes' translation - which generally does fine
justice to Sartre's exact and lucid philosophical prose but none
theless contains inaccuracies - have been modified slightly.
Full bibliographical details of all writings by Sartre referred
to in the notes are given in the Bibliography. Bibliographical
details of writings on Sartre referred to in the notes, when not
given there, can be found in the Bibliography.
Sartre's philosophical terminology is not as hard to pene
trate as that of many philosophers; I have tried to elucidate key
terms at the point of their appearance in Sartre's text, and a
rough but adequate glossary is provided in Barnes' translation
of B&N.
I am indebted to Jim Warren for introducing me to Being and
Nothingness a very long time ago and for helping me to appreci
ate the force and depth of Sartre's ideas. I am also very grateful
to my colleague Sarah Richmond for stimulating and inform
ative exchanges about Sartre over recent years. My thanks go
in addition to my family, for allowing me the necessary time to
indulge a useless passion by writing a book about a book about
The philosophical world into which the nineteen-year-old
Jean-Paul Sartre entered, on his arrival to study philosophy at
Paris' prestigious Ecole Normale Superieure in 1924, exhibited
a high degree of rigidity. I From roughly the end of the nine
teenth century until the early 1930s, two currents had effectively
dominated French philosophy: neo-Kantianism, associated
chiefly with Leon Brunschvicg, and the anti-rationalism of
Henri Bergson. The former offered an attenuated version of
Kant in which the agenda of philosophical enquiry had con
tracted to the articulation of 'formal conditions' of scientific
knowledge, and which through its determination of the curric
ula of philosophy departments throughout France maintained
a firm institutional dominance; implicitly endorsed by polit
ical authority, Brunschvicg's neo-Kantianism had in effect the
status of an official state philosophy in the Third Republic.
Sartre, like others of his generation, was affected strongly in
his understanding of Kant by Brunschvicg's rationalistic, posi
tivist epistemology. 2 Bergson on the other hand had provided
a spiritualistic alternative to neo-Kantianism, a philosophical
home for concepts of free will, religious experience and other
items whose claims to validity were either not upheld or ration
alized beyond recognition by neo-Kantian epistemology, but
by the 1920s Bergsonism had lost much of its philosophical
prestige, due in large part to the evaporation after the First
World War of the optimistic disposition expressed in ergson's
teleological vision of human development. Bergson neverthe
less provides, like Brunschvicg, one of Sartre's more local
points of reference, in fact more often than by name, in B&N.
Against this stable, not to say frozen background, the French
philosophical landscape underwent an abrupt change in the
1930s, due to an infusion of foreign intellectuals and, accom
panying them, of German philosophy. The phenomenology
SARTRE'S BEING AND NOTHINGNESS
of Husserl, the existential anthropology which Heidegger
was interpreted as offering in Being and Time and the con
ception of historical development in Hegel's Phenomenology
of Spirit, all provided a rich new set of themes and methodo
logical materials, sufficient in the eyes of a new generation for
a revitalization of philosophy. Hussed himself came to Paris
to deliver two lectures, providing an introduction to transcen
dental phenomenology, in February 1929.3 The new wave of
German-orientated philosophical activity was reflected in
the publication in 1930 of Emmanuel Levinas' influential The
Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology, and the insti
tution of a new phenomenological journal in 1931, Recherches
philosophiques, by the Russian emigre Alexandre Koyre; it also
received strong encouragement from the only member of the
staff of the Sorbonne opposed to neo-Kantianism, Jean Wahl,
who urged philosophy to turn to 'the concrete' and advocated
Heidegger as a non-religious successor to Kierkegaard. But
above all the new development centred on a seminar series on
Hegel, instituted in 1932 again by Koyre, but conducted from
1933 until 1939 by another Russian exile, Alexandre Kojeve.4
Kojeve advanced a unified reading of Being and Time and the
Phenomenology ofSpirit, in which the central moment of human
historical self-realization is located in the 'battle for recogni
tion' described by Hegel in Chapter IV of his Phenomenology,
a work which Kojeve furthermore claimed to be phenomeno
logical in Hussed's sense.5 The importance of Kojeve's Hegel
seminar for a whole generation can hardly be exaggerated:
among those who attended were Maurice Medeau-Ponty,
Jacques Lacan, Raymond Aron, Georges Bataille and Andre
Breton.
Sartre might have been expected to participate at the first
opportunity in the endeavour to assimilate the new triple
resource of Hegel-Husserl-Heidegger which others were
beginning to come to terms with in France in the 1930s, but
Sartre's engagement with this new philosophical development
was oddly delayed.6 Sartre's first philosophical attachment,
formed in his school days, had been to Bergson, in whose
philosophy he found above all (by his own account) less of a
spiritualized world-vision than a means by which inner psy
chic life could be grasped and magnified; Bergson appealed to
Sartre as a philosophical counterpart of Proust. Sartre shook
off this attachment rapidly after his arrival at the Ecole, but it
was not replaced by a similar, unequivocally positive enthusi
asm for any other philosopher or philosophical movement for
some considerable time. Sartre's study of the history of phil
osophy at the Ecole was extensive, Plato, Kant and Descartes
being of special importance for him? It is of particular interest
that while at the Ecole Sartre took a course in pathological
psychology, and worked with his friend Paul Nizan on a trans
lation of Karl Jaspers' Allgemeine Psychopathologie (General
Psychopathology), which not only underlined the importance
of mental disorder for the philosophy of mind and psychology,S
but also exposed Sartre to a sophisticated formulation of
the anti-naturalistic position that the key to psychological
explanation lies in the discovery of non-causal connections
of meaning. Sartre's eventual academic success at the Ecole
was remarkable: after failing the agregation in 1928, due to a
misjudged attempt at impressing with his originality, on reat
tempting the examination the following year Sartre took first
place (with Simone de Beauvoir, the two having by then begun
their life-long involvement with one another, in second place).
For nearly a decade after his departure from the Ecole,
Sartre , pursuing the conception that he had formed of himself
ever since childhood as above all a writer, achieved no particu
lar success. The obligatory periods spent engaged in military
service (from 1929 to 1931) and then as a school teacher of
philosophy in the provinces (chiefly in Le Havre, from 1931 to
1936) allowed Sartre to expand further the already vast range
of his reading, but his earliest writings, comprising some liter
ary compositions and essays of a hybrid literary-philosophical
character, were stylistically idiosyncratic and unfocussed, and
the few pieces eventually accepted for publication did not meet
with acclaim.9
In his first years post-Ecole, the twin, interrelated themes
of aesthetic consciousness (an interest in which, bordering
on an attraction to aestheticism, persisted from Sartre's earl
ier years),10 and of contingency (which had been the subject
of one of Sartre's two agregation dissertations at the Ecole),
dominated Sartre's reflections, but no definite philosophical
orientation could yet be ascribed to him. The turning point
occurred (according to Sartrean mythology, but the event is
also historically well attested) in a cafe in Paris in 1932, when
Aron, using a drinks glass as an example of an object which
could be submitted to phenomenological analysis, abruptly
opened Sartre's eyes to Husserl's project of a return to concrete
lived experience. Levinas' book allowed Sartre to make his first
serious acquaintance with Husserl's ideas, and an arrangement
with Aron allowed Sartre to spend the academic year 1933-34
as a researcher at the Institut Franais in Berlin, immersed
in the study of Husser!. In a series of philosophical writings
published between 1936 and 1940, dealing with topics in the
philosophy of psychology from a phenomenological, chiefly
Husserlian standpoint, Sartre showed his alignment with the
new, German-based development in French philosophy, while
the theme of contingency which had long preoccupied Sartre
achieved final literary expression in Nausea (1938). These writ
ings manifested an extraordinary freshness, originality and
piercing brilliance. The novel, in particular, broke boundaries
by demonstrating new possibilities for the realization of philo
sophical ideas in literary form and by virtue of the recognizably
existentialist sensibility which it expressed, and together with
a collection of short stories published in 1939, earned Sartre
immediate literary recognition, confirmed by favourable
reviews and solicitations of articles from distinguished literary
sources such as the Nouvelle revuefranfaise.
Sartre's upward trajectory was interrupted almost instantly,
however, by the outbreak of war: mobilized in September 1939
and assigned to a meteorological unit in the Alsace, Sartre was
taken prisoner in June 1940 and held in a Stalag at Trier until
March 1941 , when he managed to obtain release on grounds
of health (impairment of his eyesight, partly feigned). Sartre
thereupon returned to school teaching, and founded imme
diately, together with Maurice Merleau-Ponty, an intellectual
group with the aim of organizing resistance to collaboration,
Vichy and the Nazis, 'Socialisme et Liberte', which grew in
numbers but, for want of support from established figures and
in consequence of the Gestapo's repressive initiatives, was dis
solved within the year.
Living in Paris under the Occupation, Sartre returned to
philosophical writing.1l Sartre had begun writing a work
with the title DEtre et Ie neant in 1940, 1 2 and the final text
of B&N was composed between December 1941 and October
1 942. With its publication in 1943 Sartre showed himself to
have taken the assimilation of German philosophy a step fur
ther than any of his contemporaries. In the period which had
intervened since his Husserlian texts of the 1930s, Sartre had
absorbed Heidegger's philosophy, but not stopped with it.13
No longer merely engaging in the kind of creative exegesis
practised by Kojeve, B&N formulates a philosophical position
which, while acknowledging fully its several German debts,
lays claim to have surpassed them definitively: both HusserI
and Heidegger are charged with error and misdeve10pment
of their own deepest insights, and B&N contests fiercely the
Hegelian thesis of a historical breakthrough to a higher level
of rationality.
The philosophy ofB&N, and the philosophy ofSartre, are not
the same. B&N corresponds to only one point in Sartre's devel
opment, representing the culmination of his engagement with
HusserI, Heidegger and the project of phenomenology. Sartre's
philosophical output in the post-war years included a number
of shorter published texts in which he restated and defended the
position of B&N, and a large amount of unpublished material
in which Sartre tried to elaborate its implications for practical
philosophy, but it eventually resulted - with the publication in
1960 of the first volume of the C ritique of Dialectical Reason, a
monumental work aimed at reconstructing Marxism in terms
of a new set of philosophical categories - in a philosophical
standpoint which no reader of B&N could have predicted. The
interplay between Sartre's academic philosophical work on the
one hand, and his literary, cultural and political writings on
the other, is complex, and the degree to which his later philo
sophical writings are either continuous with or break with the
positions taken in B&N is a matter of debate. While Sartre's
intense and multiple political involvements in the 1950s acted
as a material spur to his formulation of a theory of the condi
tions of collective action, it is arguable that B&N preserves a
space for, even if it does not strictly demand, the philosophy
of history and collective existence presented in the C ritique of
Dialectical Reason. Sartre's interest as a philosopher is not,
therefore, exhausted by B&N; what is not open to question
is the unique and central place which it occupies in Sartre's
corpus.
The term existentialism is associated more closely with Sartre
than with any other thinker, and in 1945 at any rate, Sartre
endorsed its application to his philosophy. In the broad sense
in which the term is usually employed, existentialism denotes
a movement of thought whereby established values, and the
world-pictures associated with them, are subjected to radical
sceptical revaluation and the individual, thrown back on him
self as a final resource, seeks to avoid nihilism by extrapolating
from his bare self-awareness a normative orientation. What
more exactly existentialism amounts to, how it differs from
Kantian and other modern moral systems, and whether it has
genuine utility as a philosophical category, or is better regarded
as referring to a late modern mood or mentality which is of
chiefly cultural and artistic importance, are not questions that
need be entered into here. What it is helpful to focus on for the
understanding of B&N is the tradition, or recurrent theme, in
late modern philosophy, which asserts a direct and strong con
nection between the very abstract philosophical problems set
by the cpncept of being or existence, and the practical and axi
ological concerns of the individual.
The very first suggestion that the question of how being or
existence should be understood matters from the perspective
of the individual's attempt to achieve an assured and positive
relation to the Good, was made by Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi,
a contemporary and critic of Kant's, and a figure of crucial
importance for the German idealists.14 Kant's philosophy,
Jacobi argued, had merely reiterated the annihilation of the
reality and freedom of the individual and of the very possibility
of knowledge or value which had been enshrined earlier, albeit
in a different form, in Spinoza's great system. Jacobi introduced
the term 'nihilism' to refer to this grand movement of intel
lectual destruction. The fault of Spinoza and Kant was not,
according to Jacobi, that they had developed their philosophies
in ways lacking the sort of justification appropriate to concep
tual activity, but that, on the contrary, they had pursued the
logic of philosophical enquiry with consistency to its proper,
disastrous conclusion; and so, Jacobi argued, what we should
learn from their endeavours (as Hume, on Jacobi's construal,
had appreciated) is the necessity of turning our backs on philo
sophical reason, or at any rate, of circumscribing its legitimacy
very narrowly. And what ultimately justifies this rejection of
the comprehensive authority of philosophical reflection is the
recognition (for which, Jacobi acknowledged, we had Kant to
thank) that all of our claims to cognition, whether they are of
God or the Good or the external world, rest on a basis that is
sui gener is, irreducible and non-conceptual, namely a feeling
or directly felt intuition of being. Nothing can, or is needed to,
demonstrate the reality of being, but without it we are left in
nothingness, and with it we are restored to a meaningful world
having the basic characteristics ascribed to it by Christian the
ism, in which the human individual enjoys full reality, freedom
of will, and purpose.
Jacobi has not joined the ranks of the greatest philosophers,
but his philosophical writings succeeded in another way, by set
ting an agenda and identifying a set of themes and issues which
later, post-Kantian philosophers accepted must be grappled
with. Thus the systems of the German idealists are governed
to a high degree by Jacobi's concerns, in so far as they seek
to show, contr a Jacobi, that it is possible for a philosophical
system not merely to avoid, but to counter-negate, the nihilism
to which Jacobi says the enterprise of philosophy necessarily
dooms us. The different ways in which the German idealists
sought to execute this project cannot be discussed here, IS but
there are some particular points in the development and later
reception of German idealism which deserve to be mentioned
for what they show of the deep historical roots, and philosoph
ical significance, of Sartre's philosophy in B&N.
Of all the quarrels and divisions within the ranks of German
idealism, Schelling's arguments with Fichte and Hegel stand
out for their relevance to Sartre. Fichte's first statement of his
philosophy, what he called the W issenschaftslehr e ('doctrine
of systematic knowledge'), involved a highly complex attempt
to elaborate a comprehensive system of reality on the basis of
the bare '!' of individual self-consciousness, thus taking up
Jacobi's challenge to show how philosophical systematicity
could affirm the reality and purposiveness of the individual.
In a structurally similar fashion, Hegel claims that his system,
or 'Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences', in the part
thereof which he calls the Science of Logic, allows us to move
from consideration of the bare concept of Being (v ia its dia
lectical opposite, the concept of Nothingness) to a complete
rational understanding of reality. Against both, Schelling
makes the same kind of Jacobian objection: against Fichte, that
his account of the 'I' needs to be supplemented by a 'philoso
phy of nature' which proceeds from the being of nature given
to us a posteriori; and against Hegel, that the merely 'negative'
philosophy of his Logic, precisely because it is designed as an
autonomous, exclusively conceptual structure, entirely fails to
grasp actual being, as opposed to the merely hypothetical being
which is projected and anticipated in the use of concepts.
Schelling's attacks on the (inter-related) putative autonomies
of the self and of conceptuality ramify through nineteenth
century philosophy, and can be discovered underlying - to take
one important example, known to Sartre and echoed in B&N Schopenhauer's conception of the conscious reflective subj ect
as set over against an alien, inimical reality. But most import
ant, for the purpose of understanding B&N, is Kierkegaard's
reprise of Schelling's anti-Hegelianism, as presented in his
C oncluding Unscientific Postscript (1846). Kierkegaard refers
back explicitly at the beginning of this work to Jacobi and, like
Jacobi, he has it as his final objective to form in his readers a
religious consciousness, but one much more problematic and
anxiety-ridden than the Christian orthodoxy to which Jacobi
believes we should return. The philosophical strategy employed
by Kierkegaard to realize this end - and it is important to
appreciate that Kierkegaard is not offering a new system but
is again, like Jacobi, trying to help us find our way out of the
stultifying prison of philosophical systematizing - involves an
appeal to what he calls 'subjectivity'. The 'truth of subjectivity'
is defined by Kierkegaard negatively, in terms of its opposition
to the 'objectivity' of the Hegelianism of his contemporaries,
which instructs us to take satisfaction in contemplation of the
progress of Reason in human history, and positively, in terms
of the individual's task of relating his existence, in a condition
of intensified, passionate 'inwardness', to eternal truth. The
concept of existence in its application to a human individual
is thus refashioned by Kierkegaard into a new kind of philo
sophical category, designating that which, grasped correctly,
i.e. subjectively, reveals itself as, and expresses itself in, infinite
activity and striving.16
How much of this history of philosophy Sartre knew, and
how well he knew it, either at first hand or indirectly, is dif
ficult to determineP What is clear nonetheless is that, as will
emerge in due course, in systematic terms Sartre's philosophy is
situated firmly within the matrix of debates and positions just
sketched:18 Sartre begins, as noted above, with Hussert's project
of an immanent explication of consciousness, designed to show
what structures underlie consciousness' intentional directed
ness towards objects and how consciousness attains its target in
an objective world, but as will be seen in the next chapter, in the
course of the 1930s Sartre works his way through and to a large
extent out of the Husserlian framework, and in B&N engages
fully with the metaphysical themes of Jacobi's agenda. To antici
pate, wht we will find in Sartre is no simple reproduction of
any earlier position in the history of philosophy, but something
of fascinating originality: a complex and modified reaffirm
ation of the Jacobi-Schelling thesis of the priority of being,
which incorporates Kierkegaard's anti-Hegelian demand that
philosophy articulate the truth of SUbjectivity. But Sartre, con
tra Jacobi and Kierkegaard, articulates his position in a fully
systematic philosophical form, one which bears strong similar
ity to Fichte's conception of an I-based W issenschaftslehre.19
And although there is a loud and clear echo of religious con
sciousness in Sartre's philosophy - a priest incarcerated in the
Stalag with Sartre described him as 'a being like no one else, a
kind of prophet'20 - its theological dimension is unequivocally
negative: atheism, according to Sartre, is a necessary condition
for man to achieve his proper end.
An extraordinary number and range of topics figure in the
eight hundred or so pages that compose B&N, ranging from
the structure of time and the fact that anything at all exists, to
self-consciousness, knowledge of other minds, the dynamics of
human sexual life and the concept of a person's character. B&N
is intended nonetheless to form a whole in which all of the ques
tions of philosophy - with the exception of ethics, which Sartre
defers to a later work - receive systematic answers. The theme
which gives unity to the system of B&N its central node, on
the basis of and with reference to which its theories of time,
self-consciousness, sexuality and so on are developed - is, as is
well known, that of human freedom. What exactly freedom is,
according to Sartre, will be discussed much later, but it is help
ful before embarking on B&N to have some idea of how Sartre
considers that the issue of human freedom must be approached
philosophically. In this chapter I will try to show, from three
different angles, what the strategy of B&N consists in.
1. Themes in S artr e's earliest writings. In terms of his philosoph
ical biography, as indicated in the previous chapter, Sartre did
not begin with the problem of freedom, but an examination of
his earliest published philosophical writings helps us to under
stand how and why freedom came to occupy centre stage, and I
will start with a discussion of some of these. B&N does not pre
suppose acquaintance with any of Sartre's earlier philosophical
writings, and some of the leading ideas which they present
recur without modification in B&N, but a reading of the earlier
writings provides an induction into the philosophical outlook
of B&N, and their relative brevity, together with the philosoph
ical simplification which results from their being devoted to
familiarly defined philosophical topics - the self, emotion and
imagination - recommends such an approach. (Also providing
an introduction to Sartre's ph ilosophical concerns, of a more
informal nature, are the notebooks that he kept in 1939-40,
thus shortly before the writing of B&N, published posthu
mously as W ar Diaries.)
The most important of Sartre's early texts, from the point of
view of understanding B&N, is undoubtedly The Transcendence
of the Ego (1936). This essay begins by disputing what might
seem almost a technical point in Husserl's transcendental
phenomenology, of interest only to those working within the
Husserlian programme, but on its basis Sartre unfolds an intri
guing and radically original metaphysics of the human subject,
which stands opposed to the ordinary conception of personal
The claim of Husserl's that Sartre targets is his postulation
of a 'transcendental ego', as the source and ground of all our
intentional relations to objects. Within the terms of transcen
dental orthodoxy, this claim of Husserl's appears innocuous,
and to enjoy Kant's explicit sanction: it appears merely to say
that, because it must be possible for all of my states of con
sciousness to be thought (by me) as being mine, the field of
consciousness at which we arrive through Husserlian reduction
must be regarded as 'owned' by a non-empirical; hence tran
scendental, subject.
What provokes Sartre is the observation that, with the
transposition of Kant's thesis concerning the 'I think' (the
'transcendental unity of apperception') into phenomenology,
the status of the transcendental subject changes importantly.
Kant's theses concerning the 'conditions of possibility' of
experience and knowledge, on Sartre's reading, do not involve
existential claims: they have a purely de jure, and no de facto,
character. 2 1 Husserl's phenomenological version of the Kantian
thesis does, however, involve thinking of the 'transcendental
subject' as having reality, and this, Sartre argues, cannot be
Phenomenology is a descriptive science, and what it describes
is whatever is given to (pure) consciousness, qua given. The
question, then, is whether a transcendental ego meets this
condition. Indisputably, my existence as an empirical, psycho
physical entity is given to me; and it is also given to me that, if I
reflect on my states of consciousness, then I think those states
as mine (as Kant asserts to be necessary de jure, if empirical
knowledge is to be possible). These two data entail no tran
scendental ego, however: the first, because the empirical self
is of course distinct from and insufficient for any transcen
dental self; and the second because, according to Sartre, there
is no need of explanation to which it answers, and even more
decisively, it in fact makes self-consciousness unintelligible.
The standard Kantian considerations to which HusserI
appeals in favour of a transcendental subject, revolve around
the need for something to figure as the subject-term of the
synthetic acts which are required, in turn, for the unity of con
sciousness. Sartre rejects this argument on the grounds that:
(1) Unity of consciousness can be taken to derive from the unity
of objects, e.g., the unity of this pen provides for the unity of
what I take to be my various perceptual experiences of it. Since
phenomenology has declared consciousness to be defined by
intentionality and intentionality to involve transcendence to an
object, the objects of consciousness are available as an explana
tory resource, in place of a transcendental ego. (2) The unity
of consciousness over time - its 'duration' - does not stand in
need of explanation, so long as we conceive consciousness prim
ordially (as HusserI himself showed can be done, in his work on
internal time-consciousness) as a temporally extended, rather
than an instantaneous, structure.22 So the transcendental 'I' is
superfluous.
The transcendental 'I' is furthermore incompatible with
self-consciousness: '[i]f it existed, it would violently separate
consciousness from itself, it would divide it, slicing through each
consciousness like an opaque blade. The transcendental I is the
death of consciousness.'23 Sartre's argument, explicating these
metaphors, is that we do not, as a matter of phenomenological
fact, encounter an 'I' in 'first order' or 'unreflective' conscious
ness, e.g., of this pen on the desk,24 and nor could we do so,
because there is no space for an 'I' to occupy. The key point here
is that, in order for HusserI's account to work, two conditions
need to be satisfied: the 'I' (a) must not be an object ofconscious
ness, for then it would be external, but it nonetheless (b) needs to
be 'something for consciousness' (and not, e.g., a mere 'quality'
of consciousness). The 'I', in order to be interior to consciousness,
would need therefore to inhabit consciousness. But this is incom
patible with the necessarily diaphanous, translucent character of
the relation of conscious intentionality - hence Sartre's descrip
tion of the 'I' as freezing and darkening consciousness, destroying
its spontaneity, rendering it opaque and 'ponderable'.2s Sartre
later adds a further argument: If an 'I' were present at the unre
flective level, then its identity, or communication, with the 'I' of
reflective consciousness could not be comprehended; 'I's would
multiply without intelligible connection.26
But how, if there is no transcendental I, can Sartre hope to
explain the real existence of self-consciousness in the sense of
the second datum, i.e. the actual and necessary presence of an
'I' on each occasion when I reflect on my states of conscious
ness? Even more worryingly, it may seem that Sartre's argument
has overshot the mark: if self-consciousness is consciousness of
a self, and if a self can neither be an object of nor inhabit my
consciousness, then self-consciousness is impossible, in which
case, so it seems, 'I think' thoughts are impossible - which
obviously they are not.
Sartre's answer is that, while there is of course a necessary
connectio n between reflection and an '1', the data are accounted
for by supposing (1) that the act of reflection creates the 'I' and
inserts or interpolates it into the unreflective field (an account
that Husserl is in no position to reject, having himself argued
that reflection reconfigures the consciousness to which it is
directed); and (2) that the 'I' should be analysed as 'bear[ing] to
the concrete and psycho-physical me the same relation as does a
point to three dimensions: it is an infinitely contracted me'.27 The
second part of this account explains, without appeal to a tran
scendental ego, why 'I' cannot be thought without existential
import, and why it is nevertheless not the thinking of any object
as having the properties of a concrete and psycho-physical entity.
Additional support for these interpretations derives from the
observation that there is a mismatch between what we think by
means of the concept '!', and the basis on which it is thought: the
idea of an 'I' is of something that has a permanence beyond the
consciousness that presently entertains it and indeed beyond 'all
consciousnesses'. Because the idea of the 'I' is that of something
non-perishable which possesses a content which is not given and
'would need to be unfolded', its 'type of existence' is, as Sartre
puts it, 'much closer to that of eternal truths than to that of con
sciousness'.28 If the metaphysics of '!' and its epistemology come
apart so strikingly, then we cannot claim certainty with respect
to the nature of the 'I', and ought to treat it as a problematic,
philosophically suspect item.29
Important parts of Sartre's story remain undeveloped in The
Transcendence of the Ego. For example, the idea that 'I' refers to
a concrete entity, but not as that concrete entity, is puzzling as
well as attractive - whence the peculiar mode of presentation
that constitutes 'I'? And why indeed should any 'I' appear at all
on the occasion of reflection? B&N will fill in these gaps, but the
net achievement is already considerable: Sartre has articulated
the possibility that the transcendental field of consciousness is
'without an I' and is what makes the '!' possible, and shown that
much favours this metaphysics over HusserI's.
There are, however, two major problems with the pos
ition taken in The Transcendence of the Ego. The first, which
threatens to take us back to Husserl's position, concerns the
individuation of fields of impersonal consciousness. Sartre
may have shown that a transcendental '!' cannot explain what
gives a field of consciousness its identity, and that his own
model provides a better explanation of self-consciousness, but
this model still presupposes the notion of a particular field of
consciousness, and even if the ground of its individuation is not
personal - Sartre has shown why we should hesitate to think
that it has the character of an 'I'
it seems that there must
still be some such ground, and in Th e Transcendence of the Ego
Sartre does not say what it is: he acknowledges that conscious
ness constitutes a 'synthetic, individual totality', but dismisses
the problem which this raises with the remark that the indi
viduality of consciousness stems from its own nature.30
The second problem, connected with the first, is that while
we may agree with Sartre that reflection cannot be understood
in terms of an ordinary judgement of identity, it contains some
element of reflexivity which Sartre appears to have missed.
Sartre says that 'my reflecting consciousness does not take
itself for object when I carry out the Cogito', and that what it
affirms 'concerns the reflected consciousness'.3l But this seems
only part of what is involved: what reflection affirms explicitly
(in Sartre's language, 'thetically') concerns only the reflected
consciousness, but reflection also implicitly affirms some
thing concerning itself, namely, that both it and the reflected
consciousness belong to the same subject. If reflection did not
grasp itself as 'of the same subject' as the consciousness reflected
on, then the mental stream which is presented to me by reflec
tion on my consciousness would have the same indifferent, alien
character as the external worId.32 This comprehension implicit
in the reflective act is at least a partial realization of reflexivity,
and it has been lost sight of in Sartre's minimalist account in
The Tr anscendence of the Ego.
In B&N we will find Sartre making adjustments to the account
given in The Transcendence of the Ego which overcome these
limitations, and which at the same time make concessions to
Husserl. In criticizing HusserI in The Transcendence of the Ego
Sartre pays characteristically little attention to the philosophical
intentions which HusserI actually had for the transcendental 'I',
and arguably he misconstrues these: what Sartre shows is only
that the transcendental 'I' cannot be justified on narrow phe
nomenological grounds, not that it cannot earn its place as a
de facto rather than merely de jure entity on broader transcen
dental grounds, and in B&N Sartre will introduce a structure
which, for all its differences from Husserl's transcendental,!"
occupies a very similar theoretical position.
The limitations of Sartre's HusserI-exegesis are, however,
fortunately irrelevant to his true philosophical purpose in The
Transcendence of the Ego, because what Sartre really has in his
sights in this essay is the conception of self which is integral to
natural consciousness.33 The significance of Sartre's expunging
of Husserl's transcendental 'I' is to establish a kind of atheism
of consciousness, directed against our naturally theistic self
conception:34 Sartre wants to undermine our profound sense of
ourselves as - to put it in suitably indefinite terms - something
substantial lying behind and supporting the stream of our con
sciousness, in which the flux of our mental life is housed and
from which it flows; the conception of the self which Sartre
ascribes to HusserI is of importance in its capacity as a philo
sophical articulation of this commonsensical conviction of
one's personal reality. That this is the crucial point of The
Transcendence of the Ego emerges with full force when Sartre
explains that, if consciousness is transcendentally impersonal,
then the idea which we ordinarily employ, and which French
moralists such as La Rochefoucauld amplify, of an absolutely
basic, 'natural' level of self-concerned or egoistic motivation in
human psychology must be abandoned.3s The entire structure
of human personal identity must be rethought.
Commonsense psychological explanation exhibits the follow
ing pattern. On the basis of a series of unreflective conscious
episodes with a certain character and content - for example:
feelings of a particular quality directed towards some particu
lar person - we in reflection take ourselves to be presented
with psychological elements - for example: emotions of love
or hate - which we suppose to underlie and manifest them
selves in conscious episodes, in a fashion analogous to physical
forces. Sartre calls these elements 'states', and notes how they
are conceived not as identical with but as given 'in and by'
our instantaneous consciousnesses, which our states, having
a degree of permanence, extend beyond. This is what allows
me to think that the love that I feel today is one and the same
love that I felt yesterday, somewhat in the way that I can revisit
experientially a physical objet.36 Beliefs and desires conform
also to this pattern, according to commonsense psychology.
States are complemented in turn (but only optionally) by the
ascription of what Sartre calls 'qualities', underlying disposi
tions whose activation gives rise to states and to actions.
The force of this model is to allow us to cast psychological
explanation in the familiar form of causal stories proceeding
from a substratum of qualities which we take to constitute a
person's character, and towards which our reactive attitudes
(of admiration, aversion, etc.) are directed. If, however, the 'I'
of reflection does not refer to anything in the hinterground of
consciousness, then there is nothing to own, or to provide a
subject of inherence for, our states and qualities. And from this
it fo llows - in accordance with and as an extension of the story
that Sartre has already told about the '! of reflection - that our
states and qualities must be regarded as transcendent produc ts
of consciousness: the 'I' or ego or person which they compose
lies exposed to my consciousness out t here in the world, not
within or behind my consciousness.
The constitution of this entity, on Sartre's complete pic
ture, is as follows. The ego or person is a transcendent object
of reflective consciousness, comprising a synthetic unity of
states and actions, mediated by qualities. This psychic (rather
than psycho-physical) object has two 'faces': on the one hand,
it appears (in nominative case) as 'I' U e) , as active, and on the
other (in accusative case) as 'me' (moi) , as passive or capable of
being affected .37
Immanent unity
of consciousness:
Transcendent unity and synthetic object ('the psychic'):
TATES
'me' (moi)
IMPERSONAL
ITIES)
REFLECTIVE - (QUAL
ACTIONS - 'I' (je)
EGOIPERSON
Common sense and the discipline of psychology are exactly
wrong in their reading of the arrow: they think that it expresses
only the relation of knowledge, i.e. that it is via consciousness
that I come to know my states and qualities, and that the rela
tion of producti on goes in the opposite direction, from right to
left. It is, common sense tells us, because of my states and qual
ities that my consciousness is as it is; my love and hate are what
make me feel as I do. The import of Sartre's new metaphysics of
the self, and the imputation of a metaphysical illusion to com
mon sense, are stated clearly by Sartre:
[the ego] is a virtual locus of unity, and consciousness consti
tutes it as going in completely the reverse direction from that
followed by real production; what is really first is conscious
ness, through which are constituted states, then, through these,
the Ego. But, as the order is reversed [. . .] consciousnesses are
given as emanating from states, and states as produced by the
Ego. As a consequence, consciousness projects its own spon
taneity into the object Ego so as to confer on it the creative
power [. . .] It is thus exactly as if consciousness constituted the
Ego as a false representation of itself, as if consciousness hyp
notised itself before this Ego which it has constituted, became
absorbed in it, as if it made the Ego its safeguard and its law.38
The mistake of reversing the arrow is, therefore, no casual acci
dent: it is part of the very nature of the ego, as consciousness
constitutes it, that it should bear the false meaning of being the
source of consciousness.39 Again, this part of the story - Why
should consciousness constitute an object which incorporates
a misrepresentation of their relation? - awaits completion in
B&N, though Sartre makes a speculative suggestion at the end
of The Transcendence of the Ego: consciousness takes flight
from and seeks to mask its own 'monstrous spontaneity',
'vertigo of possibility' and 'vertiginous liberty'.4o This motiva
tional explanation of our belief in the ego rules out treating
it as merely an erroneous theoretical hypothesis.4 1
In support of his revolutionary reconstrual of the ontology
of human personality,42 Sartre emphasizes the epistemological
gap between consciousness and state: never am I rationally
compelled by a given consciousness to attribute to myself a cer
tain state (it is up to me to decide what significance to ascribe
to my feelings); every advance I make beyond the data of unre
flective consciousness to the reflective is under-motivated by
the data.43 In B&N it will be argued that the undertaking of
a commitment is what allows me to cross the gap separating
consciousness from state, and much will be made of the way in
which self-attributions and claims to self-knowledge take out
an ontological loan which my future consciousness and con
duct may or may not redeem.
It may be observed that Sartre's argument does not rule it
out that our consciousnesses are, if not grounded in a tran
scendental '1' or substantial personhood, then grounded in
non-personal non-conscious states of affairs - neurological
states, most obviously. This leads to one final observation
about The Transcendence of the Ego, which looks forward to
what will be argued in B&N.
It is far from clear, so far, why the position taken in The
Transcendence of the Ego regarding the self should be expected
to assist the development of a theory of human freedom. If
there is no transcendental '1', and if the personality of human
beings is an effect of consciousness rather than its ground,
then our ordinary idea of ourselves as authors of our actions
seems undermined.44 Indeed, if the field of consciousness is
transcendentally impersonal, then it might seem prima facie
that Spinoza is vindicated, that persons are mere modifica
tions of impersonal substance and that our sense of ourselves
as self-subsistent existents is consequently an illusion.4S But
Sartre indicates why he is confident that the door has not
been opened to Spinozism. Throughout The Transcendence of
the Ego there are remarks, parenthetical to its argument but
anticipating that of B&N, to the effect that consciousness is 'a
non-substantial absolute', 'autonomous', 'a totality that has no
need to be completed', self-limiting in the manner of Spinoza's
substance, 'the cause of itself', 'a sphere of absolute existence'
of 'pure spontaneities' which 'determine themselves to exist',
'a creation ex nihilo'.46 Sartre neither explains nor justifies
these claims and appears to regard them, somehow, as basic
principles of phenomenology secured already by Husser!'
Whether or not this is accurate, the truth is that Sartre is once
again using the platform of phenomenology to stake out his
own metaphysics, and in B&N Sartre will clarify, refine and
attempt to make plausible his claim that consciousness is an
autonomous totality.
The revisionary project of The Transcendence of the Ego
is pursued further, and in a more pointedly moralistic direc
tion, in Sketchfor a Theory of the Emotions, published in 1939.
(The Sketch formed part of a long manuscript with the title La
Psyche composed in 1937-38, abandoned by Sartre and appar
ently lost.47)
From the later perspective of B&N, it is easily seen why the
topic of emotion should have attracted Sartre's attention. On
the commonsense conception, emotion is a force-like state
which (a) inhabits, colours and has the capacity to obscure con
sciousness, (b) is suffered or passively undergone, (c) typically
has connections with bodily and physiological conditions and
with the animality of human beings, (d) tends characteristically
to promote irrationality ofjudgement and action and (e) poten
tially qualifies attributions of freedom and responsibility (as in
the juridical conception of a 'crime passionel'). In all of these
(closely interlinked) respects, the existence of emotion appears
to speak against the conception of the absolutely free human
subject which Sartre will defend in B&N, and the Sketch is a
preliminary attempt to meet the challenge which it poses.
Emotion, Sartre argues, is not the conscious effect or correl
ate of a physiological occurrence, nor a behavioural mechanism,
but a specific mode of consciousness of objects in which individ
uals and the world, or portions of it, are apprehended as having
qualities of a specific kind. The qualities in question are continu
ous with those that objects display in the course of our ordinary,
non-emotional practical engagements: some person as needing
to-be-helped, the tram as needing-to-be-caught, the fire as
having-to-be-lit and suchlike.48 What specifically distinguishes
emotional qualities, Sartre suggests, is a kind of purposiveness
which betrays (i) the contribution of imagination, and (ii) a moti
vated suspension or abandonment of the practical perspective.
Each type of emotion is defined by the particular set of qual
ities which it gives to its object, and Sartre offers analyses of the
ways in which emotions such as joy, melancholy, fear and upset
lend to the world a particular organization and significance
which in one way or another relieves the subject of the burden
of action, by re-representing the world as not placing a practical
demand, one which poses some sort of difficulty for the sub
ject.49 Imagination in emotion goes beyond its usual function in,
e.g., fictional contexts, by dint of the belie/ which accompanies
it, belief in the reality of the qualities which the world is newly
imagined to have.so But since, on Sartre's account, imaginative
consciousness in general is conscious of itself as such - con
sciousness of an unreal object can be achieved only by positing
the object against realitySI - the purposive 'transformation of
the world' in emotion is accompanied and underwritten by self
knowledge. Emotion is therefore very close to, if not actually an
instance of, self-deception.
That Sartre has provided here the basis for a comprehensive
theory of affectivity may be doubted: more plausibly, Sartre
has theorized a sub-class or particular mode of emotion, or
identified a potentiality which is immanent in all emotion but
need not always be actualized. The important point for present
purposes, however, is that the Sketch advances the same kind
of 'error theory' explanation of natural consciousness as The
Transcendence 0/ the Ego, and similarly entails the need for an
ethical reorientation: just as consciousness hypnotizes itself
before the image of an ego, so too it misrepresents itself as pas
sive in relation to the emotionally transfigured world; and just
as recognition of the first error sets consciousness the task of
'purifying' itself of ego-hypostatizing reflection,S2 so too must
consciousness free itself from affective self-enchantment. This
pattern of translating what common sense is happy to accept,
or psychology to postulate, as brute facts of nature into pur
posive intentional structures, in order to eliminate what will
otherwise be counted as limitations to human freedom, recurs
throughout B&N, and it comprises all that remains in Sartre's
phenomenology of HusserI's concept of the 'epoche' or phe
nomenological reduction. S3
2. Freedom and human existence. What separates B&N from
these early writings is its development of an explicit doctrine
of human freedom within a complete metaphysical context:
freedom, in Sartre's view, is no mere psychological power or
capacity, and its understanding requires that everything be
rethought from the ground up, hence the articulation of a full
philosophical system, in contrast with the relatively fragmen
tary analyses found in Sartre's texts of the 1930s.
The problem of human freedom presents the following meth
odological difficulty. It is natural to approach the problem by
way of some prior conception of the entity whose freedom is
under consideration: on the basis of some notion of what it is
that we are, it is considered whether or not entities of that sort
might have freedom. But this, Sartre considers, loads the dice
against freedom: if the prior concept of what we are is formed
without consideration of freedom, then it is hard to see how it
can avoid representing freedom as something external and con
tingent, merely tacked on to our essence; even if the argument
for our possession of the attribute of freedom is compelling, a
puzzle must remain regarding our bond with it. Sartre regards
previous philosophical attempts to solve the problem, with the
(qualified) exception of Heidegger's, as defective in exactly this
way: philosophical assumptions and interests extraneous to free
dom have been allowed to determine reflection on the nature of
man - Descartes' and Spinoza's accounts of man are guided by
a (pan)theistic metaphysics of substance, Hegel's by a ration
alistic and optimistic view of human history and so on - with
the consequence that human freedom has been either denied or
misrepresented.
This might suggest that the identity of the subject should not
be fixed philosophically prior to the determination of freedom.
But this encounters a problem. Some conception of what we
are needs to be in position at the outset - we can hardly reverse
the natural method and begin with freedom, for that would be
to ascribe freedom to something conceptualized only as 'that
to which freedom is to be ascribed'. Without some independ
ent conception of the subject term, the ascription of freedom
makes no sense. We appear to be moving in circles.
If neither the attribute of freedom, nor a characterization of
human identity, can be accorded priority over the other, then we
must find some way of forming our conceptions of both contem
poraneous/y. The judgement 'human beings are free' or 'man has
freedom of will' will consequently be of the peculiar kind that
Hegel calls a 'speculative' proposition, where neither the subject
nor the predicate term can be presupposed without the other:
such propositions are, Hegel says, not susceptible to philosoph
ical proof in the strict sense; philosophical reflection has instead
the job of showing each of the concepts unfolding into the other.
In this way we can hope to make a virtue of the unavoidable
methodological circularity which has emerged. Though Sartre
does not describe his approach in terms of Hegel's philosophical
vocabulary, this is the method which he in effect follows in B&N.
It is, however, one thing to say that freedom and human
identity need to be thought alongside one another; the diffi
culty is to find a way of doing so. Sartre's proposal consists in
a radically new kind of answer to the traditional question of
the nature of man: in place of an account of which attributes
differentiate human beings from other kinds of entities, Sartre
gives a wholly immanent theory of what it is for a human being
to exist, where the notion of existence employed embodies a
number of logical peculiarities which are crucial to its role in
showing the possibility of freedom. The essential points con
cerning Sartre's notion are the following: (1) The question of
what it is for a human being to exist is tied, in Sartre's con
ception, to the first person standpoint. (2) Appearances to the
contrary, 'my existence' is not a datum, fact or state of affairs
in any familiar or ordinary sense: in asking what it is for me to
exist, it is being asked what it is for me to grasp to (have to)
take up, or relate to - my existence. (3) Everything that can be
said about what kind of thing I am is provided by an account of
what it is for me to grasp th at I am.
(1) The perspective of B&N's enquiry is from the beginning
(whether or not it is so to the end - an issue which we will need
to address) that of the I. Provisionally, the justification for this
approach derives from the need to eliminate preconceptions:
only when the human being is conceived from the standpoint
of the I, is it conceived in terms that are not borrowed from the
world, i.e. in its own terms and as it is in itself. More deeply,
Sartre's first person methodology is connected logically with
his substantive view that what I am is a being that grasps itself
as existing: if my existence were a fact of any ordinary kind, or
if my essence were given by a set of externally observable char
acteristics that distinguish human beings from other kinds of
being, then there would be no reason to think that the object of
enquiry cannot be detached from the first person perspective,
and it would be unclear why that perspective should be privi
leged methodologically.
(2) The question of the nature of man in its traditional for
mulation asks us to think of ourselves as belonging to one
of the several species of thing that populate the world, and
so requires us to form first a general theory of the different
kinds of worldly entity. Sartre's question of what it is to exist
directs our attention instead to a process or reflexive activity
internal to the human subject. Cartesian doctrine, and per
haps common sense, tell us that grasping oneself as existing
is an instantaneous and immediate matter, which results in
an absolutely secure cognition. Sartre denies that the cogito is
primordially an instance of knowing - as we have seen, in The
Transcendence of the Ego he characterizes the '! of reflection
as the projection of an ideal unity - and regards the registra
tion in reflection of one's own existence as only the tip of a
metaphysical iceberg: my existence is grasped adequately, for
Sartre, only when it is understood as stretched across various,
temporal and other dimensions which extend as far as an indi
vidual human life extends, and when this structure and the
relations which compose it are taken up as something other
than an object of knowledge. The goal of B&N, as a philosoph
ical treatise, is to achieve theoretical knowledge of what it is for
me to grasp my existence, and of what follows from this, but
the relation of grasping or relating-to one's own existence is
deeply practical: the self-relating, of which self-knowing is but
one subsidiary and derivative instance, is effectively equiva
lent to what we ordinarily call a person's living their life.
(3) If Sartre's answer to the question, W hat am I?, is there
fore that I am a being that, in the sense defined, grasps itself as
existing, then the traditional distinction between the existence
of things and their essence does not have application to human
beings, or at any rate, it does not have the same kind of appli
cation as it does when we think of things in the world on the
one hand as existing, and on the other as having a particular
determinate character. One way of expressing this point is to
say that the human subject is without an essence; alternatively,
that its existence precedes its essence,54 that its essence is 'the
synthetic order of its possibilities', or that 'its existence implies
its essence' (xxxi/22).
It is beginning to become clear how Sartre aims to co-conceive
freedom and human identity: if our existence is conceptualized
in the open-ended, non-determinate terms proposed by Sartre,
then it is not hard to understand how, with a little amplifica
tion, the concept of a human subject might 'unfold' into that
of freedom.
To what extent will this amount to, ifnot a proof, then at least
an effective defence of human freedom? The following objec
tion to Sartre's procedure needs to be considered. Sartre, I said,
regards previous philosophical accounts as biased implicitly
and unwittingly, on account of the method they adopt, against
freedom. But what, it may be asked, makes Sartre's approach
any less tendentious? From the standpoint of, say, Spinoza,
Sartre's presumption that freedom is the appropriate concept
with reference to which human identity should be fixed is just
as unfounded as Spinoza's substantialism appears from Sartre's
standpoint; the Spinozist will regard the manner in which
Sartre's conception of man appears to have been designed in
the light of his desired conclusion that man is free, as a criti
cism and a philosophical weakness. Clearly, we encounter here
a deep and wholly general difficulty of a metaphilosophical
nature - that of how any philosophical system can command
assent, if it must proceed from some basis which counts, from
the standpoint of some other system, as ungrounded and dog
matic. For those who are not persuaded by Hegel's claim to
have worked his way beyond this problem, there is a limit to
what can be done with it, and if philosophy is to get started,
it must start somewhere. I have tried to indicate above why it
would be unjustified to dismiss Sartre's position as arbitrary,
and this will become clearer if we now spell out what can be
regarded as the 'master argument' for freedom in B&N.
The problem of human freedom presents, in the way described
briefly above, and for reasons which B&N will elaborate at
length, extraordinary difficulty. Reflection on the problem
moves characteristically back and forth between, at the one
extreme, inalienable conviction of the contentfulness, necessity
and justice of our claim to freedom, and at the other, a collapse
so complete in the attempt to think human freedom coherently
that the only conclusion to be drawn, it seems, is that the con
cept is chimerical. Now, it is also true - this is something which,
again, B&N will seek to persuade, or rather remind us of, since
it is hardly something that can be overlooked - that human
existence, when stared in the face rather than apprehended
sideways on, exhibits deep traits of unintelligibility: over the
horizon of our local, articulated concerns, we appear to out
strip our own conceptual grasp of what it is that we are. Sartre's
strategy is to bring these two problems or explananda together,
not in order to offer an explanation of both in terms of some
third conceptual element, but with a view to getting each, in the
manner of two simultaneous equations, to solve the other: that
is, B&N aims to show that making our existence and identity
intelligible requires us to think that the very mode in which we
exist differs from that of worldly objects, and that a parallel
revision of common sense regarding the concept of freedom whereby we will be brought to see that common sense locates
our freedom at too superficial a level - shows us that freedom
is what defines our non-worldly mode of being. Sartre aims to
carry this all the way through to the point of understanding
freedom and human individuation - the distinction of your '!'
from my 'I' in terms of one another.
This unfolding into one another of the concepts of human
existence and freedom has its crux in the following point. What
necessitates our understanding the judgement that man is free
as a 'speculative' proposition is the impossibility of regarding
either term as the mere predicate of the other. Hegel regards
this breakdown of subject-predicate structure as revealing
the final structure of all reality; Sartre regards it as revealing
the structure of the human subject. The mode of being which
defines the human subject does not, on Sartre's account,
have subject-predicate form: we do not, in the final analysis,
exist as subjects, of which properties may be predicated. Two
things follow from this. First, it follows (as argued in The
Transcendence of the Ego) that the common sense conception
of human personality, which is also the conception of the dis
cipline of psychology, must be rejected, and that this rejection
is necessary for understanding human freedom: if our existence
exhibited the judgemental form of subject and predicate, then
we could not think ourselves as free. Second, it follows that the
verb 'exists', in application to human beings, must be under
stood as behaving in the grammatically peculiar way that we
began to see above: to say that a human subject exists is already
to grasp it as active and to say something about the mode and
structure of its activity; as it may also be put, human existence
itself has the character of an event, or occurrence, in relation to
the extra-human order. (In anticipation of yet another respect
in which Sartre's key philosophical propositions display con
ceptual irregularity: it will be argued to follow from the
non-conformity of human existence to subject-predicate form,
that philosophical elucidation of human being allows, indeed
requires, contradictory predications.)
If we look back to The Transcendence of the Ego, we see how
it prepares the way for this crucial idea. RusserI's account of the
transcendental '1', Sartre notes, appeals to the traditional con
ception of predicates as belonging to 'something', an 'X', which
is their 'bearer' and 'central point of connection', such that the
predicates are 'unthinkable without' the X 'yet distinguishable
from it'.55 But the relation of the ego or person to their men
tal states, Sartre makes clear, is incongruent with this model: a
subject X is necessarily indifferent to the properties expressed
by its predicates, whereas
the action or the state turns back on to the Ego in order to
qualify it [. . .] Every new state produced by the Ego colours
and nuances the Ego in the moment the Ego produces it [ ]
It is not the crime committed by Raskolnikov that is incor
porated into his Ego. Or rather, to be precise, it is the crime,
but in a condensed form, in the shape of a bruise. 56
States and acts are attached to the ego as to their origin, and
yet 'not given as having previously been within the Ego': the
Ego 'is always surpassed by what it produces, even though,
from another point of view, it is what it produces' and cannot
be anything other than what it produces;s7 the Ego 'maintains
its qualities by a veritable continuous creation', and yet if we
stripped these qualities away, 'there would be nothing left, the
Ego would have vanished'. 58 In view of this paradoxical pat
terning - which forbids our conceiving the relation of the Ego
to its states, qualities and acts as one of either emanation or
actualization, and instead invites a comparison with poetic
creations9 - a better model for the unity of the human subject
is provided, Sartre suggests, by melody, in which clearly there
is no ' X'.60
The logic of the relation of person to their mental states is
thus altogether different from, much richer and more complex
than, all that we find outside the human world, and the explan
ation for its extreme conceptual peculiarity, on Sartre's account,
is that the commonsense conception of persons is derived from
consciousness through the fictionalizing operation of reflection,
and consequently lacks reality (it incorporates a spontaneity,
but in a 'degraded' form, a 'pseudo-spontaneity' in which a
'memory of the spontaneity of consciousness' is retained61). The
commonsense conception of persons is formed by the incoherent
superimposition of the traditional structure of substance onto
the non-subject-predicate structure of consciousness, hence the
ultimate 'irrationality' of this conception.62
Intersecting with the themes of freedom and mode of being
is a third argumentative factor, which concerns the ultimately
practical, broadly ethical, dimension of Sartre's system. In
Sartre's view, philosophical misconceptions of human exist
ence are of a piece with - they reinforce and underwrite the
adoption of - stances and attitudes towards life which are expe
rienced, in both the first and the third person, as defective.63
Sartre intends to give a true articulation of human existence,
which, he supposes, will conduce to a revision of our funda
mental orientations. Philosophy cannot abolish the deficiency
in human life B&N concludes, on the contrary, that human
life is a phenomenon of lack - but it can help us to distinguish
between metaphysically necessary, and other, remediable forms
of defectiveness, and this therapeutic contribution may be taken
as one measure of philosophical truth.
The argument for freedom offered in B&N consists, therefore,
in a demonstration of the systematic coherence of its metaphys
ics, and of its capacity to resolve philosophical problems of a
fundamental character which are, Sartre argues, otherwise
intractable. B&N does not give a strict proof that these prob
lems could not be got to yield other solutions, but Sartre makes
it at least plausible that this is the case. This may not suffice to
shake the confidence of a Spinozist, or anyone who claims not
to share the basic intuition of the reality of human freedom,
but if Sartre succeeds in forging in B&N a unified, synthetic
view of human life as a metaphysical phenomenon, in which
phenomena as miscellaneous as self-consciousness, temporal
ity, knowledge of other minds, sexuality and emotion, are all
intelligibly inter-related, and which furthermore promises a
therapeutic practical reorientation, then its claim on our atten
tion will be as strong as possible.
In pursuing its enquiry into what it is for a human subject
to exist, B&N not only employs a highly abstract metaphys
ical language, but on various points of philosophical logic, as
we have already begun to see, departs strikingly from analytic
orthodoxy: Sartre distinguishes between different modes of
being, i.e. denies that 'exists' has a single meaning, conceives
existents of different kinds as having different degrees of real
ity, and regards one species of existent, the human subject,
as characterized by lack of self-identity and as the subject of
contradictory predicates. In all these cases, it is important to
note, Sartre's position is not without historical precedent: the
univocity of existence is a subject of extended controversy in
medieval philosophy, while distinctions between different
degrees of reality are assumed, on various grounds, all the way
up froni Plato to Kant, and the conceptual figure of non-self
identity, along with the idea that contradictions can inhere in
reality, is famously found in Hegel. Philosophical precedent
is however not of itself an explanation or excuse for Sartre's
practice, and it would be foolish to deny that these conceptual
forms create difficulties, if only because of the way in which
they immediately complicate Sartre's claims. What should be
our attitude towards them, therefore?
The response of many anglophone commentators has been
to regard Sartre's logically problematic conceptual forms as no
more than metaphors, and more broadly Sartre's metaphysics
in B&N since it is hard to drive a wedge between the two as demanding translation into some other philosophical idiom,
for example, that of contemporary analytic philosophy of mind.
While some gains are to be made by approaching Sartre in this
way, there is reason for thinking that it represents an ultimately
unsatisfactory option. There is no simple method of translation
which yields a coherent and interesting, original and distinct
ively Sartrean philosophical outlook, and the typical upshot is
to make Sartre's central ideas seem under-motivated and poorly
defended, mere exaggerations of plainer and tamer truths (as is
acknowledged by some who take the translational approach, in
so far as they describe what they are doing as offering partial
reconstructions of the elements in Sartre worth salvaging).
The disinclination to take Sartre's metaphysics at face value
has, it is important to note, sources distinct from the motive of
avoiding complications of philosophical logic, including sym
pathy with naturalism, antipathy to metaphysics and scepticism
regarding the possibility and utility of philosophical system
building. Also of high importance is the sense that Sartre's
substantive claims - above all, regarding human freedom - are
simply too strong to be countenanced. This makes it clearer
what is at stake in the choice between a 'metaphysical' and a
'non-metaphysical' reading of B&N. Underlying the latter is a
commitment to philosophical tenets which Sartre rejects: typ
ically, to taking the beliefs of pre-philosophical, ordinary or
'natural' consciousness as setting the measure of philosophical
credibility. Since Sartre's philosophy is an ambitious, radical
project intended to challenge and revise common sense, and
Sartre's metaphysics are essential to his mounting this chal
lenge - they provide the means by which we get behind the
appearances of ordinary thought - a non-metaphysical read
ing, which domesticates B&N and brings it into line with what
we ordinarily think, contradicts Sartre's intention. Whether or
not Sartre's challenge to common sense is successful, the fact is
that we cannot begin to engage with it until we have a correct
appreciation of the intention behind Sartre's claims and of the
reasons for their strangeness.
3. Sartre and Kant. In the previous chapter I located Sartre
within a tradition which takes the concept of existence to have
practical and axiological significance, and we have just seen, in
very general terms, how Sartre regards ontology as connected,
via freedom, with value. If we now draw some comparisons of
Sartre with the philosophical predecessor whose conception of
the task of philosophy Sartre in large part reassumes, Kant, a
fuller picture of what Sartre is proposing in B&N will emerge.
Sartre regarded himself as having moved at the end of the
1930s out of the impasse of Husserl's idealism, to embrace
Heidegger's realism,64 and often describes the philosophical
intuition which B&N endeavours to articulate as a conviction
of the truth of realism. But the realism which Sartre affirms has
two components, one of which corresponds to what is usually
associated with the term, viz. a thesis of the reality of the objects
of experience, and the other of which does not. In an interview
in 1969 Sartre declared that B&N had aimed to 'provide a philo
sophical foundation for realism [. . J In other words, how to give
man both his autonomy and reality among real objects, avoid
ing idealism without lapsing into mechanistic materialism'.6s
The realism that Sartre seeks to establish is therefore, as he
understands it, opposed to naturalism, for it incorporats, as
its second component, the reality of human autonomy, which
he regards materialism as contradicting.66 Sartre's concentra
tion on the theme of human freedom and conception of it as
defining the task of philosophy puts him, alongside Fichte and
Schelling, squarely in a direct line of descent from Kant, in the
anti-naturalistic transcendental tradition, but Sartre's take on
the great Kantian opposition of Nature and Freedom - his view
both of what it amounts to, and of how the problem of human
freedom should be resolved - is utterly distinctive.
Kant's solution to the problem of human freedom stands on
two conditions: first, on our accepting the doctrine of tran
scendental idealism, that is, Kant's thesis that nature - the
empirical realm in which we can discover only the kind of
empirical causal relations which suffice for a universal deter
minism - possesses only a qualified degree of reality; and
second, on our accepting Kant's account of the moral law,
that is, the principle which determines our duties, as presup
posing human freedom, and of our awareness of this law (the
immediate respect which it commands) as in some way bring
ing with it an assurance that we do genuinely have this freedom.
The two conditions come together in Kant's thesis that, while
empirical objects are mere appearance ('phenomenal' entities),
our status qua moral agents endowed with freedom is that
of things in themselves ('noumenal' entities). Kant's strategy
consists therefore in a kind of bargain: in exchange for giving
up our commonsensical supposition that the empirical world
has the kind of full reality ('transcendental reality') which we
naively assume it to have, we gain, on the further condition
that we bind our wills to the requirements of morality, the
right to regard ourselves as possessing a power - to initiate a
sequence of events in the world without being necessitated to
do so by preceding empirical conditions; making us the genu
ine authors of our actions - which it would be unintelligible to
ascribe to any merely natural being.
Both parts of Kant's strategy are standardly criticized: his
transcendental idealism for, among other things, leaving the
empirical world depleted of reality, and his moral argument for
leaving human freedom with only the frailest evidential sup
port. Sartre, endorsing both of these criticisms, takes over one
key feature of Kant's solution, while regarding Kant's construal
of the problem as in one basic respect mistaken. What Sartre
accepts from Kant is, of course, the notion that we, and natural
objects, differ onto logically; what he rejects is Kant's concep
tion of us as enmeshed ab initio in the web of empirical causality,
from which we need to extricate ourselves, our relation to our
freedom being forever after epistemically indirect. Instead,
Sartre regards our freedom as primary: rather than restricting
knowledge of freedom to morality, Sartre supposes that it is
implied by every instance of cognition or self-consciousness; it
is unnecessary, and a mistake, to think that we need to enter a
special plea for exemption from empirical causality in order to
lay claim to freedom.
Put like this, it may seem doubtful that Sartre's libertarian
ism can avoid being merely dogmatic: surely the reality of our
freedom cannot be so obvious and easy to secure. But at this
point it needs to be recognized that, far from ignoring the threat
of naturalistic determinism and merely counter-asserting the
reality of freedom, Sartre in fact acknowledges, in a certain
sense, the truth of naturalism: the naturalist' conception of
the independent reality of nature is expressed in Sartre's con
ception of being-in-itself, and Sartre considers that naturalism
is correct in the sense that the paradigm of an entity with full,
genuine being is indeed a material object, or, put differently,
that whatever falls outside the bounds of material nature can
not have (full, genuine) being and so must be 'nothing'.
Thus far, Sartre's thought parallels in a curious way the elim
inative materialism favoured by some naturalists, according
to which intentionality and phenomenality - the traditional
'marks of the mental' - have no place in the fabric of reality.
But Sartre takes a step further. Having made a clean sweep having disposed of the idea that there is a unified ontological
realm, an order of nature, within which we find ourselves
located primordially - we are put in a position to reaffirm our
own existence and to grasp correctly its ontological character:
since it is true, as the naturalist says, that only material nature
meets the conditions for full and genuine being, and because
we nonetheless cannot help but think of ourselves as existing
in some manner (eliminative materialism is, from the relevant
angle, literally unthinkable), we are required to think of our
existence as exemplifying a different mode ofbeing from that of
material nature, moreover, one that is in some sense antithet
ical to it; hence Sartre's identification of our mode of being
with 'nothingness'. Sartre's strategy, in sum, is first to offer
an interpretation of the philosophical intuition which under
lies naturalism and grant its authority, and then - turning the
tables against naturalism - to use this intuition to revealfree
dom (in a way loosely analogous to that in which Descartes
uses scepticism to reveal the true grounds of knowledge). The
double advantage of Sartre's strategy over Kant's is that it
leaves external reality fully intact and freedom resting on no
Sartre's strategy displays one feature which Kant's does not Sartre simply rej ects the idea, which common sense arguably
(with some equivocation) upholds, that we are in fact entwined
causally within the empirical order. From some philosophical
standpoints this must count as a (catastrophic) weakness, but
for the reasons given above, from Sartre's own standpoint it
counts as a further strength of his position, since on his account
the assumption of our naturality is a deeply significant point of
error in ordinary consciousness. One might add, therefore, that
B&N shows that what a coherent anti-naturalism demands is a
reconception not of empirical reality but of ourselves, to which
a quasi-ethical self-transformation corresponds necessarily.67
The interpretation of naturalism which Sartre proposes is
not extrapolated from reflection on the results of natural sci
ence or on the epistemic virtues of scientific method, but goes
back to an experience, or type of experience, which Sartre
regards both as subtending the whole field of our everyday
consciousness of the world, and as also available to us in a
pure, explicit, acute form. This continuity between ordinary
and exceptional experience is important for Sartre, and inte
gral to the phenomenological method: the special experiential
episode to which Sartre appeals no more involves a transcend
ence of ordinary experience than does Descartes' cogito; it
remains within and intensifies, through isolation, the philo
sophically significant dimension of ordinary experience, and
for that reason qualifies as (or suffices for) a 'metaphysical
intuition'.68 The extra-ordinary experience in question is the
one which Sartre describes famously in Nausea, at the point
where the novel's protagonist finds himself overwhelmed by
the brute, primitive, alien quality of existence displayed by a
tree root:
I was in the municipal park just now. The root of the chest
nut tree plunged into the ground just underneath my bench.
I no longer remembered that it was a root. Words had disap
peared, and with them the meaning of things, the methods
of using them, the feeble landmarks which men have traced
on their surface. I was sitting, slightly bent, my head bowed,
alone in front of that black, knotty mass, which was utterly
crude and frightened me. And then I had this revelation.
It took my breath away. Never, until these last few days,
had I suspected what it meant to 'exist' [. . .] If anybody had
asked me what existence was, I should have replied in good
faith that it was nothing, just an empty form which added
itself to external things, without changing anything in their
nature. And then, all of a sudden, there it was, as clear as
day: existence had suddenly unveiled itself. It had lost its
harmless appearance as an abstract category: it was the very
stuff of things, that root was steeped in existence.
[. . .] It was no use my repeating to myself: 'It is a root' that didn't work any more. I saw clearly that you could not
pass from its function as a root, as a suction pump, to that, to
that hard, compact sea-lion skin, to that oily, horny, stubborn
look. The function explained nothing [ . .] That root, with its
colour, its shape, its frozen movement, was [ ] beneath all
explanation.69
What is crucial here is the heterogeneity of self and object: the
object is not merely distinct from me in the fashion of every
external object, nor merely qualitatively different from me,
but different from me at the most fundamental level, that of its
mode of being, and in such a way as to make the experience one
of antitheticality or repulsion. This apprehension of external
physical reality, in which a perceptual object is apprehended
under the sole, indeterminate concept of its mere existence,
serves as a phenomenological key for Sartre's philosophical
reflection, and can be regarded as containing in nuce the basic
ontology of B&N.
Isn't this a lot to stake on what is, after all, admitted by Sartre
to be, in some sense, an abnormal experience? And even if we
grant that the experience cannot be altogether arbitrary - for
it is hard to see in what way it might be merely a function of
psychological idiosyncrasy or cultural history - can we be
assured that philosophical conclusions derived from it have the
requisite strict universality? Here it is important to appreciate
that Sartre is not pretending to simply read off a metaphysics
from an affectively charged perceptual state: phenomenology
is not empiricism, and the phenomenological method does not
consist in adducing simple empirical warrants. The Nausea
experience discloses its putative metaphysical meaning only in
a prior context of philosophical reflection. Thus Sartre argues
that his interpretation of the Nausea experience is supported
by reflection on the structure of consciousness and displays
what it means for one to be faced with objective reality, and
that it provides insight into the ground of human freedom:
once the separation of sUbjectivity from objectivity has been
grasped clearly and distinctly, we discover a gap, a separation
and alienation, within the self, as per The Transcendence of the
Ego, and it is precisely in this gap, Sartre will argue, that our
freedom consists.
Sartre's approach to naturalism contrasts, therefore, with
that of Kant, for whom the epistemological authority of natural
science belongs with the basic given data from which philo
sophical reflection should precede. Sartre does not include the
legitimation of scientific cognition in his conception of the task
of philosophy. Instead, Sartre traces back the authority of philo
sophical naturalism to an existential source, the foundational
experience of our ordinary empirical realism, and gives this
experience a new, metaphysical interpretation which entails that
the human subject lies outside the sphere of natural science.
One final preliminary point is worth drawing out of the com
parison of Sartre with Kant. For both thinkers, there is a sense,
crucial for human freedom, in which the subject is not a con
tent of the world. For Kant, this extra-mundanity consists first
of all in the transcendental SUbjectivity disclosed by the ana
lysis of empirical knowledge: the subject cannot belong to the
empirical order of nature, in so far as the subject's a priori con
tribution is required in order for that order to be constituted.
The second sense in which for Kant the subject does not belong
to the world - its being a noumenal moral agent - is connected
with, and presupposes, this transcendental identity.
The sense in which the Sartrean subject finds itself recessed
from the world is different: as we have seen, Sartre rejects ideal
ism, and so does not admit a horizontal distinction of levels,
the one pre-mundane and constituting, and the other consti
tuted. Instead, for Sartre the distinction of self and world is a
vertical distinction of domains, corresponding to two different
modes of being, both located on a single level.7 Consequently,
as it might be put, the Kantian subject, in its transcendental
extra-mundanity, encompasses or contains the world, while
the Sartrean subject, though not contained within the world,
encounters it as his equal.'l In this respect, it may be argued
that Sartre has set himself the harder task, that of securing
freedom without recourse to idealism.
This also allows it to be understood why the theme of over
coming the opposition of realism and idealism should be a
prominent structural principle of B&N, invoked in virtually
every major context of discussion. In Sartre's view, while real
ism makes freedom impossible, idealism makes it too easy - and
thus gives a false account of freedom - by virtue of its failure to
appreciate the extent and quality of our immersion in the world:
the objects which surround and bear on us, and in relation to
which our freedom needs to be sustained, are not - as Sartre
supposes they are for Kant - reducible to and functions of our
knowledge of them; the reality of freedom requires that we be
related to objects qua their being, i.e. that objects be known to
be irreducible to our knowledge of them. Navigating between
and beyond realism and idealism is thus necessary for the vindi
cation of freedom, on Sartre's view.
Whether Sartre carries through on his promise to show man's
'autonomy and reality among real objects' remains to be seen.
There is a high degree of consensus regarding the points at which
B&N lies open to criticism. As a perusal of the secondary litera
ture will reveal, essentially the same three major objections are
made to Sartre, with differences of formulation, by the majority
of commentators, and it will help to have these in view from the
outset. They are: (1) that the dualistic ontology of B&N is inco
herent; (2) that Sartre's doctrine of absolute freedom is either
absurd or vacuous; and (3) that Sartre renders axiological nihil
ism unavoidable and thus contradicts himself when he claims
to have provided in B&N a foundation for ethical values.72 The
precise nature of these objections will emerge in due course.
All great structures of thought in the history of philosophy
achieve a kind of pictorial, visionary force, and consequently
allow themselves to be reduced for purposes of rapid reference
to a cluster of images and bold slogans. B&N is no excep
tion, and in the course of its reception and the conversion of
existentialism into a diffuse cultural movement Sartre's early
philosophy has been subjected to exceptional simplification,
not to say vulgarization. It can be argued that Sartre bears
some of the responsibility for this - by virtue of the purple pas
sages in B&N where Sartre gives his literary powers free reign,73
his restatements of his position for non-academic readers and
audiences, and perhaps because his parallel literary work seems
to imply the possibility of grasping his ideas without having to
take the hard route of philosophical prose. The task in reading
B&N is accordingly to restore to Sartre's ideas the subtlety and
complexity which has been stripped away in the course of their
popularization, for it is only then that we can gauge the force
of the standard objections and the scope available for Sartre to
reply to them.
READI N G THE TEXT
(A) TH E BASIC ONTOLOGY
The basis of Sartre's metaphysical position is set out in the
Introduction to B&N, 'The Pursuit of Being' (xxi-xliii/ 1 l -34),
and in Part One, Chapter 1, 'The Origin of Negation'
(3-45/37-84). The Introduction is dense and intricate, and
one of the hardest parts of the work to get clear about. Sartre
operates with a set of maximally abstract terms - 'being', 'phe
nomenon', 'appearance', 'essence', 'trans-phenomenal' - which
undergo a series of combinations and permutations, at times
seeming to lead the reader into an ever-deepening maze. It is
crucial, however, to grasp the moves made by Sartre in the
Introduction, because it is here that Sartre advances a set of
strong metaphysical theses concerning consciousness and its
objects which prove essential for nearly all of the major claims
which Sartre is going to make in B&N: the most striking the
ses of B&N, in particular concerning human freedom, are to
a large extent either amplifications or direct developments of
metaphysical propositions laid down in the Introduction.
Sartre's metaphysical picture reveals itself finally as con
siderably less complicated than the argumentation given in its
support: Sartre's aim in the Introduction is to show that a range
of philosophical problems and puzzles can be resolved through
our acceptance of certain matters as conceptually primitive,
leaving us with an austere and clear-cut ontological structure
which is pregnant with implications for the interpretation of
the human subject.
1 Sartre's conception of phenomenon
[Introduction, Section I]
B&N opens with a statement of the position which, on Sartre's
account, philosophy has reached so far. This is defined by the
conception of 'phenomenon' which Sartre regards as having
emerged from the work of Husserl and Heidegger. The question
which this conception is designed to answer is the following:
What is it for a thing to be given to and grasped by a subject as
having real, objective existence, as transcending the subject? It
might be supposed that the two matters, of something's having
real existence, and of there being for the subject some appear
ance, are fundamentally independent of one another. In that
case, we face the task of yoking together the two concepts in
such a way as to make sense of our claim to be able to know
what is the case, from which a number of traditional epistemo
logical and metaphysical positions are born. The alternative
supposition, articulated and defended in phenomenology, is
that the things to which we attribute objective existence should
be understood as conceptually primitive unities of real existence
and possibilities of appearance: that is, we suppose that it is con
stitutive of something's having real existence, that it should
manifest itself in appearance, and that the phenomenon 'is as it
appears' (xxviI16).
More precisely, real, objective existence reveals itself, not of
course in any finite sum of appearances, but in a particular
mode of appearing, one where each individual appearance of
an object - each presentation to the subject, each case of an
object's seeming to be thus and not otherwise - refers us to an
indefinite number of other possible appearances of that object,
according to some 'law' or 'principle' which makes the series of
appearances non-arbitrary. This law or principle, which unifies
the inexhaustible possibilities of appearance of an object, is at
the same time the object's 'essence', i.e., what makes it a thing
of a particular kind with a particular set of qualities. Thus
in my consciousness of the pen on my desk, the possibility of
an infinity of ordered perceptual experiences of the pen - as
seen, touched, etc., from this angle or that, in one sequence or
another, as dictated by the nature of the object - is given.
This conception of the phenomenon is not argued for in any
detail: Sartre's attitude is that it is already, thanks to Husserl
and Heidegger, well-established, and he concentrates instead
on emphasizing how it disposes of certain problems which
traditionally have been at the centre of philosophical attention;
it in effect does the work of a theory of knowledge. Crucially, it
disposes of the distinction between appearance and reality, and
thus of the Kantian position, as Sartre understands it, according
to which being is 'hidden behind' appearance and appearance
is 'supported by' or grounded in being. In a symmetrical way,
Sartre suggests, the problem of relating particulars and univer
sals falls to the ground: the essence of the object, as much as
the object itself, lies at the level of appearance; the object mani
fests itself, and its essence, at a single stroke. The same goes,
according to Sartre, for the duality of the object's metaphys
ical 'interior' and 'exterior', and for the Aristotelian duality of
'potency and act', potentiality and actuality.
Yet, Sartre argues (xxiii-xxiv/13-14), there is a problem with
the new conception of the phenomenon, which puts in doubt its
claim to dissolve the problems associated with the traditional
dualities, and makes it seem as if these have been merely dis
placed. The analysis thus far 'has replaced the reality of the
thing by the objectivity of the phenomenon' (xxiii/13), and it
has done so on the basis of an appeal to a hypothetical infin
ite series of appearances. But this notion contains a difficulty.
Obviously, in perceiving my pen, no infinity of appearances is
given to me in the same way that any particular appearance the particular perceptual aspect that the pen has for me at
some moment - is given to me; the infinite series does not itself
appear but rather is 'indicated' by the actually given perceptual
aspect. But what makes possible this relation of 'indication'? It
requires an individual perceptual aspect to 'transcend itself'
towards other possible appearances of the object or, to re
express this requirement in subjective terms, the subject to
transcend the given individual perceptual aspect 'toward the
total series of which it is a member' (xxiii/13) (for, as Sartre
notes, it is necessary for me to have at least the idea of the total
ity of appearances of an object, infinite though it may be). And
with this we seem to be back with at least some of the old dual
isms: the object is in one sense contained within, and in another
sense outside of, any given perceptual aspect; it allows itself to
be thought of as a potentiality for actualization in perceptual
aspects; and it is composed of an essence which, it seems, must
be numerically distinct from the individual appearance which
manifests it. The progress we may claim to have made so far,
Sartre concludes, consists in our having got beyond only the
(Kantian) conception of appearance as 'opposed to' being.
2 The phenomenon of being [Introduction, Section I I]
The difficulty acknowledged in Section I - of grasping the
structure of transcendence involved in phenomena, or as Sartre
also puts it, the infinite in the finite - will be readdressed at a
much later point in B&N. In Section II Sartre returns to the
conception of the phenomenon with which he began, and raises
a new issue regarding this conception, consideration of which
leads to a further set of important, ground-clearing results.
To say that phenomena involve a constitutive connection
between real existence and appearance leaves undetermined
the nature of this relation: phenomenology affirms that appear
ance 'has its own being' (xxiv), but it must be asked, What is it
for appearance to 'have' being? How are the concepts of 'being'
and 'appearance' to be coordinated? Sartre's aim in Section II
is to make clearer the unanalysable, primitive unity with which
we are here confronted, by rejecting certain misconceptions of
the being of appearance.
It cannot be supposed that appearances have being in the
same way that sugar is sweet: being is certainly no quality of
things. What may be supposed, however, is that being, since
it is grasped by us as something and not nothing, must be rec
ognized as itself appearing, such that every appearance would
involve the phenomenon of its being (which is to say: not only
does the table appear to me; in addition, there appears to me the
being of the table). Sartre accepts that there is such a thing as
a 'phenomenon of being', noting that the testimony of moods,
such as boredom - in which we take up an attitude towards
'everything that exists', registering it with a specific affect - may
be appealed to as (corroborative) evidence for its phenomeno
logical reality. This marks Sartre's rejection of 'deflationary'
views of being, according to which the concept of being has
no extra-conceptual significance and may be analysed into a
merely logical function. Thus far Sartre is in agreement with
Heidegger. The next question is whether, as Heidegger sup
poses, the phenomenon of being is what constitutes the being
of appearances.
Heidegger, as Sartre interprets him, conceives the phenom
enon of being as something further in the phenomenological
field, over and above the appearances of particular existents,
and answers the question of how the concepts of being and
appearance should be coordinated by postulating a relation
of disclosure between entities and Being, with the subject con
ceived as in some way 'surpassing' the entity in order to grasp
its Being. All of this, however, Sartre rejects, on the grounds
that it makes the appearance's having-of-being relational, and
that any such conception is unintelligible: 'The object does not
possess being, and its existence is not a participation in being,
nor any other kind of :relation. It is. That is the only way to
define its manner of being' (xxv/IS). Sartre supports this with
the following argument: If Being were disclosed by appear
ances, then it would be possible to identify something 'about'
the object that does the disclosing; but this is absurd, and in
any case futile, since on the phenomenological understanding
of objects, if the object is given to the subject, then so too is its
being. This reconfirms the necessary contemporaneity of being
with the possibility of its manifestation: being is of itself imme
diately ready and able to manifest itself (all being is, as Sartre
puts it, etre-pour-devoiler), not something to which the possibil
ity of manifestation needs to be added. Heidegger is thus guilty
of a kind of double counting - it is true that there is a phenom
enon of being, pace deflationism, but false that this constitutes
a further fact about entities requiring further understanding and the attempt in Being and Time's account of Dasein to make
explicit the supplementary, mediating conditions which are
needed for Being to be disclosed, is therefore misguided.74
In rejecting Heidegger's conception of a ('on tic-ontological')
distinction of beings/entities and Being, the elucidation of
which defines the fundamental task of philosophy, Sartre is
rejecting Heidegger's account of what it is for appearances to
have being, but not going back on his affirmation that there
is indeed a 'phenomenon of being'. Certainly we may, Sartre
affirms, reflectively redirect our attention to an object, such as
a table, in order to focus instead on the very fact of its being;
but in that case what we have before us is a new and differ
ent phenomenon, which cannot itself be that which comprises
the being of the phenomenon of the table. So 'the being of the
phenomenon cannot be reduced to the phenomenon of being'
(xxvIl6).
This major negative result - that Heidegger's conception
of philosophy as 'fundamental ontology', enquiry into the
meaning of Being, is misconceived - means that Sartre is still
left with the task of coordinating appearance and being, and of
explaining what should be made of the 'phenomenon of being'.
Sartre proceeds to extract the following further conclusions.
The criticism of Heidegger has shown that the being of
appearances is not made available to us in the form of a phe
nomenon of being, and this means, Sartre claims, that our
relation to the being of appearances cannot be a relation of
knowledge for knowledge, as Sartre understands it, involves
'determining a thing in concepts', and anything that we deter
mine in concepts can only be a phenomenon. The definition
of knowledge employed here is relatively narrow, and contest
able, but Sartre has good reason for drawing the distinction as
he does: Knowledge of an object 0 is possible only if I stand
in some kind of relation to the being of O. But the being of 0
cannot figure for me as an object of knowledge, since the being
of-O is a condition of there being, for me, any object for me to
have any knowledge of; that 0 has being cannot be something
about the object that I know. Sartre's is not, then, the trivial
point that if I know 0, then 0 exists, and that if 0 does not
exist, then I do not know 0; it is the substantial point that the
being of 0 must be somethingfor me in a mode other than that
in which I know anything about O. Our relation to the being
of appearances must be therefore, in Sartre's preferred termin
ology, not epistemological but 'ontological'.
It is however also true that there is such a thing as the phe
nomenon of being: being can be made into a phenomenon;
deflationary accounts of being are false. Sartre shows how this
rules out another, non-Heideggerian way of construing the
relation of being and appearance, namely the supposition of
phenomenalism or idealism that real existence can be reduced to
possibilities of appearance. Ifbeing can appear, can take the form
of a phenomenon, then being cannot consist in phenomenality a phenomenon which manifests nothing but the mere possibility
of phenomena is not intelligible. Being must be, therefore, 'trans
phenomenal': it is false that 'the being of the appearance is its
appearing' (xxvi/16).7s Sartre writes that 'the being of the phe
nomenon, although coextensive with the phenomenon, can not
be subject to the phenomenal condition' (xxvi/16), meaning that,
although all being can manifest itself, it is not because it can do
so that it is (that there is) being . In Section VI Sartre will say
more about the phenomenon of being.
3 Consciousness [Introduction, Section I I I]
Section III begins by resuming the argument with idealism or
phenomenalism. Sartre ascribes the claim that the being of the
appearance is its appearing to Berkeley and (tendentiously) to
Husser!' It might have seemed that idealism has been refuted
already, on the strength of the conclusion in Section II that the
being of the appearance is trans-phenomenal, but Sartre shows
that in truth his business with idealism remains unfinished.
In the first place, Sartre acknowledges that the position he
has defended, with its insistence on the irreducibility of being,
may seem perilously close to classical realism, which he accepts
is highly problematic, and also that idealism has strong attrac
tions, on account of the more economical and straightforward
story that it tells about being and appearance. Second, having
opened up in Section II the question of the relation of theory
of knowledge to ontology, Sartre now wants to consider ideal
ism with respect to a different formulation of its central claim,
namely as maintaining that being can be reduced to the know
ledge which we have of it (xxvi/16), or, that being is 'measured
by knowledge' (xxxiii/24). Finally and most importantly, it may
be objected to Sartre that the earlier argument has not refuted
idealism, because the idealist may reply that, even if it is true
that knowledge of appearances requires trans-phenomenal
being, this trans-phenomenal being need not lie on the side of
appearances: the trans-phenomenal being of the subject can
play the necessary role. The idealist may agree that cognition
and the claiming of it cannot avoid existential commitment that something must provide a 'basis' or 'guarantee' of 'the
being of knowledge' (xxvi/I?), in so far as cognitions them
selves, states of knowing, must be something - but add that
this is provided for within idealism, since the idealist does not
seek to reduce the subject of cognition to appearance. Husserl's
phenomenology does just this, Sartre says, because in referring
knowledge to consciousness, it treats the knower in his capacity
'as being', not as an object of knowledge (xxvii/17). Sartre's earl
ier anti-idealist conclusion is therefore not yet secure. The result
of the resumed argument with idealism is not declared until
Section V, however, and the rest of Section III is devoted to lay
ing down the first planks of Sartre's theory of the subject.76
Following Husserl, and carrying over assumptions from
his own earlier writings,77 Sartre asserts the following theses
regarding consciousness.
(1) Consciousness is necessarily of something: it is the 'posit
ing of a transcendent object', a 'positional consciousness of
the world' (xxvii/17- 18). (Regarding Sartre's terminology: pos
itional consciousness is consciousness with objectual form,
consciousness of 0; thetic consciousness is consciousness with
judgemental or propositional form, consciousness that p.) From
this it follows directly, Sartre supposes, that 'consciousness has
no "content" " and that the notion of anything's being 'in' con
sciousness is necessarily false; the first procedure of philosophy
'ought to be to expel things from consciousness' (xxviiIl8).78
If this seems disputable, on the grounds that it seems not
excluded by consciousness' having objects that it should also
have content, Sartre's point is that consciousness must be
grasped, not just as involving, but as identical with the relation
of 'intending', of going-out-to-grasp, an object; to suppose that
consciousness could also bear a different kind of relation, viz.
that of 'containing' something, would be therefore to change
topic, to talk about a term of some relation and not the relating
that consciousness is. (We begin to see here that consciousness
as Sartre understands it is by no means the same as what we com
monsensically call 'the mind'. It is also noteworthy that Sartre's
explicit reasons for expelling content from consciousness have
nothing to do with avoiding the epistemological problems cre
ated by the traditional doctrine of the 'veil of ideas', although
of course Sartre is well aware that his position disposes of the
need for an account of how 'representations' latch onto worldly
objects.79)
(2) Consciousness is necessarily a consciousness ofitself, a pre
reflective self-consciousness Sartre calls it conscience (de) soi in
order to indicate the peculiarity of the 'relation' involved. This
notion is innovative and differs importantly, Sartre explains,
from any claim regarding the epistemology of the mental. It is
a commonplace of Cartesianism that, if I am conscious of an
object 0, then I know that I am conscious of 0. But this is not
what Sartre is claiming when he says that consciousness is self
conscious: Sartre envisions this structure as the prior ground
of the sUbject's knowledge of its own consciousness, as what
makes self-knowledge possible.
Sartre's argument for supposing that a self-relating of
consciousness must be assumed begins with a reductio
(xxviii/IS-19). Suppose we identify self-consciousness in gen
eral with self-knowledge (as does, Sartre supposes, Spinoza:
self-consciousness consists in 'knowing of a knowing', an
'idea of a idea'). The knowledge relation imports, however,
Sartre observes, a distinction of subject (knower) and object
(of knowledge), and this immediately generates, in the case of
self-knowledge, the question: How does the subject of know
ledge know its identity with the object of knowledge? More
precisely: How does it know this identity in the requisite dis
tinctive, infallible and immediate way? For we need to respect
the obvious and fundamental differences between knowing
that 1 am in pain or am seeing a pen, and knowing that the
Evening Star is identical with and shares the properties of
the Morning Star: consciousness of one's self as o nes elf is not
in any way an ordinary case of coming to conclude that one
thing is the same as another.
Now it might be supposed that the traditional notion of an
'act of reflection', conceived as the mind's turning-back of atten
tion on itself, answers this question. But as Sartre notes, appeal
to reflection, la rej1exion, merely restates the puzzle: What
allows the '!' of my reflection, or my consciousness of that 'I', to
know itself to be the same as - to be identical with the subject
of - the consciousness which is reflected on? It seems we are
pushed to introduce a 'third term', which does know their iden
tity; but then the relation of this third, 'super'-I to the previous
two terms needs to be accounted for, and an infinite regress
is set in motion. Any account which takes self-knowledge to
be ungrounded runs, therefore, into insurmountable difficul
ties , the only solution to which is to suppose that, just as we
accept in the case of knowledge of objects that there must be
something prior on which it is grounded, viz. consciousness of
objects, so in parallel fashion we should allow a pre-epistemic
ground of self-knowledge.80 A primitive self-relatedness or
self-inclusiveness of object-consciousness would explain the
immediacy of the transition that we are able to make from
pre-reflective world-absorbed consciousness to reflective con
sciousness of ourselves.
Sartre gives also an argument (xxix/19-20) showing that,
even if it were granted that an act of reflection is what explains
sufficiently the possibility of self-knowledge, absurdities
result unless we suppose a pre-reflective self-consciousness.
If pre-reflective self-consciousness does not exist, then certain
ordinary cognitive achievements become unintelligible. Take
the case where I count twelve cigarettes, and come up with the
answer '12'. For each cigarette counted, there is a correspond
ing object-consciousness (consciousness of the first cigarette,
consciousness of the second and so on). But if these twelve
object-consciousnesses were not already self-conscious, then I
would need to count them in turn, in order to reach the result
'12' - which, even if the idea of counting consciousness were
intelligible, is clearly not what ordinary cognition of quantity
involves, and in any case will not avoid the regress, since the
second-order reflective consciousnesses themselves will need
to be counted. Again the upshot is that in order for the unity
of the subject to be intelligible, something must mediate the
relation between positional object-consciousness and reflective
awareness, and this something cannot itself be either a pos
itional object-consciousness or an act of reflection.
Though Sartre does not spell it out, there is a broader ration
ale underlying and motivating his thesis of pre-reflective
consciousness, which is independent from the case that he
makes regarding the need for self-knowledge to be made intelli
gible. How are we to think of consciousness? What concept can
we form of it, and on what basis must the concept be formed?
It is essential, in order for consciousness to be what it is, that it
be differentiated (in the right way) from everything else, since
everything is to be a transcendent object for it, is to count for
it as 'world'. Now the basis on which this differentiation occurs
cannot be external to consciousness itself - for if it were, then
consciousness would (absurdly) need to consult transcendent
states of affairs in order to know itself to be consciousness. It
follows that any distinction that we draw between one part of
reality and another, which does not already incorporate the
function internal to consciousness whereby it sets itself over
and against the world, cannot succeed as a conceptualiza
tion of consciousness. Our concept of consciousness must be,
therefore, the concept of something which differentiates itself
from its objects and is conscious of itself as doing so that is,
of something which has pre-reflective self-consciousness. The
very conditions under which we can think or form a concept of
consciousness entail, therefore, consciousness' reflexivity.sl
(3) Consciousness is autonomous and an absolute, but a non
substantial absolute which does not provide its own foundation
(xxxi-xxxiil22-3). The first part of this claim we have seen
already in The Transcendence of the Ego, and in B&N Sartre
reiterates the point that 'it is impossible to assign to a con
sciousness a motivation other than itself and that it exhibits
'determination of itself by itself (xxxi/22), but here Sartre gives
it support, by showing how it follows from his previous theses
regarding consciousness: Anything that might be supposed to
determine or motivate consciousness must stand in some rela
tion to consciousness, but nothing can stand in a relation to
consciousness without being its object (because consciousness
i s intentionality) and without there being conscious of this rela
tion (because consciousness is pre-reflectively self-conscious);
so nothing can determine consciousness from its outside
(heteronomously) without being taken up and converted into
consciousness' self-determination (autonomy).
Autonomy concerns the form that something takes once it
has existence, and so leaves open the thing's conditions and
causes of existence, but Sartre comes close to saying also that
consciousness' existence is self-derived: 'la conscience existe
par soi', consciousness is an 'existence par soi' (xxxi-xxxii/22;
translated by Barnes as 'The existence of consciousness comes
from consciousness itself and 'self-activated existence'). This
follows, Sartre implies, for the same reason that conscious
ness is necessarily autonomous - nothing could stand in the
relation 'cause of existence' to consciousness without being an
instance of consciousness - but Sartre shows that it also follows
from the premise (which his earlier argument has also secured)
that consciousness is radically onto logically original, that is, that
there is no higher concept under which it falls. It would make
sense to think of consciousness as having been brought into
being by some non-conscious cause only if its possibility were
written into the order of things, prior to its genesis (such that
its essence would precede its existence). But consciousness is
not a species of any genus on Sartre's account - there is no
general 'kind of thing' of which it is one instance - and this
means that the notion of an order within which the transition
could be made from consciousness' potentiality to its actuality
collapses.
But there is a complication here which it is very important to
deal with.82 If it were true without qualification that conscious
ness makes itself exist, then it would be a self-cause, ens causa sui,
and by the rules of traditional metaphysics, this would give con
sciousness a sufficient defining property of God. To avoid this
implication - which would put Sartre among the absolute ideal
ists, and in addition conflict with the (oblique) account that, we
will see in 9, he does later give of the genesis of consciousness a further distinction is needed. The existential self-activatedness
which Sartre wants to allow consciousness is really just a combin
ation of its autonomy with the negative property of not coming or
being derived from anything, and this is distinct from the much
stronger property of unconditional existential self-sufficiency, i.e.
of being such as to exist whether or not anything else exists. The
latter - substantiality in the full traditional sense or what Sartre
calls 'being its own foundation' - is not ascribed by Sartre to
consciousness: it does not follow from anything that he has yet
claimed, and speaking against it is the fact that consciousness is
not conscious of itself as an act of bestowing existence on itself.
For this reason, Sartre says that caution is required in speaking
of consciousness as 'cause of self' (xxxi/22, although he continues
to do so, e.g. at x1l32.)
Note that these two properties could not be held apart, if for
everything that exists there is a sufficient reason for its exist
ing: under that traditional assumption, the weaker property
entails the stronger, else we have a violation of the metaphys
ical order of things. But Sartre pointedly and explicitly refuses
unrestricted application to the principle of sufficient reason:
the existence of consciousness is an absolute contingency. The
non-substantiality of consciousness thus has two senses, which
are connected: it refers both to the contingency of the existence
of consciousness, and to its being pure appearance without a
hidden supporting substratum.
4 Against esse est percipi [Introduction, Section IV]
By the end of Section III, it may seem that idealism has been
vindicated, since Sartre - whatever qualifications he may want
to add regarding consciousness' self-causation - appears to
have defended the idealistic conception of the subject as abso
lute. And yet Section IV begins with the declaration that 'we
have escaped idealism' (xxxiii).
The idealism from which we have escaped, however, is only
that which seeks to reduce being in general to known being,83 and
Sartre makes it clear that we have still not escaped from the pos
ition - which he attributes to HusserI, and which also deserves
the name of idealism - according to which trans-phenomenal
being is the prerogative of the subject, and objects of conscious
ness are reducible to appearances. Sections IV and V aim to
demolish this position. Section V will offer a positive argument
for the trans-phenomenality of the objects of consciousness.
Section IV, less ambitiously but as a necessary preparation for
the argument of Section V, seeks to show the unintelligibility of
Berkeley's phenomenalist-idealist formula for objects of con
sciousness, that their esse is their percipi.
At an absolute minimum, Sartre points out, and grant
ing the phenomenalist-idealist that we should only talk of
objects 'as perceived', a distinction must be acknowledged
between the (perceived) object of consciousness, and the
knowledge of it or the synthesis that reveals it; otherwise know
ledge of a table becomes knowledge of consciousness (and all
object-consciousness becomes reflection, an absurdity). This is
enough to ensure that there is some question concerning the
being of the table. Since a direct reduction through identity the table is this subjective impression; or, the being of the table
is the being of consciousness - is ruled out, the phenomenalist
idealist reduction should be expressed, Sartre suggests, as the
claim that the being of the table is relative to the being of the
perceiving subject.
In addition to its relativity, the being of the table on the
phenomenalist-idealist analysis is also passive - necessarily
perception is something, as it were, done to the table, not some
thing the table does - and this notion, Sartre argues, harbours
incoherence. We can speak of 'passive being' when and only
when an object can be thought of as being affected - that is,
R EADING THE TEXT
as undergoing modifications the nature of which is determined
by how the object is - and so as being something in itself. The
phenomenalist-idealist cannot allow this conception of the
object as supporting its modifications, as having a being which
is the foundation of its affections. In addition and independ
ently, Sartre argues, the metaphysical transaction envisaged by
the phenomenalist-idealist, whereby consciousness acts on the
object in such a way as to give it being or make it be - in a sense
which must go beyond continual creation of the object, since a
subject aware of itself as engaged in such activity 'can not have
even an illusion of getting out of his subjectivity' (xxxiv/2S) implies an incoherent conception of consciousness: like a hand
which can crush only on the condition that it can be crushed,
consciousness could pass on being to a unity of appearance
only if consciousness could in turn find itself acted on; inter
action is possible only on the condition of reciprocity. And to
suppose this is to contradict the unassailable, non-negotiable
insight that consciousness is 'all activity, all spontaneity'
(xxxv/26). (Sartre suggests that it is in response to this problem
that Husserl introduced his notion of hy/e the matter or stuff
of synthesis - but to incoherent effect, since Husserl requires it
to exhibit attributes of both consciousness and a thing.84)
So it can be concluded: 'The trans-phenomenal being of con
sciousness cannot provide a foundation for the trans-phenomenal
being of the phenomenon' (xxxvi/27).
5 Sartre's 'ontological proof' [Introduction, Section V]
Section V contains an argument which Sartre, echoing
Descartes, calls the 'ontological proof. Its proximal target
is, again, phenomenalism-idealism: it claims to show that the
being of the object of consciousness is trans-phenomenal, but
for a different reason from that given in Section IV. The being
of consciousness, Sartre now claims, implies this directly. The
remote target is scepticism regarding the external world: if the
argument is sound, then such scepticism is in error. The argu
ment is as simple as, Sartre tries to show, it is irresistible:
There is an 'ontological proof to be derived not from the
reflective cogito but from the pre-reflective being of the per
cipiens [= perceiving] [ ] Consciousness is consciousness of
something. This means that transcendence is the constitu
tive structure of consciousness; that is, that consciousness is
born supported by a being which is not itself. This is what we
call the ontological proof. (xxxvi-xxxvii/27-8)
This combination of simplicity with (claimed) argumentative
force is tantalizing, and demands interpretation.
Here is one way of understanding the ontological proof.
Earlier we noted that for Sartre consciousness must be con
ceived internally and perspectivally. Now it is also part of
the perspective of consciousness, Sartre is maintaining, that
it abuts being (which, Section IV has shown, must be trans
phenomenal). What makes this argument quite different from
either G. E. Moore's famous 'two hands' proof of the reality
of the external world, or any defence of direct realism on the
grounds that it is the theory of perception embedded in com
mon sense, is that it appeals, as Sartre insists, to pre-reflective
consciousness. It shares with Moore's argument and the dir
ect realist argument the idea that cognition of external reality
involves no inference, but it differs in that it focuses, not on
reflective judgements - that 'I perceive 0' and that this very
judgement is of the very highest epistemic quality - but on the
conditions under which consciousness is (correctly) conceivable.
In consequence of its transcendental and perspectival charac
ter, Sartre's proof is easy either to either miss (it can seem to
be no argument at all) or to mischaracterize (it can seem to be
merely dogmatic, either a mere repetition of Moore's gesture
or a bare unsupported assertion that the reality of the external
world is given experientially).
The crux of Sartre's proof is that any thought that I enter
tain according to which there is (or even could be) a 'gap' or
cognitive shortfall in my consciousness of external reality pre
supposes some sort of objectification of an item located at my
end of the subj ect-world relation - since it involves my reflect
ing that this representation (or belief-state or mental content or
whatever) of mine fails to latch onto the reality whose image it
contains or in the direction of which it is intended - and thereby,
on Sartre's terms, indicts itself. Sartre's counter-claim is that
consciousness grasps itself pre-reflectively in terms of the item
on which it terminates, which are terms of trans-phenomenal
being, and so, for reasons given earlier, cannot be conceived
as allowing for the possibility of failing to reach its epistemic
target. The perspective of consciousness reverses that of scep
tical reflection.
But, it may be asked, what guarantees that in some particu
lar case 'that-on-which-my-consciousness-terminates' belongs
to external reality? What of dreams and hallucinations, i.e.
states in which the intentional object of consciousness is noth
ing externally real? Even if Sartre is right about how things
look from the perspective of consciousness, doesn't that just
mean that, when reflection (of the sort found in Descartes'
First Meditation) fails to support the deliverances of this
perspective, we have epistemic conflict, hence grounds for
scepticism? Why does Sartre consider that the perspective of
pre-reflective consciousness overrides and silences the results
of reflection?
A full reconstruction of Sartre's ontological proof would
mobilize the following essential points. First, it is to be recalled
that on Sartre's account nothing needs to be added to con
sciousness of 0 in order for 0 to be determined as belonging
to external reality, in so far as the distinction of self and not
self is already articulated with the pre-reflective distinction
of consciousness and object. Second, Sartre's view is (as noted
earlier) that consciousness of unrealities is derivative from and
dependent on consciousness of reality, and Sartre has an inde
pendent set of arguments for the theory of imagination from
which this claim follows.
Third, Sartre expands the ontological proof by returning
to the earlier, Husserlian thesis that the potential infinity of
an object's perceptual appearances is the mark of its object
ive being. Sartre endorses Husserl's 'appeal to the infinite',
in the sense that he agrees that it captures what it is like for
consciousness to have an object which possesses objective
being: it captures the phenomenological realization of that
state of affairs. (Its role, note, goes deeper than that of an
epistemic criterion: a potential infinity of appearances is
not that-by-reference-to-which we may tell whether or not
our consciousness is veridical. For Sartre, to think that we
need a 'way of telling' is already to have made a mistake.)
What Sartre presses Husserl on is the question of what makes
this structure possible: the infinity of appearances to which
Husserl appeals are of course not given as actual subjective
impressions but as absent; from which it follows, by the ideal
ist principle that 'consciousness is constitutive of the being of
the object' (xxxvi/27), that 0 has objective being if 0 exists as
a lack in my subjectivity; and this leaves it unexplained how
my consciousness of 0 takes itself to (i) 'come out of the sub
jective', in order to (ii) attain 0 as 'a presence, not an absence'
(xxxvii/28). (It in addition generates a metaphysical paradox:
'how can non-being be the foundation of being?', xxxvii/28.)
The only thing which can make intelligible the structure
whereby consciousness seems to transcend itself towards an
object in its presence is the trans-phenomenal being of the
object. (A sceptic who goes so far as to deny that he at least
takes himself at the most primitive level to escape from his
subjectivity has, note, lost the argument, for he has avowed
implicitly that he can be conscious of things only as mental
images, and whatever we make of this, it means that we no
longer share with him' a condition, the correct epistemological
interpretation of which we are arguing about.)8S
Finally, the pre-reflective perspective trumps reflective
scepticism because consciousness is primordial and reflection
secondary - without object-directed first-order consciousness,
reflection could not occur - and because, having retrieved
the perspective of pre-reflective consciousness, we are able to
understand sceptical reflection as based on an error. It is quite
true that I can always continue to think, without any awareness
of epistemic inconsistency, that my reflective sceptical judge
ments have an authority which my pre-reflective consciousness
lacks, as Descartes does, but this is just what the ontological
proof tells us to expect - since it tells us that there cannot be
anything at the reflective plane which could count as evidence
for a relation to a real external object. So in a sense, once the
ontological proof has been explained, there is nothing more to
be said in reply to the sceptic who continues to ask how we
can know for sure that some instance of external consciousness
is veridical; but we can attribute our inability to say anything
more to the impossibility of satisfying the presupposition of
the sceptic's question, his demand that reflection determine a
matter which, in fact, it could not be reflection's business to
determine (it is as if the sceptic were asking for reflection to
produce a real object).
6 Being-in-itself and being-for-itself
[Introduction, Section VI]
With both realism and idealism officially dispatched, Sartre
returns to the 'phenomenon of being' discussed in Section II,
which he claims we can now grasp correctly. All of the informa
tion about being that we can derive from this phenomenon - and
all that there is to the being of phenomena - is contained in the
startlingly bare propositions that it (1) 'is (est)', (2) 'is in itself (est
en so!)' and (3) 'is what it is (est ce qu'i/ est)' (xlii/34). The point
of these strange formulae is neither to describe informatively
nor to assert analytic truths regarding this being, but to alert
us to the special, un-ordinary, negative character of its rela
tion to concepts and judgement. The copula, in its application
to the being of the phenomenon, serves merely as a pointer or
expressive sign - it indexes being, or expresses the fact of con
sciousness' confrontation with it - and Sartre's propositions
are designed to show us that this use of the copula (i) exhausts
the function of thought with respect to this being, and (ii) does
so because it exhausts being: thought is here at its limit, but
the limit is also that of being. (Just as subject-predicate form is
missing from the subjective pole of the subject-object relation,
so too is it absent - for different, opposed reasons, and in an
inverse sense - from its opposite, objective pole.)
The sense of Sartre's three propositions are that the being of
the phenomenon exists without reason or justification: neither
God nor natural law can account for it; because it simply 'is',
we cannot even describe it as 'uncreated', nor as self-creating;
it is an absolute plenitude, self-identical, complete without
consciousness; the basic conceptual categories of activity and
passivity, negation and differentiation, possibility and neces
sity, do not apply to it; it is beyond becoming and not subject
to temporality (xlii/33 -4). Its fully identical being - express
ible as 'A is N - means that it 'exists in an infinite compression
with an infinite density': it requires no synthetic unification,
since its unity 'disappears and passes into identity' (74/1 16).
Sartre designates it 'being-in-itself', while observing that
the hint of reflexivity ('itself') is strictly misleading (76/1 18).
Because it is beyond reason and modality in the sense that it
cannot be thought as justified or necessitated or made pos
sible by anything, being-in-itself is - in a special, absolute
sense, to be contrasted with ordinary, relative judgements of
contingency contingent. (Note how, for all of these reasons,
being-in-itself is not 'matter'.)
The reason why being-in-itself is beyond explanation is,
Sartre emphasizes, not that our cognitive capacities are thus
and not otherwise: it 'has nothing to do with our position in
relation to it; it is not that we are obliged to apprehend it and
to observe it because we are "without" [. . .] The in-itself has no
secret' (xlii/33).
The trans-phenomenal being of phenomena is therefore
being-in-itself, [' etre-en-soi (xxxix/31). In all respects it stands
opposed to the trans-phenomenal being which we have dis
covered in consciousness, to which Sartre now gives the name
'being-for-itself', I' etre-pour-soi. The metaphysical character of
being-for-itself is the inverse of that of being-in-itself: as Part
Two of B&N will explain, being-for-itself is defined as 'being
what it is not and not being what it is', being which 'has to be
what it is (a it etre ce qu'il est)' (xli/33).
Sartre indicates how his account of being-in-itself contra
dicts Heidegger. Heidegger considers that our relation to
Being precipitates the question of the meaning or sense,
Sinn, of this Being; Sartre denies that it is either necessary or
possible to 'pass beyond' being-in-itself 'towards its mean
ing' (xxxix/30). There is a deeper purpose to Sartre's closing
down of Heidegger's question of Being. Heidegger's concep
tion of the relation of Dasein to Being implies that Being in
some sense needs human being, and in asserting the primacy
of the indissoluble, unanalysable, fused whole of 'Dasein's
being-in-the-world', Heidegger guarantees a limit to Dasein's
alienation - whatever the errors and lapses of Dasein, Being
always belongs properly to Dasein, as Dasein does to Being,
and the possibility remains in principle, however remote it may
be in practice, that Dasein can make itself at home in Being.
This is metaphysical optimism of a sort, and it is ruled out by
Sartre: if being-in-itself exhausts itself in Sartre's three theses
and has no secret, then the world qua its being is uncondition
ally indifferent to human concerns.
7 Being as a whole [Introduction, Section VI, xlii-xliii/34]
The Introduction closes with a set of questions, with which
Sartre launches formally the enquiry which follows in B&N:
What is the deeper meaning of these two types of being? For
what reasons do they both belong to being in general? What
is the meaning of being in so far as it includes within itself
these two radically separated regions of being? If idealism
and realism both fail to explain the relations which in fact
unite these regions which in theory are without communi
cation, what other solution can we find for this problem?
(xliii/34)
Or as Sartre puts it when he resumes the issue slightly later, at
the beginning of the chapter on nothingness (3-4/37-8): 'What is
the synthetic relation which we call being-in-the-world?', 'What
must man and the world be in order for a relation between them
to be possible?' (4/38). As this makes clear, the notion that being
forms an intelligible whole which philosophy can be expected
to elucidate is entirely reasonable, since we do in fact discover
a relation between the two regions of being over and above that
of mere intentional consciousness, namely our 'being-in-the
world' ('this totality which is man-in-the-world', 4/38).
The peculiarity of the relation of for-itself to in-itself, the
difference of Sartre's understanding of our 'being-in-the-world'
from that of Heidegger, and the difficulty which this poses for
the notion that being forms a 'whole', deserve emphasis.
Sartre talks of the 'upsurge' Uaillissement, surgissement) of
the for-itself, of the for-itself as 'the absolute event', something
that 'happens to' (arrive a) being-in-itself, 'the only possible
adventure of the In-itself' (216-17/268-9). These metaphors and
syntactic forms express a point of fundamental importance
to Sartre. Our ordinary conception of the world is that of an
abiding entity or structure encompassing a series of changes
and events, one of which is the coming into existence of human
beings. Sartre rejects the notion that our coming to exist is
one event in the world's history by denying that the for-itself
can be brought under any antecedent metaphysical category
other than that of being: no metaphysical category provided
for by being-in-itself is adequate to conceive the for-itself;
being-in-itself contains no conceptual anticipation of being
for-itself. Sartre accordingly identifies being-for-itself with
the advent of a new metaphysical category, that of an event,
such that being-for-itself is related to being-in-itself as event
hood is to substantiality. (To employ an analogy, being-for-itself
is related to being-in-itself as a spatial direction is related to
an inert material body the direction does not come from the
body and neither affects nor can be affected by it, yet cannot
be thought without it.) Sartre's insistence that the two onto
logically heterogeneous types of being are metaphysically at an
angle to one another reiterates of course his anti-naturalism
but it also reflects a disagreement with Heidegger: to be sure,
the human subject is for Sartre, as it is for Heidegger, necessar
ily 'in-the-world', but the world which it is in (we will see in 12)
is only a correlate of the upsurge which the for-itself is; so the
preposition 'in' carries, for Sartre, no Heideggerean connota
tion of our belonging to any trans-human ontological order.
Sartre will return to the question of the sense in which being
comprises a whole in the Conclusion (see 46). The following
points are to be noted. First, the fact that Sartre poses the ques
tion of the whole of being at all, and privileges it as the leading
question and outermost frame of the discussion in B&N, shows
how close Sartre's concerns are to traditional metaphysics, and
how B&N is intended as more than a philosophical anthro
pology: even though it is man who comprises 'the ultimate
meaning' of the two types of being, Sartre wants to show man's
metaphysical pre-eminence in the light of being in general.
Second, it is striking that, in rejecting realism and idealism as
solutions, Sartre is asserting, in a way that no earlier traditional
system of metaphysics is prepared to countenance, that there is
an important sense in which reality fails ultimately to cohere
as a whole. We will consider where this leaves Sartre when we
return to the question of being as a whole in 46.
8 Ontological relations and epistemology
The notion of an ontological relation which we saw Sartre
introduce in Section II in contrast with relations of knowledge
and which he employed in the ontological proof of Section V,
deserves comment, as does the more general stance towards
epistemology which Sartre adopts in B&N, since this can seem
to exhibit a certain ambiguity: as the discussion of the ontologi
cal proof has shown already, there is scope for reading Sartre as
offering either an original argument in favour of a direct realist
theory of knowledge, or a 'dissolution' whereby the existence of
any epistemological problem is denied.86
Ontological relations are conceived by Sartre as a type of
relation more primitive than relations of cognition, but which
cognition presupposes and on which cognition supervenes.
Considered from the point of view of the cognition they enable,
ontological relations are such that the cognitions to which they
give rise - the epistemic access which they facilitate of the one
term to the other - is due to nothing more than the sheer being
of each item. Notions of justification do not have application
to ontological relations as such, though ontological relations
are correlated with epistemic states possessing the attributes of
certainty and indubitability. (It would be a mistake, note, to
think that the concept of an ontological relation just is that of
a privileged epistemic relation, since the whole point of talking
of ontological relations is to explain how such epistemic rela
tions are possible.) The form of the cognitions which supervene
immediately on ontological relations is, furthermore, that of a
primitive intentional 'relatedness to the object', not the complex
form of a judgement of an object, i.e. it is the form of positional
rather than thetic consciousness.
Sartre's notion of an ontological relation may be under
stood in the light of Heidegger's critique of HusserI: Heidegger
objects to HusserI that the most basic forms of intentionality
cannot have a cognitive character and so cannot have the char
acter of consciousness; Sartre concurs with Heidegger that
basic intentionality is non-cognitive, but he upholds Hussed's
identification of intentionality with consciousness, thus reject
ing Heidegger's thesis that the basic forms of intentionality are
pragmatic.87 (Sartre comments critically on Heidegger's 'sup
pression' of the dimension of consciousness at 7311 1 5-16 and
85/128.)
From all this we can see that the ambiguity ofSartre's position
vis a vis epistemological problems does not mask any inconsist
ency, and also why it should resist disambiguation. The turn to
ontology in Sartre is not, as it is in Heidegger, a turning away
from epistemological issues as ill-formed or nonsensical, as
part of a broader repudiation of traditional philosophy: epis
temological motives are on Sartre's agenda, and he uses the
inability of other philosophical accounts to solve epistemo
logical problems as an argument for his own ontology. But in
remaining with consciousness Sartre takes a step further than
HusserI away from traditional epistemology: the transcenden
tal perspective of consciousness which Sartre uses to ground
his ontology at the same time disposes, he holds, of the gap
which epistemological theory attempts to close.88 From this
results the doubling-up just described of ontological relations
(theorized by Sartre) and epistemological relations (for which
Sartre offers no positive theory, but for which, he believes, none
is needed).
The strategy of invoking the primacy of ontological rela
tions - and of charging rival positions with the methodological
error of assuming the 'primacy of knowledge' - will be rede
ployed at key junctures in B&N, in particular regarding other
minds (see 27-29), and in the chapter on transcendence, where
Sartre gives his account of the nature of knowledge, the concep
tion of knowledge as an ontological relation will be filled out
(see 19). The ontological relations which. are of central interest
in B&N - which concern the structure of the for-itself or its
relations to the in-itself, and which double with epistemological
relations - are negative and internal. An internal negation, une
negation interne, is a relation between two beings such 'that the
one which is denied to the other qualifies the other at the heart
of its essence - by absence. The negation becomes then a bond
of essential being since at least one of the beings on which it
depends is such that it points towards the other' (175/223; see
also 86/129). Note that negative ontological relations are not
themselves equivalent to (though they may support) relations of
negative judgement of one being by another (such a reduction
would reassert the primacy of knowledge). Internal negations
may furthermore exhibit a dynamic character, whereby the
agency of one term of an ontological relation modifies, without
any need of a causal intermediary or any 'representation' of the
one by the other, the being of the other: an internal negation
is 'a synthetic, active connection of the two terms, each one of
which constitutes itself by denying that it is the other' (252/310).
External negations, in which the relation leaves untouched the
being of the terms related - e.g. the newspaper's not being the
table on which it lies - pertain to objective empirical truth
(185/234). (To complete the taxonomy: as we will see in 41
regarding the relation of 'possession', internal ontological rela
tions are not exclusively negative.)
9 The metaphysics of nothingness
[Part One, Chapter 1 , 3-24/37-60]
The basic ontology of being-in-itself and being-for-itself, which
we have just been considering, is not complete until Sartre has
added to it his metaphysics of nothingness. This is contained in
the first half of Chapter I of Part One (3-24/37-60). The rest of
Chapter 1 (24-45/60-84), and Chapter 2 of Part One, in which
the metaphysics of nothingness are developed into a theory of
freedom, we will come back to in 32 and 37.
Sartre's central claims are that nothingness belongs to the
fabric of reality, and that the possibility of real nothingness
is explained by the identity of consciousness with nothing
ness. Sartre's argument for the theory can be understood as
proceeding in four stages: (1) Negation is an irreducible and
necessary component and condition of cognition, but cannot
be reduced to a function of judgement. (2) Negation is onto
logically real: its reality is attested phenomenologically, for we
discover nothingness as a concrete object of experience. (3) The
reality of nothingness must be regarded as deriving from con
sciousness' power to negate. (4) Consideration of other theories
of nothingness - those of Hegel and Heidegger - leads us to
conclude that consciousness has the power to negate because
consciousness is nothingness. Finally, as a postscript to the
theory, Sartre makes a speculative suggestion regarding the
origin of the for-itself.
(1) The starting point of Sartre's argument is that negation which we can understand at the outset in neutral terms, as
meaning simply the thinking of things in terms that involve
'not' - is omnipresent in and necessary for our cognition of the
world. Sartre shows this initially with reference to the concept
of a question. Questioning, Sartre points out, presupposes neg
ations, including the ignorance, not-knowing, of the questioner,
and the possibility of a negative reply. Since everything that can
be thought is potentially either the subject of a question or the
answer to a question, everything thinkable is connected logic
ally to actual or possible negations. Sartre includes furthermore
under the heading of interrogative attitudes not just cognitive
enquiry but all practical undertakings, since all dealings with
things have the structure of interrogations: to anything that I
attempt - e.g. to mend the car by checking the carburettor the world may reply with a 'no' (7/42).
Consideration of questioning leads to further observations
demonstrating the ubiquity and ineliminability of negation. In
the first place, there are particular concepts which are required
for a complete description of the world, such as failure,
destruction and fragility, which have an irreducibly negative
component: to fail is to not-succeed, to destroy is to cause
something to-be-no-longer (8/42-3), to be fragile is to exhibit
a probability of no-longer-being under certain circumstances
(8/43). In these cases, as in the context of questioning, some
relation to human subjectivity is involved, Sartre argues: even
in the case of fragility, a human subject is required to relate
the object in its actual state to a projected possible future state
(recall here the earlier account of being-in-itself as 'beyond
negation'). Taking a step further, Sartre makes negation a tran
scendental condition of cognition: every concept and act of
thought, Sartre argues, involves negation. Negation is presup
posed in the application of any concept, either in individuating
an object or in predicating something of it: to judge that X is F
is to determine X as distinct from, i.e. not being the same as, Y,
etc. Determination of a spatial distance, for example, involves
the determination of limits and thus negation (20-1/56 -7).
Negation is necessary, therefore, for consciousness of a world
of individuated, determinately propertied objects: I continually
use negations 'to isolate and determine existents, i.e., to think
them' (27/64); negation is 'the cement which realises' the uni
ties of cognition (21/57). To express this transcendental claim
in terms of the concept of truth: 'truth, as differentiated from
being, introduces' non-being, for if (it is judged that) something
is true, then (it is judged that) the world is 'thus and not other
wise' (5/40). Or in terms of knowledge: 'What is present to me
is what is not me', and 'this "non-being" is implied a priori in
every theory of knowledge' (173/222).
(2) The omnipresence and necessity of negation is there
fore relatively easy to show - it is, in fact, accepted by anyone
who subscribes to the traditional metaphysical formula, omnis
determinatio est negatio. The harder task for Sartre is to show
that negation amounts to something more than a feature of
thought or judgement, given that the natural, default concep
tion of negation is of something SUbjective. Common sense, in
characteristically proto-naturalistic manner, equates reality
with everything that is, implying that negation belongs only to
our thinking about things, not to things themselves.89 And this
may seem to be supported squarely by the point, which Sartre
has conceded, that negation is conditional upon human being,
that some relation to a possibility of human action or cogni
tion is required for negation to appear. Accordingly, on the
judgemental account we will conceive negation as a 'quality of
judgement' (6/40) - the employment of the category of negation
in an act of judgement or thought - and the concept of noth
ingness will be understood as merely the 'unity' of all negative
judgements (6/40-1).
Sartre attacks this view in the first instance on the grounds
that, as the case of questioning shows, our involvement with
negation extends beyond the reach of judgement: in wondering
whether or not p, I do not judge that I am ignorant of the truth
of p, and yet this consciousness is presupposed by my interro
gation. We have, as Sartre puts it, 'immediate comprehension
of non-being' (8/42), a 'preiudicative comprehension' (9/44) of
negation, and it is impossible, even in principle, for these pre
judicative comprehensions to be converted collectively into
judgements. Second, and connectedly, Sartre insists on the
point that negations are not given to us as subjective - the pos
sibility of an object's breaking, or its having been destroyed,
are given to me as in the world, as 'an objective fact and not
a thought' (9/44). Third, Sartre asks what on the judgemental
account gives basic intelligibility to the category of negation,
on the supposition that 'all is plenitude of being and positiv
ity': If everything that reality contains, inclusive of our mental
states, is of a positive character, how can 'we even conceive of
the negative form of judgement' (11/46)?
These points are forceful, but probably insufficient to force a
rejection of the judgemental theory, on behalf of which it may
be said that, so long as we treat negation as an a priori category
(or innate idea), no account of how it gains its intelligibility is
owing, and that in cases such as those of destruction and fragil
ity, a distinction may be drawn between the events themselves,
the reconfigurations of matter which are indeed in-the-world,
and our negative modes of thinking of them, which are not.
What allows us to 'decide with certainty' against the judge
mental theory (9/44), Sartre claims, is the fact that nothingness
assumes concrete forms. The famous, forceful illustration
Sartre gives in support of his phenomenological claim that
nothingness figures as a positional object of experience is that
of my entering a cafe to meet someone whom I see not to be
there (9-10/44-5). I discover Pierre's absence from the cafe in
a way quite different from that in which I might infer, from a
complete list of the cafe's patrons, or from a report of Pierre's
location elsewhere, that Pierre is not here. Nor is it given to
me in the way that some item in or region of the cafe, in its
fullness of being, may be given: I do not see Pierre's absence at
some location or sum of locations in the cafe in the way that
I may see a man sitting in the corner. Pierre's absence comes
to me via the cafe as a whole, which is organized as a synthetic
totality not-containing-him: it 'fixes the cafe', which 'car
ries' and 'presents' the demanded figure of Pierre, who raises
'himself as nothingness on the ground of the nihilation of the
cafe'; 'what is offered to intuition is a flickering of nothing
ness' which serves as foundation for the judgement that 'Pierre
is not here' (10/45). Pierre's absence from the cafe is thus given
to me in a way that distinguishes it from the infinite number
of merely abstract negative facts which are also true of the
cafe (the Duke of Wellington is not in it, etc.); the judgemen
tal theory can account for these abstract negations, but not
for concrete negativity. The example 'is sufficient to show that
non-being does not come to things by a negative judgement;
it is the negative judgement, on the contrary, which is condi
tioned and supported by non-being' (11146).
It is not clear what reply the judgemental theory can make to
this, if it is not to be either a denial of the integrity of the phe
nomenology (along the lines of: we do not experience Pierre's
absence, but merely think him to be absent, and somehow con
fuse this thinking with the experience of the cafe), or a denial
that phenomenological and logical negation are two forms of
the same thing (phenomenological 'negativity', it might be said,
is one thing, a mere quality of experience, related only contin
gently, perhaps only metaphorically, to genuine, judgemental
negation). Both responses are strained, however, and in any
case we are now in a position to see the strengths of Sartre's
own account of negation.
(3) Pierre's absence is an instance of what Sartre calls a
negatite, a 'negated' - a 'negativised' state of affairs, incorpor
ating and constituted by negation (21157). Negatites presuppose
expectations and other human orientations but, once again, are
transcendent objects of positional consciousness - not experi
ences but what certain experiences are oj; Pierre's absence is
'a real event concerning this cafe', 'an objective fact' (10/45).
The concept of nothingness (Ie neant), in distinction from neg
ation (negation), now enters, as referring to the ontological kind
and status of that which constitutes the negativity of negatites:
nothingness is a 'component of the real' (5/40) or 'the struc
ture of the real' (7/41). As the analysis showed, negatites are not
self-sufficient units of pure nothingness unmixed with being:
Pierre's absence is not 'an intuition of nothing (rien)' (9/44) - all
negativity is that o/ some being (of the cafe, and of Pierre). The
operation by which some being is reconstituted with negativity
Sartre calls 'nihilation' (neantisation), and in view of the refer
ence of negatites to some or other human orientation, the natural
inference (11146) is that consciousness is the vehicle of negativity,
i.e. is what has the power to nihilate (neantir, neantiser).
Now it does not follow from the fact that nothingness under
pins negative judgements in the case of concrete negatites, that
it is the ontological foundation of all negative judgements, and
Sartre does allow that '- is not' can be 'merely thought' (11/45)
(as in 'Pegasus does not exist'). But once the metaphysical real
ity of nothingness has been accepted, there is every reason to
regard nothingness and the power of nihilation as answering
Sartre's question of what makes the negative form ofjudgement
conceivable. We gain thereby a unified theory of understand
ing and sensibility: negation becomes a single transcendental
condition of conceptuality (of judgement and concept applica
tion) and of perception (negation provides a form of intuition
not unlike but even more basic than those of space and time).
(4) Sartre turns next to two accounts of nothingness which
do, correctly, accord it the reality denied it by the judgemen
tal theory, i.e. treat it as something non-subjective, but which,
Sartre argues, are nonetheless inadequate or incomplete, and
whose defects can only be eliminated by pushing the metaphys
ics of nothingness just described one step further.
Hegel's Logic describes nothingness as the dialectical con
trary of being, these two categories in their full abstraction
exhibiting one and the same total indetermination, hence emp
tiness; and so, by dint of this identity and emptiness of content,
collapsing in their distinction from one another, yielding the
category of becoming. On Sartre's interpretation (Section III:
12-16/47-52) Hegel's account asserts a symmetry between being
and nothingness, treating them as 'two strictly contemporary
notions' and as 'complementary components of the real, like
dark and light', which cannot be considered in isolation and are
somehow 'united in the production of existents' (12/47).
Sartre puts several objections to Hegel, which include tak
ing issue with Hegel's idealist claim, as Sartre understands
it, that being consists in manifestation of essence (13-14/49).
Sartre's main and most powerful objection, however, is that
Hegel's schema reduces nothingness to something existing
alongside being, which therefore is, or has being thus oblit
erating the distinction between being and nothingness. Now,
put one way, this is exactly what Hegel himself is maintain
ing - that the posited distinction disappears. But Sartre's point
is that what this collapse of distinction should be taken to
show is the initial error of putting being and nothingness 'on
the same plane' (15151), specifically, of failing to see that their
respective undifferentiations are different: abstract being is
empty of all determinations, but nothingness is 'empty of being'
(15151). Their true relation is consequently one of asymmetrical
contradiction, not symmetrical opposition: negation is of what
antecendently is; nothingness is 'logically subsequent' to being
(1 5/51). Hegel's underlying methodological error - reflected in
his reduction of being to manifestation of essence - is, there
fore, to have assimilated being to the concept of being, or put
differently, to have failed to grasp the uniqueness of the concept
of being (we go back here to Sartre's arguments against ideal
ism in the Introduction, described in 2-5).
In order to think coherently the distinction of being from
nothingness, it is necessary, Sartre argues, to conceive them as
conceptually asymmetrical - and this requires us to say that,
whereas being is, nothingness is not (15151); it 'can have only a
borrowed existence', 'it gets its being from being' (16/52). Sartre's
idea is that, if 'is' provides the conceptual pointer to being, then
'is' cannot also be used to point to nothingness - in order to
index nothingness, we must employ the negation of 'is'. This
yields a conception of reality that includes both what 'is' and
what 'is not', but in which nothingness depends on being and
comes about (as per the analysis of Pierre's absence) through
being's having been nihilated.
The problems with Hegel's account - its symmetricalization
of being and nothingness, and conceptual reductionism - are
avoided by Heidegger (Section IV: 16-21152-8), who attaches
nothingness to human reality. Dasein, defined as being-in-the
world, finds itself in being and 'invested with being' (17/53), but
the world arises only because Dasein has the structure of tran
scendence - Dasein surpasses being towards its own future, and
the distance which it thereby takes from being, on Heidegger's
account, introduces nothingness in the form of 'that by which
the world receives its outlines as the world' (18/54).
The defect that Sartre finds with Heidegger's account is finer
than that presented by Hegel's and pertains to Heidegger's order
of explanation. Both Sartre and Heidegger make nothingness
a transcendental, but for Heidegger its position is merely sec
ondary and derivative: Dasein's self-surpassing transcendence
is originary, and nothingness is merely implied by it, 'supported
and conditioned by transcendence' (17/53), 'a sort of intentional
correlate of transcendence' (19/55). To dispute this view, it suf
fices for Sartre to show that the positive terms which Heidegger
uses to describe Dasein's transcendence 'hide all the implicit
negations' (18/54): in order to surpass the world, Dasein must
originally posit itself as 'not being in itself and as not being the
world' (18/54). Sartre adds the observation that Heidegger's
account leaves nothingness 'surrounding being on every side
and at the same time expelled from being' (18/54), and that
such 'extra-mundane nothingness' (19/55) fails to account for
'those little pools of non-being which we encounter' concretely
in rather than beyond the world (19/55). (These mistakes are on
Sartre's diagnosis repeated systematically: Heidegger fails to see
that his conception of the world as primordially an 'equipmental
totality' of entities 'ready-to-hand' presupposes a cutting into
being which is possible only on the basis of the for-itselfs nega
tivity (200/250-1; see 21); and Heidegger's failure to connect
the extra-mundane or 'ontological' with the intra-mundane or
'ontic' recurs, we will see in 28, in the context of other minds.)
Having shown the limitations of Hegel's and Heidegger's
non-subjectivist accounts of nothingness, Sartre is in a pos
ition to draw a further inference. Sartre has argued that reality
contains negations because consciousness has the power to
negate, and consciousness has this power, Sartre now con
tends, because it is nothingness: 'the being by which Nothingness
comes to the world must be its own Nothingness' (23/59). This
ontological identification - which goes beyond the claim that
consciousness is the vehicle of negativity, which is compatible
with nothingness' being merely 'a perpetual presence in us'
(1 1147) - is needed to explain how Dasein can import nothing
ness into reality, as Heidegger claims it does. (Sartre's argument
here, which proceeds by elimination of alternatives, is given in
detail at 22-3/58-9.)
Finally, returning to the question of how being-in-itself
and being-for-itself are related (7), Sartre makes a sugges
tion regarding the genesis of being-for-itself, which one might
initially call Sartre's 'de-creation myth': he proposes that being
for-itself is being-in-itself that has undergone a nihilation. Only
being which has itself been nihilated, Sartre argues, could itself
have the power to nihilate. Human being is, Sartre therefore
implies, a 'fallen', negated form of being-in-itself - it is as if
it had once been a thing, but had undergone a kind of meta
physical destruction, so that it now exists on the earth in the
form of consciousness as a kind of ghost or shadow, robbed
of being. This, then, is one element of the 'synthetic relation'
between the two regions of being-as-a-whole: being-for-itself is
tied to being-in-itself by virtue of having been created out of it
through having undergone nihilation.
Characteristically Sartre encourages the thought that the
annihilation of being-in-itself has taken place for reasons which
are somehow moral or theological - it is as if a wrong has been
committed, whether by us (the Fall of Man narrative90) or to
us (the story of Prometheus). Sartre does not pursue this sug
gestion, however, and it is quite clear that his basic ontology
precludes any account of who or what effected the annihilation
of our being. Sartre's anthropogenetic suggestion concerning
the origin of the for-itself consequently exhibits an uncertain
status in B&N. On the one hand, it may seem that it should be
regarded as a mere 'as if, a metaphysical fiction designed only
to reflect a felt quality of human experience, and at this early
point in the text, it may appear to be no more than that. Later,
however, in Part Two, we will see that the account of our annihi
lation out of the in-itself is presupposed by Sartre's accounts of
self-consciousness (791121; see 14), of 'lack' as a structure of the
for-itself (86ff.lI29ff.; see 17), and of the metaphysics of human
motivation which Sartre builds upon this basis (see 38). It is
also deployed, in an entirely non-fictional way, as a direct meta
physical explanation of one of the structures of the for-itself,
our 'facticity' (841127; see 16). We will return to the issue of
how much weight the annihilation story bears, and ask whether
Sartre is right to allow his dualism to veto all further specula
tion on the origin of the for-itself, in the final section (48).
1 0 Consciousness as nothingness
An obvious initial problem appears to be created by Sartre's
theory of nothingness. Nothingness, Sartre says, 'is not', i.e.
has no being, and if something has no being, then it does not
exist. Thus, if consciousness is nothingness, then it has no being,
and does not exist. And yet surely Sartre affirms that there is
consciousness: Sartre may have affinities with eliminative
materialism, but he can hardly wish to deny that 'conscious
ness exists' expresses a truth.
Undoubtedly, Sartre wants to allow a shadow of paradox
to hang over his claim that consciousness is nothingness - to
serve as a continual reminder of our ontological peculiarity but the sense of his position can be rendered without paradox,
if we recall his commitment to the doctrine that existence has
multiple modes, and recognize that his conception of nothing
ness is that of a mode of being, and that the function of 'is not',
as appended to 'nothingness', is to express this mode. Since
the concept of nothingness as Sartre understands it does not
acquire its original philosophical sense from a form of judge
ment, the identification of consciousness with nothingness is
not equivalent to the claim that consciousness does not exist:
reality, the totality of existents, includes both things that exist
in the mode of being ('existls,) and things that exist in the mode
of nothingness ('existls.NOT).
Sartre's identification of the particular mode of being
possessed by consciousness with nothingness thus avoids
contradiction. It has also a powerful and intelligible motivation,
independent from and more direct than the genetic inference
regarding the origin of nothingness described in 9.
Consciousness, Sartre has claimed in the Introduction, is
dependent ontologically on its object, in a particular (intentional
and reflexive) manner. Now our concept of consciousness - in
so far as its sense is phenomenological, and for reasons given
earlier, Sartre considers that the concept of consciousness is
one which can have only a phenomenological sense - must
mirror that dependence. A phenomenologically formulated
concept of consciousness must accordingly register its taking
itself to not be its object, its primordial 'otherness-than' and
'distinction-from' its object. Now the objects of consciousness
have the status of being-in-itself, and this, we know, is only one
mode of being, not being as such and in general; which is why it
does not follow from the fact that consciousness is 'other than
being-in-itself', that it is other than being as such and so non
existent. However, this distinction between being-in-itself and
other modes of being can be formulated only later in the day:
only through philosophical reflection are we able to say that
the being of the objects of consciousness is merely one mode of
being. In the transcendentally primitive scenario, by contrast,
the only conception of being available - to consciousness, as it
differentiates itself from its object - is that of its object.
Hence the warrant for Sartre's designation of consciousness as
nothingness: primordially consciousness must experience itself
in negative relation to that which exemplifies for consciousness
what it is to be, and so must experience itself as being nothing
ness. And because of the subjectivity-honouring constraints that
Sartre places on philosophical thought, this conception cannot
be overtaken: B&N will move on to uncover a panoply of deeper
structures in relation to which bare object-consciousness will
app ear relatively superficial, but with these Sartre's conception
of consciousness as nothingness is elaborated, not revoked. The
original experience that consciousness has of itself as nothing
ness will be employed to grasp the more intricate structures of
our subjectivity, and these will be argued to be intelligible only
as forms of, or ways of being, nothingness.
The line of thought just sketched becomes explicit in the
later chapter on transcendence (see 20-21), where con
sciousness is reinterpreted in light of the structures of the
for-itself (see especially 173 - 4/222-3 and 180-3/229-32). We
can, of course, think of objects of knowledge, Sartre notes,
as 'not being consciousness', i.e. apply negativity to the object
rather than to consciousness, but this judgement could only
be primary if 'the for-itself were a substance already fully
formed': the original negation is that by which 'the for-itself
constitutes itself as not being the thing' (174/222). The for-it
self - individualizing itself - denies 'concretely that it is a
particular being' (180/229), namely this being, the one that
there is now consciousness of. The indexical feature, the 'this
ness' of the obj ect, is the work of the for-itself; consciousness is
a kind of act of ostension, but with the further difference from
an ordinary act of, say, pointing to a thing, that it is reflexive
and negative consciousness 'says', as it were, of itself, that it
is not this thing.
It is clear that Sartre's concept of nothingness is not the same
as that of ordinary thought, whatever that may be exactly: it
is a specifically philosophical concept which is going to receive
extensive development in B&N, only at the end of which will
its full sense be available. (We will see also, in 14, how Sartre's
theory of the self permits a refinement of the metaphysics of
nothingness; this is presented at 78-91120-1 .) If the philoso
phy of B&N were to be reconstructed in the form of a system
based on a single principle, that principle would be the iden
tification of human being with nothingness. The gain and
intelligibility of Sartre's designation of the mode of being of
consciousness and the for-itself as nothingness consequently
could not be, and does not need to be, secured definitively at
this early point, and certainly cannot be evaluated until it has
been seen how negativity functions in all of the contexts which
B&N is going to explore. For example, and in particular, we
will see in 14 that Sartre is able also to use self-consciousness
as a basis for his identification of the for-itself with nothing
ness. If some alternative ontological notion could be suggested
in place of nothingness, capable of playing the same compre
hensive set of analytical and unifying roles, then little would
be lost for Sartre. But it is hard to see what that notion could
be; and to that extent, Sartre's metaphysics of nothingness has
sound motivation.
1 1 The standard criticisms of Sartre's ontology
As remarked earlier, criticism of Sartre tends to follow well
established lines. Regarding the ontology, Wahl suggested in
1949 that Sartre is led by Husser! into 'a kind of idealism which
may not be completely consonant with the elements' which
Sartre derives from Heidegger. 9 1 The problem is this:
Which is primary, the 'in-itself or the 'for-itself? This is one
of the most difficult of all problems to resolve in the philoso
phy of Sartre. When he says that the 'in-itself' is primary,
he classifies himself as a realist; when he emphasises the
'for-itself, he classifies himself as an idealist [. . .] Inasmuch
as these two forms of being are absolutely opposed to each
other in all their characteristics, one is tempted to task if it is
proper to call both of them Being. If ontology is the science
of a unique being, can there be any ontology in this onto
logical theory?
In the second place, one may question if there actually is
something in reality which can be the 'in-itself as defined
by Sartre [. . .] No doubt, Sartre's affirmation of the 'in
itself responds to an epistemological concern on his part,
and answered the need to affirm a reality independent of
thought; but has one the right to pass from this assertion to
the notion that this reality is what it is, and is uniquely so is, in fact, something massive and stable?92
The interconnected complaints are, therefore, that (a) Sartre's
metaphysics involves a confusion of realism and idealism,
(b) the sharpness of Sartre's dualism reaches the point of inco
herence, and (c) Sartre's conception of being-in-itself lacks
Wahl offers Sartre the following way out of these
difficulties:
Perhaps the duality of Sartre's philosophy is one of its intrin
sic characteristics, and not to be disprised. A search for
justification and the impossibility of justification are recur
rent motifs in the philosophy of Sartre. His philosophy is one
of the incarnations of problematism and of the ambiguity of
contemporary thought (for Man does seem, to the contem
porary mind, to be ambiguous).
This is not to say that an effort by Sartre to dispel ambi
guity is either inadvisable or improbable [ . J There may yet
be a Sartre who will go beyond ambiguity.93
Wahl regards it as part of what defines existentialism, that it
departs from classical philosophy by virtue of a commitment of
fidelity to personal lived experience.94 Sartre did not, however,
ever dispel or seek to go beyond the ambiguity alleged by Wahl,
and as another of Sartre's contemporary critics noted, the price
of validating Sartre's thought in the merely subjective way pro
posed by Wahl is that it would thereby lose its 'metaphysical
bearing'.9s A metaphysics without metaphysical bearing, or a
philosophy without justification, would be a peculiar fiction,
and there is no reason for thinking that Sartre would be inter
ested in any such thing; so there is no alternative to attempting
to see whether Sartre's ontology can be saved from the charges
of incoherence. And, as we have seen already in 7, Sartre is by
no means oblivious to the issues Wahl raises.
1 2 Realism, idealism and the intelligibly
differentiated world of objects
It is clear nonetheless why Sartre may be thought to be in trouble
as regards his relations to realism and idealism.96 The follow
ing deep difficulty presents itself. Sartre has affirmed that the
being of the phenomenon is being-in-itself. Being-in-itself has
been described as neither active nor passive, 'beyond negation',
'beyond becoming', 'not subject to temporality', 'glued to itself',
'solid(massif)', exhibiting 'undifferentiation' (xl-xlii/32-3). This
surely precludes the identification of being-in-itself with empir
ical reality, the manifold of phenomena which comprises the
differentiated world of objects. Where, then, does this world of
objects come from?
The only possible answer seems to be: From the subject.
Sartre's affirmation of being-in-itself seemed to get him the
realism that he needs in order to be able to deny that his ontol
ogy is idealistic, but now it seems that he is forced to backtrack
by offering a thoroughly idealist account of empirical reality:
in some way the for-itself must 'introduce' into being-in-itself
an intelligibly differentiated world of objects.
Now this is not immediately disastrous. Certainly it inter
feres with Sartre's claim to have gone strictly beyond realism
and idealism, but Sartre may still claim to have rescued the
truth contained in each and to have formulated a combination
of realism with idealism, 'escaping' the one-sidedness of each
and getting beyond the antinomy which they jointly form. In
addition, it may seem that this is exactly what Sartre has in
mind: as we saw in 9, he affirms that nothingness is required
even for the formation and application of the concept of a
spatial line, suggesting that he envisages empirical reality as
presupposing an a priori contribution of subjectivity; a similar
line is taken regarding possibility (18) and temporality (22).
Further supporting this construal of Sartre as a kind of idealist
is the observation that, when Sartre talks of avoiding realism
and of its incoherence, what he has in mind is a position which
construes objects as existing independently of consciousness
just as we are conscious of them as being, and our cognition of
them as due to their exercising some causality which is acci
dental to their intrinsic nature (see 1 511197, 223/277; and the
definition of realism at 588/677).97 This corresponds to the pos
ition which Kant describes as treating objects of experience
as 'things in themselves' and calls 'transcendental realism'. So
it may seem reasonable to interpret Sartre as rejecting tran
scendental realism - as well as of course the merely empirical
idealism of Berkeley - and as affirming a combination of tran
scendental idealism with empirical realism, all on the familiar
pattern of Kant.
One additional motive for attributing this position to Sartre
is that of allowing him to, as it were, borrow from Kant as
needed. Even if we grant Sartre the 'ontological relations'
strategy discussed in 8, answers are still owed, arguably, to
certain traditional epistemological questions which Sartre has
neglected. As will be seen in 20, Sartre offers only a (com
paratively) thin account of the (causal, spatial, etc.) form of
experience. A transcendental idealist interpretation of Sartre
would remove these problems, if that is what they are, at a
stroke, by inserting at the level of pre-reflective consciousness a
function of transcendental form-giving and object-constitution
(whose operation would, at the same time, have a necessary
connection with the individuation of the for-itself).
The Kantian interpretation of Sartre faces, however, the dif
ficulties that Sartre denies that his position counts as idealism,
makes explicit anti-idealist statements - 'subjectivity is power
less to constitute the objective' (xxxviii/29); the for-itself 'adds
nothing to being' (209/260) - and offers arguments against the
Kantian subject of knowledge.
Arguably, Sartre's rejection of the label can be disregarded,
and a distinction between different senses of 'constitution'
(transcendental vs. empirical) can be applied in interpreting
his rejection of idealism, while the third difficulty can be met
with the observation that Sartre's anti-Kantian arguments are
in any case of doubtful force. Sartre's principal reasons for
rejecting Kant's metaphysics of the subject are that it involves
a transcendental ego and that it imports 'categories' and
'laws' - transcendental concepts and principles specifying the
form (e.g. causal) of objects of experience - into consciousness,
contradicting consciousness' necessary emptiness (xxxi/22
and 1 1146). But it is perfectly arguable that the Kantian tran
scendental subject is not an entity but a mere function, a long
way off the 'personal' ego Sartre attacks in The Transcendence
of the Ego, and that the structure which Kant gives to con
sciousness is no different in kind from Sartre's own a priori
'immediate structures of the for-itself' discussed below in
Part (B), which it in fact complements. These corrections to
Sartre's self-understanding are, plausibly, a small price to pay
for releasing his metaphysics from the contradiction which
otherwise threatens.98
The real problem, however, is that the particular combin
ation of realism and idealism formulated by Sartre does not
look stable, or at the very least, it appears very puzzling.
Sartre wanted categorically, it seemed, to identify the object
of consciousness with being-in-itself (see 5), and to assert our
consciousness of being-in-itself as undifferentiated (see 6). If
so, it is hard to understand how being-in-itself and the differ
entiated world of objects come together. If we are conscious of
being-in-itself as without form, then they cannot come together
as content and form (there cannot be consciousness of aformed
content of a phenomenon as unformed or formless). Nor can
they be related as noumenal ground and phenomenal appear
ance: Sartre denies that being-in-itself is noumenal (xxxviii/29),
as he must, for his theory that the basic metaphysical categories
are inapplicable to being-in-itself means that its being cannot
be intellectual. And if being-in-itself is interpreted as a ground
of the world of objects, distinct from it, then there is an epis
temological problem: How can we know, as Sartre insists that
we do, that this ground has all of the negative characteristics
Sartre ascribes to it? (Speculative possibilities repudiated by
Sartre - e.g. that what he calls being-in-itself is mental in char
acter, perhaps a Divine Mind - would then open up.) It seems
that Sartre's picture is one on which a Spinozist or Parmenidean
One lurks, somehow still visible and showing through from
behind a thin phantasmagoria of phenomenal objects projected
onto it. Even if there is no immediate logical inconsistency in
this picture, still it seems barely coherent.99
Some critics have suggested that this is where Sartre's meta
physics terminate, but if we retrace our steps, an alternative
can be brought into view.
The present problem has arisen because at the outset we
focussed on the contrast between being-in-itself and the differ
entiated object-world and treated this distinction as if it were of
two (sets of) objects, one opaque and formless, the other intelli
gibly formed, leading us to ask why it is that we ever experience
the latter in place of the former. But plausibly this is a mis
take. The basic ontology of B&N, I suggested in Chapter 2, is
contained in prototype in the tree root passage from Nausea,
and what this passage suggests is that the distinction should
be understood in the first instance as a matter of two modes of
apprehension of one and the same (determinately differentiated)
thing: Sartre does not contrast a conceptualized, determinately
propertied object, with a raw, property-less substrate or bare
matter; the tree root qua nauseating and contingent retains
its primary and even its secondary qualities. What makes the
difference between an ordinary perception of the tree root and
its philosophical perception as nauseating is the subtler con
trast between its having and lacking intelligibility: to apprehend
being-in-itself is to apprehend some object as not participating
in any way in human reality, as having no meaning or signifi
cance for consciousness, as not concerning us or being 'for'
us. And this fits with Sartre's statement that being-in-itself is
'undifferentiated', for what this may be taken to mean is that,
with regard to a thing qua being-in-itself, whatever differenti
ation there may be in the thing is nothing to us: the thing might
just as well be propertied in any other way or not be propertied
If this is correct, then the better model for understanding the
contrast is provided by switches in aspect-perception, or better,
between states in which we are unable to recognize an aspect the figure in the rock face or the tea-leaves - and states in which
we can do so.
We cannot stop here, however, since being-in-itself and
intelligible object-differentiation are for Sartre not just sub
jective modes of our apprehension, but also modes of the
object of consciousness itself. What is it then that we are
grasping, when we apprehend some object 'under the aspect
of' its being-in-itself?
Being-in-itself may be understood as the mode or way of
being which characterizes the differentiated object-world,
where the concept of this mode of being does not simply
designate the basic conceptual characteristics of the object
world, but refers to the ground of these characteristics. Sartre's
insight is that a concept is needed to designate that in ontol
ogy which makes it possible for being to assume determinate
forms, i.e. for the simple judgements of empirical reality - the
sugar is white, the pen is on the desk - to be true. Put differ
ently, being-in-itself is the ground of the fixity of predicates
('on the desk') in relation to subjects ('the pen'): the object
as being-in-itself - the being-in-itself of the object - is what
allows objects to possess and exhibit the structure which cor
responds to our judgements that 0 is F; it is the dimension in
things which makes possible their metaphysical conformity to
subject-predicate judgement. And if this is what the concept
of being-in-itself expresses, then it is easy to see why Sartre
should deny that being-in-itself is structured or differentiated
or has a constitution: whatever ontological ground makes it
possible for there to be determinacy cannot be conceived as
itself sharing the structured, differentiated character of the
object-world, on pain of being assimilated to it (thus requiring
an ontological ground of its own and generating a regress).IOO
So when Sartre says that 'the existent', a content of the differ
entiated object-world, is distinguished from the 'being' which
is its 'foundation' (xxxviii/30), the sense of foundation here
is not that of a distinct ground: the idea is instead that the
object's having being-in-itself as its mode of being grounds
transcendentally its determinate differentiation. (The line of
thought just described collapses, note, if differentiated deter
minate being is taken as absolutely given and not requiring
philosophical explanation; and we might be entitled to pro
ceed in this way, if we knew and could conceive of no other
mode of being; but Sartre's position is that we can and do
know another mode of being, viz. the non-self-identical, non
determinate mode of being of the for-itself.)
This interpretation of being-in-itself shows that our original
question concerning the source of the intelligibly differenti
ated world of objects was misconceived: being-in-itself is not
some (formless) 'thing' that could exist apart from the dif
ferentiated object-world, so we should not think of the world
of objects as coming from it. Our original question is also,
it may be added, posed prematurely, in so far as Sartre has
not yet meant to explain its relation to being-in-itself. What
has misled us is the fact that Sartre, in getting us to focus on
being-in-itself, has talked about 'appearances' in the plural
(as he had to do, since on his account there is no independent
route of access to being-in-itself). What he has been trying to
grasp about phenomena so far, however, is only their dimen
sion of being-in-itself. The Introduction has been meant to
give us only an understanding of the fundamental opposition
of consciousness and being-in-itself, the basic ontology of
B&N; a further set of ontological structures - the immediate
structures of the for-itself - will be added to consciousness in
Part Two of the work. The differentiated object-world belongs
at the same level as these structures; together they comprise
what may be called the full ontology of B&N. The full onto
logical picture will accordingly look like this:
Being-in-itself
BASI C ONTOLOGY
FULL ONTOLOGY
.. ... - .. ..
- _ .. -
//" '"
' "
" 1 "
.. .. ..
.. .,. ... "
Structures of
I ntelligibly differentiated
the for-itself
world of objects
The key point, in relation to our present question, is that the dif
ferentiated object-world is correlated, not with consciousness,
but with the immediate structures of the for-itself. As Sartre
puts it: 'a world; that is, the upsurge of a For-itself' (207/258);
'knowledge is the world' (1811230); the world is 'a correlate or
the for-itself (183/232); 'without selfness, without the person,
there is no world' (104/149); the for-itself, 'by denying that it is
being, makes there be a world' (306/368). So it is a mistake to
raise the question of the intelligibly differentiated object-world
at the level of consciousness. The nothingness of consciousness
needs to be 'routed' through the structures of the for-itself in
order for objects to emerge.
But how far has this taken us, as regards Sartre's relation to
realism and idealism? The immediate problem which seemed
to call for idealist solution may have been disposed of - if
being-in-itself is not some thing of which it is true that it has no
structure or properties, then there is no task of explaining how
it comes to have or to seem to have structure and properties.
But there is another way of posing the original question, which
is equally effective in supporting the idealist interpretation of
Sartre. When we switch aspects and recover the differentiated
object-world, what is this due to? Sartre cannot give the realist
answer that it is due to the world's being-thus independently
of us - since differentiation presupposes nothingness, and
because, as I will consider in a moment, Sartre includes in the
object-world qualities which are indexed to the projects of an
individual for-itself - so it seems, once again, that the object
world must be due to the subject. As the diagram indicates,
there is an asymmetry between the two parts of the full ontol
ogy: whereas the full ontology of the subject is independent
from being-in-itself, the full ontology of the object the elabor
ation of being-in-itself into the differentiated object-world - is
extended in the direction of the subject; the intelligibly differen
tiated object-world appears to be conditional, transcendentally,
upon the for-itself.
The Kantian transcendental idealist interpretation of Sartre
is tenable, but before concluding with it, one final review of
this difficult but - for several sets of reasons - crucial issue is
in order.
Sartre wants to combine (1) the claim that, pace realism, the
'problem of the connection of consciousness with existents
independent of it' is 'insoluble' (xxxv/26), in so far as 'tran
scendent being could not act on consciousness' (171/219), with
(2) the claim that, pace idealism, 'subjectivity is powerless to
constitute the objective' (xxxviii/29) and 'consciousness could
not "construct" the transcendent by objectivising elements
borrowed from its subjectivity' (1711219). In addition, I have
argued, Sartre envisages (3) a correlation of the intelligibly dif
ferentiated object-world with the fundamental structures of the
human subject. On the Kantian transcendental idealist inter
pretation, this correlation should be understood as a relation of
constitution - which requires Sartre to give up or to qualify (2).
But before we settle on this interpretation, we should make
quite sure that there really is no other option - if only because
Sartre's refusal to sign up to idealism suggests so strongly that
he, at any rate, considers that the correlation can be understood
non-idealistically.
The following possibilities suggest themselves: that the cor
relation of the object-world with human subjectivity (i) is due
to the structures of subjectivity, but is secured by some means
other than a relation of object-constitution; (ii) is an instance
of pre-established harmony, of some sort or other; or (iii) does
not need to be regarded as 'due to' anything, because it does
not stand in need of explanation.
The first possibility carries an echo of idealism, but it would
be understandable if, in the absence of object-constitutive
activity, Sartre considered it sufficiently remote from Kant and
Husserl for the label to be dropp ed. It requires, nonetheless,
a positive account of the manner in which the subject deter
mines, without constituting, its objects. Similarly, the second
possibility needs amplification, since if a harmony has been
established, something must have established it.
Now we will see later that there is a definite suggestion of a
combination of the first two possibilities in Sartre's doctrine
of my 'responsibility for the (my) world' (see 35). What this
may be interpreted as claiming is that the correlation is estab
lished, not by God, but by my freedom: the accord the between
for-itself and object-world is established in a way analogous to
that in which the author of a fictional work engineers coher
ence within the fiction between characters and scene or plot;
the harmony is established not within the (fictional) world - as
realism and idealism mistakenly suppose - but from a p oint
outside it, i.e. by my pre-mundane subjectivity (in my 'original
choice of self', as Sartre calls it).
But there is also a strong suggestion in Sartre of the third
possibility. If the explanandum of realism and idealism can be
rejected, then so can these metaphysical positions, and Sartre's
ambition of transcending the opp osition of realism and ideal
ism would then be properly fulfilled. Whether Sartre can get
away with this is a delicate matter. Sartre can plausibly claim to
have accounted, in terms that presuppose neither realism nor
idealism, for many things that these positions are traditionally
invoked to explain. The epistemological aspect of the correl
ation - the possibility of our 'access' to objects, of their being
'in communication' with us - is explained jointly by the fact
that transcendence is a structure of consciousness and that
phenomena are conceptually primitive unities of real existence
and possibilities of appearance. The possibility of there being
any such thing as an intelligibly differentiated world of objects
is exp lained jointly by being-in-itself, which makes deter
minate being possible, and by the structures of the for-itself,
including its power of negation, which allows differentiated
being. The one thing which, arguably, remains unaccounted
for by Sartre is the Kantian explanandum cited earlier: the fact
that our object-world has a particular conceptual character,
that of (in particular) necessary causal order. Perhaps Sartre
can deny this necessity, i.e. include causal order in the global
'contingency' of the being of the for-itself. Or perhaps he can,
again, appeal to the 'original choice of self' as the explanation.
There are textual indications of both attitudes. What we think
of this - especially: whether we think it wise to allow Sartre's
'responsibility for the world' doctrine to assume such a large
metaphysical burden - is decisive for whether or not we con
sider that, in the very last resort, Sartre avoids being forced
back into Kantian transcendental idealism.
We have dealt with the main source of the realism/idealism
confusion which Wahl claims can be detected in Sartre, but
there is another aspect which needs to be addressed, and which
has a simpler solution. Wahl asked also, 'Which is primary, the
in-itself or the for-itself?', and he alleged that Sartre inconsist
ently claims the primacy of both.
It is quite true that Sartre goes in both directions, but it is not
clear that there is any contradiction here: Sartre's view is that the
for-itself has methodological primacy - 'the cogito must be our
point of departure' (73-4/1 16) - while the in-itself has ontological
primacy (619/7l3). Throughout the Introduction the concepts of
being-in-itself and being-for-itself are formulated with reference
to one another and are managed interdependently or dialectic
ally - neither has primacy, for in order to explain either mode of
being, we must contrast it with the other - but there is no doubt
as to the ontological dependence of the for-itself on the in-itself.
If it is asked - in particular, a Hegelian might put this objection how, given the symmetry between the concepts of being-in-itself
and being-for-itself, we can suppose an ontological asymmetry,
and why we should not simply carry over the dialectic of con
cepts into the ontology to which they refer, then the answer is
given already by Sartre in his ontological proof: the perspective
of pre-reflective consciousness - which is not a perspective from
within any concept - demands this asymmetry.
There is one more twist to the issue of Sartre's relation to real
ism and idealism, which reveals how interestingly strange and
uncommonsensical his position is. Included among the objects
of consciousness are negatites and the qualities of things (their
charm, hatefulness, etc.) which we have seen Sartre invoke in
order to account for emotion. These qualities are 'transcendent',
and so presumably belong to the differentiated object-world,
yet obviously egocentric: if you do not share my expectation of
finding Pierre in the cafe, then you will not intuit his absence
from it in the way that I do. Similarly we will find later, in Part
Two, Chapter 3, that Sartre runs his account of objective phys
ical reality directly into his account of the world as containing
particular tasks to be performed (see 20 -21).
This raises the question: Is there one differentiated object
world, which is intersubjective common property? Or does each
for-itself have its own object-world?
One obvious suggestion would be to distinguish between
different levels of reality within the object-world - a level of
intersubjective 'full' objectivity on the one hand, comprising
the world, and a supervening 'quasi'-objective level of egocen
tric qualities on the other, comprising my 'world' - but it is
not a distinction introduced by Sartre himself, and in the light
of his other claims, we can understand why he does not do so.
Sartre's view is that, in the case of a tram grasped as 'needing
to-be-caught', there is no relation of efficient causality between
the object's having that quality, and any psychological state of
the subject: 'desirability characteristics' of objects cannot on
Sartre's account cause consciousness to desire, and Sartre also
rejects the idea of a mechanism of projection whereby desires
would cause quasi-perceptual appearances of objects (see
604-5/695-7). Nevertheless, it is of course true for Sartre that
in some sense the quality of needing-to-be-caught is 'due to'
my tram-catching project, and on the interpretation suggested
above, Sartre's claim is that my 'original choice of self' is what
'pre-establishes' the harmony between my subjective project
and the transcendent quality of the object (a relation which,
from the intra-mundane point of view, must appear 'magical':
as Sartre indeed describes it).
If this is what Sartre thinks, then it is clear why Sartre should
have no interest in grading the reality of items in the object
world according to their intersubjective accessibility, and why
it would be acceptable to hiin that there is no strict identity of
object-worlds across different subjects. The worry of solipsism
has yet to be dealt with (see 29), but it is not aggravated by
Sartre's erosion of the common sense conviction that we share a
world by virtue of all being contained within one and the same
empirical matrix, since Sartre rejects this realist-naturalist
account of reality, and this notion of world-sharing is in any
case (Sartre will argue) incapable of putting a dent in solipsism
(see 27). It is also to be emphasized that the intersubjective vari
ation of object-worlds allowed by Sartre entails nothing whatever
regarding their mutual intelligibility - my object-world is not
private, and to that extent sense it is not just my world.
1 3 The metaphilosophy of B&N
Consideration of the problem of realism and idealism leads
directly to another, distinct but connected issue, which both
creates difficulty and, again, goes to the heart of Sartre's pro
ject. This concerns the combination of standpoints from which
Sartre's philosophy appears to be made out.
On the one hand, it is clear that Sartre regards the philosoph
ical outlook which he articulates in B&N as encompassing and
making transparent reality in its entirety.lOI It is true that Sartre
regards some matters as final, surd, brute, ultimate 'facts', to be
accepted without further explanation: for instance, at the very
highest level, the existence and nature of the in-itself, and the
advent of the for-itself. These he calls 'contingencies'. But the
ultimacy of these matters is not due, for Sartre, to any failure or
our representational, epistemic, explanatory, conceptual, lin
guistic or other abilities to keep pace with the projected objects
of our knowledge: Sartre acknowledges no limits to human
or philosophical cognition; when we reach a terminus in our
attempt to grasp matters philosophically, it is not because we
have run out of epistemic-cum-cognitive resources, but because
that is where the end of things lies in reality. It is not, therefore,
that the in-itself has a concealed constitution which God or
perhaps some future physical science could grasp but which we
are unable to make out: as we saw, according to Sartre there is
nothing more to the in-itself than is expressed in his three the
ses. The same goes for consciousness, and the coming-to-be of
the for-itself. For Sartre, 'all is there, luminous' in the broad
daylight of consciousness (571/658).102
There are, moreover, deep reasons why it is of paramount
importance for Sartre that the claims of B&N should be
unqualified. For one thing, Sartre's thesis of absolute free
dom needs to be able to withstand sceptical doubt, and any
concession that his philosophy offers only a limited view of
our situation will fail to rule out the possibility that the free
dom which he claims for us is absent from reality and merely
composes a great, systematic, human illusion. More generally,
Sartre needs the contingencies which he describes to be inter
preted as metaphysically ultimate, in order to be able to claim
for them the crucial significance of exposing the metaphysical
loneliness of the human situation, the humanly restricted scope
of the principle of sufficient reason, an unclouded appreciation
of which Sartre regards as essential for our assumption of self
responsibility. Anything less than metaphysical ultimacy will
open the door to speculative possibilities - which Sartre asso
ciates with theology and with Hegel, and wants to exclude at all
costs - to the effect that there is after all a rational structure in
reality at large which transcends the being of the for-itself, and
which may be regarded as grounding and rationalizing human
existence, thereby relieving us of the task of self-determination
at the most fundamental level. This is enough to explain why, as
we saw in 7, Sartre should aim to locate man's place in relation
to being as a whole.
And yet, it is also the case that a very great deal of what
Sartre says about the various phenomena that he discusses is
thoroughly perspectival Sartre offers accounts of how things
appear and require themselves to be conceived, which are
emphatically conditional upon our grasping them from such
and-such an angle. Much of Sartre's philosophical labour is
directed towards taking us inside the correct angle of philo
sophical vision and of inducing in us a heightened awareness
of the perspectival character of phenomena. Philosophical
reflection itself, for Sartre, should not relinquish the practical
standpoint in favour of a contemplative stance. This restoration
and purification of subjectivity may be said to comprise, as
noted earlier, Sartre's version of the phenomenological reduc
tion. The perspective in question is the subjective, first person,
practical perspective which on Sartre's view constitutes the
foundation of the human standpoint. (By way of illustration,
consider Sartre's statement that 'there is no question here of
a freedom which could be undetermined and which would
pre-exist its choice. We shall never apprehend ourselves except
as a choice in the making' (479/558) - which is naturally read
as demanding that we shift from attempting to conceive free
dom as an aperspectival metaphysical fact, to a perspectival
appreciation of freedom. Numerous examples of this kind of
argumentation in B&N could be given, and in a late interview
Sartre said that in B&N he 'wished to define [consciousness] as
it presents itself to us, for you, for me'.103)
It is accordingly natural to think that Sartre's claims about
the objects of our knowledge are strictly claims about objects as
relative to, or constituted by, our cognitive-practical perspective.
Sartre's use of the language of paradox (see 23) also suggests,
in a different way, that his claims should be interpreted as epis
temically modest: in so far as Sartre is understood merely as
saying that such and such invites a contradictory description,
the paradox serving to draw attention to the existence of a ten
sion in how we think about things, the real nature of the thing is
allowed to be non-contradictory, and the problematic charac
ter of Sartre's contradictory assertions is discharged.
There is therefore a puzzle, in so far as Sartre appears to
offer at one and the same time a view from nowhere or absolute
conception of reality, and a view from somewhere or perspec
tival conception. These two standpoints are not distributed
across different sets of phenomena or relativized to different
topics of discussion: it is not that Sartre enters a full-fledged
reality claim only with respect to some things, and a qualified,
epistemically modest, merely perspectival claim with respect to
other things; characteristically both standpoints are combined
within the breadth of a single paragraph or even sentence. In
historical terms, the two standpoints are aligned with quite dif
ferent philosophical traditions. The perspectival view suggests
an adoption of Kant's strategy of a Copernican revolution in
philosophical method, a conception of the task of philosophy
as an elucidation of the human point of view, from and for the
human point of view, rendering all God's eye conceptions null
and void; while the absolute view suggests the metaphysical
ambition of early modern rationalist philosophy or of Hegel.
Which, then, represents Sartre's true metaphilosophical view?
Is Sartre on the side of Kant, in kinship with the forms of tran
scendental idealism found in post-Kantians like Fichte and
Husser!, or that of Spinoza?I04 Is his metaphilosophy that of
transcendental idealism, or of some kind of realism?
The answer, I suggest, is that Sartre regards the two stand
points as equally necessary and not as excluding one another
but as in the final analysis coinciding Sartre wishes to claim
precisely that it is by (and only by) taking up and intensify
ing the perspectival standpoint that we can come to grasp
aperspectival reality. The sub-title of B&N 'An essay in phe
nomenological ontology' - should be read not as defining a
modest, innocuous programme of merely describing how we
should suppose things to be in the light of how they appear
to us, but as expressing Sartre's metaphilosophical conviction
that when, and only when, the grounds of things are laid bare in
their full perspectival character, can we know things as they are
in themselves, as they would be if apprehended 'from nowhere'.
Thus when Sartre states that his intention in B&N is to define
consciousness 'as it presents itself to us, for you, for me', this
is also to define it as it is. This interpretation makes immedi
ate sense of Sartre's disavowal of the traditional labels of either
'idealism' or 'realism', and of his claim to have dissolved this
very opposition. It accords also with the way in which he, in
the Introduction, makes substantial metaphysical claims on no
other basis than that of how things are directly implied to be by
the nature of our consciousness.los
It is another question whether this position, as Sartre him
self works it out or in any other form that it might conceivably
take, is coherent and defensible, but at least some of Sartre's
reasons for considering it to be so have emerged already in the
Introduction. For we have seen how Sartre thinks that the con
cept of phenomenon, which represents a conceptual primitive,
involves a meeting point of perspectivality and aperspecti
vality, and more generally how the basic ontology presented
in the Introduction, which insists on both the absolute fact of
being-in-itself and the perspectival character of consciousness,
implies the necessity of accepting, in some fashion, the reality of
both aperspectivality and perspectivality. There is in addition
the point that Sartre finds in the being of consciousness not
merely a meeting point, but a kind of identity, of perspectivality
and ap erspectivality. Though it is quite true that none of these
points are enough to explain how, at a metaphilosophical level,
p erspectivality and aperspectivality can be thought to coin
cide, they at least provide a clue to why Sartre's thinking should
take that direction. Later (in 46) we will return to the ques
tion of whether Sartre has succeeded in harmonizing the two
standp oints.106
From the point we have reached, there are two directions that
Sartre might take in develo ping the next stage of his argument
in B&N. One is to show how the metaphysics of nothingness
can be developed directly into a theory offreedom. The other
is to examine the structures of the for-itself, which identify
the form taken by nothingness in human subjectivity, and to
show how this form, and our ontological negativity, make one
another intelligible. The two tasks can be pursued independ
ently of one another up to a point, but eventually they will join,
before arriving at the same p oint of conclusion, viz. the identity
of our mode of being with our freedom - as p er the argument
schema given in the p revious chap ter (pp. 22-7).
What Sartre in fact does is to give a condensed account of the
relation of nothingness to freedom in the remainder of the chap
ter we have just been discussing (24-45160-84), reserving the full
discussion of freedom for Part Four of B&N, by which point the
structures of the for-itself have been exposited. It is more straight
forward, however, to proceed directly to the structures of the
for-itself, and to consider in one place all of the textual material
concerning freedom, as I will do in Part (D).
STUDY QU ESTIONS
1. Are Sartre's central claims regarding consciousness well
founded? What other views of consciousness are rejected by
Sartre, and are his criticisms of these effective?
2. How is Sartre's concept of being-in-itself best understood,
and is his account of the fundamental opposition which it
forms with being-for-itself adequately justified?
3. Why, and with what justification, does Sartre introduce the
concept of nothingness into his account of consciousness?
4. Assess Sartre's claim to have given an account of the rela
tion of subject and object which transcends the opposition
of realism and idealism.
READING TH E TEXT
(B) FUN DAMENTAL STRUCTURES OF
THE HUMAN SUBJ ECT
On the basis of the basic ontology drawn up in the Introduction
and Part One, Part Two of B&N specifies the most abstract
metaphysical structures of the human subject. These include
selfh ood, temporality and transcendence; selfhood is correlated
with the structures of/acticily, value and possibility, while tran
scendence takes us to knowledge. Sartre's aim is to show that
these structures are necessary for conscious being, though not
by alleging conceptual connections. In place of any attempt
to deduce, e.g., 'S's experience is temporal' from 'S has con
sciousness of objects', Sartre's properly phenomenological
transcendental method is to bring us to realize that our con
sciousness could not fail to be temporal, value-orientated, etc.,
by giving us insight into the ways in which our consciousness
is connected internally with our temporality, value-orientation,
etc. This is achieved by showing how what it is for us to be
conscious, and what it is for there to be time, value, etc. for
us, make one another intelligible.J07 (Thus leaving it open that
there is some thinkable sense in which the conscious experience
of some entity might not be temporal: Sartre is indifferent to
this possibility, for, if he is right, it cannot intersect with our
mode of being.)
The relation between the basic ontology, with which we have
been concerned hitherto, and the full ontology, to which the
fundamental structures of the for-itself belong, needs clari
fication: In what sense is the basic ontology prior? Is the full
ontology derived from it, as the organization of B&N might
lead us to expect?
We have seen already in 12 that the part of the full ontol
ogy which falls on the side of the object, viz. the differentiated
object-world, is grounded on, but not derived directly from,
being-in-itself; it springs into being only on the condition of
and in relation to the for-itself. And the subjective side of the
full ontology, viz. the structures of the for-itself - this becomes
clear immediately in Part Two - is no more constructed out
of than it is deduced from the bare concept of consciousness.
Instead, Sartre uses the basic ontology as a platform from which
to survey the field of human reality, by means of which relations
of explanation will emerge: the structure of bare intentional
consciousness will be shown to be grounded on structures of
the for-itself. (The term 'human reality' La realite humaine - is
used by Sartre in a semi-technical sense, roughly equivalent to
Heidegger's Dasein, to refer to both human beings and the world
qua object of cognition, scene of action and so forth.) Sartre's
purpose in beginning in B&N by isolating bare consciousness
and the phenomenon - which are, Sartre acknowledges, in one
sense 'abstractions' (1711219) - was to purify our philosophical
vision: the vantage point of the basic ontology ensures that we
grasp our subjectivity correctly. The priority of the basic ontol
ogy is therefore methodological, and the derivation of the full
ontology from it an epistemological matter: ontologically, the
relation of consciousness to for-itself is that of part to whole;
consciousness comprises, as Sartre puts it, the 'instantaneous
nucleus' of the for-itself (70/1 1 1). At the same time as Part Two
traces the expansion of this nucleus into the structured for-it
self, it also elucidates the concep t of consciousness, which the
Introduction merely took for granted (173/221) - we learn what
consciousness and the nothingness which comprises its being
really consist in.
1 4 The self [Part Two, Chapter 1 , Sections I and V]
The sections on selfhood in B&N modify the position of The
Transcendence of the Ego in two ways (which resolve the dif
ficulties with Sartre's earlier metaphysics of the self noted in
Chapter 2). First, Sartre personalizes the reflexive structure of
the pre-reflective cogito, in other words, identifies it as a self or,
more precisely and in words closer to Sartre's, as an instance
of selfhood. Second, as we will see in 15, Sartre identifies the
reflexive relation which comprises the pre-reflective cogito,
with the reflexive relation which comprises reflection: both are
different forms of one and the same reflexive relation.
This may appear to bring Sartre's position closer to common
sense's Strawsonian view of selves or persons. Rapprochement
with common sense is, however, characteristically far from
being Sartre's motive, and his account of the self, or selfhood,
involves a further and deeper inversion of our natural concep
tion of personhood.
As a preliminary, an important general point regarding
Sartre's method of enquiry henceforth should be noted. Aside
from Sartre's speculative account of the origin of the for-itself
(9), B&N has adopted hitherto a descriptive approach, ven
turing claims about what is on the basis of the cogito and the
phenomena given to it . Throughout Part Two and in many
later contexts, by contrast, B&N accords primacy to teleo
logical explanation, i.e. explanation in terms of ends and
relations of the form 'X in order that Y' in Sartre's language,
characterization as a project, un projet. All of the fundamental
structures of the human subject that Sartre introduces in Part
Two make essential use of the notion of directedness towards
an end. To take a point where this thesis is made fully expli
cit, Sartre in concluding his treatment of reflection says that
it is not a 'capricious upsurge' but 'arises in the perspective of
afor (pour)': reflection has a meaning, which is its 'being-for',
etre-pour, and more generally the for-itself is 'the being which
in its being is the foundation of a for', Ie fondement d'un pour
(160/207).
Several points are to be noted in this regard. First, Sartre does
not apply teleology to the human subject because he thinks it
universally true that whatever exists has a telos - being-in-itself
refutes that supposition - but because the specific nature of the
for-itself, as that term already implies, demands it; the for-itself
is always the foundation of a pour. Second, Sartrean explan
ation is teleological without being functional. Sartre does not
proceed, as a naturalist might, by first determining the function
of the human subject in light of the reality which surrounds it,
and then inferring what roles are played by its various features
in facilitating the discharge of its function. For Sartre, on the
contrary, subjectivity can have no function. Sartre considers,
furthermore, that the teleological structures which constitute
human subjectivity do not in fact succeed in realizing any
telos. The human subject is purposive without actually having
any purpose. Third, Sartre's view of teleology differs from that
of common sense, in so far as the latter thinks of teleological
properties as appended to a mechanistically describable sub
structure, the reality of which provides the vehicle on which
teleological processes depend: Sartre's position (of obvious sig
nificance for his doctrine of freedom) is that the reality of the
various dimensions of the for-itself consists in their being pro
jections towards a certain end.
Sartre's theory of the self develops in stages, and comprises
some of the most difficult and intriguing passages in the whole
of B&N:
(1) Section I, 74-6/1 17-18: Sartre begins by revisiting the struc
ture of pre-reflective consciousness. As we know from 3, Sartre
claims it to be 'the law of the pre-reflective cogito' (69/1 10) that
every relation to an object doubles back on itself: conscious
ness-of-O implies consciousness of consciousness-of-O. This
entails that, in so far as I am not merely abstractly and indeter
minately conscious of 0, but conscious of 0 in some particular
mode conscious of 0 with pleasure or as an object of belief
or desire, etc. - my consciousness-of-O is consciousness-of
pleasure, consciousness-of-believing, etc. And conversely, if
there is consciousness of believing, then there must be belief
(xxviiiI18). Belief, and consciousness of believing, are there
fore necessary and sufficient for one another. But this merely
logical description of the relationship does not explain it to us,
and Sartre argues that we encounter here a difficulty which
allows of only one metaphysical resolution, which involves the
introduction of teleology.
Our rule ofmethod must be, as argued in 3 and 1O, to conceive
consciousness in accordance with its own perspective. Now the
peculiarity of the structure comprised by belief and conscious
ness-of-believing is that it must be conceived as both unitary and
dual. The two terms must of course comprise a totality - since
each is both necessary and sufficient for the other - and at the
same time they must comprise a duality: not for the reason that
we, as theorists of the mental, are able to impose a distinction
on the structure, but because consciousness-of-believing itself
must differentiate itself from the believing which it is conscious
ness of. Sartre supposes additionally that we cannot resolve
this contradiction by saying that there is unity in one sense and
duality in another, which would allow us to say that there exists
'a unity which contains a duality', i.e. to conceive the structure
simply as a synthesis (76/118). The basis on which we count belief
and consciousness-of-believing as unitary is the very same as
that on which we count them as dual: application of a single
principle of individuation leads to conflicting results. How are
we to make this paradoxical structure intelligible?
Only, according to Sartre, by switching to a conception of
consciousness in terms of ends. (The passage containing this
transition begins half way down page 75 and runs to the mid
dle of page 76.) Consciousness of believing is essentially an
attempt to reflect belief, not in the sense of an act of thought
(reflechir), but in the sense of a mirroring (refleter). (The use
of a single term in English to translate these two quite dif
ferent notions is hard to avoid but very confusing, so I will
use 'to mirror' for refleter and Sartre's French terms for the
nouns formed from it: Ie reflet, the reflection, and Ie refletant,
the reflecting. See Barnes' translator's note, 1 5 1 n8.) This mir
roring carries over the project of the consciousness of which
it is the reflet. Thus Sartre writes: consciousness of believing
'exists in order to perform the act of faith' which belief consists
in (7511 17).
This allows us to grasp the both-unitary-and-dual structure
as an unconsummated teleological process. In the complex
analogy to which Sartre is alluding, consciousness-of-believing
is an attempt to hold up a mirror to belief, only to discover, on
the one hand, that the object (belief) cannot exist without being
mirrored, and on the other, that the mirroring itself (conscious
ness-of-believing) is nothing apart from what it mirrors, with
the result that no stable image can be captured - the project of
mirroring fails.
This means, as Sartre puts it (75/1 17), that we can say neither
that belief is, or is belief, nor that consciousness-of-believing is,
or is consciousness-of-believing. The copula and identity rela
tion signal here, as in other Sartrean contexts, possession of
substantial being, both in the strong sense of existential self
sufficiency and also in the weaker sense of possession of some
set of intrinsic, non-relational properties.
Since belief and consciousness-of-believing can be identi
fied neither with themselves nor with one another, they must
be conceived instead as having to be one another, in a sense
similar to that in which we may say of something that it is sup
posed to be, or should be, such and such (Sartre uses frequently
the construction noted in 6, avoir a etre, to express this idea).
As Sartre puts it in a later and somewhat clearer passage, each
term in the dyad of reflet-refletant points to and 'engages its
being in the being of the other', but this being is just what is
mlssmg: the reflet consists in 'being-in-order-to-be-mirrored
(etre-pour se refleter) in the refletant, but this end could be
achieved only if the reflet were 'something (quelque chose)',
which is impossible, since if the reflet were quelque chose, then
it would be in-itself and the cogito would be destroyed (173/221).
Belief and consciousness of believing thus comprise 'a game of
mirroring', 'a double game of reference' in which '[e]ach of the
terms refers to the other and passes into the other, and yet each
term is different from the other' (75/118), or as Sartre also puts
it, each term, while positing itself for the other, becomes the
other (151-2/198).
Sartre's profound but difficult thesis is, therefore, that the
ocular concept of perspective, which we have found it essen
tial to employ in explicating his view of consciousness, is in
the final resort misleading, or at any rate limited - to have
or comprise a perspective in the sense of consciousness is not
ultimately just a quasi-visual, perceptual, contemplative mat
ter: it is closer to what it is to be under an obligation or subject
to a demand (consciousness is 'that precise obligation to be a
revealing intuition of something, i.e., of a transcendent being',
xxxvii/29; for consciousness 'there is no being except for this
precise obligation to be a revealing intuition of something',
61817 1 2).
(2) Section I, 76-7/118-19: The ground is now prepared
for the theoretical introduction of the self as what is implied
in the mutual reference of the two terms reflet and refletant.
The relation between a vase and the mirror that reflects it is
purely external - the mirror does not reflect the vase as being
the mirror itself. The reflet and refletant of pre-reflective con
sciousness, by contrast, relate to one another as members of a
single unity, and this unity is indicated not as a mere aggregate
that they might create by conjoining with one another, but as
the (their) subject. This indicated subject cannot be however the
metaphysical subject of properties, for reasons that we saw in
the discussion of The Transcendence of the Ego in Chapter 2,
and nor can it be a property. The subject is instead indicated
as relation-to-oneself, and the appropriate linguistic symbol of
this self-relating is, Sartre notes, the reflexive pronoun, as in il
s'ennuie. The relation designated by the reflexive pronoun is the
meaning of, and what gives sense to, the mutual reference of the
reflet and the rej!etant Sartre calls this self-relating at the level
of pre-reflective consciousness 'presence to itself, presence a
soi. The self or 'oneself, Ie soi, is presence to itself, a struc
ture of 'perpetually unstable equilibrium between identity as
absolute cohesion without a trace of diversity and unity as a
synthesis of a multiplicity' (77/1 19). It follows that the soi has
being neither as a subject of predicates nor as a predicate, and
can neither be, nor be apprehended as, a 'real existent'.
(3) Section I, 77-9/120-1: Thus far Sartre's theory may sound
similar to so-called 'no-ownership' theories of the self, such as
Hume's, which deny reference to the '!', but this is not the case,
for Sartre's theory of the self is not exhausted by the predomin
antly negative claims which we have just spelled out.
The soi has been defined in terms of a self-relation intermedi
ate between the Oneness of identity and the Many-in-Oneness
of synthetic unity, the key to which is the distance from self
implied in presence a soi, and this distance allows itself to be
analysed in terms of Sartre's metaphysics of nothingness and
his teleology of the for-itself. What separates the self from
itself is, in a sense, nothing, rien. I cannot detect or isolate any
thing setting me apart from myself. In contrast with spatial
distances, and temporal or psychological differences, I can
not even identify and express the separation indirectly in terms
of positive items which stand in separation from one another.
What we must say therefore, Sartre argues, is that nothingness
constitutes the separation - a particular, personalized noth
ingness, the nothingness that I am or, in Sartre's teleological
and quasi-deontological idiom, have-to-be. This constitutes a
further development of Sartre's metaphysics of nothingness
(9-10): nowhere but in self-consciousness, Sartre says, can we
grasp nothingness 'in such purity' (78/120).
Contra the no-ownership theory, therefore, the place of the
self is not ontologically vacant. In Sartre's terms, Hume is led
to conclude that the self is rien because he fails to see that its
being is of the type 'obligation' (781121), or in other words,
that the self is, as Sartre puts it later, 'the reason for the infin
ite movement' of mutual reference between reflet and refletant
(1031148).
Finally Sartre refers this theory of the s elf to the anthropoge
netic story concerning the origin of the for-itself (9): the neant
which I have-to-be in the form of a soi, is made to be (est ete) by
the original 'ontological act' by which the in-itself 'degenerates
into presence to itself (79/121).
(4) Section V, 103-4/148-9: Before introducing the next
element in his theory, Sartre refers to The Transcendence
of the Ego and reiterates its conclusion that the ego is tran
scendent, not an inhabitant of consciousness which provides
subjectivity with an immanent centre (102-3/147-8). (Later, at
162-3/209-1 1 , Sartre will restate his earlier view of the ego;
see 24.)
Sartre then explains how he has modified his earlier outlook.
The fact that the ego is not what personalizes consciousness
does not mean that there is nothing which does so and that
consciousness is therefore 'impersonal': presence a soi confers
personality, personnalite, on consciousness, and it is because
it does so that the transcendent ego can also have a personal
character, i.e. that I am able to think of that ego as my ego.
In B&N Sartre separates, therefore, the issue of whether con
sciousness is personal or impersonal, from the issue of whether
it is inhabited by an ego bearing a relation of ownership to
states of consciousness. In The Transcendence of the Ego these
issues were identified.
Sartre then adds (103-41148-9) a further teleological dimen
sion to the self-relation which presence to itself comprises, which
he calls 'selfness', ipseity, and describes as 'the second essential
aspect of the person' (104/148). Earlier in Chapter 1 Sartre has
argued (as we will see in 17) that the for-itself is orientated
necessarily towards itself as self-coincident. Selfness consists in
my relation to this ideal entity in so far as it is present to me as
absent, an 'absent-presence' (103/148). From this derives the sub
ject's sense of itself as being perpetually 'referred on', renvoye,
beyond its own grasp.
In so far as I project myself towards this metaphysically
ideal Self, I must do so via the world: indeed, it is because of
this projection that there is a world, and that this world is in
some measure 'my' world (104/148-9). The structure whereby
I seek to loop back to myself across the world, traversing the
totality of being in order to achieve identity with myself, Sartre
calls the 'circuit of selfness', Ie circuit d'ipseite (104/148; see also
102/146-7).
1 5 Reflection [Part Two, Chapter 2,
Section 1 1 1 , 1 50-8/1 96-205]
The theory of the selfjust outlined concerns pre-reflective con
sciousness. What is still missing from Sartre's theory of the self
is an account of reflection (reflexion in the sense of reflechir),
and this is supplied later, in Section III of the chapter on
temporality.
The existence of reflection is encountered in fact, but we must
ask, first, why there should be any such structure, and second,
how it is possible (150-2/197-8). Reflective consciousness is,
after all, not implied directly by the existence of pre-reflective
consciousness, since the latter is not subject to the principle
esse est percipi. Nor can we understand the relation of reflec
tion to the consciousness reflected on as, originally, that of a
thinking subject to a representation: if that were so, then the
two would belong to different ranks of being, and reflection
would fail to comprise a self-relation. More generally, reflective
and pre-reflective consciousness exemplify the pattern of dua1ity-in-unity which we saw in the context of the reflet-refletant
(14): their unity cannot be grasped as compounded out of two
independent existences (which would make their relation exter
nal, and destroy the certainty which characterizes reflective
intuition of one's consciousness), and yet it must stop short of
a total identification (which would collapse reflection into pre
reflective consciousness) (1511197-8).
To appreciate fully the force of Sartre's transcendental
questions concerning reflection we need to recognize why the
ordinary conception of reflection, which allows us to suppose
that we understand what it is and why it exists, is in Sartre's
terms inadequate. Our ordinary conception of reflection is
that of an epistemic medium: reflection is that which enables the
subject of mental states to gain knowledge of its mental states.
Sartre, we saw in 3, rejects the notion that reflection explains
the possibility of self-knowledge, maintaining that the ques
tion of what makes self-knowledge possible leads ultimately
not to reflection but to conscience (de) soi. He also, we saw in
8, regards epistemological relations as secondary and deriva
tive, from which it follows that the demands of self-knowledge
cannot be used to account for reflection without erroneously
assuming the 'primacy of knowledge'.
However, reflection is not merely caused to exist by some inde
pendent, mechanical, non-conscious cause, and if reflection is
neither a product of efficient causality nor explained by refer
ence to an epistemological end, then the only possibility is that
its explanation lies in some other, non-epistemological end.
Sartre gives the following account of what that end is at
1 53-4/199-201 . Pre-reflective consciousness undergoes what
Sartre calls 'an original dispersion' (1 53/199). Because the struc
ture of reflet-refletant is evanescent, the for-itself is obliged to
look for its being elsewhere, but it finds that - in its presence
to being-in-itself and in the flow of its temporality - it 'has lost
itself outside itself (153/200). Accordingly the for-itself aims
to 'recover being' and to that end it employs reflection: reflec
tion is the means by which the for-itself 'attempts to put itself
inside its own being' (1 53/200) by gathering itself into a unity
and beholding itself as a totality. The goal of the for-itself in
reflection is thus to make of itself 'a given, a given which finally
is what it is' (153/200). If this attempt succeeded, then the for
itself would 'be to itself as an object-in-itself within its own
interiority (154/200). In reflection the subject is attempting,
therefore, to be its own foundation - the reflective gaze aims
to create the for-itself as an object with which it, the gaze itself,
would be identical. The 'objectivation' and 'interiorisation' of
itself (154/200) at which the for-itself aims in reflection cannot,
however, be achieved, in the first place because reflection itself
is not atemporal but is itself dispersed in the flow of temporal
ity, and more generally because reflection is being-for-itself and
as such its own structure is non-self-identical. (See Sartre's later
restatement of these ideas at 298/359-60.)
In the passages that follow (155-8/201-5) Sartre analyses
the distance from oneself which reflection involves, the laws
and limits of self-knowledge, and the muted sense in which the
reflected-on, Ie reflechi, is 'outside' reflection. In 24 we will see
how these considerations provide the basis for the (mis)repres
entation of oneself as a 'psychological' object.
Our natural picture of reflection is thus also defective in sug
gesting that reflection involves 'an addition of being', in the
form of an extra mental faculty or tier of mental representations:
instead we must think of it as 'an intra-structural modification'
of the for-itself (153/199), the possibility of which is contained
in the reflet-refletant structure of pre-reflective conscious
ness. The modification effected by reflection redeploys the
nothingness which inhabits pre-reflective consciousness, nihi
lating the unity reflet-refletant for the sake of a superior (but
unachieved) unity (1 521199). Sartre's account allows us to see
that pre-reflective and reflective consciousness share a struc
ture, implicit in the former and explicit in the latter, and that a
single, personalized reflexive relation is involved in both types
of consciousness: it appears in pre-reflective consciousness
as the structure reflet-refletant, and in reflection as the struc
ture reflexif-reflechi (1 53/199). The problem which we found in
The Transcendence of the Ego, namely that Sartre left it unex
plained why reflection should create an 'r, is thus resolved.
Pre-reflective and reflective consciousness are referred back to
a more basic, unitary teleological ground, which realizes itself
originally as pre-reflective consciousness, and then, because
this takes it no closer to its projected end, as reflective con
sciousness. This ground provides the explanans of reflexivity in
generaL The for-itself is in this way an organic unity, but only an
aspirant, would-be organic unity, not an achieved whole.
1 6 Facticity [Part Two, Chapter 1, Section I I]
At one level the term facticity refers to the for-itself's condition
of being situated in particularity: facticity in this descriptive
sense is simply what is exemplified by the fact of my being here
at this table in this cafe, of my being either a French bourgeois in
1942 or a Berlin worker in 1870 or a cafe waiter and not a diplo
mat. Facticity thus comprehends our physical, spatio-temporal
insertion in the world and all of the particular interpersonal,
social, cultural, institutional, political and historical relations
in which we each stand. But Sartre also envisages the concept
as referring, more abstractly, to the necessity of our always
being thus situated in particularity, and explanatorily, to what
it is about the for-itself (concerning its being and structure)
that necessitates its particular situatedness. This last is what
attempts Sartre to explicate in Section II. It is through affirm
ing facticity in this sense that Sartre means to express the truth,
which he supposes idealism to fail to grasp, concerning the way
in which the human subject finds itself existing at a level of
(unaccountable, 'unjustified') particularity. (The concept of
situation just employed to explicate facticity appears ahead of
time, since strictly on Sartre's analysis 'situation' is what results
from the conjunction of facticity with freedom; thus the sec
tion in Part Two only begins the discussion of facticity, which
is resumed and completed in Part Four; see 33.)
We grasp our facticity, in the sense of the transcendental
ground of our particular situatedness, by putting our contin
gency together with Sartre's anthropogenetic suggestion that
being-for-itself is negated being-in-itself (9). The (difficult) line
of thought that Sartre presents to join these two ideas begins
with his axiom (3) that the for-itself apprehends 'itself as not
being its own foundation' and therefore as a contingent existent
(79/122). This insight is incorporated in Descartes' reflective
cogito and drives his cosmological proof of God's existence, but
Sartre argues that self-founding or necessary being is a contra
dictory notion (80-11123). If necessary being is impossible, then
it cannot provide the foundation of my contingent being. But
Sartre does not allow enquiry to come to a halt here, as it might
have seemed that it must - our contingency needs to be, and
can be, Sartre thinks, accounted for in some manner. Now the
for-itself apprehends itself also as being self-nihilating, 'the
foundation of its own nothingness' (80/123), and this enables us
to take one step beyond mere recognition of our contingency,
by allowing the teleological schema of Sartre's annihilation
'myth' to be applied: 'The for-itself is the in-itself losing itself
as in-itself in order to found itself as consciousness' (82/124).
And this, finally, allows us to see why, at a transcendental
level, the for-itself should be necessarily always situated in par
tiCUlarity. My particular situatedness is always an instance of
contingency - there may be reasons why I am now working
as a cafe waiter, but they do not go back all the way to what
it is to be a for-itself; qua my being as a for-itself, my being-a
waiter is a contingent matter. And this contingency of mine just
is the contingency of the in-itself, ontologically displaced and
re-expressed at the level of the for-itself which it has become:
'the effort of an in-itself to found itself' gives rise to the 'factual
necessity', Ie necessite de fait, of the for-itself; facticity 'is what
remains of the in-itself in the for-itself' (841127).
This contingent facticity of mine, Sartre adds, can never
be fully 'realised' or grasped 'in its brute nudity' (83/126) - to
grasp my contingency as the sheer obtaining of certain facts
and nothing more, would be to constitute myself as a block of
in-itself. I can apprehend my facticity 'only by recovering it in
the sub-structure of the pre-reflective cogito', whereby I con
fer on it 'its meaning and its resistance' (83/126). Nonetheless,
facticity is what ensures that consciousness cannot 'choose its
attachments in the world in the same way as the souls in Plato's
Republic choose their condition'; the for-itself cannot determine
itself to be, for example, 'born a bourgeois' (83/126).
Facticity, note, is therefore indifferent to choice. Necessarily
we begin to make choices under conditions, such as the histor
ical age in which we live, which we have not chosen, but making
choices does not reduce the quantity of our facticity: the con
tents of my choices take up particularities offered by the being
of the world to my nothingness, and so always presuppose fac
ticity. Contingency would be overcome, and facticity thereupon
eliminated, only if the being of the objects of (aU) my choices
were my creation. (Sartre's conception of the 'original choice
of self', we will see in 34, totalizes my choices and gives them
necessity in relation to one another, but it does not claim the
being of my world as a matter of choice, and so does not con
flict with his theory of facticity.)
Sartre's conception of facticity leads, we will see in 31 , dir
ectly into his account of embodiment.
1 7 Lack and value [Part Two, Chapter 1 , Section I I I]
Section III aims to account for value, la valeur, as a feature of
the world, and to lay the ground for the motivational theory
that we are going to come to in 38 .
The section begins (85-9/128-33) b y providing a crucial
deepening and clarification of his metaphysics of nothingness,
in which the nothingness of the for-itself is redetermined as (a)
deficiency or lack of being, (un) defaut or manque d' etre.
Sartre's presentation of the argument suggests that two direc
tions are involved in the transition from nothingness to lack.
On the one hand it is to be understood as a sideways move, an
extrapolation of what is implied by our being nothingness, and on
the other as a move downwards, to a deeper explanatory level.
Sartre begins by reminding us that the for-itself stands in
a relation of negative ontological dependence to the in-itself.
The for-itself 'is perpetually determining itself not to be the
in-itself', meaning that the for-itself can establish itself 'only
in terms of the in-itself and against the in-itself' (85/128). And
this reveals immediately, Sartre claims (86/128 -9), that the for
itself is a lack of being: if the for-itself exists, not by virtue of
receiving ontological support from the in-itself, but by virtue of
making itself not-be the in-itself, then the for-itself exists (only)
in so far as it does not have, i.e. is lacking in, the being of the
in-itself.
And at the same time, the teleological story of its origin pro
vides another angle, from which the for-itself can be grasped
directly as an instance of lack, and in consequence of that, also
as nothingness. The teleological story establishes the for-itself
as lack on the basis that the endeavour of the in-itself is not to
give rise to being-for-itselfjor its own sake, but rather in order to
rid itself of contingency and thereby found itself (84/127). From
this it follows that the being of the for-itself is constituted in the
very first instance by an aim which its existence fails to realize:
the for-itself exists in order that being should be rid of contin
gency, but its being is just as contingent as that of the in-itself,
so it exists as the non-fulfilment of an aim. The for-itself exists
therefore as a state of affairs consisting in something's being
unattained or missing, i.e. it exists as defective, and therefore as
something which exists negatively.
This is enough to introduce the category of value, in indef
inite terms. In so far as the for-itself is a lack, positive value is
set on that which is lacked, and negative value on the being of
the lack. Sartre gives however a full account (90-5/133 -9) of the
path which leads from the for-itselfs being lack to its concrete
consciousness of value in the world, in the course of which the
concept of the for-itself as 'Self' which we referred to ahead of
time, in 14, is introduced and reveals its importance.
If being-for-itself is lack, what exactly is it that is lacked (Ie
manque)? In one sense, of course, it is simply the fulfilment
of the in-itself's original aim, viz. 'being in-itself rid of con
tingency and self-founding'. But once being-for-itself has come
into existence, determining and founding itself autonomously
and in accordance with the negative nature that it discovers
itself with, the object of lack is reformulated and must be
respecified: what the for-itself lacks, Sartre argues, is itself as
being-in-itself, 'itself in the mode of identity', self-coincident,
Ie soi comme etre-en-soi or soi-meme com me en-soi (88-9/132).
Sartre refers to this (we saw in 14) as 'Self', Soi (1001145).
This 'object' can be redescribed more finely: what the for-itself
wants is not that it should 'lose itself in the in-itself of identity' that consciousness should be annihilated - but that it should be
preserved as for-itself in the condition of being-in-itself, in other
words, that it should 'be this self as substantial being' (90/133).
What would be required, therefore, in order for the for-itself to
carry forward the original project of the in-itself of which it is the
intended vehicle, is 'the impossible synthesis of the for-itself and
the in-itself' (901133). Our ordinary, pre-philosophical concept
of such a totality, one which 'combines in itself the incompatible
characteristics of the in-itself and the for-itself', Sartre observes,
is God, a being that founds itself and combines absolute self
identity with self-consciousness.
It may seem natural to deny the for-itself-as-Self any
ontological status, precisely because it is unrealized and unreal
izable, and Sartre refers to it as a 'meaning', un sens (87/130) - it
is the 'meaning of the missing act of founding' (891132), the very
meaning of consciousness rather than a meaning conferred by
consciousness (911134). This might be supposed to make it cat
egorially non-ontological, but Sartre insists that ontological
commitment cannot be evaded (90-1/134). One compelling rea
son for this is that, unless the for-itself-as-Self possesses being
of some sort, it cannot be regarded as something transcendent
towards which the for-itself directs itself, and must instead be
regarded as a 'mere idea', contrary to Sartrc's programme of
philosophical explanation at the level of ontological structure
in place of subjective representation. Conceiving lack in terms
of an internal ontological relation whereby the for-itself projects
itself towards itself-as-Self - neither term of the relation being
able to exist without the other, and neither having priority over
the other (911134) - allows Sartre to claim that we discover here
'the origin of transcendence' in general (89/1 32).
The ontological status of the for-itself-as-Self provides the
basis for Sartre's account of value and our consciousness of it.
If the for-itself-as-Self has being, then it must be of some kind
not yet defined in B&N, since it is neither being-in-itself nor
being-for-itself, and therefore belongs to the full ontology, but
it is comparable neither to the entities composing the differen
tiated object-world nor to the 'degraded' pseudo-beings which
compose what Sartre calls the 'psychic' (see 24). The unique
and peculiar mode of being of the for-itself-as-Self corresponds
exactly, Sartre argues in detail, to that of value (92-511 36-9). By
value Sartre understands nothing specifically moral but sim
ply whatever exercises a normative power over the subject, the
correlates of its projects. Sartre's claim here concerns further
more not value as an object of the tic consciousness - the values
we avow, uphold, claim knowledge of, etc., which presuppose
reflection (95/138-9) - but to value as a non-thetic, pre-reflective
dimension of our being-in-the-world. At this primordial level
value 'haunts' the for-itself, 'is consubstantial with it' without
being posited by it and 'out of reach' (94-5/1 38-9). As Sartre
puts it later, value is 'a phantom-being which surrounds and
penetrates the for-itself through and through' (203/254).
A further, independent and corroborative route to the con
clusion that the for-itself is lack is provided, Sartre argues,
by the phenomena of desire and suffering, analyses of which
are intercalated in Section III (at 87-8/1 30-1 and 90-2/134-6
respectively; see 24).
Sartre's theory of desire shows especially clearly how his
ontological idiom contradicts the entrenched tendency of
ordinary and philosophical thought to reductively psycholo
gize features of human subjectivity. According to Sartre, it is
false that we lack only in so far as we desire without fulfilment,
the implication of which would be that our lacking reduces to
our desiring. Rather, we only desire at all because we exist
as instances of something's being 'missing', in a sense com
parable to that in which the crescent moon exists as lacking
its missing quarter. Similarly and more broadly, Sartre's the
ory of lack allows transcendence to be grasped as an objective
ontological structure of the for-itself: as Sartre puts it, the for
itself 'is indissolubly linked to being-in-itself, not as a thought
to its obj ect [. . .J but as a lack to that which defines its lack'
(89/1 33). This, note, underlines the reality of the transcend
ence asserted in Sartre's ontological proof (5): it is not merely
that we seem to ourselves to transcend towards objects; our
'reaching towards being' is an event belonging to reality and
not merely to our subjectivity. Sartre's affirmation of the
objective character of the structures of the for-itself illustrates
his identification of the perspectival and absolute standpoints
discussed in 13: in our existence as a lack of being which
reaches towards being, the way that things are in the internal
view of the human subject, and the way that they are in the
view from nowhere, coincide.
Though Schopenhauer is not mentioned by name, it is clear
that in the passages on desire and suffering Sartre is consciously
reworking Schopenhauer's thesis of the necessity and ubiquity
of human suffering, in a form which shakes off the empiri
cist elements of Schopenhauer's claim, and on a basis which
is arguably more rigorous. The sense in which being-for-itself
as such is suffering, on Sartre's account, is quite independent
of any introspection of a pervasive negative hedonic quality in
our experience and is instead connected a priori with what it is
to be conscious of a world. (Sartre refers in this context to the
'unhappy consciousness', la conscience malheureuse, of Hegel's
Phenomenology of Spirit, 90/134, which he has re-interpreted
in non-rationalist, Schopenhauerian terms, as an inescapable,
rather than dialectically surpassable condition.)
In 38 we will pursue the implications of Sartre's theory of
the for-itself-as-Self and in 44 discuss briefly the conditions
for ethical value. (B&N does not devote a separate section to
aesthetic value, though it contains many remarks on aesthetic
matters; of particular note is Sartre's account at 194-5/244-5
of beauty as 'an ideal realisation of the for-itself' or 'imaginary
realisation of myself as a totality in-itself and for-itself'.)
1 8 Possibility [Part Two, Chapter 1 , Section IV]
Sartre's discussion of possibility runs in close parallel to his
treatment of negation. Possibilities, both in the human realm
and that of extra-human empirical fact, are given to us as
concrete transcendent realities, and consciousness of these
is presupposed by the abstract concept of possibility and the
corresponding form of modal judgement. Reductive subject
ive or epistemic analyses of possibility - those of Leibniz and
Spinoza - are in any case ruled out, because they are either
circular or fail to distinguish possibilities from other, non
modal states of affairs. On the other hand, Sartre argues,
possibility cannot be conceived as having its source within
actual being-in-itself. Realist analyses of possibility in terms of
Aristotelian potentialities must therefore be rejected.
By elimination, then, possibility must be traced back to a pri
ori features of human subjectivity. Sartre's metaphysics shows
possibility to be intelligible in the following way. In the first
place, possibility presupposes nihilation, as noted in 9, and
its appearance in the world is made further intelligible, Sartre
argues, in terms of the for-itselfs structure as lack. As we
saw in 17, the for-itself is a lack of self-coincidence to which
corresponds the for-itself-as-Self, and the for-itseIrs projec
tion of itself towards this quasi-entity in the form of desires
for worldly objects, Sartre claims, is what causes 'the Possible'
to arise in the world (100-21145-7). The structure of possibil
ity thus derives from my self-relation, the internal relation of
myself-as-Iack to myself-as-replete: 'The possible is the some
thing which the For-itself lacks in order to be itself' (1021147).
(Sartre's ontology of possibles contributes in turn to his theory
of action and freedom: see 32.)
1 9 Knowledge [Part Two, Chapter 3, Sections I and V]
Sartre's treatment of knowledge in Chapter 3 of Part Two is, in
an important sense, non-epistemological. The question which
Sartre addresses is not that of whether we have knowledge,
pace the sceptic, nor that of the conditions under which it is
rational to form beliefs with whatever degree of epistemic con
fidence, the task of a theory of rational belief. Rather Sartre is
concerned with what knowledge is. The knowledge-relation is
considered by Sartre in abstraction from our normative interest
in belief-formation, and the result is a metaphysics of cogni
tion, as distinct from, in the usual sense of the term, a theory
of knowledge. As Sartre puts it, 'knowledge is reabsorbed in
being' (216/268), and 'the ontological problem of knowledge is
resolved by the affirmation of the ontological primacy of the
in-itself over the for-itself (619171 3).
Because Sartre's conception of consciousness, which he has
already explained to us, is that of an unmediated and internally
structureless relation to a transcendent object, which is fur
thermore conscious of itself as such, there is by Sartre's lights
nothing more that needs to be done, or that can be said, regard
ing the basic possibility of knowledge. Cognition involves no
two-stage process of, for example, first sensing and then having
to either bring concepts to bear on sensory data, or render this
data clear and distinct, or give it appropriate unity; so there is
nothing in Sartre corresponding to empiricist abstraction, the
rationalist theory of inspection of ideas or Kantian synthesis.
What Sartre can add and does supply in his treatment of know
ledge is an account of why it should be true in the first place
that there is this transcendent consciousness, and of what in
broader terms it amounts to. (Note that, because Sartre rejects
causal analyses of intentionality, it is ruled out for him that
knowledge is merely an empirical relation with a distinctive
normative coating.)
Transcendence as a structure of consciousness is explained
by Sartre as a structure of the for-itself: consciousness intends
an object because the teleology of the for-itself demands its
transcendence, one aspect of which is the knowing of the object.
Knowledge is 'intuition', 'the presence of consciousness to the
thing' (172/221), and this immediate presence - which, Sartre
explains, must be understood negatively: consciousness desig
nates itself as not being that object (see 1O) - is necessitated by
the for-itself's having to produce itself originally 'on the foun
dation of a relation to the in-itself' (172/220), i.e. to constitute
'itself as not being the thing' (174/222).
Knowledge on Sartre's conception is therefore not a supple
mentary relation between pre-existent beings, nor an activity
or attribute or function, but a 'mode of being' of the subject
(174/222), identical with the upsurge of the for-itself and as such
'an absolute and primitive event' (216/268).
This brings Sartre, as he acknowledges, into agreement with
idealism on two scores: the being of the for-itself is indeed co
extensive with knowledge (216/268), and knowledge bears the
significance of affirmation
the in-itself's being-known and
intentionally affirmed as 'world' is 'the reverse of the internal
negation' of consciousness; all proceeds as if being-in-itself had
negated itself and given birth to the for-itselfjust in order that it
might receive affirmation (216-17/269). What separates Sartre
from the absolute idealism on which his position here borders
so closely is, first, his insistence that the teleological process
witnessed 'exists only for the For-itself' and 'disappears with
it' (217/269); and second, his realist, anti-constitutive thesis that
nothing is added to being by its being-known 'except the very
fact that there is In-itselr (217/269), for which reason the human
subject experiences itself as 'weighed down on' and 'invested'
with being 'from every side' (217-18/269-70) in a sense which,
Sartre believes, idealism is unable to account for.
20 Empirical reality [Part Two, Chapter 3, Sections I-IV]
On the basis of and in close connection with his account of
cognition, Sartre gives in the middle sections of the chapter
on transcendence an account of the intelligibly differentiated
object-world, 'the thing in the world' (198/248). This encom
passes: (1) spatiality (184-5/233-4, 21 1-1 31262-5); (2) empirical
determinacy, that is, an empirical thing's being itself and not
another thing, and its being thus and not otherwise (Section II);
(3) the qualitative and quantitative features of empirical real
ity (Section III); (4) its temporal structure, i.e. the temporality
discovered 'on' being (204/255) by pre-reflective consciousness,
what Sartre calls 'universal time' or 'the time of the world', as
opposed to the reflectively disclosed temporality of the for-itself
(Section IV); and (5) the very status of 'the world' as a unity or
totality (180-3/228-32). Also included in Sartre's discussion are
the distinction of the abstract and the concrete (188-9/238-9),
permanence (193-41243-4, 204-6/255-7), abstraction and
empirical concept formation (193-4/243-4), potentiality and
probability (196-7/246-7), the principle of causality (207-8/259)
and motion (209-14/260-5).
The central notion employed throughout Sartre's analyses is
that of negation - in general terms, empirical determinacy is an
instance of 'external' negation (8) - and since negation is the
prerogative of the for-itself, it is here that the interdependence
of the world with the for-itself - their complementary and cor
related positions in the full ontology (12) - emerges explicitly.
The account given by Sartre is transcendental in the sense
that empirical reality, with respect to its formal features, is
traced back to a priori ontological conditions, viz. the struc
tures and mode of being of the for-itself. As noted earlier,
Sartre is not concerned to demonstrate the necessity of those
features in the strong sense of showing the conceptual impos
sibility of any alternatives - the impossibility, for example, of
non-spatial awareness of the in-itself, or of experience which
does not conform to the principle of causality. What Sartre's
analyses show instead is the way in which the formal features
of empirical reality and the structures of the for-itself inter
lock, and how the latter make the former intelligible, and this
supports at least some weak claims regarding the necessary
conditions of experience: to the extent that Sartre shows, for
example, how spatialization of the in-itself is what for us plays
the role of allowing being-for-itself to make itself co-present
with being-in-itself, and how the principle of causality mirrors
the temporal structure of the for-itself, Sartre can be said to
establish the necessity, in some albeit weak sense, of space and
causality for empirical reality.
21 Instrumentality [Part Two, Chapter 3, Section I I I]
The account given hitherto in Chapter 3 may seem to suggest,
or to be consistent with, the 'primacy' of 'the representative',
that is, the view that dis-interested contemplative conscious
ness of the world is the primordial condition of the for-itself
(198/248). Sartre reminds us why this is to be rejected: the world
appears 'inside the circuit of selfness' (198/248) - the perceived
'is like a conductor in the circuit of selfness' (192/242) and
with this circuit the for-itself constitutes itself as lack and thus
as practically orientated.
This has direct implications for how the world is configured.
The for-itselfs relation to lack cannot be a relation to a given
object - if it were, then lack would be an external relation, i.e.
not the for-itselfs own lack ing Sartre allows that a privileged
kind of (pure) reflection (see 43) might apprehend directly
being-for-itself as lack, but for pre -reflective consciousness, i.e.
consciousness of the world, the lack can appear 'only in projec
tion', as a transcendent structure. This explains the empirical
identification of particular determinate lacks, in other words,
the population of the world with tasks, 'voids to be filled' by the
for-itself (199/249-50).
Things are therefore, equiprimordially with their being
objects of knowledge, also instruments or utensils (200/250-1).
Sartre's Kantian account of empirical reality is thereby inte
grated with a Heideggerean account of the world as an
equipmental matrix - both of which Sartre may claim to have
provided with a new (and unified) foundation.
22 Temporality [Part Two, Chapter 2, Sections I-II]
Sartre's discussion of temporality is highly detailed, but cul
minates in a thesis which can be summarized as follows: Time
must be understo,od in terms of ('original') temporality, a struc
ture of the for-itself, and original temporality in turn must be
understood in terms of the for-itself's reflexivity, specifically,
its 'temporalisation' of itself. The following points are basic to
Sartre's discussion of this topic.
l. Realism, Sartre argues (1071155, 1241168), delivers the con
clusion that time does not exist, since it will show that the
past is no longer and that the future is not yet, while the real
ity of the present will fall prey to the paradox of division into
infinitesimals.
The constraints which Sartre puts on realism are disputable,
but Sartre's subtler and most effective point in justification of
his rejection of realism about time is that (in accordance with
Sartre's basic rule of method) an intelligible conception of time
must show its connection with consciousness of time, and that
none of the materials available to realism are adequate to this
purpose. Our consciousness of time could not be restricted to
the observation of its continuous passage - as one watches the
movement of a clock hand or the advance of a progress bar.
Time is not an object of consciousness: consciousness is in time
and time is in consciousness. Furthermore, necessarily we are
conscious of time as articulatedin three dimensions - back there
is the past, here is the present, and ahead lies the future - and
a dynam ic character: time passes, the present becomes the past,
etc. Such consciousness cannot be made intelligible on the basis
of 'representations' presently contained within the subject memory images, images of future states of affairs, etc. - since
an antecedent time-consciousness would be required for the
subject to grasp those mental representations as having past
or future reference (108-9/151-2, 124-5/169). Consciousness of
the past and the future are therefore relations of being, not of
representation (146/192).
2. Deriving time from the for-itself leaves various options
open, one of which is Kant's treatment of time as a tran
scendental condition of objective knowledge. Consistently
with his general position vis a vis Kantian idealism, and his
teleological conception of being-for-itself, Sartre looks for a
non-epistemological basis for temporality.
3. Sartre holds that a theory of time must answer the ques
tions of why there is time, of why time has its three dimensions
and no others, and of why time consists in a process of becom
ing-past, a 'passage to the past' (120/164, 142/188, 1441190). The
ordinary, commonsensical picture of time as a flowing, invis
ible, linear medium along which things in the world pass or
within which they are carried, merely takes time as a given,
and has no potential for answering these questions. If time
must be conceived in terms of the structure 'past-present-fu
ture', evidently it cannot be regarded as a mere aggregate of
three independent elements. From this it follows that we must
'approach it as a totality which dominates its secondary struc
tures and confers on them their meaning' (107/1 50).
Having clarified Sartre's constraints on a theory of time that it should derive time from the for-itself but not reduce
time to a condition for knowledge, and should explain why
time exists at all and does so tridimensionally - it is intelli
gible that Sartre should locate time in a dynamic, end-directed
structure of the for-itself deriving from its basic character as a
nihilation of the in-itself. Sartre gives an account, not of what
it is for a subject to be conscious of an objective sequence (say,
a ship travelling downstream), but of what it is for a subject to
relate itself to its own past, present and future, i.e. for me to
relate myself to something as belonging to my Past, Present
or Future. The preceding remarks allow us to understand why
this means neither that Sartre is describing the 'psychology'
of time in place of addressing philosophical question of what
time is, nor that Sartre has 'subjectivised' time in Berkeley's
manner - certainly Sartre follows the idealist principle that
the ultimate ground of time must be located in the subject, but
it is out of the question for Sartre that time should be collapsed
into contents of subjectivity.
The text of Sections I and II has a complex organization.
(Section III of the chapter is concerned with the construction
of non-original, 'psychic' temporality, discussed below in 24.)
After a rapid sketch of his position in the opening paragraph
(107/150), Section I gives a phenomenological, 'pre-ontological'
description of the three temporal dimensions in turn, designed
to provide a 'provisional' and 'preliminary clarification' of time
(107/150). The sense in which this section is phenomenological
rather than ontological is weak, however, since it includes
a set of negative conclusions regarding the ontology of time,
based on their incompatibility with the phenomenology, and
descriptions of the meaning of each of the temporal dimensions
in terms of what we already know of the ontology of the for
itself:
(1) 1 12-20/1 56-64: The meaning of the past lies in the way that
a being which has a past in the manner of the for-itself relates to
it as something for which it is responsible and which it founds in
the present, and which it 'has to be' (1 14/158) - but whose 'being
is no longer for itself', since it no longer exists as reflet-reJletant,
and so counts as 'for-itself become in-itself'; the past is 'what I
am without being able to live it' (119/163). Relation to the past
thus exemplifies Sartre formula of contradictory predication
of the for-itself: what I was is what I have to be in order to not
be-it, and have not-to-be in order to be it (1 171161).
(2) 120-3/165-8: The present bears the simpler meaning of
'the presence of the For-itself to being-in-itself (1211164), an
internal bond to all being-in-itself, which cannot be analysed
in terms of the being of a 'present instant', and which has the
meaning ofJlight in face of being, a 'flight outside of co-present
being and from the being which it was' towards the future
(3) 127-9/172-4: The future, it follows, has initially the mean
ing of being the 'outside' of the present-and-past towards which
the for-itself takes flight, and so of being 'beyond being' (126/170).
But in order to provide for the sense in which this 'outside' is in
addition awaited and anticipated and unrealised - i.e. not sim
ply related to as a 'homogeneous and chronologically ordered
succession of moments to come' (129/174) - the full meaning of
the future must be, Sartre argues, that of the future Jar-itself,
i.e. of myself as I will be. Yet this future self cannot, again, sim
ply be a self of the same ontological character as what I am
in the mode of my past (if it were, then 'looking to the future'
would be indistinguishable from looking at the past). And so,
Sartre claims, the future must be understood in terms of his
teleological theory of the for-itself-as-Self and 'the Possible'
(17-18): the future is 'the ideal point' of self-coincidence, at
which the Self will 'arise as the existence in-itself of the for-it
self (1281172). Hence the sense in which the Future is always still
to come, unachieved, a 'continual possibilisation of possibles'
Section II, officially moving from phenomenology to ontol
ogy, is concerned in its first sub-section, on 'static temporality'
(130-42/175-88), with refuting accounts, either realist or ideal
ist, of time as a formal order; and in its second sub-section,
on 'dynamic temporality' (142-91188-96), with amplifying the
ontology of the three temporal dimensions in such a way as to
(a) explain the meanings of past, present and future described in
Section I, and (b) resolve problems raised by these descriptions.
The passages at 136-7/181-3 and 147-9/193-6 give the crux of
Sartre's conception of temporality. Here Sartre characterizes
time as 'a unifying act' which has 'the structure of selfness',
'the intra-structure of a being which has to be its own being'
(1 36/181-2), and which 'temporalises itself as an 'incomplete
totality' (149/196). Sartre applies this structure to the three tem
poral dimensions - to the past at 1 37-411183-7, the future at
141-21187-8, and the present at 142/188 - showing that tempor
ality can be grasped as a unitary 'metamorphosis' of being. Of
particularly importance in this context is Sartre's account of
why, once we have recognized time's identity with the for-itself,
the transcendental questions of why there is time, why it has
the dimensions it does and why time passes, are answered: see
147-9/193-6.
Sartre may be described as seeking to identify the 'story'
which constitutes time. Narratives as we ordinarily conceive
them concern the form of events within time, but Sartre's
notion is that time is defined by a fundamental narrative (or
teleological) form, which is responsible for its having the shape
'past-present-future'.
A term borrowed from Heidegger is used by Sartre in the
chapter on temporality: 'ekstasis', meaning the condition of
standing outside of oneself (or, in some contexts in B&N, the
attempt to achieve that condition). Temporality is the first of
the three ekstases which constitute the for-itself, the second
being reflection, and the third being being-for-others (see
Sartre's summary at 298/359). Past, present and future com
prise the three temporal ekstases (1371183).
The important idea which accompanies the terminology of
ekstasis - which is otherwise merely a synonym for non-self
coincidence - concerns the teleology of the for-itself. As we
have seen, Sartre describes the telos of the for-itself as the self
coincidence or self-identity of a Self. But Sartre's accounts of
this movement presuppose, it must always be remembered, a
prior movement of 'flight' from being which comprises the more
basic teleology of the for-itself and which yields an initial ten
dency towards disintegration of the for-itself - a multiplication
of parts, falling away from unity towards mutual dissociation
(but which, like all of the for-itself's teleology, is not and cannot
be completed).
Note that by the end of Chapter 2, Sartre has still not dealt
with 'objective' temporality: this 'universal time' or 'the time
of the world' - which is distinct (but not independent) from
both original temporality and its 'degraded', 'psychic' version
(24) - we referred to in 20 as belonging to Sartre's theory of
empirical reality.
23 Contradictory predication of the for-itself
Sartre employs, we have seen, a great deal of contradictory
predication of the for-itself. Reflection both is and is not the
reflected-on. The for-itself both is and is not its past and its
future, and both is and is not the contingent being which com
poses its facticity. The being of consciousness 'does not coincide
with itself' and lacks the self-identity of the in-itself (741116),
implying that the for-itself both is and is not itself. Contradictory
predication will recur later in the context of the body: I both am
and am not my body (3l). In the most general terms, Sartre
describes being-for-itself as 'being which is what it is not and
which is not what it is' (58/97). (Sartre regards the 'is' of identity
and the 'is' of predication as linked, if not interconvertible, so
what I am calling his thesis of contradictory predication may
equally be called his thesis of non-self-identity.)
This practice has not helped Sartre to be taken seriously
by philosophers outside the post-Kantian tradition, within
which such forms of expression are more familiar, above all
from Hegel. We have seen, however, that Sartre's contradict
ory predications of the for-itself are not empty and pointless in
the manner of contradictory predications of the in-itself: they
get their sense from Sartre's theories of the structures of the
for-itself, which explain the sense in which reflection is and the
sense in which it is not the reflected-on, in which I am and am
not my past, and so on.
An important question nonetheless remains. When proper
account is taken of the theories correlated with Sartre's contra
dictory predications, does contradiction in the strict sense
disappear? In other words, can Sartre's metaphysIcs be reex
pressed in a way that eliminates contradiction from his account
of what is real? While Sartre's metaphysics of course need to be
construed as themselves consistent, hence free from contradic
tion, it is a further question whether these metaphysics include
the statement that there is a type of being in which contradic
tion inheres (whose structure is contradictory). If this is indeed
Sartre's claim, then Sartre's theoretical elucidations do not
eliminate contradiction by telling us how to paraphrase away
the contradictory predications attached to the for-itself, rather
they presuppose and specify it. If so, then to say for example
that the for-itself is and is not its past is to express one of the
ways in which the for-itself exists contradictorily, and when we
relativize the contradictory predicates of the for-itself by saying
that in one respect (qua my facticity) I am my past and in another
respect (qua my transcendence) I am not my past, contradict
oriness is still needed precisely in order to grasp the relation of
mutual exclusion between the two relativized predicates.
If Sartre does affirm the contradictoriness of the for-itself,
then this is a claim which is distinct from and goes beyond his
doctrine of the multiplicity of modes of being, his metaphys
ics of nothingness, and his thesis that the human subject lacks
subject-predicate form: to say that we exist in a unique mode,
that our being is that of nothingness, and that we are not meta
physical subjects of properties, is not to say that contradictions
are true of us.
It is hard to come to a decision on this issue. In support of the
view that Sartre is serious about the reality of contradiction,
the case can be made that Sartre models the contradictoriness
of the for-itself on the idea of a contradiction obtaining in the
in-itself. It is true that the reason why I both am and am not my
past cannot be gleaned by consideration of the past of a tree
root: 'is and is not F' cannot be true of a tree root in the way
that it can be true of me, if only because, on Sartre's view, no
predicate which is true of me can be true of a piece of in-itself
and vice versa. But at the level of meaning, Sartre may well be
telling us to understand what it is to exist in the mode of being
for-itself by reference to what it would be for a contradiction to
be true of the in-itself, just as, we saw in 9-1O, Sartre's con
cept of nothingness is semantically parasitic on our grasp of
the being of the in-itself.
Second, it may be argued that, if the mode of being of the
for-itself did not involve contradiction, then it would not be
problematic in the way that Sartre time and again insists that
it is: without contradiction, our mode of being - our 'having
to-be' our being - arguably would not present deep metaphysical
difficulty. On this view, contradiction is what makes human
existence a problem in need of a solution and supplies the
motivational engine the for-itself.
We should, here as ever, be wary of under-representing the
strangeness of Sartre's views, but motives other than philosoph
ical timidity may lead us to think that justice can be done to the
problematic character of our mode of being without infracting
the principle of non-contradiction. Use of the 'is and is not' for
mula may be regarded as Sartre's way of highlighting the parallels
between the various structures of the for-itself, their sharing of
a certainform which makes the for-itself heterogeneous with the
in-itself, but which need not be identified with the obtaining of a
contradiction. Contradictory predication as a conceptual device
carries in addition the heuristic advantage that it registers the
problematic character of any predication of the for-itself and so
reminds us that the human subject is not a subject of properties.
It may even be wondered whether contradiction does succeed in
capturing the problematic, internally dynamic character of the
for-itself's mode of being: if a contradiction is determinately true
of me, isn't that a kind of final conceptual stabilization, bringing
me to rest? A strong case can be made also, therefore, for leaving
contradiction out of the final interpretative picture.
It is worth noting how closely this issue is connected with
two metaphilosophical issues, our view of which may make
a difference to what we think about Sartrean contradiction.
The first concerns Sartre's relation to Hegel. As noted above,
contradictory predication has a firm and defensible place in
Hegel's logic, and if Sartre can be thought to subscribe to this
much of Hegel without thereby committing himself to any
objectionable (in Sartre's eyes) substantive Hegelian metaphys
ics, then Sartre's use of contradiction would allow itself to be
understood and defended on Hegelian grounds. There is room
for doubt that the terms and conditions of the Hegelian dialect
ical apparatus are metaphysically neutral, but consideration of
this issue would take us too far afield.
The second is the metaphilosophical issue discussed in 13.
One natural way of taking contradictory predication of the
for-itself is as an account merely of how we must think, i.e. as
identifying merely ways in which we conceive and experience
ourselves (factically or transcendently, etc.). These conceptions
or modes of presentation may be superimposed incoherently
upon one another, or we may alternative between them, such
that it sometimes seems to me that the one is true (that I am
my past) and at other times that the other is true (that I am not
my past). Sartre is of course not positioning himself neutrally
above these conceptions and merely observing our thought pat
terns: he is affirming their interdependent necessity and so also
endorsing them, i.e. saying that, relative to the phenomena of
our self-experience and our capacity for self-understanding, the
contradictory conceptions need to be accepted, by that meas
ure, as true. But on the exclusively perspectival or Copernican
reading of Sartre's philosophical project, this does not commit
Sartre to locating these contradictions within reality: Sartre's
final thesis, we may say, is only that we cannot conceive or
experience ourselves without contradiction, in other words, that
human SUbjectivity cannot make itself theoretically perspicu
ous; whether or not in reality as disclosed to 'the view from
nowhere' the human subject has contradictory structure is not
Sartre's concern, and is neither denied nor affirmed by him.
24 Psychology, 'psychological facts' and the Psyche
[Part Two, Chapter 2, Section I I I , 1 58-70/205-1 8]
The thesis of The Transcendence of the Ego that there are two
antithetical ways of approaching what we may neutrally call
'the mental' - one that assimilates it to worldly objects, and
another that grasps it through and as subjectivity - and that
the former amounts to a misconception, albeit one founded on
an operation which natural consciousness performs upon itself,
is maintained in B&N, as we have seen. The claim returns as a
recurrent theme in Sartre's analyses, and some passages in par
ticular may be singled out as prime exemplifications and key
elements of Sartre's critique of what he calls the 'psychological'
or 'psychic', as opposed to phenomenological, conception of
the mental.
1. As we saw in 14, Sartre argues that pre-reflective con
sciousness as such involves teleological instability. When the
structure of reflet-refIetant is witnessed in the case of pleas
ure (xxx-xxxi/20-1), we get the result that pleasure, and our
consciousness of pleasure, form together 'an indivisible,
indissoluble being' (xxxi/21), precluding the possibility of
separation, but neither term reducing to the other. In order
for pleasure to exist - in order for me to feel pleasure - it
is necessary for me to participate in (more precisely: to be)
the movement of mutual reference of the two moments of this
totality. This peculiarity of the mode of being of pleasure reflected in the way that I can neither stand back from my
pleasure as if before a foreign object, nor strictly lose myself
in it - precludes pleasure's being conceived as a fact bearing
any resemblance to an object's possession of a quality or hav
ing of a content.
2. In the case of belief, the law of the pre-reflective cog ito
gives the same kind of result, but with more complex implica
tions (see 68-70/109-1 1 and 74-75/1 17- 18). Belief that p implies
consciousness-of-believing-that-p, and to be conscious that I
believe that p is to know that I believe that p. At this point,
however, belief-that-p converts itself into a putative fact of con
sciousness, a 'subjective determination' of my mind, split off
from its 'external correlative', i.e. from p itself (69/ 1 1 0). And
with this I am alienated from my belief, in so far as it now
stands in question for me: 'Thus the non-thetic consciousness
(of) believing is destructive of belief. But at the same time the
very law of the pre-reflective cogito implies that the being of
believing ought to be the consciousness of believing' (69/110).
This feature of belief - its instability or 'troubled' character
(7511 17), the necessity and difficulty of my maintaining my belief
in a non-causal manner which no worldly state of affairs could
require from me - does not show itself in the case of such plain
empirical ('intuitively founded', in Sartre's language) beliefs as
that the cat is on the mat, but it is, in Sartre's view, essential
for the possibility of bad faith or self-deception (see 37) and
responsible for the way in which our doxastic lives generally fail
to run a smooth course.
3. Desire too, Sartre maintains, exhibits a deep structure
which commonsense psychology does not recognize and
which the psychological conception of the mental cannot
accommodate (see 87-8/130-1, 101-21145-6, 198-9/248-9, and
the discussion of sexual desire at 382-98/451-68). Contra the
conceptions of desire as either a force or a rational response
to a judgement of an object's desirability, Sartre regards desire
as such - even in its most 'rudimentary' pre-reflective forms,
e.g. thirst or sexual desire - as conditioned and made pos
sible by the structure of metaphysical lack, as noted in 17 (see
101-21145-6). Lack becomes motivationally effective, Sartre
argues, through the for-itself's negation of itself: the for-itself
negates itself as lack, in order to be that-which-it-Iacks, result
ing in 'the empirical establishment of particular lacks as lacks
endured or suffered' and providing 'the foundation of affectiv
ity in general' (199/249).
Empirical lacks are reinterpreted in the terms of psychology
as 'drives', 'appetites' or 'forces' (199/249). What shows these psy
chological posits to be mere 'idols' and 'phantoms' (199/249),
Sartre argues, is the complexity of aim in desire: to be thirsty
is, of course, to want a drink, but the aim of the desire is not
simply the object, a drink, nor is it merely that consumption of
the object should cause the desire to vanish. Rather thirst seeks
to unite itself with consciousness-of-drinking: 'What the desire
wishes to be is a filled emptiness' which 'shapes its repletion
as a mould shapes the bronze which has been poured inside it'
(1011146). In this sense, Sartre observes, it belongs to the tele
ology of desire to perpetuate, not to suppress, itself ('man clings
ferociously to his desires', 101/146). The richness and complex
ity of what it means for a human subject to desire, and for its
desire to 'be satisfied', requires in Sartre's view a metaphysical
account from which it follows that thirst 'as an organic phe
nomenon, as a "physiological" need of water, does not exist'
(87/130). In 41 we will see in more detail what this involves.
A full survey of the topics in the philosophy of mind
approached in this manner by Sartre would be extensive. In
the previous chapter we mentioned Sartre's early treatments of
imagination and emotion. Sartre also mounts, we will see in 37,
a critical challenge to the concept of character, or at any rate
to its putative empirical explanatory employment. In the chap
ter on the body, Sartre discusses at length the psychological
conception of sensory experience and concept of sensation
(310-20/372-83). Regarding action and its explanation, we will
see (32) that Sartre argues in Part Four in the context of his
theory of freedom that psychological causal determination is
strictly inconceivable, and later this is followed by a critique
of the attempt to explain individuals in terms of psychological
laws (34).
It is notable, therefore, and important for the strength of
his case, that Sartre takes the trouble to argue in two direc
tions - both down from metaphysics to ordinary concepts of
the mental, and upwards from a critique of these to his meta
physics - and both directions need to be taken account of in
assessing Sartre's position.
It is often observed that elements in Sartre's view of the men
tal agree strikingly with many of Wittgenstein's observations
regarding the logical peculiarities or distinctive 'grammar' of
mental concepts. But in pursuing this comparison the difference
should not be lost sight of that, in Sartre's view, the grounds of
the grammar must be rediscovered in the phenomena, and that
Sartre considers that nothing short of a metaphysical system
can provide the therapy which Wittgenstein thinks we stand
in philosophical need of. In part this is because Sartre regards
our need for existential transformation as much greater than
Wittgenstein supposes it to be, but it is also because, according
to Sartre, mental phenomena make sense only if their subject
is grasped as having the strange metaphysical form of non-self
identity which Part Two has attempted to bring to light, and
this form in turn makes sense, Sartre believes, only on the basis
of his metaphysics of nothingness.
What Sartre's analyses of pleasure, belief and desire bring to
light is the elusive, complex character of the 'mineness' of my
mental states, which in Sartre's view the psychological conception
either overlooks or actively strips away from the mental in order
that the human subject may be regarded as presenting explan
anda of the same kind as those presented by non-human empirical
objects; it conceives the human subject on the subject-predicate
model, and correlatively, considers truths about the mental as
statements of fact concerned with states of affairs which obtain
in the very same sense as, and share the mode of being of, non
conscious states of affairs. The mineness of the mental becomes
accordingly, a secondary, supplementary, inessential feature.
Sartre's point is, therefore, not merely that ordinary and sci
entific psychology take an overly simple view of the mental,
which might be corrected by increased theoretical sophistica
tion: it is that there is no such thing as a 'psychological fact' or
'psychological state'.IOS What there is instead, comprising the
object of scientific psychology, is the field of virtual phenomena
that Sartre calls 'the psychic'.
The psychic receives its fullest treatment in Part Two,
Chapter 2, Section III, in the context of Sartre's theory of
temporality, for the reason that it is the combination of the
structure of reflection with temporality which, on Sartre's
account, makes possible the for-itself's apprehension of itself
as a psychic existent.
Sartre gives a complex and detailed account of how the
psychic is constituted: (1) 150-41197-201: As we saw in 15,
reflection arises with the aim of completing an 'objectivation'
and 'interiorisation' of itself, which cannot however be achieved,
since reflection is being-for-itself and its structure is non-self
identical. (2) 158ff.l205ff.: What results from reflection's failure
to realize its telos is instead the apprehension of the conscious
ness reflected-on as an objective succession of psychic facts,
fixed in a duration which is the object of thetic consciousness,
called by Sartre 'psychic temporality' or 'psychic duration' and
distinguished from the original temporality of non-thetic, pre-re
flective consciousness. Reflection endows the reflected-on with
the in-itself characteristics of the for-itselfs past, as if putting
consciousness in the past tense (1 19/163). The error of psychology
may be described as that of ascribing to the mental in general
the mode of being of pastness. (3) 160-11207-8 Finally reflec
tion severs the bond between - it deepens the nothing which
separates - reflection and reflected-on, allowing the latter to
descend to the level of being-in-itself.
More precisely, this is what results from the type of reflection
which Sartre calls 'impure', 'accessory' (complicit, compUce)
(155/201) or 'constituting' (constituante) (159/206), to which he
contrasts 'pure reflection' (see 43). The 'degraded representa
tion' of refle cted-on consciousness which issues from impure
reflection is marked by a degree of externality, such that its
presence to my consciousness involves a degree of detachment
from me and is akin to a 'visitation' (158/205). When the psychic
has been unified on the model of a substance with properties,
so that it exhibits 'the cohesive unity of an organism' (165/21 3),
we have the entity which Sartre in The Transcendence of the
Ego called the ego but now calls 'the Psyche'. Sartre recap
itulates his earlier analysis of it into states, qualities and acts
(162-3/209-1 1). The Psyche presents itself indifferently from
any temporal perspective (165/212- 13), and invites the mental
'chemistry' of Proust (169/217).
Though non-identical with the ekstatic for-itself, Sartre grants
that the Psyche cannot be considered an illusion, if only because
it has 'intersubjective reality': psychological facts provide the
basis for concrete relations between people and the goal of cer
tain acts; my plans take account of Pierre's resentment of me, I
do everything I can to make Annie love me, etc. (158-9/205-6).
Sartre describes the Psyche's mode of existence as 'virtual' but
not abstract (161 -3/208-1 1), and as oscillating ambiguously
between mere 'ideality' and the artifactual being of something
'made-to-be' - though in one sense a 'phantom world', the Psyche
also constitutes a 'real situation' of the for-itself (170/218).
25 The critique of Freud [Part One, Chapter 2, Section I]
The overall conception of the human subject developed in Part
Two can be brought into focus by going back to Sartre's discus
sion of Freud in Part One (50 -4/88 -93).
Sartre's critique of Freud is deservedly well known. By means
of a succinct and incisive argument, Sartre claims to dispose
of psychoanalytic theory. Though there is much to be said in
Freud's defence, it cannot be doubted that Sartre identifies a
conceptual feature of psychoanalytic explanation which is
genuinely problematic.
Sartre's argument, briefly, is that Freud's metapsychology either of Cs., Pes. and Ues., or of ego and id - introduces a
radical division of the mind into distinct parts, which are
conceived as related to one another somewhat in the way that
different persons are related: 'Freud has cut the psychic mass
into two' (50/89), and psychoanalysis 'places me in the same
relation to myself that the Other is in respect to me', for it
'introduces into my subjectivity the deepest structure of inter
subjectivity' (51/90). Sartre gives as an illustration the case of
an analysand who, in psychoanalytic terms, manifests resist
ance to an analyst's interpretation in order to maintain the
repression of some instinctually charged, anxiety-eliciting
mental content (51-2/90-1). On the basis of this reading which is correct in so far as Freud does think that the mind
has parts, and that these are not necessarily integrated and
engage in non-transparent dynamic interaction - Sartre argues
that Freudian explanation reflects a conceptual confusion and
yields mere pseudo-explanation. The nub of the argument is
that any theory which postulates distinct parts of the mind in
order to explain failures of self-knowledge assumes logically
the existence of a kind of 'homunculus' - a little man, buried
away in the psychic apparatus, identified in the version of psy
choanalytic theory considered by Sartre with what Freud calls
the 'censor mechanism' - and that in order for this homuncu
lus to do the explanatory work needed, it needs to be credited
with a capacity for rationality, which renders the explanation,
Sartre argues, either vacuous or incoherent - the postulated
rational homunculus has all of the attributes of the person as
a whole and merely is the conscious subject under a certain
Concretely: The censor mechanism, in its orchestrated
coordination of the two functions of resistance and repression,
needs rationality, and therefore self-consciousness. Since it is
acting on behalf of the person's conscious mind - it does what
it does for the sake of the analysand's peace of mind - and since
it requires access to the totality of their mental states - it needs
to know what is under threat, and what routes of approach con
stitute a threat, in order to know what needs to be defended
against and what measures of defence to employ - the censor
effectively reduplicates the person: though nominally a mere
part of the person, in truth it is indistinguishable from the per
son as a whole.
If on the other hand it is insisted thatthe censor lacks ration
ality and is a genuine mechanism, then Freud's division of the
mind faces the insuperable problem 'of accounting for the
unity of the total phenomenon (repression of the drive which
disguises itself and "passes" in symbolic form)" and in order
to 'establish comprehensible connections' among its different
parts, Freud will be 'obliged to imply everywhere a magic unity
linking distant phenomena across obstacles' (53/93). 109
Freud's notion of the unconscious, Sartre concludes, rests
on a mere verbal trick, and the metapsychology's postulated
division of the mind is a nothing but a screen imposed by a
'materialistic (chosiste) mythology' (52/91), behind which lies
the person in their complete unity and with full responsibility
for their duplicitous self-relation and all of the behaviour which
follows from it. As regards the question which this leaves us
with - of how we may then hope to explain irrationality and
failures of self-knowledge - Sartre's answer in brief is that fail
ures of self-knowledge are never real in the sense that might
seem to force on us the partitive conception of the subject: they
are always products of choice, reflexive appearances that the
subject freely creates. And as regard the philosophical problem
that this may be thought to raise - the classic, much discussed
paradox of lying to oneself - this is what Sartre's theory of bad
faith (see 37) will try to deal With, taking the place of psycho
analysis in uncovering the motivational sources of irrationality
in a way that preserves the unity of the self and unconditional
personal responsibility. (See also in this connection the later
discussion at 472-6/550-5 of Adler's psychoanalytic theory.)
Sartre has attempted here an internal critique of Freud. Its
success is not, note, required for the overall argument of B&N:
strictly, for Sartre, Freud's theories fall to the ground directly,
since, as the Introduction showed, the very idea of unconscious
mental states is unintelligible. Sartre is willing to employ this
much more standard objection,IIO but he has reasons for dwelling
on Freud in B&N and for giving psychoanalysis more of a run
for its money. Sartre is in spite of everything greatly impressed
by the explanatory power of psychoanalysis: Sartre approves
Freud's attempt at a depth psychology, the psychoanalytic
practice of interpretation of psychological phenomena, and
the psychoanalytic call to undertake the (ethical) task of know
ing oneself. Sartre considers however that these achievements
are properly independent both of Freud's partitive conception
of the mind and of Freud's naturalistic metapsychology. The
further purpose of Sartre's critique of Freud is consequently
twofold: (1) To meet head-on the challenge of naturalistic psych
ology in one of its most explanatorily impressive forms, and
by meeting this challenge through the exhibition of a logical
paradox, to further undermine the credentials of philosophical
naturalism: the incoherence of Freud's objectified topography
of the self - its conception of the psyche as an aggregate of
mental contents, in the depths of which an instinctual in-itself
gets translated into intentional consciousness - is supposed to
show once again the incongruence of the for-itself's mode of
being with the metaphysics of subject-predicate form. Freud's
theory is, Sartre recognizes, continuous to a large extent with
commonsense ways of conceiving the mental - it magnifies
and increases explicitly the explanatory burden of such ordin
ary psychological notions as that we are 'driven' by emotions,
'unable to recognise' our own motives, prefer to keep certain
matters 'out of mind' and so forth - and so, by discrediting psy
choanalytic theory, Sartre is also highlighting proto-naturalistic
elements of ordinary consciousness which must be discarded.
(2) To prepare the way for Sartre's own theory of bad faith and
his 'existential psychoanalysis', where the psychoanalytic mode
of explanation will be reattached to the metaphysics of the for
itself. More will be said about these points in 37 and 40.
1 . On what basis does Sartre develop his theory of the struc
tures of the for-itself, and how is this theory related to his
theory of consciousness?
2. What is the self, according to Sartre?
3. What, on Sartre's account, does the reality of time consist
in?
4. How is Sartre's claim that the for-itself 'is what it is not' and
'is not what it is' best understood?
5. Does Sartre refute Freud? More generally, does Sartre make
an effective case against scientific psychology?
(e) RELATION TO TH E OTH ER
By any measure, and whatever is thought of Sartre's pessimis
tic view of human relationships, the treatment of the for-itself's
relation to Others in Part Three of B&N is a masterpiece, with
which very few other treatments of the topic in the post-Kantian
tradition begin to compare.
Sartre begins with and devotes a great deal of space to the
epistemological problem of intersubjective consciousness, the
'problem of other minds'. In terms of Sartre's usual order of
approach, this is an exception - as we have seen, Sartre's typical
strategy is to sweep up and (dis)solve epistemological problems
en passant, in the course of explicating ontological structures.
There is a structural reason for this. B&N proceeds from the
first person perspective, but intersubjectivity appears to call
for some sort of relaxation, if not outright abandonment, of the
first person boundedness of philosophical reflection. Moreover,
when Sartre gave his account of the ontological structures of the
for-itself in Part Two, no trace of the Other was discovered in
the bare formal structures of selfness, facticity, transcendence,
temporality and so on. All of Sartre's resources for addressing
the problem of other minds may thus appear to have been used
up. The threat of solipsism looms large for anyone as firmly
wedded to Cartesian methodology as Sartre appears to be, and
it is consequently imperative that Sartre establish the possi
bility of consciousness of Others from within the first person
perspective. The very statement of this task implies the depth
of the problem, but its difficulty is aggravated further by the
fact that Sartre sets an extremely high standard of adequacy for
an account of knowledge of Others: no account which fails to
do justice to the immediacy of our consciousness of the Other,
or which fails to explain how the mutual imbrication of self and
Other characteristic of intersubjective life is possible, has any
claim on our attention, in Sartre's eyes. This rich and demand
ing conception of the target of a theory of intersubjectivity is
connected closely with the fact that Sartre, following Hegel,
is interested in the epistemological problem of the Other not
in isolation but as part of a general problem concerning the
metaphysical relation of the self to the Other. Although the
epistemological puzzle is discussed intensively, it is in a sense a
mere prelude: at the top of Sartre's agenda is a demonstration
of the necessary failure, in a metaphysical sense, of human rela
tionships, and of the inevitability of intersubjective conflict.
26 The problem: being-for-others
[Part Three, Chapter 1 , Section I]
Chapter 1 of Part Three, 'The Existence of Others', contains
Sartre's treatment of the epistemological aspect of the relation
of self to Other (Autruz). Sartre's own solution to the problem
of other minds emerges from a detailed critique of other solu
tions, and consists in an argument by elimination: Sartre tries
to show that his account must be accepted, because all other
possible accounts fail, and because it coheres uniquely with the
metaphysics of B&N (which are thereby provided with add
itional support).
The initial task is to define the problem in appropriate terms.
Sartre introduces the problem of other minds in Section I with
reference to the experience of shame: I perform a vulgar ges
ture and, noticing that I have been witnessed, feel ashamed of
myself (221/276).
Analysis shows shame to be an intentional, non-positional,
pre-reflective self-consciousness, one which presupposes, of
course, the existence of the Other. Shame in its original and
primitive form is of oneself before the Other, and it involves
consciousness of myself as an object given to the conscious
ness of the Other, who thereby mediates my relation to myself.
The 'aspect of my being' discovered through shame (2211275)
belongs to a dimension of the for-itself not yet studied in B&N,
namely its being-for-others, etre-pour-l'autre. Obviously there
are a vast multitude of properties which the for-itself can have
only by virtue of relations to Others - only through the medi
ation of Others can I be trustworthy or untrustworthy, amiable
or cold, etc. This intersubjectively constituted dimension of the
for-itself has the ontological peculiarity that it is ofthe for-itself
(the shameful act is mine) but not for the for-itself (my shame is
not for me but on the contraryfor the Other).
Reflection, Sartre argues, cannot provide the key to such
consciousness. While certainly it is possible for me in general
to reflect on how I appear to Others, and for such reflection
to induce shame, in the simple case that Sartre describes no
reflection intervenes, and no act of my reflection could itself
make me present to the Other in the way that I am experienced
as being in shame (see 15). In fact 'the presence of another in
my consciousness' is 'incompatible with the reflective attitude'
(221-2/276): as soon as I have regained enough self-possession
to reflect on my gesture - which was perhaps not so vulgar
after all - the Other in his immediacy has been expelled from
my consciousness. Being-for-others represents, therefore, a
structure distinct and underivable from reflection.
Sartre emphasizes furthermore the absence of any gap
between my self and the object that I am for the Other in a
case like shame (which is representative of the basic fabric of
everyday being with Others). It is not as if there were two sep
arate things which I am independently conscious of, on the one
hand, myself as I am for myself, and on the other, an 'image'
or representation of myself in the Other's consciousness, which
I need to connect with each other in order for shame to arise:
the shameful self-consciousness I have in the presence of the
Other does not depend upon any 'concrete psychic operation'
(222/276) of judgemental or inferential correlation of my self
with another's mental representation. Instead there is a direct
and genuinely reflexive consciousness of myself through the
Other, which is why I am 'touched to the quick' and experience
my shame as 'an immediate shudder which runs through me
from head to foot' (222/276).
This immediately throws up the question: How is it possible
for the Other to be involved in my consciousness in such a way
as to constitute an experience like shame, and to endow me
with a whole new order of being?
27 Realism, idealism and the problem of solipsism
[Part Three, Chapter 1 , Section I I]
By starting with an other-involving self-experience like shame,
rather than with a plain ascription of a mental state to another
person such as 'John is in pain', Sartre has taken an indirect
approach to the problem of other minds. But the problem
comes up all the same: if shame is possible, then it must be pos
sible for me to have consciousness, hence knowledge, of the
Other. In Section II, 'The Reef of Solipsism', Sartre tries to
show that realism and idealism make knowledge of the Other
strictly impossible.
(I) Realism (223-5/277-9): Realism is bound by its very defin
ition (12) to claim that consciousness of Others is produced by
the action of an ontologically independent world on my con
sciousness. This, Sartre thinks, renders the problem of other
minds insoluble. The reasons are familiar from discussion of
the argument from analogy: at best the realist can show that
other minds are a good hypothesis, but this idea fails to accom
modate our immediate recognition of Others as present to us,
let alone to validate the certainty regarding the Other's exist
ence which Sartre's analysis of shame brought to light (see also
250-1/307-8).
The underlying problem is that the realist is attempting to
make awareness of Others proceed via the body, while the body
as the realist conceives it is just one more physical object, which
has nothing more intrinsically to do with consciousness than
any other portion of the in-itself - as Sartre notes, even if the
Other's body is linked internally to a thinking substance, its
relation to me is merely external (223/277). Even if it could be
shown that other minds are a reasonable conjecture, all that
would follow is that we have good reason to believe that there
are other minds in the same way as we have good reason to
believe that there are electrons; we would not get to the idea
that the Other is present in their body, and it is this - the differ
ence between intuiting a stone or tree, and intuiting 'the Other's
body' (224/278) - that needs to be accounted for.
The merely probable character of the knowledge which
realism leaves us with cannot be squared with our intuitive cer
tainty of the existence of Others. Realism, Sartre suggests, thus
resolves itself 'by a curious reversal' into idealism when it con
fronts the problem of the Other: the realist has no choice but
to concede that, in the case of the Other, the object's esse is its
percipi (224/279).
(2) Idealism (225-30/279-85): Sartre explores in some detail
how Kant stands with respect to the problem of intersubjective
cognition (which he in fact neglected to deal with), and con
siders whether the Other might be treated either as a category
constitutive of experience like causality or as a regulative con
cept (226-8/280-3). Either way, Sartre shows, the situation of
idealism is essentially as straightforwardly hopeless as that of
realism. For idealism, 'the Other becomes a pure representation'
(224/279), and even if idealism can furnish rational grounds for
my deploying this representation - as facilitating the unifica
tion of my experience into coherent systems of representation,
prediction of my future representations and so on - it must
fail at the limit to allow the possibility of a 'real relation' to the
Other: the Other may be conceived by idealism as real and as a
subject, but it is never given in intuition and it is always thought
of as an object (229/283-4). If the Other depends on me for my
being, as idealism requires of all objects of consciousness, then
I and the Other are metaphysically different kinds of thing - I
am a constituting consciousness, and every so-called Other is
an object constituted by my consciousness. Which is as much
as to say that I am the only true subject or mind, i.e. to affirm
solipsism.
Just as realism dissolved into idealism, so the threat of sol
ipsism 'explodes' idealism, which is forced either to make
desperate appeal to 'common sense', or alternatively, to resolve
itself back into metaphysical realism by positing without war
rant a multiplicity of systems of representations, on the model
of Leibniz's monadology (229-30/284-5). Either way, idealism
surrenders to dogmatism.
(3) God (230-21285-8): In the aftermath of realist and ideal
ist attempts to make sense of the Other, Sartre identifies their
shared presupposition: both suppose that the relation to the
Other is an external negation, i.e. that there is a primordial given
element separating me from the Other, which derives its origin
neither from me nor from the Other. For the realist, this elem
ent is of the same order as the space separating bodies; for the
idealist, it is the discreteness of different systems of represen
tation. On both accounts, it is possible for the Other to affect
me only 'by appearing as an object to my knowledge', thereby
reducing the Other for me to 'an image' (231/287). What would
overcome this externality, Sartre notes, is the introduction of
God into the picture - God, through creating both me and the
Other, would establish our internal ontological relatedness though this, Sartre notes, either gives rise to a new dilemma
(how does God relate himself to me, once I have been created?)
or abandons us to Spinozism (the Other and I are both annihi
lated by our fusion into divine substance).
Section II is called 'The Reef of Solipsism' because, in Sartre's
view, realism and idealism are seen to founder conclusively on
the problem of solipsism. It might seem that, if both realism
and idealism leave us trapped in solipsism, then the sceptic is
correct and other minds are unknowable. This would follow if
realism and idealism were the only options, but we have seen
that Sartre believes that in general their opposition can be
transcended.
28 Sartre's critique of his predecessors [Part Three,
Chapter 1 , Section I I I , 233-50/288-307]
Following the pattern laid down in the Introduction, Sartre
explores a third way, between and beyond realism and ideal
ism. The failure of realism and idealism shows that my 'original
relation to the Other' must be envisaged as an internal negation:
'the original distinction between the Other and myself must be
'such that it determines me by means of the Other and deter
mines the Other by means of me' (2321288). In other words, the
'transcending connection with the Other' must be understood as
'constitutive of each consciousness in its very upsurge' (233/288).
Sartre gives due credit to Husserl, Hegel and Heidegger for
having attempted to understand the connection between self
and Other in this way, and in this respect he is following in the
footsteps of his predecessors. However, to say that the Other
is 'constitutive of my consciousness' is only to say what sort of
solution is required, and in Section III Sartre rejects the spe
cific solutions of Husserl, Hegel and Heidegger.
(1) Husserl (233 -55/288 -91): Sartre allows that Husserl's solu
tion is different from and improves on that of Kantian idealism.
Husserl aims to show that 'a referral to the Other is the indis
pensable condition for the constitution of the world', because
'the Other is always there as a layer of constitutive meanings
which belongs to the very object which I consider' - indeed,
for Husserl, 'the Other is the veritable guarantee of the object's
objectivity' (233/288). If the Other is presupposed and implicated
in the constitution of a world, then I must have intersubjective
awareness prior to and independently of any encounter with a
particular concrete Other.
Nevertheless, there is a deep problem with Husserl's account,
similar to that which Sartre located with Kantian idealism, due
to HusserI's retention of the transcendental subject. Sartre's
point is that, even if HusserI's account of the Other as a con
dition of objectivity is granted, still it does not follow that
solipsism is overcome. Two problems stand in Hussed's way.
The first concerns the status of the Other which he has shown
to be presupposed. The transcendental subject in Hussed, as in
Kant, is 'beyond experience' and 'radically distinct from' the
empirical self (234/289). From this it follows, Sartre argues, that
the Other qua presupposed is a mere 'meaning (signification)',
a kind of 'absence', a 'supplementary category' and not a 'real
being' (234-5/289-90).
Second, Hussed's idealism, on Sartre's reading, takes know
ledge to provide the measure of being, and since it remains the
case on HusserI's account that I cannot know the Other as he
knows himself, viz. from the inside or in interiority, it follows
that I cannot know the Other simpliCiter: whatever I conceive
as the Other and take myself to know, must be, once again, a
mere 'meaning' correlated with my consciousness, leaving me
stranded in solipsism. (See also the later comments on Hussed
at 271-3/330-2, where Sartre denies that the Other can be made
to fall under the phenomenological reduction.)
(2) Hegel (235-44/291-301): Sartre praises Hegel for having
made 'immense progress' over Husser! (238/293). What Sartre
has in mind is Hegel's famous master-slave dialectic, or dialectic
of desire and recognition, in Chapter IV of The Phenomenology
of Spirit. This takes the form of a story - a conceptual sequence
in narrative form - in which the self-conscious subject, driven
by a desire for recognition as a free and independent being,
engages in a struggle with the Other which results in the
domination of the one subject by the other. The master-slave
relationship which is thereby formed gives way eventually,
according to Hegel, to a relationship of reciprocity - Hegel
supposes that intersubjective conflict is necessarily overcome,
at least at the fundamental metaphysical level, and that what
takes its place is social life based on mutual respect, regulated
by principles of right.
Sartre uses the occasion to launch a highly general, con
centrated attack on Hegel's philosophy, which extends to its
basic principles, and cannot be explored here. In so far as
Sartre's critique of Hegel is connected specifically to the prob
lem of intersubjective cognition, the main objections are, first,
that Hegel's idealism, by turning consciousness of the Other
(as well as self-consciousness) into a relation of knowledge
(238-9/294-5), reduces the self and the Other to objects, and
even on that basis does not succeed in showing that the epis
temological aim of mutual knowing, required for Hegelian
recognition, can be realized (240-3/296-9; see 39). Second,
Hegel's very method involves, Sartre argues, an initial mis
identification of the problem which stands in need of solution:
in considering the multiplicity of self-consciousnesses, Hegel
adopts a God's eye, 'totalitarian' point of view, writing his
own self-consciousness out of the picture, which means that
'he does not raise the question of the relation between his own
consciousness and that of the Other' and so that he has failed
to address the real problem (243-4/299-300).
(3) Heidegger (244-50/301-7): The shared fault of Husserl
and Hegel is that they continue to regard the relation of self
and Other, even though they conceive it correctly as internal, as
'realised through knowledge' (233/288). Heidegger carries over
Hegel's 'brilliant intuition' that I 'depend on the Other in my
being' (237/293), while finally freeing this ontological relation
from the assumption of the primacy of knowledge.
Heidegger in Being and Time claims that the world of Dasein
is a 'with-world', Mitwelt, and that Dasein has 'being-with',
Mitsein or Mitdasein, as one of its fundamental modes; we are
with one another in a sense in which we are not with stones
or hammers. This is a further instance of Heidegger's strat
egy of undercutting epistemological problems by going back
to the existential structures of Dasein, and Sartre agrees that
this allows 'the problem of the Other' to be viewed as 'a false
problem' (245/301).
Sartre's opening objection to Heidegger is that he mischaracter
izes the ontological relation of self and Other, like Hegel wrongly
representing the fundamental mode of intersubjective existence
as non-conflictual (245-7/301-4) Heidegger takes one particular
kind of ontic relation - the relation of being with another - and
projects this onto the primordial, ontological level of the relation
of self and Other. Sartre rejects this as arbitrary, since being with
another is only one of many possible relations: there exists also,
for example, being against the Other, being for the Other, the
Other's being for me and so on; no justification has been given
for regarding these asymmetrical or conflictual modes of relating
to the Other as any less primordial than being with. Heidegger's
image of human intersubjectivity, Sartre suggests, is that of a
mute 'crew', of persons as united in an 'oblique interdependence'
in place of frontal opposition, of a 'we' instead of 'you and me',
of mere 'co-existence' in 'ontological solidarity' (245-6/302-3).
(Sartre gives his own analysis offirst-person-plural consciousness
much later, in Chapter 3 of Part Three: see 39.)
Second, and more importantly, Sartre objects that - even if
we waive the first objection - Heidegger has no right to regard
the problem of my ontic relation of being-with any particular
Dasein as solved by the ontological relation of 'being-with
others' in general (247-50/304-7). Since the possibility of
being-with-Pierre cannot be contained in the general notion
of being-with-others, 'the relation of the Mit-Sein can be of
absolutely no use to us in resolving the psychological, concrete
problem of the recognition of the Other' (248/305).
A general point against Heidegger's philosophy as a whole
thus emerges. Sartre's claim is that Heidegger has in general
no right to regard the ontic as derivable from the ontological,
and that Heidegger's distinction of ontological and ontic
relations results, just as in Kantian and Husserlian ideal
ism, in 'two incommunicable levels and two problems which
demand separate solutions' (248/305). This general problem
of Heidegger's philosophy 'bursts forth', Sartre says, in the
context of self and Other (248/305). Sartre has then again used
the inability of a philosophical position to solve the specific
problem of other minds as a way of exposing its underlying
29 Sartre's theory of the Other
[Part Three, Chapter 1 , Section III, 250-2/307-1 0 and
Part Three, Chapter 1 , Section IV]
In The Transcendence of the Ego Sartre made an original
attempt to refute solipsism, arguing that his relocation of the
'I' in the world and outside consciousness renders me no less
accessible to the intuitive cognition of Others than I am to my
own attempts at self-knowledge.1I1
While the new metaphysics of the self in The Transcendence of
the Ego does overcome some important barriers to knowledge
of Others - since it disposes of the idea that what Sartre calls
my 'states' and 'qualities' are locked up in the interior of my
subjectivity - it encounters the serious limitation that the tran
scendental field of consciousness itselfis left beyond the Other's
reach. Impersonal it may be, but transcendental consciousness
is nonetheless individualized. The upshot is that solipsism
has been refined, not refuted, since my situation is now that
only one of the several psychic unities of states, qualities and
acts which I cognise in the world - namely, my own psychic
unity - can be known to be the production of a transcenden
tal consciousness. Sartre seems moreover to force scepticism
regarding other minds to convert itself into transcendental
solipsism: if, as Sartre says, a 'consciousness can conceive of
no other consciousness but itself',ll2 then the hypothesis that
this consciousness, the one that I designate as mine, might not
be the only consciousness, cannot even be formulated. The re
personalization of the field of consciousness in B&N (14) does
not change the situation, and at 235/290 - 1 Sartre acknowledges
the failure of his earlier proposal.
Sartre's new solution is adumbrated in the concluding pages
of Section III (250-2/307-10) and then exposited from several
different angles in Section IV. It comes into view when Sartre's
analytical redescriptions of the phenomenology of intersub
jective consciousness is followed through to a point where
our understanding of the phenomenology intersects with the
abstract, metaphysical appreciation of the problem of the Other
which we have gained from the critique of previous attempts at
a solution.
In order to provide us with a grip on the relevant phenom
enology, Sartre describes two contrasting scenarios in which
I have awareness of the Other. In the first, which is charac
teristic of how the Other appears to me ordinarily, I become
aware of a figure across the way from me in the park as another
subject (254-6/3 1 1 - 13). This effects a limited transformation
of the world: the lawn assumes a new orientation towards a
remote point with which I am not identical, and there is a 'fixed
sliding' away from me as the world 'drains' out of my grasp.
This 'decentralisation of the world' (255/31 3) undermines my
own centralization of it, but it is brought to a halt as soon as I
contain the Other within his empirical determinacy I fix the
Other as 'that man at a distance from me on that bench reading
that newspaper, etc.'. The Other is thereby consolidated for me
as a 'partial structure of the world', i.e. as an object (256/313).
(Sartre refines his account of this form of consciousness of the
Other in the chapter on the body: see 31 .)
The second scenario returns to the example of shame (25960/317-18). Moved by jealousy or curiosity, I peer through a
keyhole and press my ear to the door - the world is organ
ized around my end of discovering what is being said within.
Footsteps in the hall tell me that I have been seen, and I am
suddenly 'affected in my being (atteint dans mon etre)': my own
structure undergoes 'essential modifications', for I now have
pre-reflective consciousness of myself as an object of the look of
the Other (260/318).
The shame/keyhole scenario, though it comes later in Sartre's
text, has priority: according to Sartre it is because and only
because I have the awareness of the Other exemplified in that
scenario, that I can have the form of awareness exemplified in
the park scenario. In the park, I am aware of the 'Other-as
object', in the keyhole case, of the 'Other-as-subject', and it is
only because consciousness of the Other-as-subject (conscience
sujet, of l 'autrui-sujet) is possible, that consciousness of the
Other-as-object (conscience-objet, of l 'autrui-objet) is possible.
Awareness of the Other-as-object is a metaphysically and epis
temologically secondary form of awareness of the Other, 'the
result of the conversion and the degradation of that original
relation' to the Other-as-subject (257/31 5), in rough parallel to
the relation between the psychic and consciousness.
We will have no difficulty agreeing that in contexts like the
keyhole case we achieve maximal certainty of the existence of
the Other. But what, precisely, is the solution to the problem
of inter subjectivity which the shame/keyhole illustration allows
us to grasp? Ultimately it is simply this: 'certain particular con
sciousnesses - for example, "shame-consciousness" - bear
indubitable witness to the cogito both of themselves and of the
existence of the Other' (273/332); I am capable of 'something
like a cogito concerning' the Other (2511308); 'the cogito a lit
tle expanded (un peu elargz) [. .J reveals to me as a fact the
existence of the Other' (282/342); 'the cogito of the Other's exist
ence is merged with (se confond avec) my own cogito' (2511308);
awareness of the Other thus 'shares in the apodicity of the cog
ito itself, that is, its indubitability' (250/307).
Sartre is, however, not supposing that I migrate into the
Other, nor that there occurs a telepathic transfer of the Other's
consciousness and '1' into my own consciousness. To grasp how
his solution is supposed to work, the following points are key:
1. 1ntersubjective awareness consists primordially in an imme
diate subject-subject relation: 'If the Other is to be capable
of being given to us, it is by means of a direct apprehension'
(250/307); 'the Other must be given to me directly as a subject
although in connection with me' (253/31 1); 'The Other is present
to me without any intermediary as a transcendence which is not
mine' (270/329); 'I experience the inapprehensible subjectivity
of the Other directly and with my being' (270/329); 'conscious
nesses experience one another without intermediary' (3011362);
the Other 'is given not as a being of my universe but as a pure
subject' (270/329).
2. From which it follows that the subject-subject relation is
extra-mundane: 'it is not in the world that the Other is first to
be sought but at the side of consciousness' (273/332); when the
Other 'looks at me, he is separated from me by no distance, by
no object of the world - whether real or ideal - by no body in
the world, but by the sole fact of his nature as Other' (270/3328).
This follows from the description of Other-awareness as cogito
like, and the contrast of the park case, where I look 'across the
world' to the Other, with the shamelkeyhole case, where the
Other appears on my inside, brings out the point. The natural,
realist supposition that the world of objects must furnish the
epistemological vehicle of intersubjective cognition reflects a
misconception of the for-itself as intra-mundane in the same
sense as an inkpot.
3. Consciousness of the Other is achieved through the onto
logical transformation of my own consciousness. This is not a
metaphor, and not reducible to anything epistemological, i.e.
to any formula concerned merely with how I think about my
consciousness. The specific transformation effected by the
Other consists in the formation, out of my consciousness, of
something with characteristics of being-in-itself, on the model
of the formation of the 'degraded' psychic effected by my own
impure reflection (24), but with the difference that here the
newly formed ontological items have an unrevealed and in prin
ciple inaccessible dimension (they are for me 'unknowable as
such', inconnaisable comme tel, 263/321). At 260-8/318-27 Sartre
explains in detail what this amounts to: the Other has given me
a 'nature' (263/321), which I am 'not in the mode of "was" or of
"having-to-be" but in-itself' (262/320); the Other's look fixes and
alienates me from my possibilities (263-4/321-2), spatializes me
and inserts me into 'universal time' (266-7/324-6); I become,
finally, 'a temporal-spatial object in the world' (267/326). My
being is now, as Sartre puts it, 'written in and by the Other's
freedom' (262/320). The newly created properties of the human
subject in its being-for-others, like other items in Sartre's
ontology, subsist in the gulf that separates being-in-itself and
being-for-itself, and are not to be conceived as pre-existing, even
in a latent form, the intersubjective relation (222/276): the 'dis
covery' (221/275) of the new ontological domain opened up by
intersubjectivity is a non-arbitrary pre-reflective construction,
one which brings with it a new set of possibilities, somewhat
in the sense that one may speak of inventing a new game to be
played. (Later Sartre spells out the necessary connection of the
relation with the Other with affectivity: 288ff.l348ff.)
4. The relation obtaining primordially between individual
for-itselves is, as noted, a negative and internal ontological rela
tion, as opposed to a relation of knowledge - Sartre talks of
being 'affected by' the upsurge of the Other (231/286), and of
the appearance of the Other as 'undermining' my centraliza
tion of the world (255/313). In the full, intricate account of the
ontological relation which Sartre gives later in Section IV (28297/342-58), being-for-others is described as a 'refusal of the
Other' (283/343) and as 'a negation effected by me upon myself
(283/343): the Other is a 'refused self', a 'Not-Me-non-object'
which grasps me objectually and hence in alienated form, but I
cannot decline to assume responsibility for the 'alienated Me'
which the Other delivers back to me without engendering 'the
collapse of Myself' (284-5/344-6). The bond of self and Other,
which from one angle has the bare simplicity of the cogito, has
therefore, in the full view, a dialectical complexity.
The dynamic ontological relations analysed by Sartre are of
course open to being registered epistemically by the for-itself the transparency of consciousness ensures that whenever it is
transformed ontologically, it is conscious of itself as undergoing
its transformation and therefore in a position to make it an item
of knowledge - but they are not themselves epistemic events.
Consequently for Sartre it is wrong to say, at the level of philo
sophical explanation, that I feel shame (in the keyhole/shame
scenario) because of what I know (think, believe etc.) of what the
Other thinks of me, i.e. to interpret 'the effect that another has
on me' as an effect that is achieved through my knowing of the
Other. We are misled easily into thinking that the significance
of the Other's gaze is epistemic, but Sartre does not conceive
vision as an epistemic power, and the shame I feel is not due to
my kn o w ing or believing that the Other knows or believes me to
be peeping. The meaning of the Other's look is instead that of an
action. Sartre thus reverses the commonsense order of explan
ation: on his account, it is not because we gain knowledge of
Others that we are ('psychologically') affected by them; it is
because we are affected by Others ontologically (and not merely
'psychologically') that we have knowledge of them. That I do
have knowledge of the Other is therefore not denied by Sartre,
but is counted into the total configuration - knowledge is the
correlate of the other's ontological effect on me, not the cause
of that effect.
This point is crucial for Sartre's conception of the depth of
the Other's penetration: if the impact of the Other on me is
not filtered through my cognition, and is at the disposal of the
Other's freedom, then intersubjectivity sets an absolute limit to
my freedom (see 33).
5. It follows that it is not the body which provides the key
to knowledge of Others. The body, like the objectual world at
large, plays no epistemic role in Sartre's account (223-4/277-9,
230-11286, 339-40/405-6): it is neither what hides one mind from
another, nor what reveals one mind to another - 'the body is not
that which first manifests the Other to me' (339/405). Sartre's
positive account of the body will be considered shortly.
30 Sartre's solution appraised
To recapitulate Sartre's solution: realism and idealism each
try to account for the Other in terms of a unidirectional arrow
going, in the case of realism, from the Other to me, and in
that of idealism, from me to the Other. Both fail, so the solu
tion must lie in conceiving the relation of self to Other in some
set of terms that has them co-established at the outset. The
attempts of Husser! and Hegel to do just this are unsuccessful,
however, because their co-establishment of self and Other is
cast in terms of knowledge. The relation of self to Other must
be, therefore, a relation of being, meaning that consciousness
of others cannot be accounted for by giving reasons for believ
ing in the existence of Others. Instead, and accordingly, we
turn to the factual necessity of the Other which Sartre's ana
lysis showed to be present in our phenomenology, conjoined
with Sartre's metaphysical account of how such consciousness
is possible.
The problem of the seeming unknowability of the Other,
we are thereby brought to understand, is ultimately illusory.
Correctly viewed, my being-for-others neither creates a need,
nor affords scope for a 'new proof' of the existence of the Other
(250-11307-8). The impression we have of a non-traversable epi
stemic gulf between self and Other, issuing in scepticism about
other minds, results from mistaking what is in fact a negative
ontological relation for the absence of an epistemological rela
tion; and this is a consequence of the more general mistake of
identifying consciousness with knowledge, and of supposing
that the relation of self to Other is mundane.
The question of whether Sartre's account shows that there
must really be an Other, or only that my experience compels
me to take it as certain that there is an Other, is thereby refused
application - within Sartre's framework, to raise that question,
to doubt the existence of the Other, is to deny the being of one's
own pre-reflective consciousness: 'I experience the inappre
hensible subjectivity of the Other directly and with my being'
(270/329) and thereby 'discover the transcendental relation to
the Other as constituting my own being' (245/301). The genius
of Sartre's solution lies in the way that it preserves and exploits
the philosophical intuition on which Cartesianism rests, in
order to show, by means of a subtle adjustment, the possibility
that 'absolute immanence' throws us into 'absolute transcend
ence' (251/309).
The strategy is therefore the same as that employed in the
ontological proof given in the Introduction (5). What has
made its execution a much more protracted business is two
things. First, the immensely greater conceptual complexity of
the Other, as compared with a bare physical object, made it
necessary for Sartre to get us clear about what exactly is in
question - it needed to be shown that a discursive justifica
tion of our mere beliefs regarding others would be of no avail,
i.e. leave genuine solipsism untouched. Sartre had to get us
to acknowledge that '[i]n my own inmost depths I must find
not reasons for believing that the Other exists, but the Other
himself as not being me' (251/309). Second, whereas ordinary
perceptual consciousness to a degree explains its own possibil
ity - meaning that the ontological proof could be accepted
by us as sound, even without insight into the for-itself's struc
ture of transcendence - common sense lacks the conceptual
resources to grasp the 'cogito of the Other's existence' which
grounds intersubjective cognition. Hence the necessity of
importing the non-naturalistic metaphysical apparatus of
B&N - the concepts of internal negation and so forth - in
order to assure us that intersubjective cognition is not magical,
or, more exactly, to show us that, although it is magical from
the standpoint of common sense, this standpoint is a philo
sophically limited one.
Questions nevertheless remain regarding Sartre's account.
One concerns the empirical determination of the Other and the
possibility of error - e.g., I find I was mistaken in thinking that
I heard footsteps; or, I wonder if I am being observed from that
house on the hill; or, I am fooled momentarily by a waxwork
model, etc. Consideration of this issue requires that attention
be paid to Sartre's discussion at 275-82/334-42, where a dis
tinction is drawn between the indubitability of the existence of
the Other-as-subject, and the merely probable character of all
objects in the world, including the concrete Other-as-object.
A further question which Sartre's theory might be expected
to answer concerns the mUltiplicity of for-itselves. Why are
there Others? Why are there many for-itselves? And what neces
sity, if any, is there to the existence of the Other?
The first part of Sartre's response to this question goes some
of the way towards an answer. The existence of Others is simply
a 'contingent necessity' or 'factual necessity' (250/307, 282/342).
Generally speaking, phenomenological ontology leads to onto
logical discoveries which have aspects of both contingency and
necessity: all being is contingent in so far as it lacks internal
self-necessitation (none of them is ens causa SUl), but some
being acquires necessity in some of its relations to other being
(e.g. being-in-itself is necessary in relation to being-for-itself).
To say that the existence of Others is a 'contingent necessity'
is thus to say that the existence of Others in general is a very
high-level 'brute fact' of the same sort as Sartre's enquiry has
elsewhere brought into view.
At one point Sartre may seem to give a different answer, in
so far as at 283-5/343-6 he describes a process of 'refusal' of
the Other and consequent 'reinforcement' of selfness, which
might be taken to suggest that for-its elves are mutually indi
viduating and co-responsible for one another's existence.
This would be a very Hegelian view, however, and Sartre
denies clearly that being-for-others is an ontological struc
ture of the for-itself as such: 'We can not think of deriving
being-for-others from a being-for-itself nor conversely [. . .]
of deriving being-for-itself from being-for-others' (282/342).
Sartre's 'reinforcement of selfness' pertains, therefore, to a
later stage in the dialectic of self and Other, for which the
existence of the Other is already presupposed. We will return
to it in 39.
The second part of Sartre's answer is to be found in the 'meta
physical' discussion of inter subjectivity at 297-302/358-64 that
closes Chapter 1. Here Sartre observes that our being-for
others can be regarded as the third of the for-itself's ekstases
(298/359), and thought of as 'reflective scissiparity pushed fur
ther' (299/360): when I become an object for the Other, it is as
if the endeavour of my reflection to 'objectivate' myself (16)
had finally been realized. This would allow consciousness of
the Other to be regarded as a further extension of the non-self
coincidence of the for-itself and thus explained in terms of its
intrinsic teleology. Sartre has however reservations about this
account, taken as a metaphysical explanation of the existence
of a mUltiplicity of Others, which we will come to in 46.
The final point to be made is this. On the one hand, Sartre's
theory of the Other looks to be both a posteriori and rigorously
perspectival: its linchpin is my appreciation of the Other's inva
sion, through the look, of my subjectivity, and this is something
which I simply discover to have occurred. From another angle,
however, Sartre would seem to have availed himself, in exposit
ing his theory, of a trans-individual point of view with respect
to which the existence of a multiplicity of inter-penetrating for
itselves is effectively a priori it is, after all, assumed in Sartre's
account that the Other who directs his look at me has already
grasped me as a being-for-itself. In the context of intersubject
ivity too, therefore, we find in Sartre's thinking the doubling of
perspectival and aperspectival standpoints noted in 13 . 1 l3
31 The body [Part Three, Chapter 2]
Nowhere does Sartre's opposition to naturalism and revision
ary attitude towards ordinary thought come out more clearly
than in his discussion of the body and treatment of the 'mind
body relation'. The common sense of our naturalistic times is
that the human body is the foundation and underlying reality
of the mind, that the body conceived as an animal organism
comes first in the order of things and, by way of cerebral activ
ity - thus on the condition of the evolutionary history that
made this remarkable organ possible - gives rise to mental
activity, perhaps even - depending on how far this picture is
pushed in the direction of a thorough-going materialism - not
merely supporting but actually constituting the mind, such that
the mind can be understood in terms of a special set of proper
ties or descriptions of brain events, and thus as identical with
(a part of) the body.
As part of his rejection of this picture, Sartre denies the pri
ority of the body in its objective, scientific conception - which
is, in Sartre's terms, a conception of the body as being-in-itself.
In its place Sartre offers in Chapter 2 of Part Three an account
which treats the body in terms of three moments, set in the fol
lowing order:
(1) Section I: The body as for-itself or for-me (Ie corps comme
etre-pour-soi, mon corps pour-moi) is the body as I originally
'exist' it.
The body in this mode is 'that by which things are revealed
to me' (304/66), 'the individualisation of my engagement in
the world' (310/372), 'the centre of reference' indicated by the
'instrumental-objects of the world' (339/405), and is correlated
directly with the spatial orientation of things in the world
(306-8/368-70).
At the level of its explanation, Sartre refers embodiment to
his theory of facticity (16): the body-as-for-itself is my facti
city, 'the contingent form which is assumed by the necessity of
my contingency' (309/371), entailing that the necessity that I be
embodied is just the necessity that I exist contingentlyY4
It follows also that my relation to my body-as-for-itself repro
duces the general character of facticity. This means that, on the
one hand, I am 'wholly body' in a sense which leaves no room
for the thought of the for-itself's being merely 'united with a
body' (305/368), and that the body 'is nothing other than the
for-itself' (309/371). But at the same time, the distance at which
I stand from my facticity in general, viz. of being it by way of
having to assume it, reappears in my relation to my body: my
body is what I 'nihilate' and 'surpass', and so cannot know as
a given but must 'reapprehend' in my upsurge (309/372). The
'very nature of the for-itself', as a 'nihilating escape from being',
'demands that it be body' (309/372), and this teleological (as
opposed to conceptual) necessity - the demand placed by the
for-itself - interposes a distance from my body which is incom
patible with plain identity. This complex structure is developed
further in Sartre's discussion at 328-30/393-5 of what it is to
have consciousness of one's body and of the sense in which the
body is a point of view. (It is here that Sartre talks of my body as
something that consciousness must be said to 'exist' in a tran
sitive sense: 329/394.)
Section I attempts to show in detail how this conception of
the body can be applied to yield accounts of sense knowledge
(310-20/372-83), of physical action (320-5/383-9) and of pain
and physical affectivity (330-9/395-404).
(2) Section II: My body as the-body-for-the- Other (Ie corps
pour-autrui), has the character of an object, 'a thing among
other things' (304-5/366-7).
To show what is involved when my body is produced
for me in this form, Sartre returns to the discussion of my
consciousness of the Other, and characterizes in detail the
Other's body (340-9/406-1 5). This, Sartre says, appears to
me originally, on the occasion when I have made the Other
an object, a 'transcendence-transcended', as belonging to
the order of instruments, as something which I can 'utilise'
or which 'resists' me, and which is 'indicated laterally by the
instrumental-things of my universe' (340-11406-7). This thin
apprehension of the Other's body, compatible with the Other's
bodily absence (as when I survey the desk at which you write),
is transformed when the Other becomes present 'in flesh and
blood', at which point the facticity of the Other, the contin
gency of the Other's being, becomes explicit (342/408-9). The
body of the Other as present to me is necessarily 'a body in
situation' which is 'meaningful' in the sense of being exhausted
in movements of transcendence (you raise your hand to wave,
etc.) and irreducible to any sum of organic components (3446/408-1 3). The Other's body is thereby 'given to us immediately
as what the Other is' (347/414).
This explication of the body ofthe Other for me is at the same
time, Sartre says, an account of my body for-the-Other, since
'the structures of my being-for-the-Other are identical to those
of the Other's being-for-me' (339/405).
(3) Section III: My body in so far as I 'exist for myself as a
body known by the Other' (3511419) is needed to complete the
The impact of the Other's objectivation of me is not restricted
to my consciousness as transcendence (my shame at peep
ing through the keyhole): the Other-as-subject's ontological
transformation of me also penetrates me 'in my very facticity'
(3511418). Thus, to continue with the example of shame, I 'feel
myself blushing', where the other's look is written into my con
sciousness of my body (353/420).
The body in this third, alienated mode is thus the product of
my internalizing, or incorporating, (2) into (1). Sartre explains
that the formation of my body existed-by-me-as-known-by
the-Other presupposes linguistic communication with the
Other (354/421-2), and that it marks the point where I can, for
example, judge a pain to be 'in my stomach' in the sense of an
anatomical location (355-9/423-7).
It might be supposed that Sartre intends this ordered set of
distinctions to map a merely conceptual progression, provid
ing an account of how we work up from a psychologically and
epistemically primitive (infantile) conception of our bodies, to
a more complete conception which makes our bodies accessible
to natural science and allows us to form such complex thoughts
as that I am now enduring an ache in a broken vertebrochondral
rib. Were that so, Sartre would have no argument as such with
the commonsense naturalistic view, which might incorporate
Sartre's account as a chapter in developmental cognitive psy
chology. Sartre is entirely clear, however, that his account maps
ontological levels and relations - the 'order of our reflections
[ ] conforms to the order of being' (305/367); the body-for-me
and the body-for-the-Other comprise 'two essentially differ
ent orders of reality', 'are radically distinct' (304/366).115 Our
ordinary view is, Sartre notes, that the body-for-the-other is
the real body, Le. that Others see us 'as we are' (353-4/421), but
the whole thrust of his account is to show that it is not ontologi
cally primary.
It is sometimes worried that Sartre - on account of his gen
eral dualistic metaphysics, and the analysis of embodiment just
seen - may be committed to the kind of famously problematic
mind-body dualism which virtually all contemporary philoso
phy of mind sets itself the task of avoiding.
Without equivocation Sartre denies that the for-itself is iden
tical with the body in the sense understood by physicalism.
But with equal clarity Sartre rejects Descartes' and all trad
itional forms of dualism: unextendedness is, Sartre explains,
not a cognition of any intrinsic property or structure of the for
itself, but a proleptical consideration of the for-itself in terms
of the determinations of the in-itself - the for-itself as such
is 'aspatial', 'neither extended nor unextended' (179/228). The
categorial inapplicability of spatial notions to the for-itself is
due ultimately to its non-substantial mode of being - which
is specifically such that the for-itself can be the body only in
the mode of having-to-be-it. Thus, where classical metaphys
ical dualism attempts to express the heterogeneity of the mental
and the physical in terms of differences of types of substance
or essential properties, and modern anti-physicalism appeals to
distinctions of forms of explanation to do the same work, Sartre
pushes the mental/physical heterogeneity all the way back to a
difference of mode of existence. This, Sartre maintains, prom
ises to allow the non-physicality of the human subject to be
grasped as fundamentally unified with its freedom, practical
ity, temporality, reflexivity and so on.
There is one sense in which Sartre is in agreement with
physicalism in its opposition to dualism, namely, in rejecting
Descartes' claim that the mind might exist in separation from
the body (306/368). For Sartre, however, this 'identity' - the
subject's being 'wholly body' - rests on the thoroughly non
physicalist notion of 'having-to-be', and the body in question
is, once again, not the organism of anatomy and physiology but
the body as for-itself.
Does this mean that Sartre has done everything that needs
to be done in order to meet the challenge of explaining how
'mind and body are related'? The puzzles of substantial
interaction - How can two heterogeneous kinds of stuff inter
act? - or of emergence - How can a mental stream with all
of its singular attributes emerge from brain-stuff? - can no
longer be formulated, on Sartre's account. And if the ques
tion is put to Sartre: How is it that the body in one of its three
modes can come to be correlated with the body in its other
modes - e.g., that what the orthopaedic surgeon reports as
the mending of my rib corresponds to my having ceased to feel
that ache - unless these modes are really just different ways
of experiencing and thinking of one identical entity, situated
at a single ontological level?, Sartre's reply will be that to sup
pose that explanation must take such a form is simply to beg
the question against his general metaphysical position. The
mind-body problem - How is this locus of thought, sensa
tion, etc., related to that respiring, metabolizing, etc. organic
system? - is resolved, Sartre claims, by grasping the distinc
tions of ontological level corresponding to the three modes of
bodily existence (303-4/365-6).
The situation here is therefore the same as with Sartre's
account of other minds, where it would be similarly inappro
priate to object that Sartre has left unexplained how it is
that we are able to perform a kind of cogito concerning the
Other. Again the picture offered by Sartre appeals to rela
tions which, by ordinary lights, count as magical, and again
Sartre's defence lies in pointing out that the 'magic' is already
actually there in the structure of our experience, cannot be
comprehended by common sense without a hypostatization
of subjectivity, but becomes intelligible in the metaphysical
terms offered in B&N.
The worry concerning Sartre's proximity to Descartes is mis
placed, therefore, to the extent that, from the standpoint which
objects to Descartes' mind-body dualism that it is incapable
of making intelligible the empirical causal relations between
the mental and physical, and that it contradicts unacceptably
the unity of natural law, Sartre's metaphysics of the mind/body
relation will appear objectionable many times over, since it
presupposes a general metaphysics which contradicts the basic
tenets of physicalism.
STU DY QUESTIONS
1. Evaluate Sartre's claim that both realism and idealism, and
all of his predecessors, fail to provide an adequate concep
tion of the relation of self to Other.
2. Does Sartre provide a solution to the traditional problem of
other minds?
3. Is Sartre's account of the body and of its relation to con
sciousness consistent and convincing?
(D) FREEDOM, MOTIVATION AND ETH ICS
Sartre does not employ the distinction, important for many
post-Kantians, between theoretical and practical philosophy,
for the reason, as we have seen, that Sartre considers that the
various issues concerning agency and practical reason which
other philosophers bring under the heading of 'practical phil
osophy' reveal themselves already at the level of ontology, and
to that extent he rejects the distinction. It is helpful nonethe
less to distinguish in B&N between the themes most closely
related to general epistemological and metaphysical issues the topics discussed thus far - and those with more immediate
bearing on action and the question of how I should act, or more
broadly, on the attitude to be taken towards our lives. Here in
part (D) I discuss the latter, which in textual terms involves
chiefly Part Four but also some earlier sections of B&N.
32 The theory of freedom [Part One, Chapter 1 , Section V,
24-45/60-84 and Part Four, Chapter 1 , Section I]
For Sartre, as we have noted previously:
What we call freedom is impossible to distinguish from the
being of 'human reality'. Man does not exist/irst in order to
be free subsequently; there is no difference between the being
of man and his being-free. (25/61; see also 486/566)
Sartre rejects accordingly any conception of freedom as 'a
faculty of the human soul to be envisaged and described in iso
lation', 'a property which belongs among others to the essence
of the human being' (25/61; see also 4391514), and the concept of
will, as the faculty which bears uniquely the property of free
dom, has no place in Sartre's account.
Sartre's initial exposition of his theory of freedom in
24-45/60-84 of Part One, Chapter 1, Section V, 'The Origin of
Nothingness', constructs a route to freedom from nothingness,
an entailment which, though not conceptually immediate, is
not hard to grasp in outline: the negativity of the for-itself
entails that, with regard to any existent, the human subject is
'not subject to it', cannot be acted on by it, can 'put himself out
of circuit in relation to' it, and so can 'modify it' (24/61).1 16
This rapid sketch, Sartre acknowledges, gives us freedom
only as 'a word' (25/61), and a more detailed exposition is needed
to clarify and substantiate it.
Sartre begins with the point that we can be free in relation
to the things of the world, only if our self-relation contains
freedom: 'human reality can detach itself from the world [. . .]
only if its own nature is that of self-detachment' (25/61). Sartre
understands this in unrestricted and unconditional terms - the
for-itself must be able, not merely to pit one part of its being
against another, but to detach itself from all that it is. In order
to show this to be possible, it is necessary to refute the very idea
of psychological causal determination (and therewith any com
patibiIist account which would identify freedom with a species
of psychological causation).
Sartre's argument comprises, first (26-7/62-4), an appeal
to his earlier analysis in The Imaginary, which shows directly,
with reference to imaginative consciousness, the for-itself's
power to nihilate reflexively (a thesis which will be supported
also by his account of bad faith: see 37). A mental image of
Pierre involves multiple nihilations: of the world (which is not
the locus of the image), of Pierre (who is not h ere) , and of the
image itself (which is not a perception). The existence of sub
jective as well as worldly negatites entails, therefore, that there
is a power of self-detachment in at least some, e.g. imaginary,
forms of consciousness.
Second (27-8/64-5), Sartre broadens the scope of his argu
ment by giving an analysis of agency or practical reason which
imports his analysis of temporality as a structure of the for
itself. Sartre's argument in brief is that any description of a
putatively deterministic psychological causal sequence e.g. motivation M -? intention I -? action A - omits what is
implied by the subjective articulation of this temporal struc
ture: at each point there is a 'cleavage between the immediate
psychic past and the present' which 'is precisely nothingness'
(27/64), and it is necessary 'that conscious being constitute
itself in relation to its past as separated from this past by a
nothingness' (28/65). The prior consciousness is 'there' with
its modification of 'pastness', and so 'put out of the game,
out of the circuit, in parentheses' (28/65). Contra the thesis of
psychological determinism, the relation of past and present
consciousness is a 'relation of interpretation', meaning that it
is always and necessarily a question for me how I should relate
myself to my psychic past (28/65).
Nor, in fact, is temporal extendedness a strict condition for
freedom: on Sartre's analysis, in a crucial passage at 34171-2,
the same freedom-constituting cleavage is encountered in the
synchronic structure of motivation. What it is for me to 'have'
a motive M - it follows from Sartre's account of consciousness
as without content - is for there to be pre-reflective conscious
ness of M: motives thus are not in but for consciousness; M is
mine, and not part of external spatial reality, but it is mine as
'a correlate of consciousness', an instance of the psychic 'tran
scendence in immanence' discussed in 24, and the nihilation
implied by its being a transcendence entails that motives 'can
arise only as appearance' and hence are, considered in them
selves, 'ineffective' (34171-2). The structures of temporality and
of pre-reflective consciousness (which of course, in Sartre's full
picture, imply one another) are therefore both individually suf
ficient for freedom.
Note that it cannot be objected that, while Sartre may have
shown that negation is required for psychological causality,
he has failed to show that exercises of the power of negation
are causally unconditioned, i.e. that he has 'not excluded the
possibility of a determinism of nihilations' (27/64). Sartre's
metaphysics of nothingness have shown that negativity cannot
be an effect of being, from which it follows that 'every nihilating
process must derive its source only from itself (27/64). Hence
the importance of the rejection of the judgemental theory of
negation discussed in 9, which is compatible with a determin
ism of negative judgements.
Third, Sartre observes that it is an implication of his account
(by way of his thesis of pre-reflective self-consciousness) that
we have consciousness of the freedom he has described, and
this arguably sets a challenge, since our everyday awareness of
ourselves as agents obviously does not reproduce the fractured
phenomenology implied by Sartre, and arguably is accompan
ied by a positive belief in psychological determinism.
Sartre's reply is to offer detailed analyses of conditions,
which he calls 'anguish', in which the experience of freedom is
acute and explicit. Sartre gives by way of illustration the case
of vertigo at the edge of a precipice, where I am gripped, not
by fear of falling, but by horror at the possibility of my cast
ing myself over the edge (29-32/66-9), and that of a gambler
who becomes conscious of the possibility of abandoning his
earlier decision to quit (32-3169-71). In these scenarios I am
confronted with what Sartre calls my 'possibles' - not possible
states of the world, but possible being which I can determine for
myself and to which I am related ontologically (30-1/67-8; see
18), of one who resumes the life of a gambler, etc.
The purpose of Sartre's case studies is to put a magnifying
lens on the fundamental structure of practical consciousness.
Though in one sense exceptional, they are obviously not intrin
sically different from ordinary practical consciousness: what
makes them distinctive is just that reflection has thematized
the structure of practical reason in such a way as to display
its points of cleavage; I who experience vertigo am conscious
that my horror is 'not determinant in relation to my possible
conduct' (31/68); the gambler is conscious of the relation of his
psychic past to his present as problematic, etc.
Anguish is not, Sartre insists, 'a proof of human freedom': it
merely, but importantly, establishes the possibility of 'a specific
consciousness of freedom', as Sartre's account requires (33/71).
This allows it to be seen that the appearance of psychological
causality in natural consciousness is due to a particular struc
ture, which is ontologically secondary. In 'the world of the
immediate' which is given to unreflective consciousness, we
appear 'in situation', i.e. in a world 'peopled with demands', and
engaged in projects (39176). In the most common situations of
life our consciousness is 'in action', meaning that we apprehend
our possibilities only in so far as we are actively realising them 'acts reveal my possibilities to me at the very instant when they
are realised' (35-6/73-4). This structure of course does not abol
ish freedom, since the possibility of withdrawing from all these
activities remains intact (36-7/74), but it precludes the reflective
apprehension of freedom in which anguish consists.
Sartre's account of why anguish is not our ordinary condition,
even though it is consciousness of what is most metaphysically
fundamental, extends further, to an account of our 'flight from
anguish' and thence to Sartre's theory of bad faith (see 37).
The flight to which Sartre refers to is not the familiar empir
ical attempt to suppress or repress an emotional state, but the
attempt of the for-itself to reconfigure its entire structure.
Sartre claims that it involves psychological determinism at the
level of reflection, not as a philosophical thesis, but in the form
of a primitive 'faith' built around the subject-predicate meta
physics of the human subject critiqued in The Transcendence of
the Ego: 'it asserts that there are within us antagonistic forces
whose type of existence is comparable to that of things', that
there is 'a nature productive of our acts' which establishes the
links between our past and future (40178), and even that there is
in the depths of each of us a true self, un Moi profond, which is
the origin of our acts (42/80).
We must now turn to the difficult question of how in posi
tive conceptual terms Sartre's conception of freedom is to be
expressed.
As we have seen, Sartre talks of freedom as involving some
forcible break with the world - a 'permanent rupture in
determinism' (33170), the subject 'dissociating himself from the
causal series' (23/59) - and this may lead us to think that Sartre
occupies the box in the free will debate standardly labelled
'incompatibilist indeterministic libertarianism': according to
which, freedom is the concept of an event which is (empirically)
causally undetermined and so incompatible with universal
(empirical) causal determination, and yet actually realized in
human action.
This is highly misleading, however, for it implies that Sartre
accepts, methodologically and metaphysically, the priority and
reality of the natural causal order, which would commit him
to conceiving freedom as a causal gap in the natural order,
out of which the free agent steps and/or into which she inter
venes. But this could not be Sartre's view, since he rejects ab
initio the idea that we belong to the natural or any other causal
order of being - he even denies that there is, prior to and inde
pendently of our being-as-freedom, any unitary order which
includes both us and being-in-itself. Our 'rupture' with being
refers therefore to Sartre's metaphysical thesis that nothing
ness is nihilation of being (9), not to causal breaks within the
natural order. Sartre's conception of freedom presupposes the
unintelligibility of psychological determinism, but it involves
no thesis at all concerning either determination or indeter
mination. When Sartre talks of 'rupture' and 'dissociation', it
is in order to convey what freedom requires from the point of
view and in the language of those who proceed from the (false,
for Sartre) assumption that prima facie human agency may be
subsumed within a universal deterministic causal matrix. Even
the traditional formulation of freedom as involving the truth of
'she could have done otherwise' is, therefore, inadequate as a
gloss on Sartrean freedom: in Sartre's terms, it merely restates
the agent's freedom, without analysing this attribution.
When Sartre turns to face the question of 'what this nothing
(rien) is which provides a foundation for freedom' (34171), he
first observes that, in one sense, his position entails that there
is nothing (no positive structure) to be described, and then, cru
cially, he introduces the notion which provides the terminus of
his analysis of freedom: 'this nothing is made-to-be (est ete) by
the human being in his relation to himself (34171), adding that
this self-relation has the character of an obligation 'a constantly
renewed obligation to remake the Self' (35/72). ('By definition
the for-itself exists with the obligation of assuming its being',
existe sous l'obligation d'assumer son etre, 1 1 8/162.)
This difficult notion of obligation, which we encountered in
14, represents a transcendental limit to our understanding of
the for-itself (and, on the aperspectival reading of B&N, the
final ground of the very being of the for-itself).
Sartre's thought is that we come to a point where we recog
nize a necessity which can be characterized partially but which
resists full analysis. It is of course not physical, but nor is it
a rational necessity as such: Sartre uses the term 'obligation'
as the closest approximation available in order to bring out
the shadow of normativity which this necessity casts, but his
claim is not that we judge in the light of any moral or other
principle that we ought to give ourselves being, that it is right
for us to do so. It thus supplies a 'point of indifference' between
the theoretical and practical dimensions of the for-itself: our
having-to-give-ourselves-being is what underlies both our cog
nitive transcendence and our action. Because this necessity
constitutes us at the most fundamental level, we cannot detach
ourselves from it in the way required for our compliance with it
to be subject to our choice; hence Sartre's frequently repeated
claim that we are condemned to freedom ('we are not free to
cease being free', 439151 5).
It is because we are nothingness and lack (17) that we are
obliged to (re)make our selves, but this being-lack is not a dis
tinct metaphysical cause of the experience of obligation. We do
not first discover ourselves to be nothingness, and on that basis
judge that we need to acquire being. Lack is just a different
way of expressing the insight into our being-as-obligation: we
lack being, as opposed to merely finding ourselves composed
of nothingness, only in so far as we already relate to ourselves
as obliged-to-give-ourselves-being.
The image of the for-itself as a 'decompression of being' which
Sartre uses so often to characterize the for-itself (e.g. xli/32)
underscores the ontological character of the obligation, but the
point to be clear about, which no physical analogy can con
vey, is that the for-itself's obligation is part of ontology: Sartre's
strange, non-commonsensical idea (which has an important
historical precedent in Fichte) is that an 'ought' or 'having-to',
a fact or structure describable only in a practical, imperatival
idiom, belongs to the fabric of reality. (A point which goes back
to the earlier observation, in 14, that teleology for Sartre con
stitutes the reality of the for-itself.)
When Sartre returns to make a frontal attack on the ques
tion of freedom in Part Four, Chapter I, Section I, the ideas
sketched above are amplified greatly. In particular:
(I) 433-8/508-1 3, 445-501522-7: The account of agency or
practical reason is developed, with historical illustrations
(433-5/508-10), in terms of a distinction of mobiles, 'motives',
which are subjective projections of ends ('the ensemble of the
desires, emotions, and passions which urge me to accomplish
a certain act', 446/522-3), and motifs, translated by Barnes as
'causes' in order to indicate their externality to the subject
(a motif is 'objective', a 'state of contemporary things as it is
revealed to a consciousness', 447/524), but defined by Sartre as
'the reason for the act; that is, the ensemble of rational consid
erations which justify it' (445-6/522).
The difficulty, Sartre insists, is to grasp how motifs and
mobiles conjoin without slipping into an incoherent dualism
(447/523-4). Its unique solution, he argues, is to see that they are
'correlative' in exactly the way that thetic object-consciousness
is correlated with non-thetic self-consciousness: the for-itself's
apprehension of the objective motif is simply the other side of
its 'non-thetic consciousness of itself as a project towards an
end', i.e. of its mobile, and vice versa (449/525). From this it fol
lows that the three terms motif, mobile and end (une fin), form
an 'indissoluble' unity which refers us to the upsurge of the
for-itself in the world and its projection of itself towards its
possibilities; whence, again, the unintelligibility of determin
ism (the illusion of which, Sartre re-explains as the result of
converting the mobile into an object of empirical knowledge,
449-50/526: the mobile is 'made-past (passeifie) and fixed in
in-itself', 450/526).
(2) 444-5/521: The analysis of emotion from Sartre's early
Sketch is restated, with emphasis put on the point that the deci
sion to adopt either a magical or a rational strategy in face of
difficulty cannot be determined by the world and must belong
to the project of the for-itself: 'My fear is free and manifests my
freedom [. . .] In relation to freedom there is no privileged psy
chic phenomenon' (4451521).
(3) 450 -2/527-9: The operation of will, in the sense of the
undertaking of a course of action with deliberative voluntari
ness, is rejected as a necessary condition of freedom: 'the will is
not a privileged manifestation of freedom' (452/529).117 Because
freedom is expressed already in the configuration of, and
values assigned to, situational and subjective elements, prior to
my activity of 'weighing them up' in deliberation, Sartre argues
that voluntariness and involuntary spontaneity are merely two
different routes or methods of pursuing my ends, between which
I choose freely. (A more detailed discussion, which includes an
account of akrasia, is found at 472-6/550-5.)
The only terms from ordinary psychology referring to the
psychological antecedents of action which Sartre is prepared
to allow as necessary conditions of freedom are intention and
choice. Their joint constitutive role in freedom is explained
at 476-8/555 -7: the intention chooses and posits the end, and
chooses itself, 'by a single unitary upsurge' (478/557). When
Sartre uses these terms, he is of course not thinking of them
as special kinds of psychological state, whose existence can
be detected empirically and which would provide a marker
for freedom. On Sartre's account, freedom is not something
for whose presence or absence there could be criteria (just as,
Sartre argued, consciousness of Others must be beyond criteria
in order to be possible).
(4) 441 -4/5 17-21: At a higher level of generality, Sartre tar
gets the pronounced tendency of ordinary thought to distribute
freedom and determination across different parts of the self,
and so to understand free action as presupposing a domination
of determined psychological parts by free psychological parts
(reason's mastery of the passions, etc.).
Beyond the immediate problem that we hereby conceive,
apparently, a being both free and determined, and contradict
directly the unity of the for-itself (in the manner of Freud: see
25), the problem of relating 'unconditioned freedom and the
determined processes of psychic life' to one another intelli
gibly (4411517), Sartre argues, has no solution, for it cannot be
explained how a free spontaneity could gain the requisite direct
purchase on a deterministically constituted psychic fact, any
more than it can on external being-in-itself. From this it fol
lows that 'two solutions and only two are possible: either man is
wholly determined [. . .] or else man is wholly free' (442/518).
(5) 453-4/530-1, 464/542: The traditional 'could have done
otherwise' condition on freedom is finessed by Sartre in terms
of the subject's original, higher-level project which gives intel
ligible unity to my actions (see 34). It is false that I could have
done otherwise without some change in my original project;
but true that I could have changed my original project; and so
true conditionally - but on a condition that implies no diminu
tion or qualification of my freedom - that I could have acted
otherwise. The debate as to whether, at the level of an empirical
choice, an agent could have done otherwise is thus 'based on
incorrect premises' (454/530). The 'could have done otherwise'
condition remains therefore a secondary conceptual implica
tion, not an essence-giving analysis, of freedom.
Before we go on to assess Sartre's account of freedom, fur
ther components of the theory, providing it with important
extensions, need to be added.
33 Freedom: facticity and situation
[Part Four, Chapter 1 , Section 1/]
Sartre's claim that 'absolute freedom' is 'the very being of the
person' (581/670) may prompt us to picture the Sartrean subject
as enjoying total sovereignty, surveying a transparent world
and lord of its own domain. This hyperbolical conception has
been attributed to Sartre and drawn vehement criticism, but
the discussion of freedom and facticity in Section II, 'Freedom
and Facticity: the Situation', makes it abundantly clear that no
such megalomaniacal elevation of the self follows from Sartre's
theory of freedom.
The text of Section II divides into four parts: (1) 481-4/561-4:
An account of how the theory of freedom contradicts 'com
mon sense' beliefs regarding freedom and of why these do
not provide effective grounds of objection to the theory.
(2) 484-9/564-71 : An extension of the theory of freedom show
ing its relation to the factical given, in which the concept of
'situation' is introduced. (3) 489-548/570-633: A lengthy and
detailed account of the fundamental structures of facticity,
namely my 'place', my past, my position as determined by
Others, my fundamental relation with the Other, and my
death. (4) 548-53/633-8: A summary of what our 'being-in
situation' comprises.
Though all of this material is of high interest and import
ance (in particular Sartre's account of death, 531-48/61 5-33, in
criticism of Heidegger's notion of 'being-towards-death'), it is
the discussion in (1) and (2) which is absolutely crucial for the
As we saw in 16, Sartre's account of facticity shows why it
does not merely happen to be the case that the for-itself, when it
begins the task of conferring meanings and determining situ
ations, finds itself with being which is not of its choosing: it is
metaphysically necessary that the for-itself should not choose
its 'position' (83/126). Now the question for Sartre is simply: If
this is so, then why does it not follow that my freedom has limits
and is conditioned, in a sense which contradicts, and shows the
erroneousness of, Sartre's claim, entailed by his thesis of the
identity of my freedom with my being, of the unconditioned and
hence unlimited character of human freedom?
Sartre agrees that I cannot 'choose to be tall if I am short',
that 'I am born a worker, a Frenchman' or whatever, that the
world offers resistance to my projects (there is a 'coefficient of
adversity of things': I cannot scale every crag), that it may be
impossible for me to escape 'the lot of my class, of my nation, of
my family', that a prisoner is not always 'free to go out of prison'
(481/561 , 483/563). But the question is how all of this should be
conceptualized. Common sense regards these facts as limits to
my freedom, and it does so with consistency, since it conceives
freedom in terms ofpower, a conception which Sartre has, how
ever, subjected to criticism. The first point to make is therefore
that the ontological freedom theorized by Sartre does not and is
not intended to correspond to the freedom of which we speak
ordinarily when we talk of a person's freedom as bounded by
their capacities and powers or as being susceptible to increase
and decrease: a distinction must be drawn between 'freedom of
action' and 'freedom itself' (4821562), the 'empirical and popu
lar' concept of freedom and the 'technical and philosophical'
concept of freedom (483/563). The omnipresence of ontological
freedom does not imply, therefore, the absurdity that we are
each as free to travel to the moon as we are to scratch our little
fingers.
But disentangling ontological from empirical freedom is not,
Sartre recognizes, enough to dispose of the problem (484/564).
His theory of freedom asserts, after all, 'something like an
ontological conditioning of freedom', in so far as it affirms that
freedom requires a given (478/558), and it thereby seems to assert
'a kind of ontological priority of the in-itself over the for-itself'
(484/564) which may seem to force us back into the picture of
freedom as having a certain extent, limited by the facts about
how things are, such that 'we can be free only in relation to
a state of things and in spite of this state of things' (486/566).
Were that so, freedom would be conditioned by things.
The decisive issue, it emerges from Sartre's extraordinar
ily subtle discussion, is whether or not there is something in
the given which is both (i) independent of my freedom, and
(ii) determinant of my choices. And this is exactly what Sartre
is equipped by the metaphysics of B&N to deny: the given fig
ures only by virtue of a nihilation and in relation to some freely
chosen end of mine. Though it is true that 'an unnamable and
unthinkable residuum' belongs to the given as being-in-itself
(482/562), this residue does not belong to my situation and 'in no
way enters into the constitution of freedom' (487/567). Facticity,
as Sartre put it in Part Two, cannot be 'grasped in its brute
nudity, since all that we will find of it is already recovered and
freely constituted': the resistance which it presents is not strictly
a 'resistance of fact' (831125-6), and the 'given is nothing other
than the in-itself nihilated by the for-itself', not a 'pure datum'
(487/567-8). It would, Sartre says, be absolutely useless 'to seek
to define or to describe the "quid" of this facticity "be/ore"
freedom turns back upon it in order to apprehend it as a deter
mined deficiency' (494/575).
Sartre's concept of 'situation' (formally defined at 487/568;
see also 259-60/317) is accordingly not that of a condition of
freedom - rather my situation is an expression and realization
of my unconditioned freedom.
It follows also that questions of what portion of my situation
is facticity and what portion is my freedom are ill-formed:
analysis of my situation does not peel away layers of soft
inefficacious subjective meanings in order to disclose a hard
determining objectivity. On the contrary, as we will see in 34, it
leads upwards into subjectivity, towards the for-itself's 'original
project'. Hence 'it is impossible to determine in each particu
lar case what comes from freedom and what comes from the
brute being of the for-itself' (488/568). Freedom and facticity
cannot compete, since 'freedom is the apprehension of my facti
city' (494/575).
Sartre's defence of his thesis of the unconditioned character
of freedom implies that freedom is not limited in the ways ordin
arily thought, but not, note, that freedom has no limits: in fact,
Sartre explains, there is a 'real' and 'true' limit to my freedom,
provided by the Other's transcendence of me, 'the very fact that
the Other apprehends me as the Other-as-object' (524-5/607-8;
see also 262/320). By virtue of its distribution across intersub
jectivity, freedom is therefore self-limiting.
Nor does it follow from Sartre's account that the ordinary
concept of freedom has no place. The distinction which is
needed is between the ontological freedom which B&N seeks to
explicate, and freedom as something realized. Having isolated
the freedom which makes possible human agency, responsibil
ity and existence, another concept of freedom - corresponding
more closely to what is ordinarily meant when freedom is
talked of as something desirable, which can be lost or gained,
increased or decreased, etc. - can then be formulated. But
this conception of freedom as positively realized or expressed,
and of there being certain conditions under which such real
ization or expression is possible and others under which it is
not, is quite evidently a separate matter, requiring a separate
story, from ontological freedom: it will require an account of
ontological freedom as variably carried over into the products,
upshots, conditions or contents of actions; and because, on
Sartre's view, this takes us into the realm of ethics, he does not
give it consideration in B&N (with the unfortunate result, how
ever, that Sartre's conception of freedom is misunderstood as
identifying freedom-as-realized with ontological freedom).
That our situations are compounded of, fractured and criss
crossed by, a mUltiplicity of objective structures - culture,
tradition, language, class, race, gender and so on - is there
fore in no way denied by Sartre. Nor is it denied that these
structures, the products of a historical development which has
unfolded without any providential direction, may not allow
themselves to be conquered, either practically or cognitively,
by the individual. Whether the web of social and historical
structures in which the individual finds himself can be grasped
in a way that secures for her the power to reshape them in
accordance with her own ends (empirical freedom, a practical
power), as opposed to merely setting herself over and against
them (ontological freedom), is a further matter, belonging to
the philosophy of history and to political and social theory,
which B&N does not pursue, although the text gives indication
enough that Sartre's view is not naive.
It has been argued, as we will see in the next chapter that
Sartre revises his understanding of freedom in his post-B&N
writings, and that the later Sartre's concern to understand the
logic of freedom in concrete situations requires B&N's account
of freedom to be reworked. But it is doubtful that the account
of freedom in B&N is inconsistent with the more nuanced
descriptions of freedom found in the later Sartre, his view that
our social and historical being involves a union of freedom with
necessity. What Sartre cannot allow is only - and this is what
sets him in dispute with later French, structuralist and post
structuralist thinkers - that freedom is without priority and
that the relation of subjectivity to objective structure is sym
metrical all the way down, i.e. a relation of interaction between
ontological equals (let alone, of course, that subjectivity is a
mere 'effect' of those structures).
34 The original project and choice of myself [Part Four,
Chapter 1 , Section I, 457-67/534-46 and
479-81 /559-60, and Part Four, Chapter 2,
Section 1, 557-64/643-51 ]
It might be suggested that, while Sartre's account of freedom
serves to elucidate the first person practical standpoint, the
perspective of agents conscious of themselves as having choices
to make, there is also a need for psychological explanation from
the non-practical, third person standpoint. Do we in that con
text have to reintroduce the psychological conception of the
mental (24) repudiated by Sartre? If so, then the perspective
of freedom is undercut, or at least problematically set in oppos
ition to an objectivist, 'psychic' view of the mental which is
equally indispensable. The challenge for Sartre, therefore, is to
show that freedom can serve also in this second capacity, as the
basis of theoretical understanding of the for-itself.
The section 'Existential Psychoanalysis' (Part Four,
Chapter 2, Section I) opens with a critique of the attempt to
explain individuals in familiar psychological terms. Psychology
first analyses the subject into basic motivational factors and
dispositions of an abstract kind, and then appeals to induct
ively supported psychological types and psychological laws,
in order to construct explanations of individual instances of
behaviour. (Note that Sartre has in mind here non-reductionist
intentional psychology, not hard reductive naturalism; even
Jaspers is included, 559/645.)
Holding aside his a priori metaphysical objections to such
theorizing, Sartre concentrates on the point that this style of
explanation necessarily terminates with the postulation of 'inex
plicable original givens' - for example: 'ambition', 'a need for
intense feeling' - the objection to which is not that we thereby
fail to satisfy the principle of sufficient reason - Sartre accepts
that 'we have to stop somewhere; it is the very contingency of real
existence' (560/646) - but that these irreducibles are of the wrong
sort: so long as 'ambition', for instance, is conceived as a property,
something which may have been 'received from' social or physio
logical quarters, its relation to the subject and hence meaning is
necessarily unintelligible, and the explanation is a failure.
Sartre provides then his clearest restatement in B&N of
the thesis of The Transcendence of the Ego concerning the
non-conformity of human subjectivity to subject-predicate
metaphysics, arguing that this metaphysics entails one of two
equally unacceptable conceptions of the human subject, as
either an unqualified 'substratum', or a 'bundle' of drives and
tendencies (5611647). Elsewhere the alternatives are expressed
as those of understanding myself either as 'a supporting sub
stance for a flow, a substance deprived of the meaning of its
modes', or as 'a horizontal flux of phenomena' (459/536).
What we need, Sartre claims, is 'a veritable irreducible; that
is, an irreducible of which the irreducibility would be evident to
us' (560/647) and this, he claims, can only be a 'free unification'
(5611648). So we are led to the concept of a unitary 'original
project' (5611648) or 'fundamental project' which is 'purely
individual and unique' to each for-itself (563/650). To grasp an
individual in the light of their original project, according to
Sartre, is to grasp 'the totality of his impulse toward being, his
original relation to himself, to the world, and to the Other', in
such a way, furthermore, that this whole can be rediscovered in
every part - 'in each inclination, in each tendency the person
expresses himself completely, although from a different angle'
Mention is made early in B&N of the notion of a single,
self-defining choice - e.g., 'I emerge alone and in anguish con
fronting the unique and primary project which constitutes my
being' (39/77) - but it is only in Part Four that Sartre argues for
it and clarifies its status.
In Sartre's first statement of the theory (Part Four, Chapter 1 ,
Section I , 457-67/534-46), the original choice o f myself, Ie choix
originel de moi-meme (464/542), is presented as a component of
the theory of freedom, one which allows Sartre, as noted in 32,
to give an account of the possibility of having acted otherwise.
In the second presentation (Part Four, Chapter 2, Section I,
557-64/643-51), Sartre provides it with an independent argu
ment, namely, as we have seen, that it is uniquely compatible
with the reality of the human subject as a personal unity, which
every empirical form of psychological explanation destroys.
We can think of our original choice, Sartre says, borrowing
and amending a concept from Kant, as 'the choice of an intel
ligible character', so long as we identify this character with 'the
unique pattern of the subject's empirical existence' and do not
locate the choice at an ontologically prior and distinct level of
noumenal existence or unconscious subjectivity (563 -4/650,
480/559). If we ask when the original choice of self is made,
Sartre's answer is that it is contemporaneous with the upsurge
of the for-itself in question, and so is made at no time, though not
outside time: 'we must conceive of the original choice as unfold
ing time and as being one with the unity of the three ekstases'
(4651543); the original choice is neither instantaneous nor co-ex
tensive with an entire life but is 'constantly renewed' (480/560).
Again, if we ask why the original choice of myself is made why it is that choice and not another - no answer can be given
in terms of mobiles or motifs, since these already presuppose a
choice of self (462/539). The original choice cannot, however,
be regarded as deprived of reasons and causes: it is a 'spontan
eous invention' of these, within its own compass (470/549) . The
choice must consequently express a meaning which 'refers only
to itself' and requires no interpretation (457/534-5) , its intelligi
bility deriving from the fact that the original project is 'always
the outline of a solution of the problem of being' (463/540). My
original choice therefore includes, Sartre notes, the rules for
the interpretation, or criteria for determining the meaning of
my empirical choices (4711549).
The original choice constitutes 'a non-substantial absolute
(un absolu non substantiel) (5611648), a description applied in
the Introduction to consciousness (xxxii/23), though it is true
also, Sartre emphasizes, that the choice must be apprehended
as 'unjustifiable' and thus in anguish, in so far as we apprehend
it as 'not deriving from any prior reality' (464/542).
As regards our knowledge of our original choice, Sartre's
position is that we lack explicit, thetic ('analytical and dif
ferentiated') knowledge of it - necessarily, since it does not
exist in pre-conceived, atemporal form in order to be subse
quently realized - but that we have non-thetic consciousness
of it, which (since 'our being is precisely our original choice')
is simply identical with our self-consciousness (461-3/539-40).
Importantly, this explains why we do not experience our lives
as the unfolding of a script with which we are already familiar,
why our existence has the character of 'choosing ourselves', i.e.
of responsibility, and not of 'being-chosen' (464/541), and why,
in a complex sense which Sartre describes with care and preci
sion (466 -7/544- 6 and 469-70/548 -9), 'radical modification' of
the original choice of myself is possible. Because my original
choice of myself lies neither in my past nor outside my tempor
ality, there is no reason why, at each instant of my taking it up
and unfolding it, I cannot break with and reverse my previous
projects - by quitting gambling or whatever. But at the same
time, if my original choice is the total (rather than merely the
past) pattern in my empirical choices, and if this pattern has the
character of a Gestalt rather than a straightforward iteration,
then it cannot strictly be said that I now make, or become, a dif
ferent original choice - any more than a novelist who abruptly
changes the direction of a plot thereby writes a different novel.
If I quit gambling, I reconfigure my past, which now acquires
the meaning 'renounced'. As it may be put: I can modify at any
instant what I take my original project to be, but my original
project itself is not finally determined so long as I am still able
to make choices, and to that extent cannot be said to be either
modifiable or unmodifiable.
The concept of an original choice of self provides therefore
Sartre's reply to the challenge of accounting for the possibil
ity of psychological explanation, by allowing freedom to be
explanatory. (Sartre later described exactly this as the aim of
his biography of Jean Genet: 'I have tried to do the following:
to indicate the limits of psychoanalytical interpretation and
Marxist explanation and to demonstrate that freedom alone
can account for a person in his totality.'1l8)
35 Responsibility for the world
[Part Four, Chapter 1 , Section I I I]
The extension of the theory of freedom which Sartre makes
in the short third section of the freedom chapter is dramatic
and, despite a brief intimation at 463/541 , unexpected. Sartre
informs us that 'man is responsible for the world' (553/639), not
merely in the general sense that the being of a world requires
being-for-itself, but at the level of the individualized for-itself:
'I am responsible for everything, in fact, except for my very
responsibility'; I find myself 'engaged in a world for which I
bear the whole responsibility' (555/641); 'the responsibility of
the for-itself extends to the entire world as a peopled-world'
What might incline us to take these provocative remarks at
less than face value - to think, for example, that Sartre is offer
ing here a fiction with some sort of exhortative or regulative
function for our ethical dispositions, not a piece of metaphys
ics - is Sartre's statement at the outset that his remarks are
'primarily of interest to the ethicist' (553/638), and his use at
some places of the conjunction 'as if', comme si ('as if I bore the
entire responsibility for this war', 554/640). Sartre's idea would
then be comparable to Nietzsche's famous life-affirmative doc
trine of eternal recurrence, which Sartre must have known, and
which is generally agreed not to be a cosmological thesis but
rather a hypothetical thought the entertaining of which has
existential import.
Sartre's intention in declaring us responsible for the world is
certainly to purge us of a certain attitude, that of taking dis
tance from our lives on the grounds that its fabric has been
composed by accident or historical externality, rendering it
something alien. But an anti-realist reading of the doctrine
would be a mistake, for Sartre says quite clearly that he is
'taking the word "responsibility" in its ordinary sense as "con
sciousness (of) being the incontestable author of an event or
an object'" (553/639), and consideration of the thesis of world
responsibility shows it to be an intelligible and defensible
development of his theory of freedom.
Clearly the thesis that each is responsible for the world can
not be understood on the same basis as the responsibility that
each has for themselves, since the world is not given to me as a
nothingness under the obligation of having-to-be, but rather as
being; nor even on the basis that the object-world is subject-de
pendent, since whatever story it is that Sartre ultimately wants
to tell about objectivity (12), he is not an empirical idealist
and his position is that the for-itself stands over and against
the objective realm, as the facticity correlated with its freedom
(33). World-responsibility must therefore come indirectly.
The following point is in the foreground of Sartre's discus
sion: responsibility for the world derives from my responsibility
for my world, and responsibility for my world from the con
sideration that it is 'the image of the free choice of myself
(554/639). Now this might lead us to think that the thesis of
world-responsibility is simply a logical implication of Sartre's
original-project doctrine and that this is all that provides it
with support. Although the entailment is certainly affirmed by
Sartre, and defensible, there is more going on in this section,
and it is important that world-responsibility should receive
independent support (if only in order that it should not be taken
to provide a reductio of the idea of an original choice of self).
Sartre's affirmation that I am responsible for the world in
the sense of being its author is meant to entail that 'this war
is my war', but not of course that it was I who declared war
(554/639). What is this transcendental sense of authorship
cum-responsibility?
It needs first to be remembered that the theistic or deistic
candidate for the world's authorship is excluded (see 47), that
READ ING THE TEXT
the world on Sartre's account does not simply inflict itself on
my passivity, and that I cannot decline world-responsibility on
the grounds that I have determined my being independently of
the world and already stand in a condition of normative com
pleteness. Still, it may be asked: Why do I have to take any sort
of quasi-practical attitude here? Why can't I just think, contem
platively: 'Here is the fact of thelmy world'? (Granting perhaps
that its appearance is epistemically conditional on my subject
ivity, but thinking nothing about questions of responsibility.)
Here, yet again, Sartre's rejection of naturalism and real
ism is crucial. If Sartre's view were that theoretical cognition
is an independent, self-sufficient, autonomous mode of con
sciousness, the world being merely its object, then there would
be no compulsion to 'attitudinise' the world beyond having
knowledge-of-it. Similarly, if the world were the essentially
non-human nature of philosophical naturalism, then, as Sartre
notes (554/639), a relation of responsibility to it would be unin
telligible. But the world belongs to human reality, and as we
saw in 17 and 19, cognition is merely a sub-structure in the
relation of the for-itself to the in-itself, the general character of
which is practical. So it is both possible and necessary, in gen
eral terms, that the world be thought under practical categories.
This means that something must fill the otherwise empty space
which appears when I form the thought of 'that which stands to
the world in a relation of responsibility'.
On this account, the unjustifiability of the for-itself (the lack
of reason for its existence) and of the world (its merely 'given',
contingent character), which common sense may take precisely as
reasons for refusing world-responsibility ('I did not ask to be born',
555/641), flips over into its opposite: because I am not the founda
tion of my being and so must transcendentally 'take up' the world
on which I depend in order to discharge my obligation-to-be,
and because the world lacks the self-sufficiency of Spinoza's One
Substance, and finally, because there is nothing else that might
assume responsibility for the world, I am obliged to do so.
Put slightly differently: Sartre's claim concerns what emerges
when we explicate what is involved in my thinking my world to
be mine, and it is that, because realism is to be rejected (this
world is not mine by virtue of its impinging on me, nor of its
containing me spatio-temporally, etc.), the relation must have
a character which is both internal and practical, and that only
some conception modelled on responsibility - albeit of a rela
tively indeterminate kind - provides an approximation to what
needs to be thought.
Note finally that, if Sartre's thesis of world-responsibility
stands independently of his thesis of the original choice of
self, then these two extensions of the theory of freedom can be
regarded as mutually supporting. Jointly they conduce to an
orientation which precludes common attitudes of 'remorse or
regret or excuse' (556/642), of dwelling on counter-factuals and
identifying ourselves with unactualized trajectories that our
lives could have taken but did not, and so on. The result is an
extraordinary distillation and synthesis of stoicism with inten
sified active self-determination.
It remains to be considered whether the new attitude ofrespon
sibility for the world, beyond its cathartic role in undoing my
alienation from my contingency-filled life, has other-regarding,
moral implications. Sartre's view, we will see in 44, is that it
does, which is where his world-responsibility parts company
with Nietzsche's eternal recurrence.
36 Sartrean freedom appraised
The objection was put by one of Sartre's earliest critics, Gabriel
Marcel, that his notion of freedom is 'inexplicable' and 'deeply
unintelligible', and that by treating freedom as omnipresent in
human reality, Sartre 'debases' it.ll9
As an initial reaction this is understandable, but nothing can
be decided regarding the value of Sartre's theory of freedom
until it has become clear exactly what he is and is not saying,
and the theory has been set in the context of both Sartre's
philosophical project and the problem of human freedom as
such. This is too large a brief to be executed here, but there are
some important points which can be made and added to the
observations made in Chapter 2 regarding the general meth
odological difficulty presented by the problem of freedom and
Sartre's radical response to it.
First, concerning the issue of explicability and intelligibility,
it needs to be emphasized that what is to count as philosophical
explanation or its failure must be relativized to the context at
hand - and that Sartre's entire design is to reposition freedom
as a final explanans, and to explain why it is mistaken to think
of freedom, in the final analysis, as an explanandum of any
sort. This means, not that the concept of freedom is isolated
in indefinability, but that it is locked into horizontal relations
with other fundamental concepts, and the measure of success
of Sartre's strategy is that we should reach a point where these
merge into one another, as they do, he claims, on his account:
'Thus freedom, choice, nihilation, temporalisation are all one
and the same thing' (465/543); 'Choice and consciousness are
one and the same thing' (462/539); 'What we have expressed in
Part Two in terms of lack can be just as well expressed in terms
ofJreedom' (565/652).
This gives the concept of freedom a strange status in rela
tion to ordinary empirical concepts, but Sartre acknowledges
this and explains why it is not problematic in his discussion of
the issue at 438-9/513-14. Freedom can have 'no essence', for to
cognize it as having one would be to make it a quasi-object - to
conceive it as constituted, like a doing or an action - and the
question would then return, as to what power is responsible for
this constituting, generating an infinite regress. What philo
sophical reflection can do in place of identifying an essence
or universal is to refer us back reflexively to 'my particular
consciousness' (4381514), and specifically to my existence as
disclosed in non-thetic pre-reflective consciousness, where
freedom is grasped as 'a pure factual necessity' (439/514).
We possess therefore 'a certain comprehension of freedom'
(439/514), which corresponds in exact degree and kind to what
Sartre's metaphysics of freedom implies it is philosophically
possible to achieve.
It is to be noted how Sartre's view accords with the pecu
liar epistemology of freedom. Our knowledge that we are free
has the same immediate and certain, yet contentless and trans
parent character as our knowledge of our own selfhood and
existence. Turning reflection on myself in an endeavour to
locate what it is about me, or within me, that makes me free,
necessarily I come up with nothing; nothing that I could bring
to light through introspection or 'inner' intuition could be my
Knowledge that we are free entails that our freedom must
have a ground, yet we can have no determinate conception of
that ground. One option would be to interpret the epistem
ology of our freedom in terms of our possession of a special
kind of idea, one without any empirical content, and which the
necessary sensory conditions on human knowledge forbid our
ever grasping as realized, but which we are rationally required
to conceive ourselves in the light of. In place of this strategy,
which is Kant's, Sartre identifies our freedom with the mode
of being which he calls nothingness and in so doing translates
a phenomenological characterization (freedom is contentless
and transparent) into a metaphysical explanation (freedom is
grounded on nothingness): if, when I try to grasp what my free
dom consists in, I find nothing determinate - nothing but the
shape of my selfhood and the other structures of the for-itself then the ground of my freedom cannot be anything other than
my very existence and mode of being.
Second, concerning Sartre's alleged promiscuity with the
notion, we saw in 33 that Sartrean ontological freedom is
their capacities and powers, or as being susceptible to increase
and decrease, let alone of political freedoms as having greater
or lesser scope. Similarly, ontological freedom is dissociated
(at the present stage of enquiry) from the notion of freedom
as a good. The omnipresence of ontological freedom does not
imply, therefore, the absurdity or 'debasement' that would have
resulted if Sartre had claimed that slaves are not in need of
emancipation because their freedom is already complete.
That said, Sartre's theory of freedom is intended to be
contra-commonsensical, and acceptance of it entails revising
our judgements of responsibility and culpability, praising and
blaming on a different pattern, and giving different psycho
logical explanations of human behaviour from those previously
regarded as correct. (A second and distinct set of changes
occurs through the application of existential psychoanalysis:
see 41 and 42.)
Determining the impact of Sartre's theory on ordinary
thought is however not an altogether straightforward matter.
Grasping ontological freedom is not like making an empir
ical discovery on a par with, say, Freud's discovery of the
ubiquity of sexual motivation, or Marx's discovery of the role
of economic motives in determining systems of moral and
religious belief. It is a philosophical discovery, which effects
changes in different ways at different levels. In the first place,
it effects an everything-and-nothing transcendental change,
whereby all of human reality in one sense remains the same
while being cast in a new, non-empirical light, such that we
assume responsibility for the world. Second, it entails a differ
ential and selective change in our psychological and practical
description and evaluation, which involves expunging some
(deterministic) conceptions and modes of thought. Portions of
the lang u age of ordinary psychology are required to undergo
modification, at least to the extent that the genuine sense of
predicates such as 'lazy', 'homosexual', etc., and of judgements
of psychological capacity and incapacity, must be recognized
as elusive and redetermined more finely. B&N does not include
a rule-book for revising ordinary judgement, and Sartre's the
ory explains why it would not be possible to draw one up: if
ontological freedom is a transcendental, not a psychological
concept, then no algorithm can be provided for extracting
determinate empirical implications from it; to the extent that
this leaves a gap in Sartre's theory, it is one that his fiction
may be held to fill. The third change made by ontological free
dom, which presupposes no grasp of philosophical theory,
is expressed in Sartre;s concept of pure reflection (see 43),
which refers to a non-discursive, intuitive discovery of one's
own ontological freedom, a privileged reflexive cognition of
the sort that entails a change in one's practical orientation.
If Sartre's discussion of freedom is compared with much
of the contemporary literature on the topic, one is struck by
the absence of any explicit reference by Sartre to the theme
of rationality. This is not because Sartre thinks there is no
connection of freedom with reason: as we have seen, reason
is comprehended firmly within Sartrean freedom, in so far
as it is presupposed by the unity of motif, mobile and fin that
constitutes action; nothing without rationality could have the
character of a project.
That Sartre does not talk of rationality as a constitutive
condition of freedom has several explanations. Sartre does
not think of freedom in terms of filling gaps in the causal
order with reasons for action, nor of reasons as elements in
psychological sequences. The more general absence from B&N
of any discussion of reason or rationality is in part a reflec
tion of Sartre's attitude to epistemology (8), and in other part
due to the fact that his methodology and metaphysics make it
unnecessary for him to invoke our possession of a superad
ded 'faculty of reason' in order to explain how we differ from
animals and other unfree beings. Ultimately, Sartre gives
no independent account of rationality as a distinct capacity
because he regards it as emerging necessarily with freedom:
freedom is undetermined responsibility for determination,
and as such constitutes the space of reasons - which is why
being-in-itself falls outside this space, i.e. can neither have nor
lack reasons. Shortly we will see the specific sense in which
Sartre accords priority to freedom over reason (37-8).
On a favourable estimate, then, Sartre's theory of freedom
escapes the charges of unintelligibility and absurdity, and the
case for human freedom made in B&N is strong enough to
shift the burden of argument onto those who deny that free
dom exists in the form claimed by Sartre; in which case it would
be necessary, in order to challenge Sartre's account, either to
offer alternative accounts of the ground of responsibility and
the apparently distinctive character of human existence, or to
demonstrate that these notions are illusory.
37 Bad faith [Part One, Chapter 2, Sections II-III]
We saw in Part (B) that Sartre regards human motivation as
having a metaphysical source; indeed this claim goes back to his
axiom that consciousness can derive its motivation only from
itself (3). B&N presents a detailed theory of human motivation
in several stages, the first of which is the theory of bad faith
(mauvaise fot).
In the first of the two sections on bad faith (Section II)
Sartre sketches the 'patterns' (conduites) of bad faith in a series
of portraits. Best know is the waiter whom Sartre describes as
striving to render his being a pure incarnation of the essence
of 'waiter-ness': 'All his behaviour seems to us a game [. . .] the
waiter in the cafe plays with his condition in order to realise it';
he seeks to 'be a cafe waiter in the sense in which this inkwell is
an inkwell' (59/99). A more complex case is that of a woman on
a date, whose companion takes her hand but whose mind is not
made up regarding the question of how she should respond to
his sexual intentions:
the young woman leaves her hand there, but she does not
notice herself leaving it [. . .] the hand rests inert between
the warm hands of her companion - neither consenting nor
resisting - a thing [. . .] She has disarmed the actions of her
companion by reducing them to being only what they are,
that is, to existing in the mode of the in-itself [. . .] she realises
herself as not being (comme n'c.tant pas) her own body, and
she contemplates it as though from above as a passive object
to which events can happen, but which can neither provoke
them nor avoid them, because all its possibilities are outside
of it. (55-6/95)
Further instances are given in the form of a complex dialectic
(63-6/103-6) between the 'homosexual', motivated by guilt and
fear of public condemnation to refuse to draw from the facts
of his behaviour 'the conclusion which they impose' (63/104),
and the 'champion of sincerity' who urges him to confess his
homosexuality on the basis that doing so will effect in him a
self-transcendence, rendering him an (incoherent) amalgam of
freedom and psychosexual thinghood (64-5/104-6).
What all these cases (and that of the psychoanalytic analys
and: see 25) have in common is not that they involve outright
self-deception - that would be a very strained description of
the waiter, or of the champion of sincerity - but that they all
involve consciousness of human subjectivity in the thing-like
terms of being-in-itself. This consciousness is intended, a pro
ject of the for-itself's: all bad faith manifests a choice, made not
on the reflective, voluntary level but pre-reflectively as a 'spon
taneous determination of our being' (68/109). And because
veridical consciousness of oneself is retained at the pre-reflec
tive level, the theory of bad faith protects Sartre's doctrine that
self-knowledge is inescapable, ensuring that personal responsi
bility remains wholly intact. (Bad faith is the first form in which
freedom fails to affirm itself, the second being ethical failure:
in the case of bad faith, it is the for-itself's own freedom which
it fails to affirm, while in the ethical case, it is the freedom of
Others; see 44.)
Mauvaise foi and self-deception do not, therefore, express
the same concept. Self-deception names a problematic con
figuration of beliefs and (arguably) intentions, a pattern of
psychological attributions which we find it necessary to employ
in some instances. Bad faith, though also employed by Sartre in
a more superficial, descriptive sense where it means simply and
roughly 'a person's not being honest with themselves', is in its
full meaning a strictly theoretical concept of Sartre's, insepar
able from his metaphysics of the human subject. Nevertheless,
the concepts are interlinked - at least some instances of bad
faith involve patent self-deception - and the issues they raise
are connected very closely.
Sartre is fully aware of the paradoxical character of
self-deception, indeed he spells it out in terms so clear that his
descriptions are often quoted by philosophers pursuing the
challenge of reinterpreting the propositional attitudes which
self-deception involves in non-paradoxical terms. And yet
Sartre does not begin to provide it with a formal resolution, of
the sort that one finds explored in the large literature on self
deception. Why is this?
Sartre wishes to argue that the only way of grasping how the
attitudes in question are possible, is by grasping the human subject
as a non-self-identical for-itself: if the paradox of self-deception is,
as Sartre supposes, formally insoluble, then this is grist to Sartre's
mill, for it means that the actuality of self-deception puts pres
sure on the traditional metaphysics of the human subject. It does
so, specifically, by showing that belief must be understood not
as a 'psychological fact' but as the problematic structure we saw
earlier in 24. This conception of belief, Sartre argues in Section
III, allows us to grasp the 'conditions for the possibility' (68/109)
of bad faith. As Sartre puts it, the 'faith' of bad faith - meaning:
the stance we take towards belief as such, the manner in which we
construe what it is for us to believe, in so far as we pursue a project
in bad faith - consists in determining 'that non-persuasion is the
structure of all convictions' (68/109). And this is possible only in
light of the 'self-destructive' teleology of belief per se: 'the primi
tive project of bad faith is the utilisation of this self-destruction of
the fact of consciousness' (69/110); the subtle self-annihilation of
bad faith - 'I believe in order not to believe' and 'I do not believe
in order to believe' - 'exists at the basis of all faith' (69-70/1 10).
The metaphysics of the for-itself thus explains bad faith at two
levels, or in two respects: (1) it explains the doxastic 'how' of self
deception, the 'faith' of bad faith; and (2) it identifies the 'why'
of bad faith, viz. the end of becoming in-itself. In the diversity of
conduites in bad faith, these can combine in different ways: (i) The
end of becoming in-itself may be pursued/or its own sake, either
doxastically (the homosexual, the champion of sincerity) or sub
doxastically, at the level of consciousness rather than belief (the
waiter). (ii) Becoming in-itself may be employed instrumentally,
in a project whose end is provided by motives directed towards
ordinary, non-metaphysical ends (the woman on the date). Or
(iii) bad faith may consist simply in the 'faith of bad faith', as in
the case of ordinary, non-Sartrean self-deception, where I twist
my beliefs at the behest of some ordinary motive and employ no
other, non-doxastic techniques; for example, I believe that I am
courageous when I know that I am not.
The great interest of bad faith, the reason why Sartre dwells
on it, at such an early point in B&N, is therefore that it points up
the limits of ordinary psychology: belief is not the 'psychological
fact' we ordinarily think it is. This point deserves development.
Bad faith involves, at a deeper level than the doxastic
contradictions which lie at its surface, a pragmatic contradic
tion - freedom seeks to negate itself, yet it expresses itself in
this very seeking. In 38 we will see the deeper thesis of Sartre's
in the light of which freedom's self-negation, despite its contra
dictoriness, is made intelligible.
The net result is to force us to recognize that ordinary psych
ology is not basic and autonomous in the way we assume it to
be. On the ordinary picture expressed in many positions in
the philosophy of mind, psychological explanation turns on a
formal rational structure, expressed in the execution of prac
tical syllogisms, which receives its content from the particular
beliefs and desires formed by agents, but which is itself uncon
ditioned; in the relevant, non-contingent sense, there is nothing
prior to it.
Self-deception and other forms of irrationality pose an
explanatory problem for this conception, which it is Sartre's
strategy to exploit in order to present that conception with a
philosophical challenge. Sartre does not deny that psycho
logical explanation hinges on rationality: he accepts that
reason, rather than waves of passion or whatever, is what neces
sarily moves us to and explains our actions. What he denies
is the explanatory self-sufficiency of the ordinary conception
of the agent as a practical reasoner. Bad faith, according to
Sartre's argument, displays the ungroundedness in rationality
of human action per se: the 'paradoxicality' which character
izes self-deception is really a feature which underlies all human
action; beyond ordinary psychology we discover a 'paradoxi
cality', that of freedom in the form of the fundamental project,
of freedom negating itself, which ordinary psychology cannot
make intelligible.
In this sense, freedom is beyond reason, and supplies the
condition for any application of ordinary psychology. Our
rationality rests on a freedom which transcends reason, and is
not autonomous. (At 570/657-8, Sartre describes the original
choice of myself as 'prior to all logic', 'a prelogical synthesis';
'choice is that by which all foundations and all reasons come into
being', 479/559.) It should, accordingly, be no surprise that our
psychological existences include bad faith, since freedom has
a structure of its own, which is broader than and independent
from that of reason; the illusion of reason's explanatory self
sufficiency is what makes self-deception seem 'unaccountable'.
It is to be noted how this strategy also gives Sartre an edge
over Freud, who is similarly occupied in using phenomena on
the edge of ordinary psychology, poorly accommodated in the
matrix of practical reasoning, to penetrate to a level below
ordinary rational explanation. Psychoanalytic explanations of
human irrationality lead back to unconscious processes, gov
erned by non-rational laws (the pleasure principle, primary
process, the laws of phantasy, etc.). What it leaves conceptu
ally obscure is the interface between these processes and the
conscious ego, which is beholden to the norms of rationality.
Sartre's metaphysics, by contrast, allow irrationality to be
grasped as immanent in self-conscious being; and this resolves
the puzzle of how I, a self-conscious rational being, can never
theless 'surrender myself' (willingly) to irrational motivation.
Finally, a word in this context on the concept of character,
which Sartre finds enormously important. Sartre's metaphysical
rejection of the assumption of underlying mental dispositions
and abiding personality entails his rejection of any explanatory
reality for the concepts of character or personality traits, and
of attributions of individual character. If character traits were
explanatory, then, Sartre supposes, they would explain actions
in the way that the fragility of glass explains its breaking. But,
as the conflictual dialectic between the 'homosexual' and the
'champion of sincerity' shows, Sartre does not think that charac
ter is a fiction with which we can dispense the issue contested by
the homosexual and the champion of sincerity cannot be simply
dropped. And nor does Sartre think that character ascriptions
lack objectivity: at least across a certain range, the facts do fix
what characterizations are true of me; characterization of per
sons is not arbitrary and I cannot make it true that the facts of
my behaviour mean whatever I wish them to mean (33). It is,
according to Sartre, metaphysically and not merely psychologic
ally necessary that we think of ourselves as cowards, heroes,
homosexuals, heterosexuals, successes, failures and so on. We
are thus like figures in a novel who know themselves to be fic
tions, and find themselves perpetually torn between immersing
themselves in, and seeking to exit from, the fictional existences
which they sustain. (The necessity of character presupposes, of
course, our being-for-others: see 349-51/416-18 and 552/637.)
It follows that, in rejecting character, Sartre is not denying
that anybody has ever really been, for example, brave or sin
cere.120 Sartre is not, like the French moralists, operating within
ordinary psychological understanding, but going beyond
it. His aim is to show how ordinary notions of character are
inhabited and haunted by a tension, which shows itself at the
level of reflective scrutiny, and which is inseparable from their
dynamic role in human life and the interest which they hold for
us. The importance of Sartre's theory of character lies, then,
in (1) its explanation of why we play the language-game of
personal characterization at all, and do so with such ferocity;
(2) its identification of the internal possibilities which the game
contains, of our coming to experience it as puzzling, frustrat
ing, contra-purposive and even as collapsing altogether.
38 The fundamental project of the for-itself
[Part Four, Chapter 2, Section I, 564-8/651 -5]
The theory of bad faith shows the metaphysical motivation
of some instances of human behaviour, but not that human
motivation per se is ultimately metaphysical. That all human
motives do go back ultimately to metaphysic a l sources is, how
ever, a direct implication of Sartre's claim that 'it is impossible
to assign to a consciousness a motivation other than itself'
(xxxi/22): the original project of each individual for-itself,
Sartre points out, is an 'original project of being', un projet
originel d' etre, which 'can aim only at its being', qui ne peut viser
que son etre (564-5/651-2).
Now it is Sartre's further claim - a deduction from his meta
physics of value (17) - that the for-itself's motivation is of a
single fundamental kind:
it is as consciousness that it wishes to have the impermeabil
ity and infinite density of the in-itself; it is as the nihilation
of the in-itself and a perpetual evasion of contingency and of
facticity that it wishes to be its own foundation. This is why
the possible is projected in general as what the for-itself lacks
in order to become in-itself-for-itself (en-soi-pour-soz); and
the fundamental value which presides over this project is
exactly the in-itself-for-itself, that is, the ideal of a conscious
ness which would be the foundation of its own being-in-itself
by the pure consciousness which it would have of itself. It
is this ideal which can be called God. Thus the best way to
conceive of the fundamental project of human reality is to
say that man is the being whose project is to be God [. .]
man fundamentally is the desire to be God. (566/653-4)
The fundamental project of being God is universal - the project
of being-for-itself as such or 'of human reality' - in contrast
with the individual original project that defines each for-itself.
The latter is related to the former as a variation on a theme.
The idea that a single motive provides the source of each and
every motive that we have may seem improbable, but before
anything more is said about this there is a potential confusion
which needs to be removed. It is not part of Sartre's agenda to
deny that we want to drink because we feel thirst, or to stop on
a hike because we are fatigued. Thirst and fatigue are however,
as we have seen, admitted by Sartre as part of our facticity,
and do not themselves motivate: motivation begins only with
our reconstituting them as mobiles, and only at that point does
Sartre's metaphysical motivation thesis come into play. Put
another way, it is a mistake to think that Sartre's motivational
monism commits him to saying that metaphysical structures of
the human subject provide directly all of the content of all rea
sons for action. Rather, Sartre's thesis concerns (a) the form of
all human motivation, or in other words, how all content must
be conditioned in so far as it is motivational, and (b) some of the
direct content of human motivation and all of the ultimate con
tent of our most important motivation. The relation of concrete
empirical desires to the fundamental desire to be God involves,
Sartre explains (567/654), the mediation of our situations and
'symbolisation' of the original choice of self of each individ
ual for-itself, in ways that call for existential psychoanalysis
In order to see what this means materially as regards the
interpretation of human beings, one should turn to Sartre's
fiction and biographical studies. There is however more to be
found on this topic in B&N: in order to show why we should
think it true that our motivation has the metaphysical character
he claims, Sartre also offers a detailed account of interpersonal
motivation (39), and a systematic analysis of the basic categor
ies of desire (4I).
39 Human relationships [Part Three, Chapter 3]
Sartre's account of human relationships is given in Chapter 3
of Part Three, 'Concrete Relations with Others'. Essentially
what Sartre attempts here is a metaphysical analysis of human
relationships, as opposed to a mere psychology or anthropol
ogy. A foretaste of the material in Chapter 3 was given in the
homosexual/sincerity dialectic (37), which Sartre compared
to Hegel's master/slave dialectic (65/105), and its underlying
thesis emerged in Sartre's critique of Hegel's account of the
Other (242-3/299). Sartre's profound disagreement with Hegel's
optimism regarding the relation of self to Other turns on the
possibility of mutual recognition, of my recognizing the Other
as a subject-recognizing-me-as-a-subject. The dilemma of
intersubjectivity, according to Sartre, is simply that 'one must
either transcend the Other or allow oneself to be transcended
by him. The essence of the relations between consciousnesses is
not Mitsein, it is conflict' (429/502).
SARTR E'S BEING AND NOTHINGNESS
Sartre's thesis of the existentially problematic nature of
relation to the Other brings together two elements which are
originally distinct, but capable of complex combination.
The first and most important is Sartre's elaboration at 2835/343-6 of the basic disjunction which emerged in his account
of the epistemology of the Other, viz. consciousness of the
Other either as-object or as-subject (29).
As we saw in 14, Sartre holds that there is a 'circuit of self
ness' which is prior to intersubjectivity. Now the Other, as
Sartre puts it, 'reinforces' this selfness. This reinforcing takes
place because, when I encounter an Other, I encounter the self
ness of the Other, and this allows me to differentiate my selfness
from that of the Other: I identify that self as not being my self.
As Sartre puts it, I 'refuse' the selfness of the Other. In this
way, the intersubjective relation engages with the teleology of
self-consciousness, and the Other enables me to be myself more
fully - I enjoy the more profound experience of selfhood that
comes from being able to say not merely 'I am 1', but 'I am this
1', 'I am I and not you.'
The problem arises because this self-affirmation through the
mediation of the Other is possible only on the condition that
the Other is a self that also, reciprocally, refuses me. The Other
must do this, since otherwise he would not be a self, and so
would not provide me with the opportunity for self-affirmation.
As Sartre puts it: 'I make myself not-be a being who is making
himself not-be me' (285/345).
But this renders the 'double negation' of self and Other - my
negation of the Other, his negation of me - 'self-destructive'
(285/345): the Other enables me to reinforce my selfness, but
when I refuse the Other, I reduce the Other to an object, the
effect of which is to undermine my self-affirmation, since the
Other is no longer a subject who provides me with a self to refuse.
The for-itself therefore has to continually resurrect the Other as
a subject in order to repeat its original self-affirmation, which
involves - since I thereby affirm the self of the Other - a negation
of my own self; which then stands in need of re-affirmation, the
whole process repeating itself ad infinitum.
I thus oscillate back and forth between two polar condi
tions - either reducing the Other to an object and affirming my
freedom, or being reduced by the Other and losing my freedom;
either reinforcing my self, or being denied a self by the Other.
This is not a dialectic in Hegel's sense, because it is never medi
ated - no progress is made - rather it comprises, in Sartre's
image, a 'circle' of ever-increasing convolution (363/430). (For
succinct basic statements of this contradictory process and the
'two primitive attitudes' which I may take towards the Other,
see 3631430 and 408/478-9.)
This establishes that the basic motivational stance of the for
itself with respect to the Other cannot be one of indifference: I
cannot simply look away from the Other. The Other has some
thing of mine which I am in need of, viz. my fuller, reinforced
selfness.
The contradiction of my freedom and that of the Other is
sufficient to generate the intersubjective dynamics described
in Chapter 3, but it involves also a second element, deriving
from the fundamental project of being-for-itself described in
38. This proj ect, Sartre demonstrates, assumes baroque forms
in the context of human relationships: intersubjectivity, since
it incorporates necessarily both my being-for-itself and the in
itself aspect which the Other has bestowed upon me, provides
a channel for the fundamental project, offering us a sphere in
which we may seek to realize our aim of becoming in-itself
for-itself. For example, since in the Other's look I am in-itself
and the Other is for-itself, and my relation to the Other is an
internal ontological relation, the totality 'I-and-the-Other' - if
I could somehow identify myself with it - would establish me
as in-itself-for-itself.
Sections I and II, the detail of which cannot be entered
into here, show how the dialectic of self and Other absorbs
and fuses the twin motives of seeking reinforced selfness and
the fundamental project of being-for-itself, taking concrete
form in the projects of love and hatred, masochism and sad
ism, indifference and desire. Very briefly: discovering myself
to be possessed by the Other, I attempt initially to recover my
freedom by absorbing or assimilating the Other's freedom, i.e.
the Other-as-Iooking-at-me (364-6/431-3), first in the project
of love (366-77/433-45) and then in that of masochism (3779/445-7); the necessary failure of these endeavours leads me to
attempt to retrieve my freedom by instead making an object
of the Other, which takes me to the attitude of 'blindness'
towards Others qua their freedom (380-2/448-5 1), to sexual
desire (382-9/451-68), to sadism (399-406/469-77), and finally
to hate (410 -12/481 -4). Though Sartre's exposition takes this
sequential, narrative form, he makes it clear that there is no
question of real temporal priority (379/448): the 'circle of rela
tions' which love, hate, etc. form is in a sense 'integrated in all
attitudes towards Others' (408/478).
In Section III of Chapter 3 Sartre gives his analysis of col
lective, first-person-plural consciousness, which, Sartre
acknowledges, may be thought to show not only that his theory
of the Other is so far incomplete, but also that Sartre is wrong
to imprison intersubjective relations within the dialectic of the
look, since in thoughts of 'us' as engaged in a common action
or as undergoing a common experience, 'nobody is the object':
in such cases, where my being-for-others takes the form of
being-with-others, etre-avec-l'autre or Mitsein, it appears that I
am 'not in conflict with the Other but in community with him',
and that all 'recognise one another as subjectivities' (41 3/484),
as per Hegel's concept of Spirit.
Sartre's aim in Section III is therefore to give an analysis of
collectivity which gives it its due as a genuine phenomenon but
defuses the objection.
Sartre's argument is that, on the contrary, collectivity con
firms the dialectic of transcending/being-transcended. The
crucial distinction for Sartre's purposes is between two radic
ally different forms of experience, on the one hand of the 'we'
as an object, Ie nous-object, or 'us' - as when we understand
ourselves to be members of an oppressed class - and on the
other hand of the 'we' as a subject, Ie nous-sujet - as when I
experience signage in public places.
The former, Sartre shows (415-23/486-25), can be arrived at
through adding a witnessing third party to the simple situation
in which I am alone confronting the Other. This takes place
by various routes, depending on whether this 'Third', Ie Tiers,
looks at me or at the Other, but the final result in all cases is
that I make a transition to grasping both myself and the Other
jointly and equally from the outside, as comprising 'an object
ive situation-form in the world of the Third': 'I exist engaged in
a form which like the Other I agree to constitute', e.g. 'We are
fighting each other' (418/489).
The nous-sujet according to Sartre (423 -9/495-501) is mani
fest in situations where I engage with manufactured objects: for
example, a subway sign tells me (us) that we who wish to travel
to Sevres-Babylon must change at La Motte-Picquet, or that the
exit is to my (our) left. The marks and limitations of such experi
ences are that I find myself 'aimed at' not in the freedom of
my personal projects, but only in so far as I am an 'undifferen
tiated' 'anybody', an exemplification of the 'human species' or
quelconque inserted into the human stream (427/499-500). Such
anonymized experience of oneself - theorized by Heidegger as
the 'They' (das Man, as in the German article man or the French
on) is fleeting and unstable, Sartre says, and certainly does
not provide, contra Heidegger, a foundation for consciousness
So, although 'we'-consciousness is real in the sense that there
are indeed experiences of the 'we', analysis of these reveals
nothing inconsistent with Sartre's account: the nous-objet is 'a
simple enrichment' of the being-for-others explained in Sartre's
theory of the Other, while the nous-sujet is a 'purely subjective'
experience without metaphysical significance (429/502).
The upshot of the chapter is, therefore, that the movement
in which an individual for-itself consists primordially, viz. of
nihilating flight from the in-itself, doubles up with a counter
movement which puts the first into reverse: as soon as the
Other appears, the for-itself is 'entirely reapprehended by the
in-itself and fixed in in-itself', and receives 'a being-in-itself-in
the-midst-of-the-world as a thing among things' - 'petrification
in in-itself by the Other's look is the profound meaning of the
myth of Medusa' (429-30/502).
If Sartre's theory of consciousness of the Other is correct,
then the difficulty is clear. Though individuals may associate
successfully in certain instrumental regards - you may help me
to move this wardrobe - it appears that human relationships as
such are incapable of fulfilment, in two respects: (1) intersub
jectively defined ends (e.g. the achievement of a harmonious
partnership based on love and mutual respect) are metaphysic
ally unrealizable, and (2) human relationships cannot undo the
alienation from myself which is effected in me by the original
upsurge of the Other, let alone fulfil the teleology of the for
itself by completing my circuit of selfness.
To what extent, though, is this dark conclusion strictly
unavoidable in Sartre's terms? It is true that, in abstraction,
awareness of the Other-as-object and of the Other-as-subject
are strictly exclusive, just as a light must be either on or off. But
as Sartre emphasizes (408/479), the for-itself cannot fix itself
in either one of these conditions to the exclusion of the other:
rather they represent opposite, and mutually presupposing
poles of intersubjective experience; intersubjective life consists
in a perpetual movement back and forth between them, and
consciousness' reconfiguration in one mode or the other is typ
ically not instantaneous but a temporally extended process.
To that extent we might reasonably think that the see -saw
of objectification of/by the Other is not the only possibility,
and that a mode of intersubjective consciousness which holds
awareness of the Other's subject-being and her object-being in
some sort of equilibrium is not unimaginable ( just as Sartre
says of facticity and transcendence that they are two aspects
of human reality which 'are and ought to be capable of a valid
coordination', 56/95).
What does follow from Sartre's metaphysics is, first, that this
equilibrium, if it can be achieved, will never amount to a syn
thesis (302/364)
contra Hegel, the original tension will never
be overcome. And second, it must be acknowledged that, so
long as the for-itself's engagement with Others is determined
in accordance with the fundamental project described in 38,
the see -saw is inescapable. So, if equilibrium can be attained,
this will not be because it is the 'natural state' of the for-itself:
a motivational counter-force to the fundamental project will be
required to set the teleology of intersubjective relations off on a
new tack, and this on Sartre's account can be supplied only by
the affirmation of freedom (see 44).
If this is correct, then the chapter on 'concrete relations with
others' shows us so to speak the default settings or raw elements
of intersubjectivity, the overcoming of which would take us to
ethically mature sociality, which is not described in B&N but
belongs to its ethical sequel (see 44). What B&N has shown
us is that ethical sociality cannot be based on 'sympathy' or
'love for fellow man', and can be achieved only through a neg
ation of the circles of conflict described by Sartre. At the same
time, Sartre's account allows us to understand better certain
important enclaves of intersubjective experience - including
(at least some) sexual relations, and catastrophic passionate
pathologies in human relations - as regressions to the conflict
ual foundations of intersubjectivity. The explanatory strategy
which Sartre employs here, of reversing common sense by first
analysing what are by its lights abnormalities, is of course char
acteristic of B&N.
40 Existential psychoanalysis [Part Four, Chapter 2,
Section I, 568-75/655-63]
Everything that Sartre has told us about the individual's ori
ginal choice of self is strictly compatible with its unknowability:
it is possible that we can make out our original choices, at best,
only partially and indistinctly. Sartre's theory of freedom would
be in no worse position if this were so, nor would it oblige us
to treat the concept as merely regulative: my original choice of
myself can be fully real, even if my endeavours to grasp it - to
say what my life means or amounts to - leave a residue of surd
unintelligibility.
While emphasizing its difficulty, Sartre does consider how
ever that the task of determining a person's original choice
can be pursued with some success, the necessary means being
provided by existential as opposed to Freudian or 'empirical'
psychoanalysis.
In an earlier important passage concerned with the differ
ences between existential and empirical psychoanalysis, at
458-60/535-7, Sartre declares that he restricts himself to tak
ing 'the psychoanalytic method' as his inspiration and that he
applies it 'in a reverse sense' (458-9/536). In Part Four, Chapter 2,
Section 1, Sartre states the methodological principles of exist
ential psychoanalysis (568-9/656), and describes its similarities
with (569-71/657-9) and differences from (571-5/659-63) empir
ical psychoanalysis.
It emerges that the methodological overlap with Freud is con
siderable: existential psychoanalysis centres on the hermeneutic
'deciphering' of the 'symbols' of psychic life, fixes conceptu
ally the meanings derived therefrom, understands the human
subject as a historical structure, regards the event of infancy
as 'crucial' for psychic crystallization (569/657 ), and accepts
as significant data 'dreams, bungled actions, obsessions, and
neuroses' alongside the thoughts and successful actions of
waking life (575/663). The differences are that existential psycho
analysis aims finally at the discovery of 'a choice and not a state'
(573/661), takes symbolizations to be of one's original project,
and repudiates mechanical causality at all levels (572-3/660-1)
as required, according to Sartre, if the subject is to be treated as
'a totality and not a collection' (568/656).
Sartre said, many years later, that in his biographical study
of Flaubert, the germs of which we find in B&N, he had wanted
'to give the idea of a whole whose surface is completely con
scious, while the rest is opaque to this consciousness and,
without being part of the unconscious, is hidden from you'.l2l
Sartre's language here - the talk of opacity, consciousness as
lying at the surface, hidden contents - is so redolent of Freud
that it may be asked whether Sartre 'Y"as right to oppose his way
of thinking in B&N so sharply to Freudian metapsychology, as
we saw him do in 25.122 Is the difference at the end of the day
between Freud's unconscious and the deep constitution of the
subject brought to light in existential psychoanalysis really so
great? Could the differences of the two conceptions perhaps be
merely terminological?
The answer is that from the point of view of common sense,
it is natural that Sartre and Freud should appear so close, since
both depart greatly from ordinary psychology, and in some
similarly revisionary ways. But their philosophical difference is
irreducible. Sartre's deepest complaint against psychoanalytic
theory is that it fails to consider how what it calls the uncon
scious is presented in the perspective of consciousness. This is not
the incoherent demand that it should present the unconscious
as consciousness, but the reasonable demand that it should
explain to us how we should think of ourselves as being related
to our ' Ucs.' some answer is needed to the question: What is
this Ucs. for m e? To the extent that Freud has an answer to this
question, it is that I should think of my Ucs. through natural
istic lenses and thus in the same way that the Other would view
my 'mental states'. Sartre has a different answer to the ques
tion. His image of an opaque whole presented to consciousness
is the same as that which he employed in The Transcendence of
the Ego in explaining his theory of the ego as transcendent,1 23
which has developed into B&N's theory of the Psyche. What
Sartre offers, therefore, is a way of thinking about the 'contents
of my unconscious' which makes it intelligible that those 'con
tents' are me.
This account resolves Freud's problem of explaining how
unconscious mental states are possible, by giving my 'uncon
scious' the same status as my states and qualities. And the
further, ethical importance of this is of course that Sartre's
existential reconceptualization of psychoanalysis forbids me
thinking of my 'unconscious' as something behind my back
that expresses itself in a force-like manner through the medium
of my consciousness: it says instead that my 'unconscious' is
mine only in so far as I freely take it up.
41 Doing, having, and being
[Part Four, Chapter 2, Section I I]
The material and formal objects of desires as we find them
are diverse: I can desire this apple or that person, to write a
novel or to go for a walk, to acquire knowledge or uncover an
explanation, to be a world leader or a waiter, and so on. Sartre's
metaphysics implies, however, that the human subj ect's over
arching desire is to be in-itself-for-itself (38). What needs to be
shown therefore - again, in order to protect Sartre's metaphys
ics from a posteriori refutation - is that Sartre's motivational
monism can be squared with the multiplicity of kinds of
desire attributed in commonsense psychology. Sartre argues
accordingly, in the section 'Doing and Having: Possession', as
(1) 575-6/663-4: All desires can be resolved into three funda
mental types, viz. desires to do or make (jaire), to have (avoir)
and to be (etre).
(2) 576-85/664-75: Desires to do or to make, Sartre argues,
become intelligible only when the subject's relation to what is
done or made is factored into the object of desire (576-7/665-6).
The relation in question is always, Sartre claims, an instance
of avoir
I seek to have-as-mine the products and upshots
of my doing, or the doings themselves. This schema applies
also to epistemic desires - knowledge appropriates its object
(577-80/666-9). Play, which in its pure form at any rate involves
no avoir, must be understood, ,S artre suggests, with Schiller
in mind, as directed to etre, namely to my being as absolute
freedom (580-11669-70). Faire-desires can be reduced there
fore directly and without remainder either to avoir-desires or
to etre-desires.
(3) 586-97/675 -88: The meaning of 'possession', of the rela
tion in which I stand to objects that I have or are mine, consists,
Sartre argues, of an 'internal, ontological bond' which real
izes - though only in a symbolic manner and at the ideal level
of the meaning symbolized - the value 'being-in-itself-for-it
self': to desire to have 0 is to desire that I-be-united-with- O,
and this unity 'possessor-possessed' involves a superimposition
of in-itself and for-itself features corresponding exactly to a
for-itself-as-Self 0 is on the one hand an 'emanation' and on
the other hand wholly independent of me (590-2/680 -2). Put
another way, the structure 'possessor-possession-possessed'
is a conceptual image of what the human subj ect would be
if it conformed to a subject-predicate metaphysics: my hav
ing or ownership of objects mirrors the having or owning of
'psychological states' which results from the degradation of
consciousness to the Psyche; by possessing things, I become,
symbolically, a being which exists substantially, as its own
foundation, i.e. as God. Avoir-desires are reducible therefore
to etre-desires, in the sense that the former are a form of etre
desire in which the circuit of selfness is established by way of a
detour through the world (598-9/689). Sartre adds that - since
the for-itself exists in and through the world - desires to be are
necessarily accompanied by desires to have (599/689), i.e. that
etre implicates avoir instrumentally.
ttre is therefore the fundamental and final formal obj ect
of human desire. The results of Sartre's analysis supply rules
for the interpretation of concrete individuals, and provide
thereby 'the first principles of existential psychoanalysis'
It is essential for a correct appreciation of Sartre's analysis,
that the category of being should be understood in Sartre's
terms, not those of commonsense psychology, since the notion
that all desire aims at being is in ordinary terms obviously either
false or unintelligible. We tend ordinarily to conceive desires in
general as elaborations and conceptual embellishments of the
rudimentary case of object-directed, need-motivated desire, the
object and psychological state standing in causal reciprocity the apple activates a disposition in me, which causes me to eat
it. Desires where the desiring subject is included within the con
tent or object of the desire, reflexive desires, are regarded as
conceptually secondary, a special case. Sartre, who considers
that desires as we merely find them empirically lack full intel
ligibility (34), reverses this order, making reflexivity primary
and essential to desire, by making it part of the transcenden
tal explanation of why there is such a thing as desire (24). The
force of Sartre's discussion in Section II is thus to challenge the
adequacy of our ordinary understanding of why we desire and
of what it is to desire.
42 The existential symbolism of things: quality
[Part Four, Chapter 2, Section I I I]
Sartre's account of how existential psychoanalysis lays bare the
individual's version of the fundamental project of being-for
itself, and more specifically his theory of possession, introduce
symbolism as a structure of human reality. Sartre regards the
symbols in question as 'undecipherable by the subject him
self' without recourse to existential psychoanalysis (595/685).
The pseudo-failure of self-knowledge on the part of the subject
which this implies - my ignorance of the ontological mean
ings carried by my own concrete projects - is accounted for by
Sartre not of course in terms of the unconscious, but in terms
of the distinctions of knowledge from consciousness, and of
reflective from pre-reflective consciousness.
The final section of Part Four adds a further layer to Sartre's
theory of symbolism: things, too, carry 'ontological meaning'
(599/690) and constitute an 'existential symbolism' (603/694)
which is formal and a priori (606/697).
Following the example of Gaston Bachelard, Sartre gives a
set of particular analyses - of snow, water, sliminess or vis
cosity (Ie visqueux), and holes - which explain why the topic
of Section III is brought under the heading of 'quality', qu al
ite. The phenomena on which Sartre focuses are constituted,
not by the primary or secondary qualities of material objects,
but by a certain kind of phenomenal aspect pregnant with
an immediate, non-discursive, affective significance - holes
are existentially symbolic by virtue of their gapingness, their
demanding-to-be-filled, etc.
Unlike the symbolic objects of desires, qualites are not
objects of choice or ends of a project, and so are not necessarily
symbolic realizations of being-in-itself-for-itself or disguised
wish-fulfilments. Rather they incarnate in an intuitive, sensory
form various possibilities regarding the relation of the for-it
self to the in-itself - the slimy, for example, is a concretion of
what it would be for being-for-itself to undergo absorption by
the in-itself, a mode of being the meaning of which would be
'Antivalue' (61 11703). Sartre acknowledges the close connection
of qualites with children's consciousness (61 21703-4), sexuality
(613-141705-6) and the human body (see 400-2/470-2, regard
ing grace and obscenity). Qualites occupy roughly the same
ontological niche (see 606 -7/698) as the transcendent emotional
qualities and 'needing-to-be-caught' of the tram discussed
earlier (12) - they owe their existence to the subject's tran
scendence, while being in no way either contents of subjectivity
or 'projections' thereof (604-5/695 -77) - but they differ in so
far as they are 'universal' (605/697), that is, independent from
the particular project of any individual for-itself.
The import of this final addition to the full ontology is to
account for the aesthetic dimension of the world - Sartre refers
explicitly to an individual's taste, i.e. their particular affective
relations to the qualites of things, as being under discussion
(6141706) - and to do so moreover in a way which shows the
aesthetic to be rooted metaphysically in the nature of the world
and human SUbjectivity.
43 Pure reflection and radical conversion
Sartre's conception of existential psychoanalysis may, in prin
ciple, allow the human subject to be made finally intelligible,
but it does not offer itself as a form of treatment - it provides
a basis for biographical study, not therapeutic practice. The
reason for this is that in existential psychoanalysis, even when
self-applied, the subject is apprehended 'from the point of view
of the Other', thus as an 'object' having 'objective existence'
rather than existence for-itself (571/659), and so not in the mode
of freedom, as would be required for a modification of the
subject's projects. The subject-transforming role of Freudian
psychoanalysis is occupied in Sartre's system by his concep
tions of 'pure reflection' and 'radical conversion'.
As we saw in 24, reflection defaults to the type which Sartre
calls 'impure' or 'accessory' (155/201). Pure reflection by con
trast consists in 'the simple presence of the reflective for-itself
to the for-itself reflected-on': it abstains from any hypostatiza
tion of consciousness and constituting of the Psyche (155/201).
Though it is the 'foundation' of impure reflection, in the sense
of being the 'original form' of reflection presupposed by it
(155/201), pure reflection is never 'given first in daily life' and
can be attained 'only as the result of a modification which it
effects on itself and which is in the form of a katharsis' (15960/206-7). Pure reflection would apprehend being-for-itself
directly as lack (199/249), as being-for, etre-pour (160/207), and
in original, 'non-substantial' temporality rather than psychic
temporality (158/204). 1 24
Sartre defers to another place consideration of 'the motiv
ation and the structure' of pure reflection (160/207), and
although at 1 50-81197-205 Sartre describes reflection in
its original metaphysical form (see 1 5), very little is said in
B&N about what it is to recover purity of reflection after it
has made itself impure. Sartre does however talk about an
event which he calls 'radical conversion', conversion radicale
(464/542, 475-6/554-5), and which appears to correspond to
what results when pure reflection is sustained and realized,
breaking the hold of bad faith: radical conversion involves my
making, in anguish, 'another choice of myself and my ends'
(4641542), the collapse and metamorphosis of my original pro
ject in an 'extraordinary and marvellous' instant (4761555). At
70nl1 1 1n Sartre talks of a 'recovery of being', reprise de l' etre,
and of a de-corruption of consciousness, as radically escap
ing bad faith. Sartre here calls this condition 'authenticity',
authenticite (elsewhere criticizing Heidegger's understanding
of authenticity, 531/614, 564/651), and at 412n/484n radical con
version is linked explicitly with ethicsPS
Under-described though it may be, the systematic importance
of Sartre's conception of a purified self-relation is therefore very
great. Sartre's concept of the for-itselfs fundamental project as
directed towards an impossible fusion of being-for-itself with
being-in-itself recalls Hume and Schopenhauer. If that project
supplies the outer boundary and ultimate condition for all
motivation, then reason is the slave, if not of mUltiple empirical
passions, then at least of a single, overarching, a priori meta
physical passion. And Sartre shares with Schopenhauer the
idea that reason is an instrument of a will which is 'blind', since,
in so far as the telos of the for-itself's passion is metaphysically
incoherent, the for-itself is heading nowhere in pursuing it. But
Sartre's affirmation of the possibility of pure reflection shows
that he also thinks - against Hume, but with Schopenhauer that this situation can be changed, and that the human subject
can in principle overcome its 'useless passion' (61 51708), and
that when it does so, it will gain an ethical orientation.
44 Ethics [Conclusjon, Section I I]
A full account of pure (or 'purifying') reflection belongs, Sartre
says, to an 'Ethics' (5811670). Sartre was no doubt tempted to
follow the design of Spinoza's work even further than he does
already in B&N, by incorporating within it an ethical system.
However, Sartre's statements about ethics in B&N are restricted
in number and detail - aside from the two or so pages which
comprise Section II of the Conclusion, we find only a passage
on the exclusion of 'ethical anguish' by 'everyday' morality
(38175-6), a short discussion of whether the Good falls under
the category of 'being' or of 'doing' (431 1507), and miscellan
eous scattered remarks (see 80/122, 92/136, 94/138, 409-10/480,
441/517, 444/520, 553/638, 564/651). In the concluding sentence
of B&N, the problem of an ethics is deferred to a 'future work'
It is important nonetheless to broach the question of B&N's
relation to ethics, since Sartre does affirm that it is possible
to derive an ethics from the work, and also because the claim
has been made, as noted previously, that the practical out
look which follows unavoidably from B&N is an unqualified
axiological subjectivism properly indistinguishable from nihil
ism, and if this were true, then Sartre's philosophical position
in B&N would be severely problematic. (To cite one example
of the characterization of Sartre as affirming that everything
without exception is permitted: Marcel claimed that Sartre's
doctrine of the 'creation of values' is of a kind with Nietzsche's,
adding that Nietzsche's position is 'less untenable' because he
at least bids farewell, as Sartre does not, to the issue of rational
foundations.126)
Sartre's statements about ethics in B&N need to be read with
care, and the suggestion which they have been taken to make of
radical subjectivism is abetted by the misreading, noted previ
ously (36), of Sartre's theory of ontological freedom as a theory
of freedom in all senses - which would indeed imply, given the
omnipresence of freedom in the for-itself, that the Good is real
ized in whatever project the for-itself may choose. I argued,
however, that the freedom which B&N attempts to put in focus
is buried so deep that it can have no immediate connection
with any moral-political doctrine - on its own it implies, for
example, neither emancipatory politics nor a theory of individ
ual rights. Another stage of philosophical reflection is required
before any such implications can be extracted.
In pursuing the question of what ethics B&N may or may
not support once this further stage has been added, we can
not only extrapolate from the text but also legitimately take
into consideration two later writings, the very short 1946 lec
ture Existentialism and Humanism, and the posthumously
published Notebooks/or an Ethics from 1 947-48 and Truth and
Existence from 1948. In addition there is the option of taking
into account a work of Beauvoir's from the same period, The
Ethics 0/ Ambiguity (1947), as a source of suggestion regard
ing (though not of course as a statement of) Sartre's ethical
The account of value examined in 17 shows that, in one
important sense, the description of Sartre as a subjectivist
could not be wider of the mark - to the contrary, Sartre's meta
physics of value is better described as a kind of Kantianised
Platonism: value exists as a transcendent object of conscious
ness, and not only is its existence metaphysically necessary in
relation to human subjectivity (value is made to be by the same
unconditioned freedom which makes me exist, 94/138), but its
necessity derives in the final instance from an extra-subjective
ground, namely the in-itself's attempt to found itself.
The real point of the subjectivism charge, however, is of
course to assert that Sartre is unable to set any restrictions on
the for-itself's choice of determinate values. But this too must
be disputed.
The key to ethics, the Conclusion tells us, is provided by the
notion of a freedom which takes itself as a value or end, which
wills and affirms and is conscious of itself (627-8/722). As it is
put in Existentialism and Humanism: '1 declare that freedom
[. . .] can have no other end and aim but itself; and when a man has
seen that values depend upon himself [. . .] he can will only one
thing, and that is freedom as the foundation of all values.'127 This
is of course a highly Kantian notion, and the Existentialism and
Humanism lecture invokes in a deliberate and thorough manner
central concepts of Kant's ethics - morality has variable content
but a universal form, the act of lying 'implies the universal value
which it denies', 1 must consider my actions as if humanity were
to regulate itself by what 1 do, '1 cannot not will the freedom of
others', we are obliged to pursue the collective realization of free
dom, as per Kant's kingdom of ends and so on.128
Sartre's relation to Kant in this text is unstraightforward,
however. While taking pains to echo the various formulae of
Kant's categorical imperative, Sartre rejects Kant's view that
moral judgement consists in the subsumption of individual
cases under universal moral principles, arguing that concrete
particularity is ineliminable from ethical thinking. The impres
sion given is that Sartre wishes to uphold the spirit of Kant's
ethical theory while abjuring much of its letter.
Though it is not clear in Existentialism and Humanism how
action is to be determined at a concrete level, what is clear is
that Sartre believes the ethical implications of B&N to be no
weaker than those of Kant's metaphysics of morals and no
less inconsistent with an arbitrary subjectivism. Sartre may be
mistaken in supposing that practical judgement can dispense
with Kant's apparatus of universal principles, but the more
fundamental question to be considered here is whether he is
justified in thinking that the basic standpoint of Kantian moral
agency - that is, a concern that one's reasons for action meet
the condition of objectivity, taken to entail a trans-individual,
impersonal commitment to the freedom of all rational agents can be secured on the basis of B&N. Since Sartre does not refer
to Kant's analysis of practical reason, how can he hope to show
that 1 must conceive myself as choosing and 'responsible for all
men' and for 'mankind as a whole',m and accordingly constrain
my projects in accordance with the freedom of Others?
Sartre may be regarded as proceeding once again by elimin
ation, and in a broadly Kantian fashion:
1. We begin by assuming a for-itself that has achieved pure
reflection and undergone radical conversion, at least to the
degree that it no longer takes its concrete projects as self
validating. This is the perfectionist precondition of Sartre's
ethics. With the application of existential psychoanalysis, or
through equivalent insight into human motivation available
to the ordinary non-philosophical subject, it will appear fur
thermore that all human activities, in so far as they manifest
being-for-itselfs fundamental project of becoming God, are
'equivalent' and 'doomed to failure', and to that extent it will
be thought that 'it amounts to the same thing whether one gets
drunk alone or is a leader of nations' (6271721).
One option might then seem to be Schopenhauer's ideal of
resignation, but this is excluded by Sartre's metaphysics of the
for-itself: if the being of the for-itself is the being of a project,
then only death can release the subject from the pull of tele
ology, by extinguishing its freedom. The subject thus confronts
the task of determining its reasons for action - of answering
the question, How should I act? - on a basis consistent with the
metaphysics of B&N.
2. These metaphysics entail directly the rejection of all
(Platonistic, Aristotelian, theological or in other ways
metaphysically realist) grounds for value, and also, more
interestingly, the rejection of any theory which requires or
even permits us to experience value in the mode of being-in
itself (see 38-9175-7). Sartre's critique extends accordingly to
some forms of humanism,t30 and indeed to theories that base
the Good on freedom but conceive freedom in non-Sartrean
terms.l3l
3. Equally excluded (6261720) - by Sartre's critique of the
'psychic' conception of the subject (24) - is the option of
treating value as a function of affective SUbjective states: utili
tarianism, sentimentalist (e.g. Humean) conceptions of value,
and any position which (like Nietzsche's, on some accounts)
grounds judgements of value on the same broad kind of subject
ive states as underlie aesthetic judgements, are undermined by
Sartre's account of the permeation of 'the psychic' by freedom;
consciousness cannot fill itself with desire or become a pleni
tude of passion in the way that these positions require.
4. Egoism, as a principle of practical reason, is undermined
from several directions: my inclinations are, as psychic facts,
motivationally weightless; there is no substantial ego that would
rationalize egoism metaphysically by supplying an object for
the sake of which I should act; and in the absence of any intrin
sic empirical or metaphysical differences of my being from the
Other's being, no justification remains for privileging my inter
est over that of the Other.132 The plane of reflection which B&N
forces us to occupy is 'beyond egoism and altruism' (626/720).
5. With the motivational slate wiped fully clean, and the asym
metry of self and Other removed, freedom is all that remains as
a candidate for a value. And given the necessity of valuation - I
must affirm some value, and this value cannot be relative to
my particular self - the affirmation of freedom per se, and not
merely of my freedom, follows necessarily. It does so not only
by default - as it were, for want of anything better - but also
because of the intrinsic appropriateness of its occupying a fun
damental axiological role: freedom is all that being-for-itself
is, and freedom is the end-directedness in the light of which
questions of value arise, the very ontological stuff of action. On
Sartre's account, therefore, no further reason for placing value
on freedom is owing - freedom is, as we have seen (36-38),
anterior to all reasons, and it will be grasped immediately and
non-inferentially as a value by any agent that has purified fully
its phenomenological vision. For Sartre, just as no argument
for other minds can be given, no discursive persuasion into the
ethical domain is either possible or necessary: the sheer imme
diacy of B&N's ethical implications obviates the need for a
further, separate argumentative exposition and defence of the
ethical (a point which goes towards explaining why B&N has
been misinterpreted as ethically indifferent).
6. The final move which Sartre must make - to the possibil
ity of my actually affirming the freedom of a concrete Other
in a concrete situation - requires that I be able to relate to the
Other non-conj7ictually. As we saw in 39, though B&N gives
the impression that conflict is the final form of intersubjectiv
ity, the logic of Sartre's position entails that, so long as I have
renounced the fundamental project of becoming God, there is
a possibility that I will be able to relate to the Other-as-subject
without attempting their objectification - the purified for-itself
can, in principle, remain conscious of the intersubjectively con
stituted quasi-being-in-itself of the Other, without reducing the
Other to it.
This is of course only a rough sketch, in need of develop
ment, and in Sartre's post-B&N ethical writings (and Beauvoir's
The Ethics of Ambiguity) a further goal, that of the disclosure
or revealing of being, Ie devoilement d' etre, becomes central to
the rationale for affirming freedom and hence ethics. It is also
a further matter how, and whether, Sartre can advance from
the necessity that I should will the freedom of the Other, to the
stronger claim that my freedom presupposes the freedom of the
Other - a line of thought developed in the Notebooksfor an Ethics,
and emphasized by Beauvoir in The Ethics of Ambiguity.133
45 Salvation
Assuming that it is correct to read Sartre as a kind of Kantian who treats freedom as both the foundation of ethics and the
end which properly determines how I should act in regard to
the Other - a further question comes into view, elicited by
Sartre's description of the normative outlook prepared for in
B&N as 'an ethics of deliverance and salvation', une morale de
la delivrance et du salut (41 2n/484n).
The religious terminology is used by Sartre without irony, to
signal his claim that the philosophy of B&N has implications
which lie on the same plane as religious doctrine, and further
more that it entails at least the possibility of man's realizing
his good. The latter claim may seem especially surprising in
view of all that has been said in B&N regarding the metaphys
ical hopelessness of the fundamental project of the for-itself:
even if radical conversion is possible, and engenders ethical
constraints, in what way does B&N restore intrinsic value to
human existence? In what sense is the apparently tragic char
acter of Sartre's vision of the human situation either overcome
or supplemented by a promise of redemption? Is the for-itself's
affirmation of freedom really enough to count as its salvation?
It is helpful to contrast two views of what is grasped, and of
what is involved axiologically, when our freedom affirms itself.
The one view, which tends to be emphasized in Beauvoir's
The Ethics of Ambiguity, is that the moment of freedom's self
affirmation is one of rational enlightenment. Beauvoir suggests
that when we pass from the naivety of common sense's value
realism and its (theistic, etc.) metaphysical counterparts to
an existentialist ethics, we are liberated from a mistake we
achieve a correct understanding of what values are, and cease
to be in the grip of a false picture according to which values
can be objective only if they are God-ordained or in some
other way written into the fabric of being-in-itself.134 On this
view, B&N offers a familiar kind of Kantian Enlightenment
critique and therapy, allowing us to embrace our existence
in a new spirit of sober self-awareness and maturity, without
any experience of fundamental loss. The tragic quality which
human existence seemed to have when apprehended through
Sartrean lenses is then only an appearance, and the sense in
which human existence is either in need of or susceptible to 'sal
vation' is correspondingly thin: on this account, what needs to
be appreciated is that we already have everything that we need
axiologically, since the only sense in which the existence of a
human subject could intelligibly have value is by representing
itself as valuable on account of its freedom and by determin
ing itself on that basis; our inalienable autonomy is itself, we
should realize, all that there is or could be to salvation. On this
view, then, it is as if we had resolved a conceptual confusion
which has been responsible for our playing a game the rules
of which ensured that we could not win, leaving us free to now
embark on a new game, one which in principle we can win.
The alternative view, which has a stronger claim to being
Sartre's, makes sense of the talk of salvation and deliverance,
but is less straightforward. The view offered by Beauvoir
can certainly be read out of Sartre, but it involves sidelining
Sartre's insistence on the abortive character of the teleology
which defines human existence. On Sartre's own account, the
tragic quality of human existence, the reality of its axiologi
cal deficit, is presupposed and not cancelled out by the moment
of salvation. The value which can be realized through affirm
ation of our freedom is always in compensation for our original
metaphysical loss, a kind of axiological second-best which we
embrace under metaphysical duress. It nevertheless possesses
some positive value: the fact that we can hold in check the
abortive teleology which gives rise to being-for-itself, and then
introduce into being a different, intelligible telos, namely our
freedom, amounts to a kind of salvation.
These two views imply different ways of experiencing our
freedom. Beauvoir implies that affirming freedom is a fulfil
ment. Sartre's view is that consciousness of our metaphysical
failure can never be eliminated,135 for which reason the freedom
which we affirm is something to which we must also think of
ourselves as being condemned. 1 36
It should be noted how the two views are related once again to
the two metaphilosophical standpoints distinguished in 13. If
the standpoint of B&N is properly Copernican, then Beauvoir's
account of Sartre's position is correct. Sartre's tragic view pre
supposes instead that we can take up a standpoint which is not
merely that of a human subject: if it does not make sense to
consider the existence of human subjectivity, in abstraction
from its perspective on itself, as either of positive or of negative
value, then there is no sense in the idea that man's very exist
ence is absurd. The tragic view demands, therefore, that sense
be attached to the idea that it would, in some sense, have been
better if we had been capable of becoming God, and Sartre
seems to be prepared to defend this thought. Sartre's thinking
seems to be that the metaphysically correct and complete way
to relate to the Good is to be the Good, to incarnate Value, and
that this is something which only God can do; we can relate to
the Good only in the inferior mode of positing values. (If God
existed, then his freedom would be the Good; there would be no
need for him to affirm his freedom, as we need to do.)
Sartre's Willingness to entertain a trans-Copernican, non
perspectival conception of value is reflected in his talk of
the 'disclosure of being' as a rationale for affirming freedom.
Beauvoir's reading of Sartre's position is more straightfor
wardly optimistic and humanistic. Sartre's tragic view contains
an inverted theological residue.
1. What distinguishes Sartre's treatment of the concept of
human freedom? To what extent does Sartre's theory of free
dom improve on other theories?
2. Does Sartre defend adequately his claims that I make an
'original choice of myself and that I am 'responsible for the
world'?
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Sartre's account
of human motivation?
4. What ethical outlook, if any, is implied by the metaphysics
of B&N?
46 The unity of being as a 'detotalised totality'
[Conclusion, Section I]
We saw in 7 that at the end of the Introduction Sartre poses the
question of the unity of being-in-itself and being-for-itself, and
in 1 1, that doubts may be entertained regarding Sartre's claim
to have provided a unified ontology. The latter are developed
at length by Merleau-Ponty, who argues that Sartre simply has
no right to a concept of being as a whole - given that nothing
ness and being in B&N 'are always absolutely other than one
another', they cannot be 'really united'.l37
In the Conclusion Sartre returns to the question of whether
or not Being, 'as a general category belonging to all existents',
is divided by a hiatus into 'two incommunicable regions, in
each of which the notion of Being must be taken in an original
and unique sense' (617171 1). Sartre declares that our research
in the course of the book allows us to answer the question of
how the two regions are related to one another: 'the For-Itself
and the In-itself are reunited by a synthetic connection which
is nothing other than the For-itself itself (617171 1). This rela
tion has the character of 'a tiny nihilation which has its origin
at the heart of Being', a nihilation 'made-to-be by the in-itself
'sufficient to cause a total upheaval to happen to the In-itself.
This upheaval is the world' (617-18171 1-12).
This provides a sense in which being forms a whole: being
for-itself and being-in-itself are really united, and not without
communication, in so far as (i) being-for-itself is related to
being-in-itself as the latter's nihilation, (ii) being-in-itself con
tains the origin of this nihilation. The unity of being as a whole
is thereby grasped, as it needs to be in order for Wahl and
Merleau-Ponty's objection to be met, from both sides.
Sartre acknowledges that this account immediately gives rise
to a 'metaphysical problem which could be formulated thus:
Why does the for-itself arise from being (a partir de l' etre)?'
(619171 3). What is the ground in Being of the nihilation in which
the for-itself consists?
Sartre's discussion of this question (619-251713-24) con
sists of a critique of some attempts to answer it, alongside an
account of why, in fact, we should suppose that the question
does not need to be answered. The key to Sartre's argument
is a distinction which he formulates, implied in the quotation
above, between ontology and metaphysics, Sartre's claim being
that metaphysical questions are, if not empty, then at least
philosophically secondary.
What distinguishes metaphysics from ontology? Sartre
writes: 'We in fact apply the term "metaphysical" to the study
of individual processes which have given birth to this world as
a concrete and particular totality. In this sense metaphysics is
to ontology as history is to sociology' (6191713). As he puts it
slightly later, ontology is concerned with 'structures of a being',
and metaphysics with 'events' (6201714), though obviously not
in a strictly temporal sense; since 'temporality comes into being
through the for-itself, historical becoming is not what is at
issue in metaphysics (62117 1 5; note also the differently drawn
distinction of ontology and metaphysics at 297/358-9).
Sartre's somewhat unclear official distinction of ontology and
metaphysics is less important than his attempt to show that a
line should be drawn under the question of why the upsurge of
the for-itself takes place. Sartre establishes that there is only one
candidate for an answer to this question, which we have met with
already in 16 and 17: namely that being-in-itself gives rise to
being-for-itself in order to rid itself of contingency, thus to 'found
itself, to become God or cause-of-itself. Moreover, Sartre argues,
it is only 'by making itself for-itself that being can aspire to be
the cause of itself: 'if the in-itself were to found itself, it could
attempt to do so only by making itself consciousness' (6201714).
The in-itselfs motive of seeking to rid itself of contingency
provides a necessary and sufficient condition for the emergence
of the for-itself. The implications of this account run, however,
directly contrary to fundamental Sartrean tenets. First, if the
'synthetic connection' of being-for-itself with being-in-itself 'is
nothing other than the For-itself itself, then the for-itselfis thus
'both one of the terms of the relation' obtaining between the
two regions of Being 'and the relation itself (6241719). To say
this is on the face of it much the same as to say that the for-itself
is the self-relation of the in-itself, the way in which the in-itself
relates to itself. But on Sartre's account this is impossible, since
the identity which prevails in the in-itself is so absolute as to
preclude any trace of reflexivity (6).
Second, and in any case, the in-itselfs generation of the
for-itself has been conceived as a purposive project, and the
attribution of a project to the in-itself contradicts of course
Sartre's conception of being-in-itself. So:
ontology here comes up against a profound contradic
tion since it is through the for-itself that the possibility of
a foundation comes to the world. In order to be a project
of founding itself, the in-itself would of necessity have to be
originally a presence to itself, i.e., it would have to be already
consciousness. (620-117 1 5)
This is why, having articulated the only possible condition
under which the advent of the for-itself can be explained - and
also the only possible basis on which we can conceive being
as comprising a genuinely unified whole - Sartre refuses to
affirm the antecedent. Sartre says that ontology 'will therefore
limit itself to declaring that everything takes place as if the in
itself, in a project to found itself, gave itself the modification of
the for-itself (6211715).
But what is the force of the 'as if in this statement? One might
have expected Sartre to declare that metaphysical enquiry
into the origin of the for-itself is impossible, since, on his own
account, there is only one possible answer to the question, and
that answer is a 'profound contradiction' of what he holds to be
a solid, unrevisable result of ontological enquiry, viz. the non
consciousness of the in-itself. What he in fact does is to grant
that there is indeed a further task of metaphysical enquiry, while
at the same time implying its limited worth if not futility:
It is up to metaphysics to form the hypotheses which will
allow us to conceive of this process [i.e. the upsurge of the
For-itself] as the absolute event [. . .J It goes without saying
that these hypotheses will remain hypotheses since we can
not expect either further validation or invalidation. What
will make their validity is only the possibility which they will
offer us of unifying the givens of ontology [. . .J But metaphys
ics must nevertheless attempt to determine the nature and the
meaning of this prehistoric process [. . .J In particular the task
belongs to the metaphysician of deciding whether the move
ment is or is not a first 'attempt' on the part of the in-itself to
found itself [. . .J (62117 1 5)
The remainder of Section I reconsiders the question of the
unity of being, our situation with regard to which, Sartre says,
is as follows. In order to give sense to the concept of being in
general, there must be a concept of the totality of being, and the
concept of totality is that of a whole whose parts cannot exist
independently of one another or of the whole, i.e. whose parts
are all internally related. Thus, Sartre continues, to conceive
being as a totality is equivalent to conceiving it as an 'ens causa
sui' (6221717), and this conception is of course unacceptable
to Sartre, not only because for him the very concept of self
cause is contradictory ('impossible', 62217 17) but also because,
if being is conceived as a totality which includes being-for-itself
and being-in-itself, then the in-itself is ontologically dependent
on the for-itself: 'the in-itself would receive its existence from
the nihilation which caused there to be consciousness of it'
(6221716). The totality of being would then be an 'ideal being',
with 'the in-itself founded by the for-itself and identical with
the for-itself which founds it' (6231717), contradicting Sartre's
claim that while consciousness is bound to the in-itself, the in
itself is in no way dependent on the for-itself.
The totality of being must be conceived therefore, Sartre
proposes next, as a 'detotalised totality', and he offers vari
ous formulae and analogies to explain this idea. A 'detotalised
totality' is the form which results from the destruction of a
totality, where the destruction is incomplete and extends not to
the existence of its components but only to their inter-relation,
the partial destruction, therefore, of a form rather than of its
contents. Sartre calls it 'a decapitated notion, in perpetual dis
integration', a 'disintegrated ensemble' (6231718) and so on.
The contradiction which dwells according to Sartre in the
concept of self-cause is not avoided by this move, however, since
something can be conceived as a detotalized totality only if the
original totality from which it is supposed to have proceeded
is at least genuinely conceivable, which requires that it be free
from contradiction. Sartre backs off from the paradoxical
claim that being is thinkable only in terms of a contradictory
concept by using, as before, the formula 'as if', comme si, in for
mulating his claims:
Everything happens as if the world, man, and man-in-the
world succeeded in realising only a missing God. Everything
happens as if the in-itself and the for-itself presented them
selves in a state of disintegration in relation to an ideal
synthesis. (6231717)
Sartre closes the discussion by reinvoking the ontology/met
aphysics distinction, reminding us that the question of totality
'does not belong to the province of ontology' and suggesting
that it is a matter of indifference whether we think of being as 'a
well marked duality or as a disintegrated being' (6241719)
Sartre has told us, however, that the dualist conception is
untenable, which leaves detotalized totality as the only con
cept which we can employ. Yet this concept is contradictory. It
appears that something has to give, and in 48 we will consider
what Sartre's options are.
47 God
Clearly, the interlocked problems of the origin of the for-itself
and of being as a whole, and the task of the metaphysician just
described, lead naturally in the direction of theology. So it is
appropriate at this point to take stock of the discussion of God
in B&N, and to clarify Sartre's atheism.
B&N gives an account of how the idea of God is formed, the
implication of which is that religious belief hypostatizes a con
cept whose proper reference is humanity itself in an idealized
form (90/133-4, 566/655-6; see 17, and 423/495 on humanity
and God as reciprocal and correlative limiting-concepts).
This kind of Feuerbachian or Left Hegelian strategy does
not, however, amount to a direct theoretical argument against
God's existence, but B&N may be regarded as offering elsewhere
two such arguments. The first, which concerns the impossibil
ity of a causa sui or necessarily existing being (80 -1/123), rests
on assumptions which will be rejected by traditional theists as
tendentious. The second, more interesting and original argu
ment attempts to show that the concept of God is that of an
'in-itself-for-itself' (see 90/133), and that since in light of the
basic ontology this is impossible, 'the idea of God is contradic
tory' (61 51708).
Whatever the force of these arguments, it is important to see
that considerations of such a sort are not what sustain Sartre's
atheism at a fundamental level. Sartre's atheism is not arrived
at through arguments concerning metaphysical explanation,
but rests on a claim of the same order as Jacobi's assertion that
the being of God is intuited directly, but with an exactly oppos
ite content. In a late interview Sartre asserted that the atheism
of B&N is not an 'idealist atheism', i.e. one which merely expels
the idea of God from the world and replaces it with the idea of
his absence, but a 'materialist atheism': Sartre describes him
self as having realized that the 'absence of God could be read
everywhere. Things were alone, and above all man was alone.
Was alone like an absolute.'138 This revelation harks back to the
tree root passage in Nausea: 'Absurdity was not an idea in my
head, or the sound of a voice, but that long dead snake at my
feet [ . .J all that I was able to grasp afterwards comes down to
this fundamental absurdity [ .J I should like to establish the
absolute character of this absurdity.'139
There are then, for Sartre, two basic revelatory experiences with
positive content: of the absoluteness of man, and of the 'absurd'
character of being-in-itself. Neither is directly and explicitly an
intuition of the absence of God. Each is nonetheless incompatible
with the existence of God qua creator of man and his world: if man
is revealed as something that (i) cannot be surpassed and (ii) can
not stand in any intelligible relation to a transcendent Good,140
and if being-in-itself expresses (i) its own brute un-designedness
and (ii) its unconditional indifference to man, then, even if a sub
stantial causa sui, or a being-in-itself-for-itself, might exist, it can
have no thinkable relation to us or our world.
God's absence from the world is therefore not like that of
Pierre from the cafe. This is important, for if that were Sartre's
claim, then it could be argued - in application of Sartre's own
principles - that the presence to my consciousness of God's
absence is a mode of consciousness of Him, i.e. a negative the
ology could be developed on the basis of B&N.141 But Sartre
leaves no God-shaped hole in the world through which God
may be held to appear. The purpose of Sartre's multitudinous
references to God in B&N is to show how any relation of man to
God would destroy freedom, intersubjectivity and all the struc
tures of human reality, i.e. that man's situation in the world
positively repugns the existence of the God of theism or deism
(see e.g. 232/278-8, regarding Leibniz's theistic solution to the
problem of the Other).142
48 Beyond Sartre's metaphysics?
The importance of the distinction drawn in 13 between the per
spectival and aperspectival or absolute standpoints has shown
itself at several points in B&N. Some contexts seem to demand
one of these standpoints rather than the other, in others the two
standpoints coincide intelligibly, and on some occasions they
appear to be in tension. The question of which standpoint is
ultimately Sartre's - or of whether Sartre can occupy both, as
I suggested his intention to be - becomes especially salient in
the context of being as a whole, and is decisive for whether or
not we accept Sartre's claim that B&N achieves metaphysical
closure.
As we saw in 46, the problem of the unity or totality of
being and of the origin of the for-itself creates acute difficulty
for Sartre: it needs to be resolved, but for all that we are able
to discern, its only possible resolution involves a contradiction.
Sartre is driven thereby to improvise a distinction of ontology
from metaphysics, and to equivocation regarding the necessity
and legitimacy of the latter. It needs to be considered what is
responsible for Sartre's predicament, and what might allow
him to escape it.
There is one way in which, it may seem, Sartre could have
brought matters to a consistent and unequivocal conclusion,
and some hints of this line of thinking can be detected, we saw
in 46, in the Conclusion. Namely, the position could have been
taken that all questions which cannot be answered in terms of
the contents and purposes of the human point of view can and
should be dismissed, and so that enquiry into and speculation
about the ground of the in-itself's generation of the for-itself
must be regarded as merely the empty play of conceptual forms
without genuine content. The 'profound contradiction' which
Sartre's metaphysical reasoning brought to light would there
upon be denied all significance.
It is striking that this Copernican resolution is exactly what
we do find in Sartre's discussion in Part Three of the 'meta
physical' question of why there are Others (297-302/358-64).
Here Sartre asserts his conviction 'that any metaphysics
must conclude with a "that is", i.e. with a direct intuition of
that contingency' (297/359). He then proceeds to show that
'metaphysical' enquiry into the ground of a plurality of con
sciousness, when followed through, leads to a 'contradictory
conclusion' (3011362), and finally he explains why the metaphys
ical question regarding the totality of for-itselves which leads to
the contradiction is meaningless (302/363): namely, it assumes
that 'it is possible for us to take a point of view on the totality
[of for-itselves], that is, to consider it from outside', but in fact
this is not possible, because I myself exist only 'on the founda
tion of this totality and to the extent that I am engaged with it'
(301-2/363). (Nor can we suppose that God grasp this totality,
since for him it does not exist.)
So why does Sartre not say the same in the Conclusion?
There is a deep and clear reason of consistency why, in the
context of being as a whole, if not in that of being-for-others,
Copernicanism cannot be Sartre's final position, and a com
p11ing strategic reason why adopting Copernicanism would
weaken his position in overall terms.
To appreciate the first point, it suffices to observe that Sartre
himself has shown that the human point of view itself demands
a coherent conception of being as a whole, i.e. leads out of itself
to the absolute standpoint. In order to explicate the nothing
ness, selfhood, facticity and lack of the for-itself, Sartre found
it necessary to refer to the anthropogenetic story of the origin
of the for-itself in the in-itself. So the human standpoint cannot
be regarded as sealed off from speculation about the totality
of being.
The strategic reason goes back to remarks made in Chapter 2
about Sartre's concern to establish the reality of human
freedom against Spinoza by developing a comprehensive
account of human reality within an ontological framework.
If the basis of Sartre's ontology were Copernican, and this
were taken to foreclose questions about the unity and totality
of being, then his position would be vulnerable in an import
ant respect. On Sartre's own account, as we have seen, the
Copernican standpoint leads us to affirm the ontological pri
macy of the for-itself, and a 'profound contradiction' appears
when we attempt to understand how freedom can arise from
that which is ontologically primary; and this is more than
enough to motivate the Spinozistic-cum-eliminativist thought
that the whole edifice of so-called 'human reality' is merely a
vast illusion, i.e. that all of Sartre's theory of nothingness, free
dom, the mode of being of the for-itself, etc., is empty, there
being in reality nothing but being-in-itself.
If this is correct, then the only way forward for Sartre is
to accept and to attempt to meet the demands of the aper
spectival, absolute standpoint: Sartre must fill out and make
intelligible the origin of for-itself. Where this might lead ultim
ately is another question, but to think that it would necessarily
oblige Sartre to relinquish anything in his ontological frame
work which is of final importance for his philosophical ends,
let alone to embrace any of the 'ontologically optimistic', the
istic or Hegelian metaphysical positions to which B&N is so
implacably opposed, would be to take too narrow a view of the
options.143
1 . Is Sartre justified in his claim that the implication of B&N is
atheistic rather than merely agnostic?
2. Is the ontology of B&N complete?
Having completed a reading of B&N, it makes sense to read
Sartre's 'Consciousness of self and knowledge of self (1948),
the text of a lecture delivered to the Societe Francaise de la
Philosophie in which Sartre gives a synoptic summary of the
principal theses of B&N.
RECE PTION AN D INFLU ENCE
Given the accordance of Sartre's illusionless perspective on
human life with the devastation of the post-war world, and of
his doctrine of freedom with the mood of an age occupied with
reconstruction and reassuming responsibility for determining
its future - as well as confronting questions of accountability
for past action and inaction - it is not surprising that the phil
osophy of B&N should have been received with intense interest,
of a degree that had been enjoyed by no other French philo
sophical work since Bergson's Creative Evolution at the turn of
the century, and, indeed, that few other great works in the his
tory of philosophy have met with.
Recognition of the importance of B&N was not, however,
instantaneous - it attracted barely any attention in 1943-44 but
formed in the wake of Sartre's rise to fame after the Liberation.l44
It is hard, consequently, to disentangle the contribution of B&N
in particular to the establishing of Sartre's soaring reputation
in the post-war years, since it was only one part - the most
academic and intellectually demanding - of a rapidly growing
and internally unified body of work. Sartre's literary output in
the 1940s included the play No Exit (Huis clos), a spectacular
success on its first performance in May 1944, and the trilogy
of novels, The Roads to Freedom (Les Chemins de la liberte),
while the leftist (but party-unaffiliated) journal which Sartre
had founded with Beauvoir, Aron and Merleau-Ponty in 1943
and thereafter edited, Les Temps modernes, gained a signifi
cant readership. In 1944 Sartre determined that he could
make a living as a writer, and gave up his teaching post. The
post-war years saw Sartre's profile rise exponentially, with,
in addition to many literary projects, lecture tours in North
America and Europe, political commentary, art criticism,
invitations to write film scripts, broadcasts on state national
radio, and even, for a short period in 1947, leadership of a new,
unaligned political movement, Rassemblement Democratique
Revolutionnaire.14s
Accompanying Sartre's popularity - inevitably, and appro
priately in view of the sharp critical import of his ideas - came
hostility from several quarters.146 In 1944 the Communist
weekly Action denounced Sartre,147 who had kept his distance
from Marx's ideas and communist political practice in the
1920s and 30s, and would continue to do so for some time more,
until 1952.148 Attacks on Sartre appeared also in the established
national press, and the Roman Catholic Church confirmed
Sartre's importance in 1948 by placing his books on its Index.149
The lecture which Sartre gave in Paris in October 1945 and had
printed in 1946, Existentialism and Humanism (the title translates
literally, and more pointedly, as Existentialism Is a Humanism),
attempted to clarify the content of his existentialism, the identity
of which had been obscured in the course of the polemics that
had surrounded it, and to answer squarely his critics' charges of
nihilism, immoralism and political indifference. ISO
Interest in the philosophy of B&N has not only outlasted
the early post-war years: its influence on intellectual culture
in the second half of the twentieth century - if not by dint of
the letter of its text, then as relayed through Sartre's lectures,
shorter philosophical writings and literary works - is as con
siderable as that of any other single philosophical work of the
period. To the extent that B&N could be taken as modelling
the consciousness and predicament of the Occupied French,
it could serve equally as a template for interpreting the situ
ation of other groups subject to domination, as Sartre's visits
to the United States in 1945-46 and travels in the racially seg
regated south impressed upon him. In 1946 Sartre published a
critique of anti-semitism, Anti-Semite and Jew, the limitations
of which are perhaps clear to present-day readers, but which
in context achieved something of considerable importance, by
offering an original analysis of what is involved subjectively in
the construction of repressive, recognition-denying social iden
tities.lsi One of the most important, best-known and enduring
socio-political dimensions of influence of Sartre's philosophy
of freedom was on feminist thinking: Beauvoir's The Second
Sex (1949) established, on grounds that owe much to B&N, the
principle, which has subsequently become a commonplace,
RECEPTION AND INFLU ENCE
that one is not born but rather becomes a woman,152 through
a process of construction in which woman is positioned non
reciprocally as the objectual Other of man-as-subject.
1. Philosophical critiques of Being and Nothingness. If we now
look historically downstream, rather than back to what Sartre
took from Husserl and Heidegger, the following philosophers
in particular stand out as in critical dialogue with Sartre's phil
osophy in B&N.
(a) Marcel: Christian existentialism. A kind of phenom
enological, existentialist philosophy had been developed,
independently ofHeidegger, in the pre-war years by the Catholic
French philosopher Marcel, whose 'Existence and human free
dom' (1946) is an early and perceptive critique of the philosophy
of B&N from such a standpoint. (Some of Marcel's criticisms
were noted in 36 and 44.) In this essay Marcel accepts that
B&N is founded on a certain basic, revelatory experience of the
character of being, the one described in Nausea, and that even
though the genuineness of this experience must be admitted,
Sartre (first) has gone astray in the weight that he has assigned
to it and in his elaboration of its significance, and (second)
has excluded dogmatically another, competing range of basic
experiences, specifically, those that point towards Marcel's own
Christian existentialism. B&N is diagnosed as an incoherent
superimposition of idealism on a covert materialist foundation.
Ultimately Marcel is denunciatory: Sartre is charged with an
axiological nihilism which poses a spiritual threat to the youth
of the day.ls3
I suggested in 47 that Sartre may be regarded as contesting
Jacobi's claims, and one may consider Marcel as, so to speak,
replying to Sartre on Jacobi's behalf. This attempt to reclaim for
theology the territory of existential phenomenology recurs in
later French phenomenology, in the work of Jean-Luc Marion.
One important issue that may be regarded as emerging in this
context is the question of how much needs to be put up in order
to meet the challenge that B&N poses to our ordinary, com
monsensical conception of the world and the value of humanity:
though Marcel does not appeal to any theological assumptions
in his critique of Sartre, he does suppose that appeal to some
set of privileged, revelatory experiences - of 'communion' and
'grace' - is needed to counter Sartre. Marcel does not think
that the unassisted standpoint of 'common sense' provides any
sort of answer to Sartre: he and Sartre are in agreement that
there is no middle ground. 154
(b) Merleau-Ponty: monism. One issue which has arisen
repeatedly in our review of the various themes in B&N is that
of what to make of phenomena belonging to B&N's full ontol
ogy, which may appear to combine the two kinds of being,
in-itself and for-itself, which Sartre regards as, in the final ana
lysis, exclusive, exhaustive and immiscible. Phenomena such
as embodiment and affectivity, which may appear to involve
essentially both forms of being, pose a prima facie challenge,
and we have seen that Sartre seeks to explain these in terms
which allow him to maintain the sharp dualism of the basic
ontology.
Leaving aside the question of whether Sartre's explanations
are successful, it may be observed that one option which sug
gests itself in the light of this recurring pattern, is to invert
Sartre's dualistic analyses: that is, instead of starting with two
discrete and heterogeneous forms of being, and proceeding to
offer explanations for why they might appear to be fused in some
contexts, one might instead begin by positing a single original
mode of being which subsequently undergoes differentiation,
eventually yielding the two poles which, it could then be said,
Sartre mistakes for a fundamental ontological opposition.
Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception, published in
1945, thus only two years after B&N, may be read as, among
other things, an extended critical reply to Sartre along just
these lines. Where Sartre sees appearances of ontological ambi
guity that need to be disambiguated, Merleau-Ponty sees an
original given unity which comes to be conceived in terms of
metaphysical dualisms only by dint of various reflective oper
ations of abstraction and conceptual remoulding. Thus, to
take the central topic of his work, perception is regarded by
Merleau-Ponty as a primordial, undecomposable point of unity
of the subject (for-itself) and object (in-itself) which analyt
ical reflection cannot penetrate. Similarly regarding the body:
when conceived appropriately, viz. as the primitive bearer of
intentionality, the body combines in one indissoluble unity,
according to Merleau-Ponty, the features of corporeality and
mentality which philosophical reflection mistakenly separates
out and reifies as two distinct substances, mind (for-itself) and
matter (in-itself).
Much would be needed to determine whether Merleau
Ponty's approach is coherent, and whether it carries advantages
over Sartre's dualism. Prescinding from the details of Merleau
Ponty's account, one important critical observation which can
be made on his monistic strategy is that it does not promise to
establish, as securely as does Sartre's, the reality of freedom: to
the extent that we pursue an approach which treats metaphysical
concepts as functions of abstraction, we are, it seems, bound to
treat them as standing at a remove from reality, i.e. to construe
them anti-realistically. To determine whether this charge sticks,
it is necessary to examine the final chapter of the Phenomenology
of Perception, 'Freedom', which though mentioning Sartre by
name only once is directed clearly against Sartre's extremism
and defends an anti-Sartrean view of human agency as inex
tricably caught up in the world and yet free. It may be replied
on Sartre's behalf that what Merleau-Ponty says here either
reduces freedom to a limiting case without actual realization,
or at least leaves it unexplained how freedom can combine with
something else, other than freedom but no less basic, without
being destroyed; either way, it is plausible that Merleau-Ponty
leaves in doubt the reality of freedom.1SS
Whatever assessment is made of Merleau-Ponty's ambitious
project, the criticisms of Sartre made in Phenomenology of
Perception still need to be addressed, since they can be, and
have been frequently, levelled independently. Merleau-Ponty's
case against Sartre was re-presented by him ten years later,
in a more explicit, semi-polemical form, in a chapter of his
Adventures of the Dialectic (1955) titled 'Sartre and ultrabol
shevism'. Merleau-Ponty's primary target in this essay, as the
title implies, is Sartre's attitude to the Soviet Union, but he
traces Sartre's alleged political misguidance and irresponsibil
ity back to the philosophy of the subject found in B&N, which,
he argues, underlies Sartre's politics, and which he describes as
the 'madness of the cogito'.IS6
Merleau-Ponty's most fully amplified critique of B&N is
contained in 'Interrogation and dialectic', drafted in 1959-61
and published after Merleau-Ponty's death in The Visible and
the Invisible. Here an exceptionally subtle and well-elaborated
case is made in support of the objection that the severe dualism
of B&N's basic ontology is fatal to its philosophical purposes
of vindicating freedom, explicating intersubjectivity and so
on. The moral drawn by Merleau-Ponty is that the aperspec
tival metaphilosophical standpoint of what he calls 'analytical
reflection' must be abandoned, implying that Sartre's funda
mental mistake was to remain within the orbit of traditional
metaphysical explanation.ls7
There may well be reasons, I suggested in 48, why Sartre's
ontological dualism should be referred back ultimately to
an original point of unity, but this is a different matter from
accepting Merleau-Ponty's 'philosophy of ambiguity', as it has
been called. To concede that Sartre's dualism, when thought
through to its limit, yields to an ultimate metaphysical mon
ism, is not to impugn the dualistic path, and is compatible with
a rejection of Merleau-Ponty's monistic phenomenology.
(c) Levinas: the Other. As has been seen, one of the most
striking theses of B&N concerns the existential quality of
human relationships, and for this reason Levinas - whose
early book on Husserl was important for Sartre - represents
a second development in the phenomenological tradition
which is especially well located in relation to B&N. Levinas
paid close attention to Sartre's philosophy and engaged with
Sartre's ideas about imagination and Jewish identity in essays
of the 1940s,158 and in his major philosophical work, Totality
and Infinity (1961), he presents an original philosophical pos
ition which amounts to a partial inversion of B&N, as radical
as Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology but with a different, eth
ical set of priorities.
Some idea of what this amounts to can be got if we consider
the structure of B&N's ontology. Sartre sets out first, in the
basic ontology, the relation of self to world, and later intro
duces the connection to the Other. Yet, as we saw in 29, the
self-other relation is construed by Sartre as trans-empirical
and trans-mundane: my cogito-like awareness of the Other-as
subject owes nothing to the world. What might be supposed,
therefore, is that this expository and ontological order could
be modified or even reversed, in other words, that the relation
to the Other should be regarded as belonging properly to the
RECEPTION AND I N FLUENCE
basic ontology and perhaps even as having precedence over the
relation of consciousness to being-in-itself. In the latter case, if
the relation to the Other has this priority, then consciousness
of the Other does not have to be set into a prior context where
consciousness is already in the business of objectification, and
on such a basis it would be intelligible to suppose that primitive
consciousness-of-the-Other need not have necessarily the con
flictual character theorized by Sartre. Certainly, more is needed
to take us to Levinas' full position - which is, that the prim
ordial consciousness of the Other is a consciousness of infinite
obligation, and that 'ethics precedes ontology' - but the door
would be open to such a development, and it could reasonably
be conjectured that Sartre, sharing Levinas' sense of the weight
and universal scope of human responsibility, might at this point
not offer stiff resistance: although Sartre does not in fact, in
B&N, characterize the experience of the Other's look in ethical
terms, there is a significant phenomenological kinship between
Sartre's characterization of my consciousness of the Other-as
subject as overwhelming, and Levinas' characterization of the
Other as taking the form of an indeterminate, infinite demand
place upon me; both Sartre and Levinas think that conscious
ness of the Other involves at the deepest level an awareness of
the asymmetry and heterogeneity of self and Other.ls9
(d) Heidegger's reply to Sartre. Merleau-Ponty and Levinas
can be regarded, therefore, as proposing ways in which we might
escape from the arguable ontological and ethical impasses
of Sartre's philosophy. A third response to B&N from within
the phenomenological tradition which deserves attention, but
which by contrast categorically rejects Sartre's philosophy at
ground level, is Heidegger's.
Heidegger's Letter on 'Humanism' - originally, in 1946, a let
ter replying to questions posed by the French philosopher Jean
Beaufret concerning Heidegger's view of French existential
ism, expanded for publication in 1 947 was in part a reply to
Sartre's Existentialism and Humanism.160 Heidegger's rejection
of Sartre turns on two key points. First, Heidegger argues that
Sartre has begun with and merely sought to modify the (trad
itionally given) concept of 'human being', thereby failing to
put in question the basic, and inadequate, terms within which
his reflection proceeds.161 Second, Heidegger objects to the
conception of value which Sartre shares with all humanism,
whereby value is held to be brought into the world through and
with human being. This strategy, Heidegger claims, is doomed
to fail, because 'valuing, even where it values positively, is a
subjectivising'; Sartre fails to go back to the necessary prim
ordial point, before the distinction of fact and value, of the
theoretical and the practical, is drawn.162
In both respects, Heidegger reads Sartre (accurately) as
remaining, in his employment of concepts such as essence,
within the Western philosophical tradition of 'metaphysics'
(in Heidegger's critical sense).163 Heidegger's repudiation of
this tradition turns on his distinction of Being from beings.
Heidegger is thus, at one level, simply returning Sartre's com
pliment: the project of enquiry into the meaning of Being,
which Sartre had rejected in Section II of the Introduction to
B&N (2), not without argument but ultimately in a somewhat
cursory manner, is counter-asserted by Heidegger as the basis
for a philosophical standpoint which he claims to be higher
than that occupied by Sartre.
The further and more interesting point which emerges from
the Letter is that Heidegger has - depending on how much
continuity one is prepared to see in Heidegger's development either changed his position since Being and Time, or clarified
its status. Sartre's mistake, Heidegger implies, was to fail to
see that the concept of Dasein is merely preparatory, 'precur
sory', to the true task of thinking Being. Sartre's conception
of the for-itself, which appears to occupy the same position as
Heidegger's Dasein, is in fact a conception of a quite differ
ent, lower order, for Dasein properly conceived, Heidegger now
tells us, is not a conception of human beings, as is Sartre's con
cept of the for-itself, but a conception of an ontologicalfunction
which Being 'gives' to human beings and which human beings
merely 'sustain'. The difference of Heidegger from Sartre, then,
is that while the concept of the for-itself is that of an absolute,
a final reality incapable of any deeper explication, the concept
of Dasein (in the later Heidegger if not in Being and Time) gets
its sense from a further and more basic thinking of 'the truth
of Being'. For this reason, Heidegger feels able to claim that the
basic tenets of B&N and those of Being and Time have 'noth
ing at all in common', and describes the merely self-concerned,
self-asserting human subject of Sartre's existentialism as 'the
tyrant of being'}64
(e) Lukacs and Marcuse: Marxism. Heidegger's criticism of
B&N is, therefore, in no sense an internal one: it rests squarely
on an assumption which Sartre (whether rightly or wrongly)
rejects. The same externality tends to characterize the critical
angles on B&N which were developed in the 1940s from within
the Marxist tradition, in philosophical writings which appeared
in parallel with the French Communist Party's early attacks
on Sartre, of which the most important are Gyorgy Lukacs'
Existentialisme ou marxisme? (1948) and Herbert Marcuse's
'Existentialism: remarks on Jean-Paul Sartre's L'Etre et Ie
neant' (1948). 1 65
The common threads in Marxist appraisals of B&N con
sist, as might be expected, of complaints of its 'idealism', in
consequence of Sartre's refusal to integrate human reality
into natural being and to derive consciousness from matter;
of its isolation of the individual, and contraction of political
morality to a sphere of 'abstract' individual human rights;
and of its consequent inability to do justice to the reality of
social phenomena and human history as conceived in dialect
ical materialism, and to establish the necessary conditions
for collective (class) action. Lukacs added for good measure
the charge of 'irrationalism', incurred on account of Sartre's
rejection of objective historical development as a source of
normativity.
Marcuse's equally influential neo-Marxist appraisal of B&N
appeared in the same year. While recognizing that Sartre is
not an irrationalist, at least in so far as he (by contrast with
Albert Camus) thinks that the truths of existentialism can be
expressed in philosophy and not merely in literature, Marcuse
criticizes Sartre for failing to see that the articulation of a
theory of freedom in abstraction from man's actual, concrete
socio-historical conditions of un freedom, reduces B&N to an
ideological mystification of the same order as the stoic and
Christian conceptions that Sartre attacks. 1 66 Marcuse allows,
however, that Sartre's project is, within its own terms, 'onto
logically correct' and 'successful'; the inference to be drawn,
according to Marcuse, is that the whole (necessarily 'idealist')
procedure of philosophy in employing concepts which have not
been drawn from a prior theory of society, and ()f attempting to
think reality in abstraction from history, is cognitively vain and
ideologically negative.167
2. Being and Nothingness and the later Sartre. It is necessary
to consider Sartre himself as a critic of the philosophy of B&N.
In interviews conducted in his later years, Sartre acknowledges
errors in the position of B&N, to the point of apparently accept
ing some of the fundamental criticisms made by his Marxist
opponents. Thus in a 1975 interview Sartre says that B&N's
'specifically social chapters, on the "we" ', were 'particularly
bad', that the problems of the possibility of forgetting and of
animal consciousness were not addressed in B&N, and that
B&N contains no treatment of organic life and the existence of
Nature, nor of the relation of consciousness to the brain.168 In
terms of its philosophical methodology, B&N fails in the eyes of
the later Sartre to qualify as dialectical, and must be regarded
as an unfinished work:169 it is, Sartre says, merely 'a rationalist
philosophy of consciousness', a 'monument of rationality'.17o
Even more important are Sartre's later comments on B&N's
doctrine of freedom. In 1966, Sartre declares that 'a sort of sub
stantial I, or central category, always more or less given', 'has
been dead for a long time' and that 'the subject or subjectivity
constitutes itself/rom a basis anterior to itself'.l7I And in 1969:
I concluded [in the 1940s, under the Occupation] that in any
circumstances, there is always a possible choice. Which is
false. Indeed, it is so false that I later wanted precisely to
refute myself by creating a character in Le Diable et Ie bon
dieu, Heinrich, [. . .] who will never choose. He is totally con
ditioned by his situation. However, I understood all this only
much later [. . .] I believe that a man can always make some
thing out of what is made 0/ him. This is the limit I would
today accord to freedom: the small movement which makes
of a totally conditioned social being someone who does not ren
der back completely what his conditioning has given him [. . .]
the small margin in an operation whereby an interiorisation
re-exteriorises itself in an act [. . .] The individual interiorises
his social determinations: he interiorises the relations of pro
duction, the family of his childhood, the historical past, the
contemporary institutions, and he then re-exteriorises these
R ECEPTION AND INFLUENCE
in acts and options which necessarily refer us back to them.
None of this existed in L'Etre et Ie neant.i72
Along with this newly restricted freedom goes an acceptance
of determining structures: 'There is no doubt that structure
produces actions'; 'Lacan has clarified the unconscious as a
discourse which separates by means of language [. . .] Verbal
forms [ensembles] are structured as a form of the practico-inert
through the act of speaking. These forms express or constitute
intentions that determine me without being mine.' 1 73
What should be made of these statements? We should
hesitate before either agreeing with Sartre's retrospective self
assessments, or claiming that his later statements show that a
conversion of philosophical standpoint has taken place.
In the first place it must be emphasized that the self-criticism
of the later Sartre consists of acknowledgements of the putative
limitations of B&N - of respects in which its claims were too
simple, or exaggerated, and require complexification or modifi
cation - accompanied by no new set of fundamental doctrines
to replace those of B&N, nor even by a suggestion that the prob
lem of human freedom might yield to a different solution
In consequence, what Sartre's deprecations of the achieve
ment ofB&N may be taken to show is simply the incompatibility
of its system of freedom with the Marxist conception of histor
ical development - in other words, that the de-mythologization
of historical materialism at which Sartre aimed in the Critique
of Dialectical Reason is impossible on the basis of B&N. And
this leaves it open for us (if not for Sartre, given the new weight
ing of his philosophical priorities after he had been 'remade by
politics'174) to think that the problem lies, not with B&N, but
with Marxist theory, or even, more generally, with the attempt
to think man as an object of social theory. Indeed, what gives
the Critique of Dialectical Reason a philosophical profundity
not often found in writings in social theory, compensating to
some degree for the obscurity of the work, is Sartre's sense of
the depth of the difficulty presented by the transcendental
questions of what it is for a social entity or human history to
have reality and of how the existence of such things can be so
much as possible - and it is because Sartre refuses to relin
quish the insights of B&N in considering social ontology in
his Critique that the work puts this difficulty into such sharp
focus.17s
If this is correct, then the conclusion to draw is not that B&N
failed in the philosophical task it set itself, but rather that there
is a further philosophical problem concerning the reality of the
socio-historical which Sartre did not solve.176
Equally important is the point that it is most uncertain that
what Sartre later says about freedom does contradict his pos
ition in B&N. As the quotations above show, Sartre begins in the
1960s to talk of the subject as having a 'basis anterior to itself,
as being 'made', 'determined', 'conditioned' and so forth. But we
must ask how this should be interpreted. What meaning does
Sartre want to give these terms? More specifically, why should
the anterior basis of the subject, and the determining structures
which it confronts, not be understood in terms of the view of
freedom and facticity presented in B&N (33)?
When Sartre revisited the problem of freedom in conversa
tions with Beauvoir in 1974, he described his theory of freedom
in B&N as having failed to express ' what he had meant, saying
that he used out of convenience an 'artless', 'textbook' theory
of freedom, according to which 'one always chooses what one
does, one is free with regard to the Other': 'I then believed that
one is always free [. . .] On this point I've changed very much. I
think in fact that there are situations in which one cannot be
free.' Sartre's real meaning, he now claims, had been that, even
when one's actions are 'provoked' by something external, one is
still 'responsible for oneself.177
However, since self-responsibility does therefore always
remain, it is not clear that Sartre is revoking anything, or why
he thinks that the theory of freedom in B&N was simplistic.
Moreover, Sartre adds here that, even in responding to some
thing external, 'there is something that comes from our remotest
depths and that is related to our primary freedom'. What is this
primary freedom, if not the freedom of B&N? At such points it
almost seems that Sartre has confused the ontological freedom
of B&N with a denial that one may be powerless with respect to
external states of affairs. And other remarks suggest that noth
ing has changed from B&N: those who do not feel free, Sartre
says, are merely 'confused', because only awareness of freedom,
not freedom itself, can be missing.178 When Beauvoir points out
RECEPTION AND I NFLU ENCE
to Sartre that in his biography of Genet, Genet's external cir
cumstances and externally derived experiences are described so
thickly that they appear to be determining, Sartre reaffirms that
Genet's transformation of these circumstances is 'the work of
freedom'179 - a freedom which, B&N has argued compellingly,
cannot have come into being at any logically later stage than the
external circumstances themselves.
Because his later position is opaque, it is possible therefore
to dissent respectfully when Sartre suggests that he had been in
error with respect to the doctrine of freedom in B&N. Pending
an account of how one can think of freedom as something lim
ited by conditioning factors without encountering all of the
powerful objections detailed in B&N, the philosophical author
ity of Sartre's later recantation of B&N's doctrine of freedom is
limited.
3. The structuralist and post-structuralist repudiation of Being
and Nothingness. Despite the new impetus which B&N gave
to the programme of existential phenomenology, and the fruit
fulness of the debates to which it gave rise - in particular, with
Merleau-Ponty and Levinas - Sartre's dominant position on
the scene of academic philosophy in France was not of long
duration. French philosophy turned in a relatively short space
of time firmly against the whole project of a subject- or con
sciousness-based philosophy. ISO
To some degree the structuralist revolt against existential phe
nomenology had been prepared for by Merleau-Ponty - once the
Sartrean for-itself has been exchanged for a subject as thickly
embedded in the world as Merleau-Ponty conceives it to be, the
methodological privilege of consciousness has been largely sur
rendered. In this spirit, Claude Levi-Strauss attacked Sartre in
The Savage Mind (1962) as failing to see that phenomenology is
blind to, and incapable of grasping, the sorts of objective struc
tures exemplified by natural language and identified by Marx and
Freud. The limitations of Sartre's later attempt to grasp the social
and historical in the Critique of Dialectical Reason reveals Sartre
to have been in B&N, and to have since remained, 'the prisoner of
his Cogito', according to Levi-Strauss: 'He who begins by steep
ing himself in the allegedly self-evident truths of introspection
never emerges from them'; 'caught up in the snare of personal
identity', Sartre has 'shut the door on the knowledge of man'.181
Again, Michel Foucault's analytical-historical study of the
human sciences in The Order of Things (1966) alleged that
phenomenology remains caught in a basic contradiction (of
the subject's simultaneous inclusion in and exclusion from the
world) common to all forms of transcendental thought,182 and
Jacques Derrida's critique of the axiomatic Husserlian assump
tion of consciousness' presence-to-itself undermined B&N at a
stroke.183
One extremely important factor in this turnaround was
Heidegger's Letter, and Beaufret's work in spreading Heidegger's
ideas in the 1950s: though most French philosophers did not
subscribe to Heideggerianism so much as explore it with fascin
ation, the double lesson was taken that Sartrean anthropocentric
existentialism had failed to encompass Heidegger's philosophy,
and that Sartre's humanism did not have the last word and
could not hold its own against more radical, non-subject-centred
alternatives.184
4. Being and Nothingness and contemporary philosophy.
There remains the question of Sartre's importance for contem
porary philosophy.
The centenary of Sartre's birth in 1905 having passed and
been celebrated, the importance of Sartre as a figure in intel
lectual history, and his virtues as a contributor to public life,
have been appreciated anew. Sartre's importance for contem
porary philosophy, however, both in anglophone analytic and
in Continental circles, is not great, and it is very improbable
that Sartre's philosophical prestige will return in the foreseeable
future to anything like the level that it enjoyed in the early
post-war period. The reasons for this have nothing to do with
the quality or limitations of Sartre's thought, and everything
to do with the nature of the philosophical project that Sartre
pursues in B&N. First, as argued in Chapter 2, Sartre's philoso
phy is premised on an uncompromising rejection of naturalism.
Second, Sartre is committed, methodologically and doctrinally,
to subjectivity as the overarching principle of philosophical
thought. Third, Sartre sets himself at a distance from the epis
temological tradition of modern European philosophy, and in
addition B&N shows no sympathy or engagement with either
the historical turn of nineteenth century or the logico-linguistic
turn of twentieth-century philosophy. Fourth, as I have tried to
show, Sartre's aim in B&N was to construct a revisionary meta
physical system in a very strong sense, and the viability of such
an enterprise has increasingly, since the end of Hegelianism in
the middle of the nineteenth century, been denied. As Levinas
put it, Sartre was philosophically exceptional in so far as he 'did
not think metaphysics was absolutely finished'.18s
For all of these interconnected reasons, it is fully intelligible
that Sartre should fall outside the orbit of philosophical pro
grammes orientated either towards exploring the contribution of
the natural and human sciences to philosophical knowledge, or
the attempts of Nietzsche and Heidegger to bring to a close the
project of Western philosophy, or the rehabilitation and recon
struction of Kantian philosophy in a postmetaphysical form.
The following high tribute paid to Sartre by Jiirgen Habermas
testifies indirectly to Sartre's dissociation from the dominant
trajectories of contemporary philosophy:
Sartre's work does not allow itself to be adapted to decon
structionist tendencies. For this discourse, he represents an
adversary who is not easily assimilable. His writings contain
ideas that not only have not been surpassed but that also
point beyond the historicist and contextualist approaches
that are so widespread today. This is true especially for the
existentialist understanding of freedom, which - following
a trajectory from Fichte and Kierkegaard - expresses in a
pregnant and radical version an undeniable component of
the modern self-understanding. I admire the fact that Sartre
resisted in an exemplary way the temptation to fall back
behind the conditions of postmetaphysical thinking.186
For contemporary postmetaphysical thinkers, Sartre's
achievement can consist only and at most in his having given
exceptionally clear and forceful expression to one component
of modern self-understanding, namely its notion of individual
autonomy; and this is neither sufficient for Sartre's own uni
versalistic purposes, nor enough to make Sartre a significant
philosophical resource for thinkers seeking to resolve the con
tradictions of modern thought without recourse to metaphysics,
who are bound to regard Sartre as having paid too high a price
in sacrificing the overcoming of traditional metaphysics which,
on the postmetaphysical view, is another, necessary part of late
modernity's self-understanding.
Is it possible to insert Sartre's leading ideas into the context
of a fundamentally different kind of philosophical project,
more closely attuned with contemporary trends, and to do
so without emptying them of their proper significance? Some
readers of Sartre sympathetic to postmodernism maintain that
the gap between a Sartrean and a postmodernist conception
of subjectivity is not as wide as it may appear, or as Sartre's
early structuralist and post-structuralist adversaries supposed
it to be, and have argued not merely that the aporiae of B&N
precipitate the leap into postmodern philosophy, but that the
trajectory of Sartre himself is towards postmodernism.187
One thing sometimes taken to situate B&N on the postmod
ern side of the fence is Sartre's doctrine of the non-self-identity
of the for-itself - which is read as anticipating the non-integral,
fractured, multiple self which results from Lacanian theory and
deconstructionist critique. However, if what I have been argu
ing in this book is correct, then this is a misreading: Sartre's
description of the subject as non-self-identical has a different,
metaphysical sense from the postmodern thesis of the subject's
decentredness, even if the words employed to express the two
claims are the same. This is shown by the fact that Sartre takes
his thesis to effect a conceptual closure to provide a complete
and final positive specification of what the for-itself is and
that such a philosophical achievement is precisely what post
modern theory, in its sophisticated forms at any rate, denies
the possibility of. Alternatively, if there truly is no difference
between the Sartrean for-itself and the deconstructed subject,
then the question arises whether postmodern theories of the
(death of the) subject have rightly described themselves as post
metaphysical, and the burden lies on postmodern thought to
explain afresh what it means by 'going beyond metaphysics'.188
More plausible endeavours to shift Sartre in a postmodern dir
ection ignore B&N and focus instead on the human subject that
emerges in Sartre's later works, and on the B&N-critical state
ments made by Sartre in later years, although I have suggested
that the probative value of the latter is questionable.189
Parallel remarks apply to attempts to integrate Sartre's ideas
into the context of contemporary analytic, or mainstream
anglophone, philosophy.19o While it is of interest to highlight
convergences of Sartre's thinking with contemporary analytic
philosophy of mind and action, or, more ambitiously, to offer
reconstructions of Sartre's ideas in a non-Sartrean idiom, the
question remains, of what we should then think of the historical
Sartre, and the prima facie implication of an analytic reground
ing or reconstruction of Sartrean claims which dispenses with
the ontological heavy machinery of B&N is that Sartre's pro
ject is not, in fact, well conceived. The characteristic tendency
of analytic discussion of Sartre is, accordingly, critical - Sartre
is made to seem to have mis-stated and obscured his insights
through inflated ontological formulation.
This reflects a key disagreement regarding what attitude
should be taken towards our ordinary conception of the world,
the characteristic analytic assumption being that the world as
commonsensically conceived is self-standing, the onus lying
entirely on Sartre to show the categorical necessity of his pro
posed revisions, while Sartre takes the commonsensical world
to be inadequate in both existential and theoretical respects,
and so to already of itself demand a philosophical reappraisal.
With regard to the complaint, commonly voiced by analytic
philosophers, that Sartre's metaphysics of the human subject
relies to an unacceptable degree on metaphor, the short answer
is that - if this is not just another way of objecting to Sartre's
view that metaphysics must break with the conceptual scheme
of common sense - what counts in philosophical contexts as a
metaphorical use of terms depends altogether on the nature of
that which we are attempting to conceptualize. The challenge
to translate Sartre's ideas without loss into plainer terms lies
open, but until it is met, Sartre is entitled to reply that his ter
minological innovations are indispensable if the phenomenon
of subjectivity is to be fixed in philosophical concepts, and so
that his metaphysics is no more metaphorical in relation to its
singular, unparalleled non-empirical object, viz. subjectivity,
than empirical descriptions are in relation to empirical objects.
As Sartre might put it: the metaphysics of B&N are what result
from taking subjectivity literally.
I have suggested in this book that the context required in
order for Sartre's philosophical position - taken as an inte
grated whole rather than in dismantled form - to appear again
a live option, would involve a return to the sorts of debates
that occupied Kant's successors, the German idealists and the
German romantics, in the last decade of the eighteenth and
at the beginning of the nineteenth century, where the task of
philosophy was conceived in terms of the formulation of an
anti-naturalistic 'system of freedom' which would resolve the
problems of Kant's idealism, rebutting Jacobi's charge of nihil
ism and allowing full metaphysical sense to be made of Kant's
idea of human autonomy. If Sartre is now condemned to belong
to the history but not to the actuality of philosophy, he lies at
least in good company.
1. On the period and developments in French philosophy described
in this chapter, see Kleinberg, Generation Existential, Introduction
and chs. 1-3; Gutting, French Philosophy in the Twentieth
Century, Part I; lanicaud, Heidegger en France, vol. 1, chs. 1-2;
Poster, Existential Marxism in Postwar France, ch. 1; Kelly,
Hegel in -France, chs. 5-6; and Rockmore, Heidegger and French
Philosophy, chs. 1-4. For biographical information on Sartre con
cerning the period from 1924 until the publication of B&N in 1943,
see Leak, Sartre, pp. 20-59, and in greater detail, Cohen-Solal,
Sartre, Parts I-II, and Hayman, Writing Against, chs. 4-14. Sartre
describes his philosophical influences in 'An interview with Jean
Paul Sartre' (1975), pp. 5ff.; on these, see also Levy, Sartre, Part I,
ch. 4, and Renaut, Sartre, Ie Dernier Philosophe, Part 1 .
2. While rejecting a s complacent Brunschvicg's picture of the human
situation: see The Transcendence o/the Ego, pp. 50-1 .
3. The Paris Lectures (1929). Reworked and expanded, these were
published in French in 1931 as Meditations cartesiennes (Cartesian
Meditations), one of Husserl's most important later writings.
4. On Koyre, Kojeve, and the history of the seminar, see Kleinberg,
Generation Existential, pp. 58ff.
5. See Kojeve, Introduction to the Reading 0/ Hegel.
6. Sartre did not attend Kojeve's Hegel seminar (though his enforced
absences from Paris for much of the 1930s provide some explan
ation for this), and Heidegger's What is Metaphysics?, which
appeared in French translation in 1931 and was read by Sartre,
failed to command his interest until very much later. See the
autobiographical account given by Sartre of the process of his
absorption of Husserl and Heidegger in War Diaries, pp. 1 82-7.
7. See 'An interview with lean-Paul Sartre', p. 8. Hayman, Writing
Against, pp. 53-5, gives evidence that, in addition, Spinoza,
Rousseau, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, were important for Sartre,
and that Sartre was also strongly interested in the surrealists.
8. Hayman, Writing Against, pp. 53, 61, 67. Sartre experimented in
1935 with mescaline (see the 1972 interview in Sartre By Himself,
pp. 37-8); his interest in psychological abnormality shows itself in
Sketch/or a Theory o/the Emotions, and The Imaginary, pp. 148-59.
Non-normal states of mind are referred to for their philosophical
significance frequently in B&N.
9. See for example Sartre's 'The legend of truth' (1931), a speculative,
Nietzschean account of how the value of truth came to be formed.
10. See, e.g., 'Motion picture art' (1931). The conclusion of Nausea
(pp. 246-53) entertains the Nietzschean idea of a justification
of existence through art, but in terms so uncertain and alien
ated that no basis is provided for ascribing any such conviction
to Sartre. Sartre's philosophical repudiation of aestheticism is
explicit in The Imaginary, pp. 1 88-94.
1 1 . Why would Sartre turn from active resistance to (mere) philoso
phy? On this crucial period, see Levy, Adventures on the Freedom
Road, pp. 231-8, and Sartre, pp. 289-94, setting the record
straight.
1 2 . Sartre mentions his work on B&N in letters to Beauvoir in July
1940 (Quiet Moments in a War, pp. 234, 235, 237) and in 1 974
claimed that he both conceived and wrote B&N in the phoney
war and the Stalag ('Conversations with Sartre', pp. 1 56-7).
1 3 . This reading, or re-reading with endorsement, of Heidegger
occurs between 1938 and 1 940. See War Diaries, pp. 183-6,
where Sartre says that it was only once he had discovered the
'impasse' in HusserI (viz. its idealism and solipsism) that he
'turned towards Heidegger' (p. 184). For reasons of space I
have not attempted to record systematically in my commentary
Sartre's borrowings from Heidegger, but the size of the debt is
very considerable, as a reading of Heidegger's 1929 text, What
is Metaphysics?, will reveal. Nor have I given an account of the
philosophical differences of Sartre from Heidegger, beyond those
implied by the criticisms made of Heidegger in B&N discussed
in my text. What may be said very briefly is that, while Sartre's
philosophy involves a substantial duplication of Heideggerean
themes, the sense of these is always changed and often fundamen
tally reversed in the process. Sartre's appropriations are selective,
involve major excisions, and result in a more sharply outlined
philosophical position. The relative definiteness of Sartre's
philosophical commitments in comparison with Heidegger's is
due at root to the metaphilosophical difference, that Heidegger's
intentions are destructive in relation to a traditional conception
of philosophy which Sartre has no quarrel with. Thus each time
Sartre encounters a structure in Heidegger's account of Dasein
that he considers fit for incorporation into the system of B&N,
he asks how it must appear in the perspective of consciousness,
and reconceives it accordingly; and since Heidegger's analytic of
Dasein is designed to erode the Husserlian and more generally
the modern philosophical framework, the result is - depending
on one's estimate of Sartre's success - either an incoherent, or
a revolutionized and regenerated, Cartesianism: from Sartre's
point of view, Heidegger's insights are only partially articu
lated, and his claims lack genuine determinate sense, until they
are re-expressed in terms of consciousness and subjectivity; from
Heidegger's, Sartre fails to appreciate that subjectivity is part of
the problem, and cannot be prized apart from the blindness to the
question of the meaning of Being which needs to be overcome. At
times the upshot of Sartre's 'subjectivisation' of Heidegger appears
to be a retrieval of Kierkegaard, as the 1 939 entry in War Diaries,
pp. 1 31-4, illustrates with respect to the theme of nothingness. On
why Sartre may, for better or worse, be charged with having ser
iously misread Heidegger, see Chapter 4.
14. Selections from Jacobi's writings are available in The Main
Philosophical Writings and the Novel Allwill.
1 5. For a full account of Jacobi and post-Kantian idealism, see Paul
Franks, All or Nothing: Systematicity, Transcendental Arguments,
and Skepticism in German Idealism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 2005).
16. See Concluding Unscientific Postscript, pp. 84-6, for a succinct
statement of this idea. Kierkegaard's thesis of the practical, task
shaped nature of the 'I' goes back to Fichte.
17. It is clear at least that Sartre knew Kierkegaard, since in the
War Diaries for 1939 (pp. 1 20, 1 24, 1 33-4, 1 39) Sartre records his
reflections on Kierkegaard's The Concept of Dread and Wahl's
1938 study of Kierkegaard. Sartre's essay on Kierkegaard,
'Kierkegaard and the singular universal', dates from 1966, but
makes clear exactly how B&N can be regarded as a reprise of
Kierkegaard's philosophy.
18. One major historical figure absent from the sketch just drawn of
Sartre's philosophical ancestors, but with whom Sartre is often
associated, is Nietzsche. Sartre and Nietzsche share some com
mon ground - their ideas concerning the importance of the death
of God and the weight of self-responsibility have similarities,
and there is a convergence of Sartre's idea of absolute freedom
with Nietzsche's life-affirmative ideal of eternal recurrence (see
35) - but they are set far apart by their quite different stances
towards naturalism, the scope of philosophical reason and the
possibility of systematic philosophy. It is particularly important
not to import into our understanding of Sartre the combination
of moral subjectivism with self-creationism which (whether or
not it is really his view) is standardly attributed to Nietzsche (see
44). For a fair assessment of Sartre's relation to Nietzsche, see
Levy, Sartre, pp. 1 27-33.
19. An illuminating study of the Fichte-Sartre relation may be found
in Daniel Breazeale, ,Vom Idealismus zum Existenzialismus
Direttissima: Fichte/Sartre', in Fichte-Studien 22, 2003, 171-92.
20. Quoted in Cohen-Solal, Sartre, p. 154.
21. Transcendence of the Ego, pp. 2-3. Sartre takes pains to empha
size that he has no argument with Kant, even declaring himself
'happy to believe in the existence of a constituting consciousness'
(p. 4). This is somewhat misleading, for it sounds as if Sartre is
signing up to transcendental idealism, whereas in fact (as emerges
shortly) Sartre denies that objects in general are constituted by
the subject; really Sartre is only granting the subject of Kantian
idealism provisionally and for the sake of argument. It is note
worthy - because this issue arises also with respect to B&N, and
is not merely terminological - that Sartre reveals here an under
standing of the concept of 'transcendental' which dissociates it
entirely from idealism, while retaining the idea of 'pre-mundanity':
the transcendental is what pertains to subjectivity prior to (inde
pendently of, in abstraction from) its immersion in and engagement
with the actual concrete world, or in other words, to the purely for
mal dimensions of subjectivity. I will return to this point later.
22. Ibid., pp. 6-7.
23. Ibid., p. 7.
24. Sartre also introduces, ibid., pp. 7-8, the idea (stated earlier in
Imagination, p. 1 1 5) that such consciousness is also conscious of
itself, but here without argument; this is supplied later in B&N
(see 3). Note also the argument given on pp. 1 1-13, meeting the
objection that experience cannot validate his contention that
pre-reflective consciousness of objects is free of an T, since any
consultation of it involves reflection and thus shows us an 'I'.
25. Ibid., pp. 8-9. This leads Sartre on rare occasion (e.g. ibid., p. 51) to
reject the term 'subject' altogether, but also and more often Sartre
continues to talk of a subject and of subjectivity, understood
simply as consciousness: this 'is no longer the subject in Kant's
meaning of the term, but it is subjectivity itself' (B&N xxxiii/24),
and 'Subjectivity is not in consciousness: it is consciousness' ('An
interview with Jean-Paul Sartre', 1975, p. 1 1).
26. The Transcendence of the Ego, p. 15. Note that this further argu
ment is independent from the previous argument only if Husserl's
transcendental 'I' is supposed to be offered in explanation for the
possibility of my taking myself to be both subject and object, and
it may be doubted that Husserl intended it to play this role. But
Sartre is quite right to say that the identity of the self in its double
guise of subject and object is an explanandum entailed by Husserl's
model, for which it suggests no obvious explanans.
28. Ibid., pp. 14-15.
29. Ibid., p. 15. The argumentation which lies behind this claim of
Sartre's is contained in Kant's Paralogisms of Pure Reason in the
Critique of Pure Reason.
30. The Transcendence of the Ego, p. 7.
3 1 . Ibid., p. 10.
32. Sartre notes the relevant datum - the fact that the ego 'is given as
intimate' (ibid., p. 37) - but leaves it unaccounted for.
33. Sartre's target thus takes in various familiar conceptions of per
sons, such as P. F. Strawson's well-known view and influential
view, argued for in chapter 3 of Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive
Metaphysics (London: Methuen, 1959).
34. The parallel of belief in the 'I' with belief in God is noted by Sartre,
The Transcendence of the Ego, p. 37.
36. Ibid., pp. 21-6.
38. Ibid., pp. 34-5, 48.
39. See also Imagination, pp. 4-5, where the false metaphysics of
imagination - 'naive ontology' and 'thing-ish view' of images - is
said to be 'that of the man on the street'.
40. The Transcendence of the Ego, pp. 46-8.
41 . An interpretation which does not, in any case, make sense, since
nothing is achieved for explanation by the hypostatization (ibid.,
pp. 31-2).
42. Levy, Sartre, pp. 186-90, gives a good idea of the subversion
implied by The Transcendence of the Ego.
44. This implication emerges when Sartre suggests that 'pure reflec
tion' would involve the elimination of 'I' thoughts (ibid., pp. 41-2).
The question, then, is whether such a consciousness could still
sponsor actions, since if it could not, it would appear to have lost
its freedom.
45. Sartre acknowledges the appeal of an 'impersonal consciousness',
ibid., p. 46.
46. Ibid., pp. 7, 8, 19, 35, 45, 46.
47. See War Diaries, pp. 184 and 209.
48. The Transcendence of the Ego, pp. 1 3, 41, and Sketch for a Theory
of the Emotions, pp. 61-3.
49. Sartre's most persuasive example is that of melancholy, in which,
he says, 'I make the world into an affectively neutral reality, a sys
tem which is, affectively, in complete equilibrium [. . .] In other
words, lacking both the ability and the will to carry out the projects
I formerly entertained, I behave in such a manner that the uni
verse requires nothing more from me', Sketch for a Theory of the
Emotions, p. 69.
50. See ibid., pp. 75-80. In the background lies what Sartre calls a
belief in magic: see pp. 63, 66, 72. The concept of magic is ubiqui
tous in Sartre's writings, and appears in both negative and positive
guises: sometimes, as here, Sartre criticizes forms of conscious
ness as magical, but on other occasions he adduces magicality as
an element of correct explanations. Sartre's underlying view is
that in a sense magic is 'true': if magic is the power of conscious
ness to determine reality in accordance with choice independently
of any physical causal medium, then Sartre, anti-naturalistically,
believes in it. And it is because this is so, that it is possible for con
sciousness to 'abuse' its 'magical powers', as it does in emotion.
5 1 . See The Imaginary, esp. pp. 148ff.
52. See The Transcendence of the Ego, pp. 23-4, 41-2, 48-9, 51-2.
53. See ibid., p. 49.
54. See Existentialism and Humanism, p. 26.
55. The Transcendence of the Ego, p. 29; Sartre is quoting from
Husserl's Ideas.
The Transcendence of the Ego, pp. 32-4.
Ibid., pp. 32-3.
Ibid., pp. 29-30.
Ibid., pp. 33, 35.
Sartre has a particular interest in abnormal experience of think
ing, where thoughts are experienced objectually and consequently
as alien: see 'The legend of truth', pp. 40ff., Nausea, pp. 144-5,
and The Imaginary, pp. 1 55-6. The pathological relationships of
thinker to thought which Sartre describes in these places express
the phenomenology which is implied by the subject-predicate
63. For the efforts that consciousness makes in its 'natural attitude'
to absorb itself in the me are 'never completely rewarded' (The
Transcendence of the Ego, p. 49).
64. See War Diaries, p. 184.
65. 'The itinerary of a thought' (1969), pp. 36-7.
66. At any rate, materialism of a 'mechanistic' sort; and the only other
species of materialism that Sartre admits is dialectical material
ism, whose 'dialectic of nature' - 'a natural process which produces
and resolves man into an ensemble of physical laws' - Sartre also
rejects (ibid., p. 37). Sartre's unconditional rejection of naturalism
is expressed clearly in War Diaries, pp. 21, 25ff. : Sartre describes
the conception of man as a 'species' as an 'abasement of human
nature', a 'degradation' of the human condition. It is notable that
Sartre's objection concerns a matter of value rather than of theor
etical philosophy Gust as his move from Husserl to Heidegger has
a value-orientation: see War Diaries, p. 185, where he says that in
1938 he sought 'a philosophy that was not just a contemplation but
a wisdom, a heroism, a holiness - anything that might allow me to
hold out').
67. Levy, Sartre, p. 404, aptly describes the philosophy of B&N as 'the
very epitome of a coherent anti-naturalism'.
68. Sartre uses this term in, e.g., What is Literature?, p. 230, n18.
69. Nausea, pp. 182-3, 186.
70. Confirming that Sartre's philosophy nevertheless deserves
to be described as genuinely transcendental, see B&N 175-6,
where Sartre says that his study is concerned with establishing
what 'must render all experience possible' and 'how in general
an object can exist for consciousness' and that 'what makes all
experience possible' is a priori (viz. the 'original upsurge of the
for-itself'). Sartre's original move is to designate these transcen
dental conditions ontological (he argues that this follows from
the necessity of there being transcendental conditions, i.e. that to
accept the transcendental is to accept that the transcendental is
ontological).
7 1 . The idealist conception of the subject as containing its world has
a loose equivalent in Sartre's idea of the subject as responsible for
the world (see 35); but this idea enters in consequence of the doc
trine of freedom, not as a condition for it.
72. For clear statements of these objections, see the quotations from
Wahl, A Short History of Existentialism, pp. 28-30, below in 1 1 ,
and a t greater length, Marcel, 'Existence and human freedom',
and Merleau-Ponty, The Visible and the Invisible, ch. 2.
73. As Janicaud puts it, B&N is both impossible to read and too easy
to read ('a la fois illisible et trop lisible', Heidegger en France I,
p. 60). In an interview in 1975 Sartre reproached himself for 'using
literary phrases in a text whose language should have been strictly
technical' ('Self-portrait at seventy', p. 9).
74. What Sartre has shown here, I suggest, is less the absurdity of
Heidegger's position, than the distance at which Heidegger's claims
stand, in terms of their philosophical grammar, from traditional
metaphysical propositions: because Sartre is committed (as said
above, note 1 3) to pursuing a relatively traditional kind of philosoph
ical enquiry, he has no interest in extending interpretative charity to
Heidegger. (It is of note that in War Diaries, p. 183, Sartre says that
he had been unable initially, in 1934, to penetrate Being and Time
because he had been unable to recognize in it any of the 'traditional
problems', of consciousness, knowledge, realism and idealism, etc.)
75. Differently put, what Sartre's argument shows is that the phenom
enalist is committed to a deflationary account of being.
76. Sartre uses the Scholastic terminology, which I have avoided:
percipere (active infinitive) = to perceive; percipi (passive infini
tive) = to be perceived; percipiens (present participle) perceiving;
perceptum (perfect participle) = that which is perceived, the object
of perception.
77. Especially The Transcendence of the Ego and 'Intentionality'.
78. The purgative and visionary quality of this 'expulsion' is empha
sized in 'Intentionality'.
79. See 'Intentionality', pp. 4-5, where the ('digestive') philosophy
of 'contents of consciousness' and the 'internal life' is rejected
on grounds of pure phenomenological falsity, and the epistemo
logical problems it creates are not even referred to. Again in
Sartre's attack in Imagination on the 'thing-image' conception of
imagination, epistemological considerations enter only obliquely:
Sartre charges this conception with being unable to account for the
phenomenologically actual spontaneity and certainty with which
images are distinguished from perceptions (see e.g. pp. 94-101),
but not with unavoidable sceptical implications (hence the work's
sub-title, 'a psychological critique').
80. Manfred Frank explains Sartre's view, and refers it back to earlier
post-Kantian thinkers, in What is Neostructuralism?, trans. Sabine
Wilke and Richard Gray (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis
Press, 1989), pp. 194-5.
8 1 . It is worth pointing out that when Sartre talks of consciousness,
he is never thinking of it qua a state that we ascribe to ourselves
or others: Sartre is endeavouring to locate the pre-ascriptive phe
nomenon of consciousness, consciousness as it is independently of
and prior to its judgemental imputation. In Sartre's view, philo
sophical reflection of the non-phenomenological kind that we find
in the philosophy of mind, instead of grasping the phenomenon
of consciousness itself, slides into consideration of the conditions
under which it can be thought that there is, or that a person has,
consciousness of some object, and of what is implied by this. The
upshot is that we form a conception of even our own conscious
ness tainted with a third-personal character, i.e. of what Sartre
calls 'the psychic'; see 24.
82. The complex combination of claims described here is clear in War
Diaries, p. 109: consciousness or human reality (i) 'motivates itself
without being its own foundation . . . there is a consciousness that
motivates its own structure', and in addition (ii) can have no foun
dation - 'any transcendent foundation of consciousness would
kill consciousness with its own hands, while giving birth to it'; so
the fact of consciousness is 'irreducible and absurd'.
83. The idealism Sartre has in mind is that which conceives transcen
dental conditions in dejure, rather than de facto terms, i.e. Kant's.
84. Sartre had originally accepted the existence ofhyle: see Imagination,
pp. 1 32-3.
85. There is also a difference, Sartre points out, of his ontological
proof from Kant's Refutation of Idealism in the Critique of Pure
Reason: the latter establishes merely de jure transcendental con
ditions, identifying an epistemic demand without showing it to be
satisfied (xxxvii/28-9); Sartre's proof shows the de facto status of
the transcendental, its ontological actuality. It is of interest, and
characteristic of Sartre's reconception of the transcendental, that
he builds the Kantian normative element into the ontological fab
ric of consciousness: see 14 on consciousness as 'obligation'.
86. See also note 79 above, regarding the oblique relation of phenom
enology to epistemology.
87. Sartre explains how he stands exactly between (and beyond) Husserl
and Heidegger, employing the terms of each to (re)interpret the
other, in 'Intentionality': our being is that of 'being-in-the-world',
but this 'being-in' must be understood as 'movement', specifically,
the movement which consciousness is, for consciousness is noth
ing but 'a movement of fleeing itself. See also 'Consciousness of
self, p. 1 32.
88. For which reason, Merieau-Ponty is one way correct and in another
misleading when he claims that 'Sartre expects to account for our
primordial access to things' by means of his dualist ontology (The
Visible and the Invisible, p. 52).
89. Clarifying what is at issue, see Gert Buchdahl, 'The problem of neg
ation', Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 22, 1961, 163-78.
90. This identification is explicit in Notebooksfor an Ethics, p. 1 1 .
9 1 . 'The roots o f existentialism', p . 24.
92. Ibid., p. 24. Wahl adds that Sartre's realism-idealism 'impasse'
leads to 'on certain points a return, perhaps even a recoil, from
the conceptions ofHeidegger towards those of Hegel and Husserl'
(p. 28) .
94. Ibid., pp. 4, 26.
95. Marcel, 'Existence and human freedom', p. 62.
96. On the realism/idealism ambiguity in B&N, see Natanson, A
Critique of Jean-Paul Sartre's Dnto[ogy, ch. 9.
97. See 'Intentionality', p. 4: 'Husserl is not a realist: this tree on
its bit of parched earth is not an absolute which would subse
quently enter into communication with us.'
98. Sartre also objects to the conception of the subject as sovereign,
standing above the world, extricated from the weight of reality,
which he discovers in transcendental idealism. It is, however,
questionable that this image is accurate, and, to the extent that
it is, that transcendental idealism thereby differs from Sartre's
own conception of the subject (the very same complaint that
Sartre makes against Kant has been made frequently of Sartre
himself: see Chapter 4, regarding Merleau-Ponty).
99. Kant's transcendental idealism may be incoherent too, but it is
not incoherent in the same way, since Kant does not assert that
we have consciousness of the ground of the sensations which pro
vide the matter of phenomena.
100. Sartre is engaged, therefore, with the traditional metaphysical
problem concerning the relation of the One and the Many, as it
appears in for example Plato's Parmenides.
101. Merleau-Ponty emphasizes this in The Visible and the Invisible,
saying that B&N attempts to 'think the total being - what is
totally' and so takes up a standpoint 'outside' of being (p. 74);
its philosophy is 'installed in pure vision, in the aerial view of
the panorama' (p. 77), 'high-altitude thinking' (p. 91). Merleau
Ponty regards this as the only standpoint occupied in B&N,
contrary to what I argue below.
102. This unrestricted ambition for his philosophy goes hand in hand
with Sartre's commitment to the primacy of ontology, as he empha
sizes in his 1975 'An interview with Jean-Paul Sartre' (pp. 14, 24).
103. Leaving it to others to attempt to 'try to explain it within a
materialist system' ('An interview with Jean-Paul Sartre', 1975,
p. 40) . Also: 'The field of philosophy has its limits set by [est
borne par] man' ('L'anthropologie', p. 83).
104. Thus Natanson: 'Sartre's "Copernican revolution" is essentially
the attempt to formulate at the ontological level what Kant
attempted to show at the epistemological level' (A Critique of
Jean-Paul Sartre's Ontology, p. 93) .
105. The same sort of realism regarding perspectival form, it is worth
noting, figures also, and more explicitly, in Merleau-Ponty, who
claims that 'indeterminacy' or 'ambiguity' - properties which
we naturally relegate to epistemology - inhere in the world, not
merely in our apprehension or conception of things.
106. A related question of metaphilosophy concerns Sartre's rela
tion to the 'primacy of practical reason'. Does Sartre think that
the rationality of beliefs about theoretical matters is properly
determined (at least in part) by our practical interests; or does
he regard theoretical enquiry as autonomous in relation to the
practical? Again there appears to be a split: on the one hand,
Sartre can seem to be proceeding in B&N on the basis of an
attempt to determine how we must think of things in order that
we can deem ourselves free; on the other hand, the structure of
B&N, by virtue of beginning with ontology and moving slowly
towards an ethics, seems to imply the autonomy of theoretical
reason (see also 'An interview with Jean-Paul Sartre', 1975, p. 45,
where Sartre affirms that ontology is authoritative for practice).
But again it seems that Sartre does not consider that he needs
to choose: because he thinks that the correct ontology is the one
that proceeds from consciousness, and because consciousness
is already practical and value-orientated (see 17), practical and
theoretical reason are fundamentally one.
107. On this construal of Sartre's transcendental method, see Sacks,
'Sartre, Strawson and others'.
108. See Sartre's emphatic repudiation of psychology in 'An interview
with Jean-Paul Sartre' (1975), pp. 8 and 38: 'Psychology does not
exist'; 'I do not believe in the existence of psychology. I have not
done it and I do not believe it exists.'
109. See Sartre's earlier critical discussion of psychoanalysis in Sketch
for a Theory of the Emotions, pp. 48-55.
1 10. See 'Consciousness of self and knowledge of self' (1948), pp. 138-40.
I l l . The Transcendence of the Ego, pp. 43-5, 50.
1 12. Ibid., p. 45.
l B . For fuller discussion of the material in 29-30, see my 'Sartre,
intersubjectivity, and German idealism', Journal of the History of
Philosophy 43, 2005, 325-5 1 .
1 14. The account i n B&N o f the necessity o fthe body contrasts with its
semi-accidental status in The Transcendence of the Ego, pp. 40-1 ,
where the body is theorized only as a 'visible and tangible symbol
for the 1'.
1 1 5. Sartre's account does not, therefore, reduce to the view that
the body is to be identified unreservedly with an element of the
objective order, which is merely known in two different ways: see
Gareth Evans, The Varieties of Reference, ed. John McDowell
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 266n.
1 16. Sartre's conception of negativity as the essence (in a certain
sense) of freedom is re-expounded in his later, complex essay
'Cartesian freedom' (1945), which attempts to retrieve from
Descartes' conceptions of divine freedom the correct formula for
human freedom, viz. of 'negativity as productive' (p. 180).
1 17. The dissociation offreedom from will occurs in The Transcendence
of the Ego, pp. 47-8, The Imaginary, pp. 1 53-4, and War Diaries,
pp. 33-6.
1 18. Saint Genet, p. 584.
1 1 9. Marcel, 'Existence and human freedom', pp. 61-3.
120. Marcel seems to misunderstand Sartre in this way, 'Existence
and human freedom', pp. 46-9.
121. 1971 interview 'On The Idiot of the Family', p. 127.
122. In Sartre's many later comments on Freud, the tone is more con
ciliatory and the attitude more complex: see, e.g., 'The itinerary
of a thought' (1969), pp. 36-42.
123. See The Transcendence of the Ego, pp. 36-7.
124. See also the description of pure reflection in The Transcendence
of the Ego, pp. 41-2, 48-9.
125. Pure reflection is central to Sartre's Notebooks for an Ethics:
see esp. p. 5 and pp. 471-82; 'conversion may arise from the
perpetual failure of every one of the For-itself's attempts to
be' (p. 472). In Saint Genet we are given what seems to be an
account of the achievement: see the chapter 'My victory is ver
bal . . .', esp. pp. 577ff. See also Sartre's remarks in his 1971
interview 'On The Idiot of the Family', p. 1 22, which talks of
'nonaccessory' reflection as 'the critical work one can do on
oneself during one's entire life through praxis', rather than the
abrupt convulsion suggested in B&N. Beauvoir's The Ethics of
Ambiguity emphasizes the importance of radical conversion;
see ch. 1 .
126. 'Existence and human freedom', p . 64.
127. Existentialism and Humanism, p. 5 1 .
1 2 8 . Ibid., p p . 31-2, 51-2. See also What is Literature?, p p . 203-6,
where Sartre adopts Kant's language of the kingdom of ends and
notion of the good will, confining his disagreement with Kant to
the question of their conditions of realization.
129. Existentialism and Humanism, p. 29.
1 30. See ibid., pp. 27-8, 33-4, and B&N 423/495.
1 3 1 . Arguably Kant himself is implicated here. See Notebooks for an
Ethics, p. 49, and the detailed critique of deontological concep
tions of value, pp. 246-58 and 469: obligation and duty comprise,
Sartre argues, an alienating mystification of freedom.
1 32. See in this connection The Transcendence of the Ego, pp. 16-21,
arguing that the impersonalization of the field of consciousness
undermines the idea of egoistic (amour p ropre -derived) motiv
ation employed in the moral psychology of French moralists
such as La Rochefoucauld.
1 33. A helpful account of the Notebooks for an Ethics is provided by
William McBride in Sartre's Political Theory (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1991), pp. 60-84.
134. See, e.g., Beauvoir's criticism of 'the nihilist attitude', The Ethics
of Ambiguity, p. 57, and of 'false objectivity', p. 1 57.
135. See, e.g., What is Literature?, pp. 23-5 note 4, and 'Kierkegaard:
the singular universal'. As Sartre put it later: 'Freedom is not a
triumph' ('The itinerary of a thought', p. 35).
136. Marcel, in 'Existence and human freedom', pp. 56-7, objects to
Sartre that we can only be condemned to freedom, if freedom is
a loss or deprivation. But this is exactly Sartre's position.
1 37. The Visible and the Invisible, pp. 68-9; and see pp. 74ff.
138. 'Conversations with Sartre' (1974), p. 435. Sartre describes B&N
as attempting to 'vindicate' this intuition (p. 437), through its
argument concerning the impossibility of an 'in-itself-for-itself.
1 39. Nausea, p. 185.
140. War Diaries, p. 108: 'the existence of morality, far from proving
God, keeps him at a distance'.
141 . See Christina Howells, 'Sartre and negative theology', Modern
Languages Review 76, 1981, 549-55.
142. God's existence is, as Sartre puts it, refused: see 'Materialism and
revolution', p. 187.
143. I discuss this issue further in 'Sartre, Schelling, and onto-theology',
Religious Studies 42, 2006, 247-71.
144. See Janicaud, Heidegger en France, vol. 1 , p. 79.
145. Showing how novel and promising a philosophical movement
existentialism appeared in the 1940s, see Wahl, 'The roots of
existentialism' (1949). A good sense of what Sartre's existential
ism amounted to as a cultural movement can be got by looking
at the art of the period and Sartre's involvement with it: see Paris
Post War: Art and Existentialism 1945-55, ed. Frances Morris
(London: Tate Gallery, 1993).
146. Levy, Sartre, pp. 17-38, gives a vivid account of Sartre's popular
ity and notoriety. See also Beauvoir, The Force of Circumstance,
pp. 38ff.
147. See Poster, Existential Marxism in Postwar France, pp. 109-12.
148. Thus in his reflections on 'The situation of the writer in 1947',
in What is Literature?, pp. 186ff., Sartre describes 'the politics of
Stalinist Communism' as 'incompatible with the honest practice of
the literary craft' (p. 189), and current Marxist theory as presup
posing 'a stupid determinism' and 'elementary scientism' (p. 194);
the (French) writer's task is to undo the current 'mystifications' of
Nazism, Gaullism, Catholicism and French communism (p. 21 1).
See also 'Materialism and revolution' (1946), esp. pp. 188-9, where
dialectical materialism is charged with eliminating subjectivity
and thus turning man into an object.
149. For biographical information concerning the early post-B&N
period, see Leak, Sartre, pp. 59ff., Cohen-Solal, Sartre, Part III,
and Hayman, Writing Against, chs. 15-18.
1 50. Also belonging to Sartre's defence of existentialism - specific
ally, against his Marxist critics - is 'Materialism and revolution'
1 5 1 . See also the remarks of Levy in Sartre, pp. 301-6.
1 52. The Second Sex, p. 295; see Gutting, French Philosophy in the
Twentieth Century, pp. 165-80. That in this work Beauvoir is
merely applying Sartre's ideas, without criticism or modifica
tion, may be contested: see Sonia Kruks, 'Simone de Beauvoir
and the limits of freedom', Social Text 17, 1987, 1 1 1-22.
153. See 'Existence and human freedom', pp. 33, 47, 49, 52, 53, 61.
1 54. In contrast with, especially, analytic-anglophone critiques of
Sartre, as noted below.
155. The doubt is well expressed by Levy in Sartre, pp. 199-200.
156. Several of Merleau-Ponty's criticisms of Sartre have been referred
to already: see notes 72, 88, 101.
1 57. The volume edited by Stewart, The Debate between Sartre and
Merleau-Ponty, contains the relevant primary texts relating to
the argument of Merleau-Ponty and Sartre, including Beauvoir's
counter-attack on Sartre's behalf (which accuses Merleau-Ponty
of fundamental misunderstandings of Sartre's position), as well
as helpful critical commentary. For a synoptic view of the issues,
see Margaret Whitford, 'Merleau-Ponty's critique of Sartre's
philosophy: an interpretative account', French Studies 33, 1 979,
305-18, reprinted in Stewart ed., or at greater length, Merleau
Ponty's Critique of Sartre's Philosophy (Lexington, Kentucky:
French Forum, 1982), and Monika Langer, 'Sartre and Merleau
Ponty: a reappraisal', in Schilpp ed., The Philosophy ofJean-Paul
Sartre, and reprinted in Stewart ed.
158. See Unforeseen History, Part 3.
1 59. See Levinas, Humanism of the Other, pp. 39-40 and 49-55. On
the relation of Sartre with Levinas, see Christina Howells, 'Sartre
and Levinas', in Robert Bernasconi and David Wood ed., The
Provocation ofLevinas: Rethinking the Other (London: Routledge
1988), and David Jopling, 'Levinas, Sartre, and understanding
the other', Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology, 24,
1 993, 214-3 1 .
160. The historical circumstance o f the Letter is relevant: Heidegger,
to whom a copy of B&N had been given in 1945, had written
to Sartre asking him to intervene on Heidegger's behalf in his
de-Nazification process. Sartre did not reply. On the Letter, see
Kleinberg, Generation Existential, pp. 184-99.
161. Letter, pp. 245ff.
162. Letter, p. 265; see pp. 263ff.
163. See Letter, pp. 245, 250.
164. See Letter, pp. 250-2.
165. The writings in question (by Henri Mougin," Henri Lefebvre and
Jean Kanapa, as well as Lukacs) are well discussed in Poster,
Existential Marxism in Postwar France, pp. 1 1 2-25.
166. See Marcuse, 'Existentialism', 329-30. Marcuse's charge is cer
tainly unjustified: stoic and Christian doctrine says that man can
achieve his telos, i.e. fulfil his freedom, independently of object
ive circumstance; Sartre says nothing of the sort.
167. See 'Existentialism', 322 and 334-5: 'philosophy does not possess
the conceptual instruments for comprehending' human exist
ence (334). Sartre's retort to Marcuse's historicist repudiation
of philosophy is, of course, to ask whence it derives, and how it
proposes to ground, the concept of freedom in the name of which
it condemns concrete social forms as unfree. In the Postscript
added later to the essay, Marcuse attributes to Sartre the trans
formation of philosophy into politics which he recommends,
but the evidence of the Critique counts decisively against this
interpretation.
168. 'An interview with Jean-Paul Sartre' (1975), pp. 9, 18, 23, 28-9,
169. 'Conversations with Jean-Paul Sartre' (1974), pp. 173, 410, and
'An interview with Jean-Paul Sartre' (1975), p. 9, 18.
170. 'The itinerary of a thought' (1969), pp. 41-2. In the 1972 inter
view in Sartre By Himse lf, p. 76, Sartre says that in B&N he 'tried
to offer a certain number of generalities about man's existence,
without taking into account the fact that that existence is always
situated historically'.
17 1 . 'Jean-Paul Sartre repond' (1966), p. 93; italics added.
172. 'The itinerary of a thought' (1969), pp. 34-5; italics added. Sartre
here describes himself as at the time of B&N in the grip of a
'myth of heroism' (p. 34), through which he had to, and has now,
passed, and as 'truly scandalised' (p. 33) by his own earlier state
ment that a man is always free to choose to be a traitor or not.
Equally forthright criticism of his earlier view of freedom is con
tained in the 1972 interview, Sartre By Himself, pp. 58-9.
173. 'L'anthropologie' (1966), pp. 86, 97; italics added. To understand
how the later Sartre himself conceives structures, see, in addition
to 'L'anthropologie', Critique of Dialectical Reason, vol. 1, bk. II,
ch. 3, sect. 3, esp. pp. 479-80, 487-91 .
174. 'The itinerary o f a thought' (1969), p . 64.
175. The explanandum of the Critique thus makes its project broader
than the Marxist project of understanding social conditions
qua alienating, the social experienced as objective power. For a
brief summary of the leading ideas of the Critique, see Thomas
R. Flynn, Sartre and Marxist Existentialism: The Test Case of
Collective Responsibility (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1 984), ch. 6, and Sartre's clear and succinct statements in the
interview 'The itinerary of a thought' (1969), pp. 51-6.
176. And it may be asked which philosopher has solved it on human
istically acceptable terms. Levy makes the relevant suggestion,
in Sartre, Part III, ch. 3 (pp. 381ff.), that there is in Sartre's
philosophical personality a second basic intuition and impetus,
distinct from that which animates B&N, which gives priority to
the experience of sociality and solidarity, and which gains the
upper hand in Sartre's later thinking.
177. 'Conversations with Jean-Paul Sartre' (1974), pp. 352-61 .
178. 'Conversations with Jean-Paul Sartre' (1974), pp. 358, 360, 361 .
Especially confusing is Sartre's claim that 'I say that freedom
represents something that doesn't exist but that gradually creates
itself' (p. 361). In the terms of B&N it should be said instead that
freedom exists already in the mode of the for-itself, and in add
ition may create itself gradually in a worldly form in so far as it is
realized in human conduct. See also Sartre's remarks on freedom
in a 1980 interview, Hope Now, p. 72.
179. 'Conversations with Jean-Paul Sartre' (1974), p. 354.
180. The literature on the advent of structuralism and post-structuralism
is extensive; for a clear, detailed account see Gutting, French
Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, Part III. Poster, Existential
Marxism in Postwar France, ch. 8, tracks the developments in
relation to Sartre's Marxism.
181. The Savage Mind, p. 249; the bulk of chapter 9 of this book is
directed against the later Sartre's conceptions of history and dia
lectical reason.
182. See The Order of Things, ch. 9, esp. pp. 324-6 (regarding the fail
ure of phenomenology), and pp. 36lff. (regarding the primacy
of the non-conscious), and 'Truth and power' (1977), pp. 1 16-17:
'One has to dispense with the constituent subject, to get rid of the
subject itself, even the historicized subject of Sartre's Critique.
Summarizing the disagreement and documenting the mutual
criticism of Sartre and Foucault, see Thomas R. Flynn, Sartre,
Foucault, and Historical Reason, 1: Toward an Existentialist Theory
ofHistory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), ch. 10.
183. Derrida's 1 968 lecture, 'The ends of man', condemns Sartre's
'humanist distortion' and 'anthropological misinterpretation' of
Heidegger, and indeed also of Hegel and Husserl (39): Sartre had
'not even been able to take account of the very first paragraphs'
of Being and Time (38). The deconstructive change of philosoph
ical key does not entail an abandonment of Sartre's philosophical
preoccupations, however, as the Derridean treatment of the
great Sartrean theme of freedom in Nancy's The Experience of
Freedom shows. The degree to which deconstruction has none
theless transformed the ground-rules of philosophical discourse
is shown by Nancy's discussion of Sartre, pp. 96-105, where
Sartrean freedom is dissociated from all ideas of causality and
possibility of action, and described as positively resistant to
(conceptual) representation. For reasons given earlier, in 36, it
is partly understandable why Nancy should take this line, but
from Sartre's standpoint the position that results amounts to a
denial of the reality of freedom.
184. See Kleinberg, Generation Existential, ch. 5, and Rockmore,
Heidegger and French Philosophy, chs. 5-7. Sartre comments crit
ically on the structuralist development (Levi-Strauss, Foucault,
Lacan, Althusser) in the 1966 interview 'Jean-Paul Sartre repond';
see also 'L'anthropologie' (1966).
185. Unforeseen History, p. 97.
186. 'Jiirgen Habermas on the Legacy of Jean-Paul Sartre', in Political
Theory vol. 20, no. 3, August 1992, 496-501 , pp. 498-9 ['Rencontre
de Sartre', Les Temps modernes 46, June 1991, 1 54-60].
1 87. The view of Sartre as a proto-postmodernist may be found, in
differing forms, in Christina Howells, 'Conclusion: Sartre and
the deconstruction of the subject', in Howells ed., The Cambridge
Companion to Sartre, Nik Farrell Fox, The New Sartre:
Explorations in Postmodernism (London: Continuum, 2003),
Introduction and ch. 1, and Peter Burger, Sartre. Eine Philosophie
des Als-ob (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2007), ch. 2. Biirger claims
Sartre as a thinker who in the course of his development comes
to give answers to questions later formulated by postmodern
authors (p. 26). A cautious case for regarding Sartre as conver
ging with structuralism (though not with post-structuralism) is
made by Peter Caws in 'Sartrean structuralism?', in Howells ed.,
The Cambridge Companion to Sartre.
188. The situation becomes especially hard to understand when it is
suggested that postmodernism, faced with its own aporiae, needs
to return to Sartre: see, e.g., Biirger, Sartre, pp. 1 5-18.
189. I have spoken of 'the postmodern subject' as if there were a single
such thing conceptually. It is doubtful in fact that the negations
of the subject in Foucault, Lacan, Derrida, Deleuze and so on
are all of a piece, but I am simply following the terms of discus
sion employed by those who wish to postmodernize Sartre.
190. See, as especially worthwhile: Phyllis Morris' early book, Sartre's
Concept of the Person: An Analytic Approach, the discussions of
perception in McCulloch, Using Sartre, and Moran's reflections
on Sartre's understanding of self-knowledge in Authority and
Estrangement.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUGG ESTIONS FOR
FURTHER READ I N G
WRITINGS OF SARTRE
By date of original publication by Sartre or, if published posthumously,
of composition.
'The legend of truth', in The Writings of lean-Paul Sartre,
Volume 2: Selected Prose, ed. Michel Contat and Michel
Rybalka, trans. Richard McCleary (Evanston, Illinois:
Northwestern University Press, 1974) ['Ugende de la
verite', in Les tcrits de Sartre. Chronologie, bibliographie
commentee, ed. Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka (Paris:
Gallimard, 1970)].
'Motion picture art', in The Writings of lean-Paul Sartre,
Northwestern University Press, 1974) ['L'Art cinemato
graphique', in Les tcrits de Sartre. Chronologie, bibliographie
Imagination: A Psychological Critique, trans. Forrest
Williams (Ann Arbour: University of Michigan Press,
1962) [L'Imagination (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1936)].
1936-37 The Transcendence of the Ego: A Sketch for a Phenome
nological Description, trans. Andrew Brown, intro.
Sarah Richmond (London: Routledge, 2004); also The
Transcendence of the Ego: An Existentialist Theory of
Consciousness, trans. and ed. Forrest Williams and Robert
Kirkpatrick (New York: Noonday, 1957) ['La Transcendance
de l'ego. Esquisse d'une description phenomenologique'.
Recherches philosophiques 6, 1936-37, 85-123].
Nausea, trans. Robert Baldick (Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1965) [La Nausee (Paris:Gallimard, 1938)].
'Faces', in The Writings of lean-Paul Sartre. Volume 2:
Selected Prose, ed. Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka,
trans. Richard McCleary (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern
University Press, 1974) ['Visages', in Les tcrits de Sartre.
Chronologie. bibliographie commentee, ed. Michel Contat
and Michel Rybalka (Paris: Gallimard, 1970)].
'Intentionality: a fundamental idea of Husserl's phenomen
ology', trans. Joseph P. Fell, lournal of the British Society
for Phenomenology 1, no. 2, 1970, 4-5; reprinted in Dermot
Moran and Timothy Mooney eds., The Phenomenology
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER R EADING
Reader (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 382-4 ['Une
idee fondamentale de la p benomenologie de Husserl:
l'intentionnalite', in Situations I (Paris: Gallimard,
1 947)].
Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions, trans. Philip Mairet
(London: Methuen, 1971) [Esquisse d'une theorie des emo
tions (Paris: Hermann, 1 939)].
1939-40 War Diaries: Notebooksfrom a Phoney War November 1939March 1940, trans. Quintin Hoare (London: Verso, 1 984)
[Les Carnets de fa drole de guerre: novembre 1939-mars 1940
(Paris: Gallimard 1983); 2nd and expanded edn, Carnets
de la drole de guerre: septembre 1939-mars 1940 (Paris:
The Imaginary, trans. Jonathan Webber (London:
Routledge, 2004); or, The Psychology of Imagination, trans.
Bernard Frechtman (London: Methuen, 1972) [L'Imaginaire.
Psychologie phenomenologique de ['imagination (Paris:
Gallimard, 1 940)].
Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological
Ontology (first published, London: Methuen & Co, 1958;
currently in print, London: Routledge, 1995) [L'Etre
et Ie neant. Essai d'ontologie phenomenologique (Paris:
No Exit: A Play in One Act, trans. Paul Bowles (New York:
Samuel French, 1958) (also titled, in a different translation, In
Camera) [Huis clos, piece en un acte (paris: Gallimard, 1945)].
'Cartesian freedom', in Literary and Philosophical Essays,
trans. Annette Michelson (London: Hutchinson, 1 968)
['La Liberte cartesienne', in Situations I (Paris: Gallimard,
Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Philip Mairet
. (London: Methuen, 1 973) [L'Existentialisme est un human
isme (Paris: E ditions Nagel, 1 946)].
'Materialism and revolution', in Literary and Philosophical
Essays, trans. Annette Michelson (London: Hutchinson,
1968) ['Materialisme et revolution', in Situations III (Paris:
Baudelaire, trans. Martin Turnell (London: Horizon, 1 949)
[Baudelaire (Paris: Point du Jour, 1 946)].
Anti-Semite and Jew, trans. George 1. Becker (New York:
Schocken Books, 1 948) [Reflexions sur la question juive
(Paris: Morihien, 1946)].
1947-48 Notebooks for an Ethics, trans. David Pellauer (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1 992) [Cahiers pour une morale
(Paris: Gallimard, 1983)].
'Consciousness of self and knowledge of self', trans.
Mary Ellen and Nathaniel Lawrence, in Nathaniel
Lawrence and Daniel O'Connor eds., Readings in Existential
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
Phenomenology (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice
Hall, 1967) ['Conscience de soi et connaissance de soi',
Bulletin de la Societe franfaise de la philosophie 42, no. 3,
April-June 1948, 49-91].
Truth and Existence, trans. Adrian van den Hoven (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1992) [ Verite et existence,
ed. Arlette Elkaim-Sartre (Paris: Gallimard, 1989)].
What is Literature?, trans. Bernard Frechtman (London:
Methuen, 1967) ['Qu'est-ce que la litterature?', in Situations
II (Paris: Gallimard, 1 948)].
Saint Genet: Actor and Martyr, trans. Bernard Frechtman
(New York: Braziller, 1963) [Saint Genet, comedien et mar
tyr (Paris: Gallimard, 1952)].
1958-60 The Freud Scenario, trans. Quintin Hoare, ed. J.-B. Pontalis
(London: Verso, 1985) [Le Scenario Freud (Paris: Gallimard,
1984)].
1958-62 Critique of Dialectical Reason, Volume 2: The Intelligibility
of History, ed. Arlette Elkaim-Sartre, trans. Quintin Hoare
(London: Verso, 1 991) [Critique de la raison dialectique.
2: L'Intelligibilite de l'histoire, ed. Arlette Elkaim-Sartre
Critique ofDialectical Reason, Volume 1: Theory ofPractical
Ensembles, trans. Alan Sheridan-Smith, ed. Jonathan Ree
(London: Verso, 1982) [Critique de la raison dialectique. 1:
Theorie des ensembles pratiques, precede de Questions de
methode (Paris: Gallimard, 1960)].
'Kierkegaard: the singular universal', in Between
Existentialism and Marxism, trans. John Matthews (London:
Verso, 1983) ['L'Universel singulier', in Situations IX (Paris:
Gallimard, 1972), pp. 1 52-90].
'L'anthropologie', in Situations IX (Paris: Gallimard, 1972).
'The man with the tape-recorder', in Between Existentialism
and Marxism, trans. John Matthews (London: Verso, 1983);
and in Modern Times: Selected Non-Fiction, ed. Geoffrey
Wall, trans. Robin Buss (Penguin: Harmondsworth, 2000)
['L'Homme au magnetophone', in Situations IX (Paris:
1971-72 The Family Idiot: Gustave Flaubert, 1821-1857, 5 vols., trans.
Carol Cosman (Chicago and London: University of Chicago
Press, 1981-93) [L'Idiot de la famille: Gustave Flaubert de
1821 a 1857, 3 vols. (Paris: Gallimard, 1971-72)].
An annotated bibliography of Sartre's writings up until 1969 is pro
vided by Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka in The Writings of
Jean-Paul Sartre (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press,
1973) [Les Ecrits de Sartre. Chronologie, bibliographie commentee, ed.
Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka (Paris: Gallimard, 1970)]. The
bibliography is updated by Contat and Rybalka in Magazine litteraire,
nos. 103-4, 1975, 9-49; by Michel Sciard, in Obliques, nos. 18-19,
May 1979, 331-47; and by Contat and Rybalka in Sartre: Bibliography
1980-1992 (Bowling Green, Ohio: Philosophy Documentation Center,
Bowling Green State University, 1993) [Sartre. Bibliographie 19801992 (Paris: CNRS Editions, 1993)].
COLLECTIONS OF SARTRE'S WRITINGS
Selections from Sartre's philosophical writings, organized thematic
ally and drawn substantially from B&N, are contained in Jean-Paul
Sartre: Basic Writings ed. Stephen Priest (London: Routledge, 2001).
Older collections of the same sort are The Philosophy of Jean-Paul
Sartre, ed. Robert Denoon Cumming (London: Methuen, 1965), and
Jean-Paul Sartre: The Philosophy of Existentialism, ed. Wade Baskin
(New York: Philosophical Library, 1965).
Sartre's shorter writings are published in Situations, 10 vols. (Paris:
Gallimard, 1947-72):
Situations 1. Critiques litteraires (Paris: Gallimard, 1947).
Situations II. (Paris: Gallimard, 1949).
Situations III. (Paris: Gallimard, 1949).
Situations IV. Portraits (Paris: Gallimard, 1964).
Situations V. Colonialisme et neo-colonialisme (Paris: Gallimard,
Situations VI. Problemes du marxisme, 1 (Paris: Gallimard, 1964).
Situations VII. Problemes du marxisme, 2 (Paris: Gallimard, 1965).
Situations VIII. Autour de 68 (Paris: Gallimard, 1972).
Situations IX Melanges (Paris: Gallimard, 1972).
Situations X Politique et autobiographie (Paris: Gallimard, 1976).
Collections of Sartre's shorter writings in English translation:
- Between Existentialism and Marxism, trans. John Matthews
(London: Verso, 1983) [from Situations VIII and Situations IX].
- Essays in Aesthetics, ed. Wade Baskin (New York: Washington
Square Press, 1966) [from Situations III and IV].
- Literary and Philosophical Essays, trans. Annette Michelson
(London: Hutchinson, 1955) [from Situations I and Situations III] .
- Modern Times: Selected Non-Fiction, ed. Geoffrey Wall, trans.
Robin Buss (Penguin: Harmondsworth, 2000) [from Situations
II-VI and IX, with extracts from Sartre's books and j ournalism].
- Sartre in the Seventies: Interviews and Essays, trans. Paul Auster
and Lydia Davis (London: Andre Deutsch, 1 978) [Situations X].
- Selected Prose (The Writings of Jean-Paul Sartre, Volume 2), ed.
Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka, trans. Richard McCleary
(Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1974) [Les Ecrits
de Sartre. Chronologie, bibliographie commentee, ed. Michel Contat
- Situations, trans. Benita Eisler (New York: Brazilier, 1965)
[Situations IV].
B IBUOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
I NTERVIEWS WITH SARTRE
By date of interview.
'The purposes of writing', interview with Madeleine
Chapsal, in Between Existentialism and Marxism, trans.
John Matthews (London: Verso, 1 983) ['Les Ecrivains en
personne', in Situations IX (Paris: Gallimard, 1972)].
'Jean-Paul Sartre ft!pond', interview with Bernard Pingaud,
L'Arc (special issue: Sartre aujourd' hut), no. 30, 1966, 87-97.
'The itinerary of a thought', New Left Review 58, 1969,
43-66, reprinted in Between Existentialism and Marxism,
trans. John Matthews (London: Verso, 1 983) ['Sartre par
Sartre', in Situations IX (Paris: Gallimard, 1972)].
'On The Idiot of the Family', interview with Michel Contat
and Michel Rybalka, in Sartre, Life/Situations: Essays
Written and Spoken, ed. Paul Auster and Lydia Davies
(New York: Pantheon, 1 977) [Le Monde 14 May 1971].
Sartre By Himself, interviews incorporated in the transcript
of a documentary film directed by Alexandre Astruc and
Michel Contat, trans. Richard Seaver (New York: Urizen,
1978) [Sartre. Unfilm ;ealise par A lexandre Astruc et Michel
Con tat (Paris: Gallimard, 1977)].
'Conversations with Jean-Paul Sartre: August-September
1974', in Simone de Beauvoir, Adieux: A Farewell to Sartre,
trans. Patrick O'Brian (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981)
['Entretiens avec Jean-Paul Sartre. Aout-septembre 1974',
in La Ceremonie des adieux (Paris: Gallimard, 1981)].
'Self-portrait at seventy', interview with Michel Contat,
in Sartre, Life/Situations: Essays Written and Spoken, ed.
Paul Auster and Lydia Davies (New York: Pantheon, 1977)
['Autoportrait a soixante-dix ans', in Situations X].
'An interview with Jean-Paul Sartre', with Michel Ryba1ka,
Oreste Pucciani and Susan Gruenheck, in Paul Arthur
Schilpp ed., The Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre (La Salle,
Illinois: Open Court, 1981).
'An interview with Jean-Paul Sartre', with Leo Fretz, in
Hugh J. Silverman and Frederick A. Elliston, eds., Jean
Paul Sartre: Contemporary Approaches to His Philosophy
(Brighton: Harvester, 1 980).
Hope Now, interviews with Benny Levy, trans. Adrian van der
Hoven (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996) [L'Espoir
maintenant. Les entretiens de 1980 (Lagasse: Verdier, 1991)].
SARTRE'S LETTERS TO BEAUVOIR
Witness to My Life: The Letters oflean-Paul Sartre to Simone
de Beauvoir 1926-1939, ed. Simone de Beauvoir, trans. Lee
Fahnenstock and Norman MacAfee (London: Hamish
Hamilton, 1992) [Lettres au Castor et a quelques autres 1.
1926-1939, ed. Simone de Beauvoir (Paris: Gallimard,
1940-63 Quiet Moments in a War: The Letters of Jean-Paul Sartre
to Simone de Beauvoir 1940-1963, ed. Simone de Beauvoir,
trans. Lee Fahnenstock and Norman MacAfee (London:
Hamish Hamilton, 1994) [Lettres au Castor et a quelques
autres 2. 1940-1963, ed. Simone de Beauvoir (Paris:
Gallimard, 1983)).
WRITINGS OF OTH ER PH ILOSOPHERS REFERRED TO
Beauvoir, Simone de, The Ethics of Ambiguity (1947), trans. Bernard
Frechtman (New York: Citadel Press, 1996) [Pour une morale de
l 'ambigui'te (Paris Gallimard, 1947)].
Beauvoir, Simone de, The Second Sex (1949), trans. and ed. H. M.
Parshley (London: Vintage, 1997) [Le Deuxieme Sexe, 2 vols. (Paris:
Beauvoir, Simone de, Force of Circumstance (1963), trans. Richard
Howard (London: Andre DeutschlWeidenfeld and Nicholson,
1965) [La Force des choses (Paris: Gallimard, 1963)].
Derrida, Jacques, 'The ends of man' (1968), trans. Edouard Morot-Sir
et aI., Philosophy andPhenomenological Research 30, 1969, 31-57;
reprinted in Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1982) [Marges de la philosophie (Paris:
Minuit, 1972)].
Foucault, Michel, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human
Sciences (1966) (London: Tavistock Publications, 1970) [Les Mots et
les choses. Une archeologie des sciences humaines (Paris: Gallimard,
Foucault, Michel, 'Truth and power' (1977), in Power/Knowledge:
Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon
(New York: Pantheon, 1980) [ Verite et pouvoir', L'Arc 70, 1977,
16-26].
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, Phenomenology of Spirit (1807),
trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977)
[Phiinomenologie des Geistes (Bamberg and Wiirzburg: Geobhardt,
Heidegger, Martin, Being and Time (1927), trans. John Macquarrie
and Edward Robinson (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978) [Sein und
Zeit (Halle: Niemayer, 1927)).
Heidegger, Martin, What is Metaphysics? (1929), in Pathmarks, ed.
William McNeill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)
[Was ist Metaphysik? (Bonn: Friedrich Cohen, 1929)].
Heidegger, Martin, Letter on 'Humanism' (1947), trans. Frank A.
Capuzzi, in Pathmarks, ed. William McNeill (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998) [Brief fiber den 'Humanismus'
(Bern: A. Francke Verlag, 1947)].
BIBUOG RAPHY AND FURTHER READING
Husser!, Edmund, Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to
Phenomenology (1931), trans. Dorion Cairns (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1960) [Meditations cartesiennes. Introduction a
la phenomenologie, trans. Gabrielle Peiffer and Emmanuel Levinas
(Paris: Armand Collin, 1931)].
Jacobi, Johann Friedrich, The Main Philosophical Writings and the
Novel Allwill, trans. and ed. George di Giovanni (Montreal &
Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994).
Kierkegaard, SflJren, Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical
Fragments: A Mimetic-Pathetic-Dialectic Compilation, An Exist
ential Plea, by Johannes Climacus (1846), trans. David F. Swenson
and Walter Lowrie (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1 968)
[Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift til de philosophiske Smuler.
Mimisk-pathetisk-dialektisk Sammenskrift, existentielt Indlag, af
Johannes Climacus (Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel, 1846)].
Kojeve, Alexandre, An Introduction to the Reading ofHegel: Lectures on
the Phenomenology of Spirit assembled by Raymond Queneau (1947),
ed. Alan Bloom, trans. James H. Nichols, Jr. (New York: Basic Books,
1969) [Introduction a la lecture de Hegel. Le90ns sur laphenomenologie
de ['esprit professees de 1933 a 1939 a l'Ecole des Hautes-Etudes reunies
et publiees par Raymond Queneau (Paris: Gallimard, 1947).
Levinas, Emmanuel, Unforeseen History (essays 1929-92), trans. Nidra
Poller (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004) [Les Imprevus de
l ' histoire (Saint-Clement-la-Riviere: Fata Morgana, 1994)].
Levinas, Emmanuel, The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's
Phenomenology (1930), trans. Andre Orianne (Evanston, Illinois:
Northwestern University Press, 1973) [Theorie de I'intuition dans la
phenomenologie de Husserl (Paris: Vrin, 1930)].
Levinas, Emmanuel, Totality and Infinity: Essay on Exteriority (1961),
trans. Alphonso Lingis (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press!
The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1969) [Totalite et infini: essai sur
l 'exteriorite (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1961)].
Levinas, Emmanuel, Humanism of the Other (essays 1964-70),
trans. Nidra Poller (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006)
[Humanisme de l'autre homme (Saint-Clement-la-Riviere: Fata
Morgana, 1972)].
Levi-Strauss, Claude, The Savage Mind (1962), trans. John Weightman
and Doreen Weightman (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966)
[La Pensee sauvage (Paris: PIon, 1962)].
Lukacs, Gyorgy, Existentialisme ou marxisme? (1948), trans. (from the
Hungarian) E. Kelemen (Paris: E ditions Nagel, 1961).
Marcel, Gabriel, 'Existence and human freedom' (1946), in The
Philosophy of Existence, trans. Manya Harari (London: Harvill,
1948) ['L'Existence et la liberte humaine chez Jean-Paul Sartre',
in Les grands appels de l ' homme contemporain (Paris: Editions du
Temps Present, 1946).
Marcuse, Herbert, 'Existentialism: remarks on Jean-Paul Sartre's
L'Etre et Ie neant' (1948), Philosophy and Phenomenological Research
8, 1948, 309-36; reprinted with Postscript as 'Sartre's existen
tialism', in From Luther to Popper, trans. Joris de Bres (London:
Verso, 1983), and as 'Existentialismus: Bemerkungen zu Jean-Paul
Sartres L'Etre et Ie neant', in Kultur und Gesellschaft 2 (Frankfurt:
Suhrkamp, 1968).
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, Phenomenology of Perception (1945), trans.
Colin Smith (Routledge, 1962) [Phenomenologie de Ia perception
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, Adventures ofthe Dialectic (1955), trans. Joseph
Bien (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973) [Les Aventures
de la dialectique (Paris: Gallimard, 1955)].
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, The Visible and the Invisible (1959-61), trans.
Alfonso Lingis (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964) [Le
Visible et ['invisible, ed. Claude Lefort (Paris: Gallimard, 1964)].
Nancy, Jean-Luc, The Experience of Freedom (1988), trans. Bridget
McDonald (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1993)
[L'Experience de la liberte (Paris: Galilee, 1988)].
Wahl, Jean, Vers Ie concreto Etudes d' histoire de la philosophie contem
poraine (Paris: Vrin, 1932).
Wahl, Jean, 'The roots of existentialism' (1949), in Jean-Paul Sartre:
The Philosophy of Existentialism, ed. Wade Baskin (New York:
Philosophical Library, 1965), pp. 3-28, trans. Forrest Williams and
Stanley Maron; reprinted from A Short History of Existentialism
(New York: Philosophical Library, 1 949) [Esquisse pour une his
toire de '['existentialisme'. Suivie de Kafka et Kierkegaard (Paris:
L'Arche, 1949).].
BIOGRAPHI ES OF SARTRE
Cohen-Solal, Annie, Sartre: A Life, trans. Anna Cancogni (London:
Minerva, 1 987) [Sartre (Paris: GaIIimard, 1985)].
Hayman, Ronald, Writing Against: A Biography of Sartre (London:
Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1986); also as Sartre: A Life (New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1987) and Sartre: A Biography (New York:
Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1992).
Leak, Andrew, Jean-Paul Sartre (London: Reaktion, 2006).
Levy, Bernard-Henri, Sartre: The Philosopher of the Twentieth
Century, trans. Andrew Brown (Oxford: Polity, 2003) [Le Siecle de
Sartre. Enquete philosophique (Paris: Grasset & FasqueIIe, 2000)].
STUDIES OF TWENTI ETH-CENTU RY FRENCH
PHILOSOPHY AN D TH E I NTELLECTUAL CONTEXT OF
Baugh, Bruce, French Hegel: From Surrealism to Postmodernism
(London: Routledge, 2003).
Descombes, Vincent, Modern French Philosophy, trans. L. Scott-Fox
and J. M. Harding (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980)
[Le Meme et ['autre (Paris: Minuit, 1979)].
Gutting, Gary, French Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001).
Janicaud, Dominique, Heidegger en France, 2 vols., I Redt (Paris:
Albin Michel, 2001).
Kelly, Michael, Hegel in France (Birmingham: University of
Birmingham, 1992).
Kleinberg, Ethan, Generation Existential: Heidegger's Philosophy in
France, 1927-1961 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005).
Levy, Bernard-Henri, Adventures on the Freedom Road: The French
Intellectuals in the 20th Century, trans. Richard Veasey (London:
Harvill, 1995) [Les Aventures de la liberte. Une histoire subjective des
intellectuels (Paris: Grasset, 1991)].
Poster, Mark, Existential Marxism in Postwar France: From Sartre to
Althusser (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975).
Rockmore, Tom, Heidegger and French Philosophy: Humanism, Anti
Humanism, and Being (London: Routledge, 1995).
STUDIES OF SARTRE'S PHILOSOPHY - BOOKS AN D
COLLECTIONS CONTAINING DISCUSSION OF
Caws, Peter, Sartre (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979).
Danto, Arthur, Sartre (London: Fontana/Collins, 1975).
Howells, Christina, Sartre: The Necessity of Freedom (Cambridge:
Howells, Christina, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Sartre
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
Jeanson, Francis, Sartre and the Problem of Morality, trans. Robert V.
Stone (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980) [Le Probleme
moral et la pensee de Sartre. Lettre-preface de lean-Paul Sartre. Suivi
de Un quidam nomme Sartre (1965) (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1966)].
Manser, Anthony, Sartre: A Philosophic Study (New York: Oxford
McCulloch, Gregory, Using Sartre: An Analytical Introduction to
Early Sartrean Themes (London: Routledge, 1994).
Morris, Katherine 1., Sartre (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008).
Morris, Phyllis Sutton, Sartre's Concept of the Person: An Analytic
Approach (Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press,
Murdoch, Iris, Sartre, Romantic Rationalist (Glasgow: Fontana/
Collins, 1967).
Reisman, David, Sartre's Phenomenology (London: Continuum,
Renaut, Alain, Sartre, Ie Dernier Philosophe (Paris: Grasset, 1993).
Schilpp, Paul Arthur ed., The Philosophy oflean-Paul Sartre (LaSalle,
I llinois: Open Court, 1981).
Schumacher, Bernard N. ed., Das Sein und das Nichts (Berlin:
Akademie Verlag, 2003).
Silverman, Hugh J. and Frederick A. Elliston eds., lean-Paul Sartre:
Contemporary Approaches to His Philosophy (Brighton: Harvester,
Stern, Alfred, Sartre: His Philosophy and Existential Psychoanalysis
(London: Vision, 1968).
Stewart, Jon, ed., The Debate between Sartre and Merleau-Ponty
(Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1998).
Warnock, Mary, The Philosophy of Sartre (London: Hutchinson,
1 965).
Wider, Kathleen, The Bodily Nature of Consciousness: Sartre and
Contemporary Philosophy of Mind (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1997).
STUDIES OF BEING AND NOTHINGNESS
Catalano, Joseph S., A Commentary on lean-Paul Sartre's Being and
Nothingness (Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1974).
Hartmann, Klaus, Sartre's Ontology: A Study of Being and
Nothingness in the Light of Hegel's Logic (Evanston, Illinois:
Northwestern University Press, 1966).
Kremer Marietti, Angele, lean-Paul Sartre et Ie desir d'etre. Une lec
ture de L'ttre et Ie neant (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2005).
Natanson, Maurice, A Critique of lean-Paul Sartre's Ontology (New
York: Haskell, 1972).
Seel, Gerhard, La Dialectique de Sartre, trans. E. Muller, Ph. Muller
and M. Reinhardt (Lausanne: L'Age de I'Homme, 1 995). A transla
tion, expanded and revised, of Sartres Dialektik. Zur Methode und
Begriindung seiner Philosophie unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung
der Subjekts-, Zeit- und Werttheorie (Bonn: Bouvier, 1971).
READING BY TOPIC
I have included some chapters and papers from the works listed
above under 'Studies of Sartre's philosophy'. The relevant chapters
and sections from the works listed above under 'Studies of Being and
Nothingness' should also be consulted.
Ontology and metaphysics
Aquila, Richard, 'Two problems of being and nonbeing in Sartre's
Being and Nothingness', Philosophy. and Phenomenological Research
38, 1977, 167-86.
Barnes, Hazel, 'Sartre as materialist', in Schilpp ed., The Philosophy
of lean-Paul Sartre.
Barnes, Hazel, 'Sartre's ontology: the revealing and making of being',
in Howells ed., The Cambridge Companion to Sartre.
and J. M. Harding (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980),
BI BLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
Frank, Manfred, 'Schelling and Sartre on being and nothingness',
trans. Judith Norman, in Judith Norman and Alistair Welchman
eds., The New Schelling (London: Continuum, 2004).
Gardner, Sebastian, 'Sartre, Schelling, and onto-theology', Religious
Studies 42, 2006, 247-71 .
McCulloch, Gregory, Using Sartre, chs. 6-7.
Pettit, Philip, 'Sartre and Parmenides', Philosophical Studies 17, 1968,
van de Pitte, M. M., 'Sartre as a transcendental realist', Journal of the
British Society for Phenomenology 1, 1970, 22-6.
Richmond, Sarah, 'Sartre and Bergson: a disagreement about nothing
ness', International Journal of Philosophical Studies 15, 2007, 77-95.
Consciousness and the self
Henrich, Dieter, 'Self-consciousness: a critical introduction to a the
ory', Man and World 4, 197 1 , 3-28.
Kenevan, Phyllis Berdt, 'Self-consciousness and the ego in the philoso
phy of Sartre', in Schilpp ed., The Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre.
Longuenesse, Beatrice, 'Self-consciousness and self-reference: Sartre
and Wittgenstein', European Journal of Philosophy 16, 2008, 1-21.
Moran, Richard, Authority and Estrangement: An Essay on Self
Knowledge (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
2001), ch. 3 and sect. 4.7.
Morris, Phyllis Sutton, Sartre's Concept of the Person, ch. 2.
Reisman, David, Sartre's Phenomenology, chs. 1-3.
Critique of Freud
Brown, Lee, and Alan Hausman, 'Mechanism, intentionality and the
unconscious: a comparison of Sartre and Freud', in Schilpp ed.,
The Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre.
Gardner, Sebastian, Irrationality and the Philosophy ofPsychoanalysis
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), ch. 2.
Howells, Christina, 'Sartre and Freud', French Studies 33, 1979, 157-76.
Neu, Jerome, 'Divided minds: Sartre's "bad faith" critique of Freud',
Review of Metaphysics 42, 1988-89, 79-10 1 .
SolI, Ivan, 'Sartre's rejection o f the Freudian unconscious', i n Schilpp
ed., The Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre.
Relation to the Other
Aquila, Richard, 'Sartre's other and the field of consciousness: a
Husserlian reading', European Journal of Philosophy 6, 1998, 253-76.
Gardner, Sebastian, 'Sartre, intersubjectivity, and German idealism',
Journal of the History of Philosophy 43, 2005, 325-5 1 .
Honneth, Axel, 'Erkennen und Anerkennen: zu Sartres Theorie der
Intersubjectivitat', in Unsichtbarkeit: Stationen einer Theorie der
Intersubjektivitiit (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 2003).
BIBLIOG RAPHY AND FURTH ER READING
Natanson, Maurice, 'The problem of others in Being and Nothingness',
in Schilpp ed., The Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre.
Reginster, Bernard, 'Le regard et l'alienation dans L'Etre et Ie neant',
Revue Philosophique de Louvain, 105, 2007, 398-427.
Reisman, David, Sartre's Phenomenology, ch. 4.
Sacks, Mark, 'Sartre, Strawson and others', Inquiry 48, 2005, 275-99.
Schroeder, William Ralph, Sartre and His Predecessors: the Self and
the Other (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984), esp. ch. 4.
Theunissen, Michael, The Other: Studies in the Social Ontology of
Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, and Buber, trans. Christopher Macann
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986), ch. 6.
Williams, Robert R., Hegel 's Ethics of Recognition (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2000),pp. 371-80.
Dillon, Martin C., 'Sartre on the phenomenal body and Merleau
Ponty's critique', in Stewart ed., The Debate between Sartre and
Merleau-Ponty.
Monasterio, Xavier 0., 'The body in Being and Nothingness', in
Silverman and Elliston eds., Jean- Paul Sartre.
Morris, Katherine J., Sartre, ch. 5.
Freedom and motivation
Baldwin, Thomas, 'The original choice in Sartre and Kant',
Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 80, 1979-80, 31-44.
Blair, R. G., 'Imagination and freedom in Spinoza and Sartre', Journal
of the British Society for Phenomenology 1, 1970, 1 3-16.
Compton, John 1., 'Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, and human freedom', in
Stewart ed., The Debate between Sartre and Merleau-Ponty.
Fell, Joseph P., 'Sartre's theory of motivation: some clarifications',
Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology 1 , 1970, 27-34.
Flynn, Thomas R., Sartre and Marxist Existentialism (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1984), ch. 1 .
Jopling, David, 'Sartre's moral psychology', i n Howells ed., The
Cambridge Companion to Sartre.
Olson, Robert G., 'The three theories of motivation in the philosophy
of Jean-Sartre', Ethics 66, 1956, 176-87.
Stewart, Jon, 'Merleau-Ponty's criticisms of Sartre's theory of
freedom', in Stewart ed., The Debate between Sartre and Merleau
Ponty.
Warnock, Mary, 'Freedom in the early philosophy of J.-P. Sartre',
in Ted Honderich ed., Essays on Freedom of Action (London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973).
Perna, Maria Antonetta, 'Bad faith and self-deception: reconstruct
ing the Sartrean perspective', Journal of the British Society for
Phenomenology 34, 2003, 22-44.
McCulloch, Gregory, Using Sartre, ch. 4.
Morris, Phyllis S., 'Self-deception: Sartre's resolution of the paradox',
in Silverman and Elliston eds., Jean-Paul Sartre.
Stone, Robert V., 'Sartre on bad faith and authenticity', in Schilpp ed.,
Webber, Jonathan, 'Sartre's Theory of Character', European Journal
of Philosophy 14, 2006, 94-1 16.
Anderson, Thomas C., Sartre's TWo Ethics: From Authenticity to
Integral Humanity (LaSalle, Illinois: Open Court, 1993), chs. 1-5.
Baiasu, Sorin, 'The anxiety of influence: Sartre's search for an eth
ics and Kant's moral theory', Sartre Studies International 9, 2003,
Baldwin, Thomas, 'Sartre, existentialism and humanism', in Godfrey
Vesey ed., Philosophers Ancient and Modern (Cambridge: Cambridge
Bell, Linda A., Sartre's Ethics of Authenticity (Tuscaloosa: University
of Alabama Press, 1989).
Foulk, Gary J., 'Plantinga's criticisms of Sartre's ethics', Ethics 82,
1972, 330-3.
Jeanson, Francis, Sartre and the Problem of Morality, pt. 3, ch. 3.
Kerner, George C., Three Philosophical Moralists: Mill, Kant, and
Sartre (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pt. III.
P1antinga, Alvin, 'An existentialist's ethics', Review of Metaphysics 12,
1958, 235-56.
Renaut, Alain, Sartre, Ie Dernier Philosophe, Part 3.
Robbins, C. W., 'Sartre and the moral life', Philosophy 52, 1977, 409-24.
Simont, Juliette, 'Sartrean ethics', in Howells ed., The Cambridge
Companion to Sartre.
Taylor, Charles, 'Responsibility for self, in Amelie Rorty ed., The
Identities of Persons (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976).
62, 64, 74, 75, 106, 1 08,
143, 189, 1 92, 232 n. 70
abnormal experience,
altruism 196
amour propre
philosophical significance
29, 222, 224-5, 233-4 n. 8 1 ,
of 3, 33-4, 1 5 1 , 185, 227 n. 8,
232 n. 62
239 n. 1 54
anguish 1 5 1 -2, 164, 1 9 1 , 192
'anthropogenetic story' see
being-for-itself, genesis of
God's 205-6
phenomenological 60, 64-5, 83,
'L'anthropologie' 235 n. 103, 240 n.
173, 241 n. 184
Anti-Semite and Jew
contingency 49, 56
event 1 07, 203
being of 41-4
and essence 40
of psychological
non-substantial 1 9, 48, 164
determinism 1 50, 152
absolute;
series of, infinite 39, 40, 53-4
standpoint, absolute
abstract (vs. concrete) 108
abstraction 108
totality of 40
appearance/reality
distinction 39-40
absurdity 199, 205, 234 n. 82
acts/actions 17, 26-7, 122,
apperception 1 1
appetite 1 1 9
Aristotle, Aristotelian 40,
agency/action 1 50, 1 54, 1 55
psychological antecedents
Aron, Raymond 2, 4, 209
art 227-8 n. 10
post-war 238 n. 145
unity of 1 55, 171
voluntary 156
appearance(s) 3 1 , 39
man as 205, 216
see also freedom,
analytic philosophy, and B&N 28,
'as if
actuality, and potentiality 40
aestheticism 3, 227-8 n. 1 0
materialist 205
of consciousness 1 9, 48, 49
human 30, 198, 223, 226
50-I , 1 1 9, 1 36, 1 38-9, 189,
physical 144
authenticity 191
affect, affectivity 19-20, 4 1 ,
1 90, 212
69, 107, 142, 165,
atheism 9, 15, 204, 205
Adler, Alfred 1 24
aesthetics, aesthetic 3, 105, 190
(comme Sl)
axiology, axiological
see ethics;
akrasia 156
alienation 56, 1 18 , 138, 145,
Bachelard, Gaston 189
Althusser, Louis, Sartre's criticism
(mauvaise/ol)
1 24, 125, 1 50, 152,
of 241 n. 184
172-7, 191
trans-phenomenal, of
(mauvaise
fOl) continued
consciousness/subject 50, 5 1
'champion of sincerity' 173,
trans-phenomenal, o f objects
of consciousness 43, 44,
conduites ('patterns')
5 1-4, 56
'homosexual' 173, 177, 179
unity of 200, 203, 206, 208
relation to self-deception 173-5
see also being-for-itself;
Barnes, Hazel xi 93
being-in-itself; existence;
ontic/ontological distinction
Beaufret, Jean 215, 222
being-for-itself 56, 58, 1 14,
Beauvoir, Simone de 3, 193, 1 97,
contingency of 100
genesis of ('anthropogenetic
198, 199, 209, 210, 220,
story') 68-9, 95-6, 100, 102,
238 n. 146, 239 n. 1 57
The Ethics of Ambiguity
200-3, 206-7, 208
1 97, 198, 237 nn. 125, 134
The Second Sex
immediate structures of
for-itself 75, 78-9, 88,
2 10-1 1 ,
individuation of (the
and appearance 39
for-itself) 75, 165
of appearance 41, 43
non-self-identical 28, 78, 98, 1 14,
concept of 6, 7, 8, 9
1 2 1 , 174, 224
conceptual irreducibility of,
practically orientated 109
relation to concepts and
primacy, methodological 82
judgements 7, 8, 9, 43, 55
unity of 1 56
see also fundamental project;
contingent 142
deflationary views of 4 1 , 42, 43,
lack; nothingness; self;
teleology, of for-itself;
upsurge
desire of 187, 188
disclosure/revealing of
(devoilement d' etre)
1 97, 1 99
knowledge of 43
being-for-others,
being-for-the-Other 1 14,
1 27, 128, 138, 140, 142, 145,
meaning/Sinn of (Heidegger's
177, 1 82
question) 56
being-in-itself 32, 55-6, 58, 70, 73,
measured by knowledge
74, 76-80, 84
(idealism) 44, 50, 1 32
absolute contingency of 56, 102
attempt to found itself 102,
modes of, multiple 25, 28, 32 ,
35, 69, 70, 170
as necessary (self-founding) 100
beyond metaphysical
categories 55-6, 73,
76, 1 72
as passive 17, 20, 50-1 , 73, 173
of phenomenon 42, 43, 5 1 , 55, 73
phenomenon of 41-4, 55
relations of see ontological
beyond negation 55, 62 , 73
not matter 56
not noumenal 76
as relative to subj ect 50
and object-world/empirical
totality of/as a whole/in
reality 73-9, 89
general 57-8, 68, 85, 96,
primacy, ontological 82
self-identical 55
I N DEX
original, of myself see original
unity of 55
Wahl's criticism of 72
being-in-itself-for-itself 103, 178,
Christianity, Christian 7, 8 , 217,
239 n. 166
1 8 1 , 187, 1 8 8 , 205, 238 n. 1 3 8
being-in-the-world 5 6 , 57, 5 8 ,
existentialism 2 1 1
'circuit o f selfness'
belief 16, 20, 52, 92-4, 106,
d ' ipseite)
1 1 8-19, 1 20, 141 , 174, 175,
class 160, 182, 217
236 n. l06
in magic 231 n. 50
'coefficient of adversity' 158
Bergson, Henri 1 , 2-3
(circuit
14, 23, 33, 82, 91, 94, 213, 221
pre-reflective 45-8, 90, 92-5,
Berkeley, George 44, 50, 1 1 1
98-9, 1 18 , 127, 136, 1 50,
biography, biographical 1 90
1 5 1 , 169
of Flaubert 186
reflective 5 1 , 100
of Genet 165, 221
see also Other,
studies of Sartre's 179
body 1 14, 1 29, 1 39, 143-8, 173,
190, 212, 236nn. 1 14, 1 1 5
collectivity, collective 5, 1 34,
Breton, Andre 2
Brunschvicg, Leon 1, 227 n. 2
Cohen-Solal, Annie 227 n. 1 ,
brain 143, 147, 218
Breazeale, Daniel 229 n. 19
cogito regarding;
1 82-3, 1 94, 217
common sense, Sartre's critique
Buchdahl, Gert 234 n . 89
of 29, 147-8, 1 54, 185,
Burger, Peter 242 nn. 187, 188
21 1-12, 225
body 143, 146
desire 1 19, 1 87, 1 88-9
Camus, Albert 217
'Cartesian freedom' 236 n . 1 16
emotion 1 9, 20-1
Cartesianism, Cartesian 23,
freedom 25, 1 5 1 -2, 1 55, 1 56, 1 57,
9 1 , 1 26, 1 33, 140, 221, 222,
intersubjectivity 84
proto-naturalistic 63
228 n. 1 3
psychology/self 1 5-16, 17, 1 9,
Sartre's methodological 82,
categories (Kantian) 75, 1 29
27, 32-3, 45, 90, 104, 1 17-18,
Catholicism, Catholic 210, 2 1 1 ,
125, 143, 1 51-2, 156, 162,
causa sui
175-6, 231 nn. 39, 42
49, 142, 203, 204, 205
reflection 97, 98
empirical 3 1 , 82, 108
relation to Other 1 37, 1 39, 141
psychological f50-2
responsibility 167, 170
Caws, Peter 242 n. 187
teleology 91
censor mechanism 1 23-4
character 10, 1 20, 176-7
time 1 1 1
communism 238 n. 148
intelligible 163
also French Communist
traits 177
Party; Marx; materialism,
choice 86, 101, 1 24, 1 56,
1 57, 161, 169, 173, 186, 2 1 8
empirical 164
dialectical; politics, Sartre's
compatibilism 149
spontaneity of 1 8 , 27, 5 1
teleological 9 3
regulative 1 30, 185
thetic 1 4 , 4 5 , 59, 1 04, 1 2 1 ,
(vs.
abstract) 108
transparency/emptiness of 1 2 ,
concrete relation s with
Others 1 22 , 1 26, 1 27,
45, 75, 139
trans-phenomenal being
see also conflict
of 50, 5 1
conditions of possibility 1 1-12,
unity o f 1 2 , 17
174, 232 n. 70 see also
conflict (intersubjective) 1 27, 1 32 ,
see also collectivity;
contradictory
1 33-4, 177, 179, 182, 1 84,
predication; reflection;
185, 196, 2 1 5
self-consciousness;
autonomy of 48
Transcendence of the
Ego, impersonality of
children's 190
consciousness thesis;
and choice 169
'Consciousness of self and
concept of, transcendental and
knowledge of self' 208,
perspectival 47-8, 52, 70,
234 n. 87, 236 n. 1 10
87, 92, 94, 233-4 n. 81
contingency of 49
constitution (of objects) 75, 80-1,
229-30 n. 21
first person plural 1 34, 1 82-3
as impersonal see
Transcendence of the Ego
contingency 3, 4, 84, 85, 142 , 162,
modes of 92
of being-in-itself 56, 102
motivation/determination of 48,
of consciousness 49
of for-itself 100-1, 144
172, 178, 234 n. 82
natural see common sense
for-itself's evasion of 178
non-substantial absolute 1 9, 48
in-itself's attempt to rid itself
non-thetic 104, 1 1 8 , 1 2 1 , 1 55,
of 102, 201
of Others 142, 145
contradictory predication (of
and nothingness 61, 68,
for-itself) 26, 28, 86, 1 I 2 ,
69-72, 79
and obligation 94, 95, 1 53-5
conversion, radical 1 9 1 , 195, 1 97,
positional 45, 47, 59, 64, 65
pre-reflective/
unreflective 1 2-13, 16, 1 8 ,
Copernican(ism)
see standpoint,
perspectival
5 1-2, 53-4, 7 5 , 92-5, 97,
98-9, 1 0 1 , 1 04, 108, 109, 1 1 8,
criteria 53, 1 56, 164
criticism of B&N 36, 210, 2 1 1 -22
1 1 9, 1 2 1 , 140, 1 50, 1 52, 1 69,
Derrida 222
173, 1 89, 230 n. 24
reflective see reflection
Foucault 222
reflexivity of 48, 7 1
Heidegger 2 1 5-17
relation to for-itself 9 0
Levi-Strauss 221
Sartre's basic theses
concerning 45-9
Lukacs 217
Marcel 168, 1 92-3, 21 1-12,
self-activated but not
233 n. 72, 237 n. 1 20,
self-cause 48-9
238 n. 1 36, 239 n. 1 53
Marcuse 217-18
determinacy, empirical 62, 76-8,
Marxist 217-18
Merleau-Ponty 200, 2 1 2-14, 2 1 5,
determinism 1 8 , 24, 28, 30, 3 1 ,
I SO, 1 5 1 , 1 52 , 1 53, 1 55, 1 57,
233 n. 72, 234 n. 88, 235 n.
101, 239 n . 157
1 7 1 , 238 n. 148
of ontology 36, 72-3, 200,
'detotalised totality' 203-4
dialectic, dialectical 1 8 1 , 218
of philosophical method
master/slave (Hegel's) 132, 179
214-18 , 221 , 222
materialism 217, 2 1 9, 232 n. 66,
post-structuralist 221, 222
of practical (ethical & political)
implications 1 92-3, 210-1 1 ,
213, 2 1 5-17
Sartre's own later 218-2 1 ,
disclosure of being
d' etre)
doing (faire)
dreams 53, 185
drives 1 1 9, 125, 1 62
structuralist 221
mind-body 146-8
of theory of freedom 36, 1 57,
168, 213, 217, 21 8-2 1 ,
of Sartre's ontology 36, 57-8,
240 n. l 72
69, 72-3, 146, 200, 204,
21 2-14, 234 n. 88
Wahl 72-3, 82, 200, 235 n. 92
Critique of lJialectical Reason
(devoilement
traditional dualisms,
overcome 39-40
2 1 9-20, 221, 240 nn. 167, 173,
Wahl's criticism 72-3
duty 237 n. 1 3 1
Dasein 42, 56, 67, 68, 90, 1 33, 1 34,
E cole Normale Superieure 1 , 3
216, 228 n. 13
defacto/dejure 1 1 , 15, 234nn. 83, 85
Freud's concept 123
death 1 58 , 195
'decompression of being' 1 54
see also '!';
egoism 16, 196, 237 n . 1 32
deconstruction 222, 223, 224,
ekstasis 1 1 3-14, 142, 163
eliminativism 32, 69, 208
deism 166, 206
embodiment see body
Derrida, Jacques 222
emotion 10, 16, 19-20, 1 25 , 1 55-6,
criticism of Sartre 222,
(fin)
1 55, 1 7 1
Enlightenment 198
'The ends of man' 241 n. 183
Descartes, Rene 3, 2 1 , 23, 32, 5 1 ,
ens causa sui
5 3 , 54, 1 0 0 , 236 n. 1 16
epistemology 1, 35
epistemological relations (vs.
ontological) 43, 58-60, 97,
and mind-body relation 146-8
desire 16, 83, 104, 1 05, 106, 1 19,
1 20, 1 32 , I SS, 175, 179, 1 8 1 ,
1 33, 1 37, 138, 140,
obj ects of 187-9
metaphysics of cognition 106
reflexive 189
Sartre's view of, and approach
transcendental explanation
to problems of 45, 53, 54,
58-60, 72, 74-5, 8 1 , 84,
97-8 , 106, l l l, 1 26-7,
destruction 62, 64
Existentialism and Humanism
1 33-4, 1 39, 140-1 , 156, 172,
1 94, 210, 215, 231 n. 54
222, 233 n. 79, 234 n. 85
see also knowledge;
'primacy of
facticity 69, 89, 99- 1 0 1 , 1 14, 1 26,
knowledge'
144, 145, 1 57-6 1 , 166, 178,
epoche see reduction,
phenomenological
relation to transcendence 1 1 5,
equipment, equipmental 68, 109
esse est percipi
factual necessity
fau)
and existence, of human
subj ect 24, 49, 149, 169,
236 n. 1 1 6
(necessite de
100, 140, 142 , 169
fatigue 178
feminism 210-1 1
Feuerbach, Ludwig 204
o f objects, i n relation to
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb 7-8 , 9,
30, 87, 1 54, 223,
appearance 39, 40, 66
229 nn. 16, 19
eternal recurrence (Nietzsche's
doctrine of) 165, 168,
Wissenschaftslehre
229 n . 1 8
ethics, ethical 173, 1 9 1 , 192-7,
and metaphysics 69, 73, 165
Sartre's 3, 4, 5, 36, 85, 171, 1 79,
2 14-15, 236 n. 106
aim of Sartre's philosophy 20,
first person (perspective) 22-3,
27, 33, 187, 1 92
God and 238 n . 140
implications of B&N 10, 36,
160, 165, 168, 1 84, 1 87,
first person plural see 'we'
First World War 1
Flaubert, Gustave 186
1 92-9
flight, for-itselfs 1 8 , 112, 1 14, 1 52,
Sartre's, in relation to
1 83 , 234 n . 87
Kant's 193, 1 94, 195, 198
Flynn, Thomas R. 240 n. 175,
Sartre's, whether
241 n . 182
subjectivist 192, 193, 1 94,
for-itself see being-for-itse1f;
structures of the for-itself
Sartre's criticism o f other
ethical theories 3 1 , 195,
Foucault, Michel 222,
Evans, Gareth 236 n. 1 1 5
criticism of Sartre 222
existence 6, 8 , 2 8 , 3 0 , 8 4
Sartre's criticism of 241 n. 184
172, 1 97, 198-9,
Nausea revelation of
human 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 32, 85,
'Truth and power' 241 n . 182
Fox, Nik Farrell 242 n. 187
precedes essence, in human
fragility 62, 64
Frank, Manfred 233 n. 80
subject 24, 49
see also being
Franks, Paul 229 n. 15
freedom 7, 10, 1 8 , 21-35, 149-6 1 ,
existentialism, existential 6, 36,
210, 215, 217, 223,
168-72 , 206, 2 18-2 1 , 223,
236 n. 1 16, 238 n . 1 35
phenomenology 21 1 , 221
absolute 36, 85, 1 57, 1 8 8
Wahl's definition 73
o f action 1 5 8
I NDEX
affirmation of 173, 180, 1 84,
fundamental project (of becoming
God) 176-9, 1 8 1 , 1 84, 188,
194, 1 96, 197-9
1 9 1 , 195, 196, 197
collective realization of 1 94
consciousness/experience
future 67, 1 10-14
of 1 5 1-2
'could have done otherwise'
empirical 1 58-9, 161
epistemology of 21-2 , 24-8 ,
gender 160
Genet, Jean 165, 221
German idealism 6, 7-8, 226 see
also Fichte; Hegel; Schelling
3 1 , 32, 34, 8 5 , 86, 88,
German romantics 226
149-54, 169-70, 207-8,
Gestapo 4
213, 231 n. 44, 241 n. 1 83
given, the 1 59
without essence 169
God 7, 49, 55, 84, 100, 103, 1 30-1 ,
as explanatory 165, 1 69
178, 204-6, 207, 229 n . 1 8 ,
gambler scenario 1 5 1-2
230 n. 34, 238 n. 142
and idealism 30-1 , 35-6
and morality 238 n. 140
limits of 1 39, 1 58-9, 160,
see also fundamental project (of
becoming God)
2 1 8 -2 1
'master argument' for 2 5
Good, the 6, 192, 193, 195, 1 97,
a n d nothingness 88, 149, 1 5 1 ,
1 53, 1 54, 236 n. 1 1 6
ontological 158-9, 160, 170,
Gutting, Gary 227 n. I , 239 n . 1 52 ,
Other as limiting 1 39, 160
political 170
Habermas, Jiirgen 223
as presupposing freedom of
hatred 1 8 1 , 1 82
having (avoir) 187, 188
and realism 30, 35-6
'having to be'
reflectively apprehended
Le Havre 3
Hayman, Ronald 227 nn. 1 , 7, 8,
(anguish) 1 5 1 -2
Sartre's later discussion of 161,
(avoir a etre)
and reason/rationality 171-2 ,
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich 2 , 5, 7, 8 , 21, 22,
218-2 1 , 240 n. 1 72
Sartre's theory of criticised 1 57,
168, 213, 217, 218-21 ,
105, 1 1 5, 1 1 7, 1 26, 1 3 1 , 1 32 ,
240 n . l 72
140, 142, 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 84, 208,
223, 235 n. 92, 241 n. 183
self-negating 175, 176
Encyclopaedia 8
unconditioned 1 58-9, 1 60, 218
vertigo scenario 1 5 1-2
Logic 8 , 66
and will 149, 1 56, 237 n . 1 17
Phenomenology of Spirit
Sartre's criticism of 66-7, 1 33 ,
140, 1 79, 1 8 1 , 1 84
French moralists 15, 177,
French Communist Party 210,
Heidegger, Martin 2, 5, 2 1 , 30, 39,
72, 90, 109, 1 1 3, 1 3 1 , 158,
Freud, Sigmund 122-5, 156, 176,
1 85-7, 1 90, 221, 236 n . 109,
222, 223, 227 n. 6, 234 n . 87,
'I' 1 1 -17, 23, 25, 46, 99,
Being and Time
2, 42, 1 33, 216,
230nn. 26, 34, 231 n. 44
Ue), distinguished from 'me'
(mol) 17
233 n. 74, 241 n. 83
criticism of Sartre 21 5-17,
Letter o n 'Humanism'
Fichte's concept of 7-8, 229 n. 16
21 5-17,
'I think' (Kant) 1 1
see also self
ontic/ontological (entitiesl
id (Freud's concept of) 123
Being) distinction 41-2,
idealism 43, 50
absolute 49, 107
Berkeleyan/empirical 44, 50, 74,
Sartre's criticism of 41-3, 56,
58, 59, 67-8, 1 33-4, 158,
m , 166
183, 191, 228-9 n. 13,
and the Other 1 29-30, 1 32,
What is Metaphysics?
227 n. 6,
Sartre and 72, 73-5, 79-82, 107,
2 1 1 , 228 o. 1 3
see also Dasein
Heinrich (Le diable et Ie bon
dieu) 218
Sartre's rej ection of, and
arguments against 30,
35-6, 43, 44, 50-4, 5 66,
75, 80, 108, 1 10-1 1 , 129-30,
historicism 223, 240 n. 167
1 3 1 , 132, 1 33, 140, 230 0. 2 1 ,
history 8 , 160, 161, 217, 2 19-20,
see also German idealism;
philosophy o f 5, 1 6 1
holes 1 89-90
phenomenalism; realisml
Howells, Christine 238 n. 141 ,
idealism opposition;
transcendental, idealism
239 n. 1 59, 242 n. 187
human reality
(realite
humaine) 90, 149,
The Imaginary
149, 227 n. 8,
228 n. 10, 231 n. 5 1 ,
232 n. 62, 2 3 7 n. 1 17
humanism 195, 1 99, 216, 222,
imagination 10, 20, 53, 149-50,
Hume, David 7, 95, 1 9 1 , 1 92, 195
230 n. 24, 231 n. 39,
Husserl, Edmund 2 , 4, 5, 9,
1 1-15, 1 9, 30, 39, 44, 45,
inclination 163, 196
60, 72, 87, 1 3 1 -2 , 222,
incompatibilism 1 53
227 nn. 3, 6, 235 nn. 92,
indetermination,
indeterminism 1 53
97, 241 n. 183
Cartesian Mediations 227 n.
The Paris Lectures 227 n. 3
indifference 1 8 1
infancy 1 8 5
in-itself-for-itself
Sartre's criticism of 1 1-13, 1 5 ,
2 1 , 2 6 , 3 0 , 50-1 , 53-4, 59,
(en-soi-pour-sOl)
132, 133, 140, 228 n. 1 3 ,
181, 187, 188, 205, 238 n. 138
2 3 0 n . 26, 232 n. 66,
instrumentality 109, 144, 145
intention 1 50, 156
intentionality 12-13, 32, 45, 48, 59,
hyle (Husserl's concept of) 5 1 ,
'Intentionality' 233 nn. 77, 78, 79,
hypotheses, of
metaphysics 202-3
interrogative 61-2
1 07, 109, 163, 170, 193, 1 94,
intersubjectivity 1 26-43, 144-6,
1 97, 1 98, 226, 229-3 0 n . 2 1 ,
179-85, 1 96- 206, 214
of world 83-4
see also conflict;
235 n. 104, 237 n. 1 2 8
Other(s)
intuition 7, 64, 65, 94, 107, 1 29,
katharsis 1 9 1
Kelly, Michael 227 n. 1
Kierkegaard , Sl1Iren 2, 8-9, 223,
metaphysical/philosophical 28,
229 nn. 13, 16, 17
30, 32, 33, 1 33, 140, 205, 207,
The Concept of Dread 229 n.
Concluding Unscientific
Postscript 8, 229 n. 1 6
238 n . 1 3 8 , 240 n. 176
involuntariness 156
ipseite see selfness, circuit of
'Kierkegaard a n d the singular
irrationalism 217
universal' 229 n. 17,
irrationality, human 27, 1 24, 176
'irreducibles' 162
kingdom of ends 1 94, 237 n. 128
Kleinberg, Ethan 227 nn . 1 , 4,
Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich 6-7, 8,
9, 205, 21 1 , 226, 229 nn. 14,
IS, 233-4 n. 81
239 n. 160, 241 n. 184
knowledge 1 , 6, 11, 23, 32, 35, 43,
46, 50, 62, 7 1 , 79, 89, 106-8
Janicaud, Dominique 227 n . I,
and appropriation 187
limits of 84, 86
Jaspers, Karl 3 , 162
primacy of, assumption 36, 44,
Jewish identity 210, 2 14
Jopling, David 239 n. 1 59
relations of see epistemological
judgement 45, 55, 59, 62, 1 54
modal 105
sensory 140
and negation 60, 61, 63-5,
69-70, 77, 1 5 1
of; Other, epistemology
p ractical 1 94
of; self-knowledge;
see also subject-predicate form
transcendental, conditions
Koj eve, Alexandre 2, 5, 227 n. 4
Kanapa, Jean 239 n. 1 65
Koyre, Alexandre 2, 227 n. 4
Kant, Immanuel 1 , 6-7, 1 1-12,
Kruks, Sonia 239 n . 1 52
28, 40, 1 29, 226, 235 n. 99,
La Psyche
Sartre's criticism of 241 n . 1 84
ethics 30-1 , 194, 237 n. 128
Lacan, Jacques 2 , 2 1 9, 224
lack (of being)
Paralogisms of Pure
(manque d' etre)
1 54, 169, 1 9 1 , 207
Reason 230 n. 29
Refutation of Idealism 234 n. 85
Langer, Monika 239 n. 1 57
Sartre's criticism of 31, 36,
language 145, 1 60, 2 1 9, 221
39-40, 75, 1 10-1 1 , 1 29-30,
69, 1 01-5, 106, 1 09, 1 19-20,
law(s)
132, 1 94, 229 n. 2 1 ,
moral (Kant's) 30-1
230 n. 2 5 , 234 n. 8 5 ,
natura1/0f nature 55, 148,
2 3 5 n. 98, 2 3 7 n n . 128, 1 3 1
Sartre's relation t o 3, 30-1,
35-6, 74-5, 80-1 , 82, 86-7,
of pre-reflective cogito 92, 1 1 8
psychological 1 20, 162, 176
Marion, Jean-Luc 2 1 1
of series of appearances 39
Marx, Marxism, Marxist 221
transcendental (Kant's) 75
criticism of Sartre 217-1 8
Le diable et Ie bon dieu
Sartre and 5, 165, 210, 219,
238nn. 148, 1 50, 241 n. 180
Leak, Andrew 227 n. 1 , 238 n. 149
Lefebvre, Henri 239 n. 165
masochism 1 8 1
Left Hegelian 204
master/slave dialectic 1 32, 179
'The legend of truth' 227 n. 9,
materialism, materialist 30,
1 24, 143, 2 1 1 , 232 n. 66,
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 105,
atheism 205
Les Temps modernes
dialectical/historical 217, 219,
Levinas, Emmanuel 2, 4, 214-1 5,
eliminativist 32, 69, 208
223, 239 n. 1 59
Totality and Infinity
'Materialism and
Levi-Strauss, Claude 221
revolution' 238 nn. 142, 148
mauvaise foi see bad faith
'me' (moi) 17, 1 52
The Savage Mind
221 , 241 n. 1 8 1
melancholy 20, 231 n. 49
Levy, Bernard-Henri 227 n. 1 ,
mental image 1 50, 233 n. 79
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 2, 4,
2 3 1 n. 42, 232 n. 67,
200, 209, 21 2-14, 221 ,
238 n . 146, 238 n. 1 5 1 ,
235-6 n. 105
criticism of Sartre 200, 212-14,
Liberation 209
215, 233 n. 72, 234 n . 88,
libertarianism 153
literary works, Sartre's 3, 4, 5, 36,
'Interrogation and
dialectic' 2 1 3
Phenomenology of
Perception 212
look, of Other 1 3 8 , 1 39, 143, 145,
1 8 1 , 1 82, 183, 215
' Sartre and
love 1 8 1
ultrabolshevism' 2 1 3
Lukacs, Gyorgy 2 1 7
The Visible and the Invisible
21 3-14, 233 n. 72, 234 n. 88,
criticism of Sartre 2 1 7
McBride 2 3 7 n. 1 33
mescaline 227 n. 8
McCulloch 242 n. 190
metaphilosophy 24
of B&N 84-8, 1 16-17, 214,
magic 83, 1 24, 141, 147-8, 1 55,
228 n . 13, 236 n. 106
Marcel, Gabriel 168
see also standpoint(s)
of B&N
metaphor, in B&N 225
criticism of Sartre 168, 1 92-3,
21 1-12, 233 n. 72, 237 n. 120,
of cognition 106
'Existentialism and human
fictional/as fiction 69, 73, 165
freedom' 2 1 1
hypotheses of 202-3
Marcuse, Herbert 217-18,
vs. ontology 201, 202, 204, 206
metapsychology (Freud's) 123-5,
criticism of Sartre 217-18
Sartre's critique of 30, 31-3, 35,
methodology, Sartre's 22-3, 82,
91, 125, 143 , 145, 146, 167,
90, 1 26, 218, 222
also Cartesianism;
perspective/perspectivality;
222, 232 nn. 66, 67
natural order 1 53
transcendental,
philosophy of 8
argumentation/method in
mind, mental
see consciousness;
Psyche; psychology
mind-body problem/relation 143,
4, 33-4, 76, 205, 21 1 ,
227 n. 1 0 , 232 n. 62
Nazis, Nazism 4, 238 n. 148
necessity, necessary 141-2, 154
being 100
'mine', 'mineness' 1 1 , 1 2 1 , 1 35,
factual 100, 140, 142, 169
1 50, 1 87, 188, 219
of my contingency 144
of world 167-8
mirroring (of reflet-refIetant) 93-4
155, 163, 1 7 1 , 178
teleological 144
transcendental 108-9, 232 n. 70
monad, monadology 130
negation 61-5, 66, 67, 7 1 , 234 n. 89
monism 2 1 2-1 3 , 214;
external 60- 1 , 108, 1 3 0
internal 6 0 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 8 , 141, 180
motivational 179, 187
mood 41
intersubjective 1 3 8 , 1 8 0
Moore, O. E . 52
a n d judgement 60, 6 1 , 63-5,
morality see ethics
and motivation 1 50-1
Moran, Richard 242 n. 190
power of see nihilation
Morris, Phyllis Sutton 242 n. 1 90
reflexive 1 38 , 175, 176
1 55 , 163, l7l
65, 83, 1 50
'Motion picture art' 227 n. 1 0
negatites
motivation 16, 69, 1 0 1 , 1 16, 1 19,
neurosis 1 86
1 50, 162, 172, 176, 177-9,
neo-Kantianism 1 , 2
Nietzsche, Friedrich 165, 168,
192, 195, 196, 237 n. 1 32
1 92-3, 195, 223, 227 nn. 7, 9,
227-8 n. 10, 229 n. 1 8
intersubjective 179-82,
see also eternal recurrence
(neantisation) 65, 68,
irrational 1 24, 176
nihilation
82, 106, 1 1 1 , 1 50, 1 5 1 , 1 53,
metaphysical 177-8, 179,
1 59, 169, 200, 201 , 203
monism of 179, 187
nihilism 6-7, 36, 192, 210, 21 1 ,
226, 237 n . 1 34
see also consciousness,
motivation of
No Exit (Huis clos)
motives (mobiles) 1 50, 1 55, 163,
non-self-identity 28, 78, 98, 1 14,
l 7 l , 178
Mougin, Henri 239 n. 165
non-substantial absolute 19, 48, 164
Notebooks for an Ethics
Nancy, Jean-Luc 241 n. 183
Natanson, Maurice 235 nn. 96, 104
naturalism 29, 30, 3 1 , 32, 33, 35,
1 93 , 1 97,
234 n. 90, 237 nn. 125,
(Ie neant)
32, 61-72,
91, 1 86, 226, 229 n. 1 8 ,
74, 8 8 , 90, 95, 99, 101-2, 149,
231 n . 50
1 50, 1 5 1 , 1 53, 1 54
see also dualism,
concrete 64-5, 67
of Sartre's
and freedom 88, 149, 1 5 1 , 1 53,
optimism 1 , 2 1 , 56, 179, 199
1 54, 236 n. 1 1
'ontological' 208
organism, organic 143,
Hegel's theory o f 66-7
Heidegger's theory of 67-8
self (soi) as 95
form/unity 99, 1 22
life/phenomena 1 20, 122, 2 1 8
original project (choice o f
noumena, noumenal 31, 35,
myself) 8 1 , 82, 8 3 ,
101, 1 57, 1 6 0 , 161-5,
Nouvelle revuefranaise
objectivity, objective existence 8,
prelogical 176
radical modification of 164
and intersubjectivity 83-4
Other(s) 1 26-43, 144-6, 1 58,
object-world see world
214- 1 5
obligation (consciousness as) 94,
cogito regarding
95, 1 53-5, 166, 167
1 36-7, 1 39, 141 ,
obligation, moral 237 n. 1 3 1
concrete relations with 122, 126,
obscenity 1 9 0
1 27, 179-85
Occupation 4 , 2 1 0 , 218
omnis determinatio est negatio
contingency of 142, 145
epistemology of 1 26-43, 156
ontic/ontological (entities!
Being) distinction
idealism and 1 29-30, 1 32,
1 33 , 140
(Heidegger's) 41-2 , 68,
'metaphysical' question of why
there are Others 142 , 207
ontological meaning 189
mUltiplicity of 141-2, 143, 207
ontological proof 51-5, 58-9, 82,
necessity of 140, 141-2
104-5, 141, 234 n. 85
ontological relations
ontological relation to 1 33-4,
1 38-9, 140
epistemological) 43,
Other-as-object 1 36, 141, 160,
58-6 1 , 103, 1 33, 1 38-9,
140, 1 5 1
Other-as-subject 136, 141 , 145,
dynamic 60, 1 39
180, 1 84, 197, 2 1 5
external 60-1
park scenario 1 35-6, 137
internal 60, 103, 1 3 8
presence of 126, 128, 1 29,
negative 6 0 , 1 38, 140
to Other 1 33-4, 1 3 8-9, 140
realism and 1 29, 1 30, 1 3 1 ,
basic 34, 38-58, 61, 76-80, 87,
refusal of 1 3 8 , 142, 180
89-90, 212, 214
shame/keyhole scenario 136,
full 78-80, 89-90, 103, 108,
1 37, 1 39, 145
vs. metaphysics
woman as 2 1 1
201 , 202,
'we'
ownership (of mental states) 96,
monistic 212-13, 214
primacy of 235 n. 1 02
see also possession
pain 144, 145, 146
possession 6 1 , 188, 189
Parmenides, Parmenidean 76,
possibility, 'the Possible', 'my
possibles' 74, 105-6, 1 1 3 ,
passion 1 55, 1 56, 176, 192, 196
past 1 1 1-14, 1 1 5-16, 1 17, 1 2 1 , 1 50,
1 5 1 , 1 52, 178
Poster, Mark 227 n. I , 238 n. 147,
1 52, 1 58 , 164
perception 12, 39, 40, 65, 141 , 212,
postmetaphysical
philosophy 223, 224
percipere (etc.)
permanence 108
postmodernism 224, 242 nn. 187,
post-structuralism 221 , 222,
person/personalityl
personhood 18, 26, 96, 176
art 238 n. 145
years 209-10
unity of 1 5, 16-17, 23, 27, 47,
1 24, 1 57, 162-3
perspective/perspectivality, in
potentiality (potency) 40,
Sartre's arguments 52-3,
54, 60, 82, 85-8, 92, 94, 186,
see also standpoint,
practical 6, 20, 23, 62, 109,
1 5 1 , 1 54-5, 1 6 1 , 167-8,
aim o f B&N 27-8, 8 5 , 168,
phenomenalism 43, 44, 50-1 ,
170-1 , 1 92
judgement 1 94
phenomenology,
primacy of 236 n. 106
reason 1 50-1, 1 55, 175-6,
existential 2 1 1 , 221
method 1 -2, 4, 5, 1 1 , 15, 1 9, 33
relation to theoretical 85, 148,
ontology 87, 142
(epoche)
1 54, 216, 236 n. 106
1 1 , 21, 85, 1 32
tradition after Sartre 212-17
syllogism 1 75
see also Heidegger;
see also ethics;
Hussed
phenomenon 38-40, 8 90
of being 41-4, 55
being of 42, 43, 44, 5 1-4, 56, 73
pre-established harmony 8 1 , 83
of for-itself to in-itself 98,
obj ectivity of 40
physicalism
responsibility;
see materialism
'place' 1 5 8
o f m e t o Other 1 28
Plato, Platonistic 3 , 28, 101, 1 93,
of Other to me 126, 1 2 8, 1 29,
of reflection to reflected-on 191
play 187
of Self 96
pleasure 92, 1 1 8, 120
presence to itself (presence a
political implications of
B&N 193, 210
95, 96, 202, 222
present 1 10, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2, 1 1 3, 150
political theory 161
'primacy of knowledge' 60, 97,
Sartre's 4, 5, 209, 210, 213,
principle of sufficient reason 49,
217, 219, 238 n . 148,
'position' 1 58
probability 108
problem of other minds 1 26, 1 27,
Rassemblement Democratique
Revolutionnaire 210
rationality see reason
128, 1 29, 1 34
of in-itself, to found itself
direct 52, 59
see also fundamental proj ect;
empirical 35, 74
original proj ect
and the Other 1 29, 1 30, 1 3 1 ,
projection (mechanism of) 83, 1 90
Sartre and 30, 44, 72, 73-5,
proof 22, 140
and freedom 22, 24, 1 52
79-80, 81-2, 8 107-8,
see also ontological proof
Proust, Marcel 3, 122
Sartre's rejection of, and
Psyche/the psychic 17, 104, 1 1 1 ,
arguments against 36, 57,
1 1 8, 121-2, 123, 125, 128,
80, 1 10, 1 29, 1 3 1 , 167, 198
1 35, 1 3 8 , 1 50, 1 52, 1 56, 161,
transcendental 74
186, 1 8 8 , 1 9 1 , 195, 196,
realism/idealism opposition,
Sartre's aim of
empirical (Freudian) 1 22-5, 1 56,
1 76, 185-7, 1 90, 221 , 236 n.
transcending 35-6, 73-84,
87, 1 05-6, 1 1 3, 129-3 1 , 140,
empirical 73-4, 77, 108-9, 1 14
existential 125, 162, 170, 179,
1 85-7, 188, 189, 1 90, 195
transcendental 3 1
reason(s) 164, 171-2, 175-6, 1 92
method of 185
see also symbolism
for action 1 55, 1 7 1 , 179, 1 94, 1 95
dialectical 241 n. 1 8 1
psychology, psychological 3, 1 7,
26, 1 17-22, 1 25, 146, 161,
faculty o f 172
162, 163, 236 n. 108
practical 150-1, 1 55, 175-6,
'facts'/states 1 1 8, 1 2 1 , 174, 175,
233-4 n. 8 1
presupposes freedom 172,
forces 16, 1 19, 1 52
laws 1 20, 162, 176
space of 172
types 162
see also practical, reason
Recherches philosophiques 2
see also common sense,
psychology; Psyche
recognition (intersubjective) 2,
1 32, 1 33, 179, 1 82, 210
reduction, phenomenological 1 1 ,
2 1 , 85, 1 32
of person (mental/psychic) 16,
17, 27, 1 22, 135
The Reef of Solipsism 1 29, 1 3 1
symbolism of 189-90
of things (affective,
(reflexion)
1 1 , 1 3, 14-15,
23, 46-7, 90, 93, 97-9,
'needing-to-be-caught',
1 14-15, 121-2
etc.) 20, 80, 83, 190
and consciousness of
freedom 1 5 1 -2
quality, in empirical reality 39, 108
race 160
Other 1 27-8
radical conversion 1 9 1 , 195, 1 97,
ekstasis 1 1 3-14
impure/accessory 27, 1 22, 1 9 1
pure 109, 122 , 171, 1 9 1 , 1 92, 195,
Rockmore, Tom 227 n. 1 ,
231 n. 44, 237 nn. 1 24, 125
ref!echir vs. ref/eter
Roman Catholic Church 210
Rousseau , Jean-Jacques 227 n. 7
and scepticism 52-5
teleology of 9 1 , 98, 142
ref/et-ref/etant. ref/eter
93-5,
reflexivity
Sacks, Mark 236 n. 107
sadism 1 8 1 , 182
97-8, 99, 1 1 2 , 1 1 8
see self-relation
Saint Genet
scepticism 32, 106
about external world 5 1-5
of being see ontological
about human freedom 85, 208
about other minds 1 3 1 ,
external 60-1 , 94, 108, 1 09, 1 30
extra-mundane
salvation 1 97-9
internal 60, 131, 1 33, 138, 168,
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm
Joseph 7-8 , 9, 30
of knowledge see epistemology,
epistemological relations
Schiller, Friedrich 187
Schopenhauer, Arthur 8 , 105,
1 91-2, 195, 227 n. 7
subject-subject 137
see also concrete relations with
Others; negation
relationships, human
see concrete
science, natural 33, 35, 146
Second World War 4
self, selfhood 89, 90-6
relations with Others;
'bundle' theory of 162
'circuit of selfness'
d ipseite)
96, 109, 1 80,
consciousness 1, 7, 8, 9, 1 97,
lacks subject-predicate
204 see also deism; God;
theism; theology
'no-ownership' theories of 95
Renaut, Alain 227 n. 1
and nothingness 95
representations, mental 45, 52, 60,
original choice of see original
97, 98, 1 10, 122, 128, 130
repression 1 23-4
partitive conception of 1 24, 1 25,
resignation 195
resistance (psychoanalytic) 123
Resistance, French 4, 228 n. 1 1
responsibility 85, 1 24, 1 60, 1 64,
reinforcement of, by Other 142,
170, 172, 173, 18 215, 220,
S e l f (metaphysical ideal) 96,
defined, as authorship 166
1 02-3, 1 1 3, 1 14, 1 54, 188
for mankind 1 94
transcendental sense o f 166, 171
self-affirmation 180
self/world distinction 35
for the world 8 1 , 82, 165-8, 171,
selfness (ipseite) 79, 90, 96, 1 1 3,
for past 1 1 2
Richmond, Sarah
The Roads to Freedom
spatio-temporal 99, 1 38 , 167
'substratum' theory of 162
La Rochefoucauld, Franois
teleological 95
transcendent (ego) 16-17, 96
de 15, 237 n. 1 32
self, selfhood
phenonlena 217, 219-20
theory 161 , 218, 219
transcendental self/subject/self/
ego 1 1-15, 1 8 , 26, 35, 75,
Societe Franaise de la
1 32 , 230 n. 26
'true self' (Moi profon(/) 1 52
see also self-consciousness;
self-relation; The
self-cause see ens causa sui
Philosophie 208
solipsisnl 84, 1 26, 1 30, 1 3 1 , 1 32,
space, spatiality 62 , 74, 75, 108,
of reasons 172
self-consciousness 1 1-15, 69,
speculative proposition 22, 25
72, 90-9
duality-in-unity 92-3, 97
pre-reflective (conscience
Spinoza, Baruch, Spinozisnl 6,
18-19, 2 1 , 24, 28 , 46, 76,
(de) SOl) (pre-reflective
8 105, 1 3 1 , 1 6 192, 208,
cogito) 45-8 , 90, 92-5,
227 n. 7
98-9, 1 1 8, 1 27, 1 36, 1 50,
1 5 1 , 1 69
Spirit (Hegel's concept of) 182
spontaneity 13, 17, 1 8 , 19, 27, 5 1 ,
involuntary 1 56
self-deception 20, 1 1 9, 124, 173-6
pseudo-/degraded 27
paradox of 1 24, 174, 176
self-identity 55, 1 14 see
Stalag 4, 9, 228 n. 1 2
standpoint(s) of B&N,
being-for-itself,
nletaphilosophical 84-8 ,
non-self-identical
105, 143, 199, 206-8, 235 nn.
self-knowledge 1 8 , 23, 45-6, 97,
98, 1 25, 1 35, 173, 242 n. 90
absolute (aperspectival) 84-5,
failures of 20, 123, 1 24, 189
86-8, 143, 1 54, 199, 207,
self-relation (reflexivity) 14-1 5,
23, 46, 48, 55, 7 1 , 90, 94, 95,
96, 97, 99, 106, 1 10, 1 1 1 , 124,
perspectival (Copernican) 85-8,
128, 149, 1 50, 1 53, 1 69, 1 7 1 ,
1 17, 143, 1 99, 206-8,
1 89, 1 9 1 , 202
states (nlental/psychic) 16, 17,
sensation 1 20
26-7, 1 22, 1 35, 186
sense experience/sensory
stoicisnl, stoic 168, 217, 239 n. 166
knowledge 1 20, 144
Strawson, P. F. 90, 230 n. 33
sexuality, sexual relations 10, 1 1 9,
structuralisnl 1 6 1 , 221 , 224,
173, 1 82, 1 85, 190
shanle 1 27-8 , 1 36, 1 37, 1 39, 145
criticisnl of Sartre 221
sincerity 173, 179
Sartre's criticisnl of 241 n. 184
situation, situatedness 99-100,
structures, objective 160- 1 , 219,
122, 145, 1 52, 156, 1 57-6 1 ,
220, 221 , 240 n. 173
Sketch for a Theory of the
Emotions 19-20, 155,
inlnlediate 75, 78-9, 88, 126, 206
intersubjectivity 1 26, 142, 206
227 n. 8 , 231 n. 49, 236 n. 109
slinliness (Ie
visqueux)
subject, subjectivity 230 n. 25
' Socialisnle et Liberte' 4
death of 221-2, 218, 224,
sociality, social 184
241 n. 1 82 , 242 n. 189
Kierkegaard's concept of 8-9
being 99, 16 1 , 210, 218
temporality, temporalisation 55,
consciousness; self
74, 89, 98, 108, 1 10-14, 1 2 1 ,
subject(ivity)/object(ivity)
distinction, and relation 34,
dynamic vs. static 1 1 3
a s formal order 1 1 3
subject-predicate forml
idealist view o f 1 10-1 1 , 1 1 3
structure 22, 26, 27, 55, 77,
ontological account o f 1 1 3
95, 1 2 1 , 125, 1 52, 162, 188,
original 1 1 0 , 191
phenomenological account
substance, substantiality 1 9, 27,
of 1 1 1-13
psychic 1 1 1 , 1 2 1 , 191
49, 93, 1 22 see also
subject-predicate form
realist view of 1 10, 1 1 3
'time o f the world' (objective,
suffering 104, 105
surrealists 227 n. 7
'universal') 108, 1 14, 138
as totality 1 1 1 , 1 1 3
symbolism, symbolisation 1 24,
179, 1 85-6, 188, 1 89-90
existential 189
Freudian 124
theism 7, 1 5 , 166, 204, 205,
theology 9, 85, 195, 1 99, 204, 21 1
of things 189-90
negative 206
sympathy 1 84
synthesis, synthetic 92, 103
of being-in-itself and
see also deism; theism
things in themselves 31, 74
Third, the
(Ie Tiers)
being-for-itself 103, 200,
Third Republic 1
third person (perspective) 161,
impossibility of
233-4 n . 8 1
Kantian 12, 107
thirst 1 1 9-20, 178
time see temporality
totality
intersubjective 184
of transcendent ego 16-17
of appearances 40
unity of consciousness 14
of being
system/systematicity,
being, totality of
consciousness as 14, 19
defined 203
philosophical 7-8 , 24, 226
opposition to 29
'detotalised' 203-4
Sartre's commitment to ix 9,
of existents (reality) 70
10, 2 1 , 28, 7 1 , 1 20, 223, 226,
for-itself as 98
of for-itselves 207
' I-and-Other' 1 8 1
person/subject as 1 6 3 , 1 6 5 , 1 8 6
taste 190
time as 1 1 1 , 1 1 3
teleology, teleological
world a s 108, 201
abortive 1 98, 199
tragedy, tragic 197-9
explanation of body 144
transcendence (structure of
explanation of Other 142
for-itself) 12, 41, 52, 67, 7 1
of for-itself 91, 93-4, 96, 99, 100,
8 1 , 89, 103, 104, 1 07, 1 26,
102, 107, 1 1 1-14, 1 1 8-19, 155,
141, 145, 1 50, 1 54
of consciousness, towards
of intersubjective relations 184
object 39, 40
of temporality 1 1 1-14
of ego 16-17
of being-in-itself 55
for-itself)
of consciousness 12, 17
Other's, of me 1 37, 160
of for-itself 1 56
relation to facticity 1 1 5,
-in-duality of selfconsciousness 92-9, 1 14
' transcendence in
of mobile,
motif and fin
immanence' 150
of person/self/subj ect 1 5 ,
transcendence-transcended 145
16-17, 23, 27, 47, 1 24, 1 57,
The Transcendence of the Ego
1 1-19, 23, 26, 90, 96, 99,
of Psyche 122
1 17-1 8 , 122, 1 34-5, 1 52, 162,
of world 108
186, 227 n. 2, 230 nn. 26, 34,
231 n. 42, 232 n . 63,
unjustifiability 99, 164, 167
upsurge, of for-itself 57, 58, 79,
107, 1 3 1 , 1 55, 1 56, 163, 201 ,
237 nn. 1 17, 132
202-3, 232 n . 70
impersonality of consciousness
thesis 12-15, 17, 18, 96,
'us'
135, 230 n. 24, 231 n. 45,
utilitarianism 195
(nous-objet)
value 6, 30, 89, 1 0 1 , 102-5, 1 56,
178, 188, 1 92-6, 197-9, 216,
227 n. 9, 232 n. 66, 236 n. 106,
Sartre 48, 52-3, 70, 75, 89,
237 n. l 3 l
97, 108-9, 1 1 3, 230 n. 21,
'Antivalue' 190
232 n . 70, 234 n. 85
see also aesthetics; ethics
conditions/grounds 1 1-12, 62,
65, 100, 108-9, 1 10, 1 1 3,
'veil of ideas' 45
Vichy 4
idealism 30, 3 1 , 74, 75, 80,
82, 87, 229 n. 2 1 ,
'view from nowhere' 86, 105, 1 17
virtual 17, 122
2 3 5 n n . 98, 9 9
(Ie visqueux)
volition see will
necessity 108-9, 2 3 2 n. 70
realism/reality 3 1 , 74
Wahl, Jean 2, 229 n. 17, 238 n. 145
social theory 219
criticism of Sartre 72-3, 82, 200,
see also self,
'The roots of
existentialism' 235 n. 92,
truth 62
Truth and Existence
Ucs.
Vers Ie concret 2
War Diaries 1 1 , 227 n.
232 nn. 64, 66, 233 n. 74,
'unhappy consciousness'
(conscience malheureuse)
6, 228 n.
13, 229 nn. 13, 17, 231 n. 47,
unconscious 124, 163, 176, 1 86-7,
234 n . 82, 237 n. 1 17,
Warren, Jim xi
'we' 1 34, 182-3
of being 200, 203, 206, 208
as object (nous-objet) 1 82-3
of being and appearance 39, 41
as subj ect
(nous-sujet)
What is Literature?
232 n. 68,
relation to being-in-itself
237 n. 128, 238 nn. 1 35, 148
73-9, 89
Whitford, Margaret 239 n. 157
and selfness 79, 96
will 149, 1 56, 237 n. 1 17
shared 83-4
Wittgenstein, Ludwig 120
as totality 108, 201
world, object-world 73-4,
unity of 108
76-83, 89, 107, 108-9,
see also responsibility,
Transendensi (Filsafat)
Idealisme Jerman
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