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Strona główna Celtic Mythology
Catherine Bernard
Introduces the Celts and their mythology, relating seven tales with their roots primarily in Ireland and Wales and placing each in historical and cultural context.
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U MYTHOLOGY U
For the Cunningham, Daley, and Collins clans
Enslow Publishers, Inc., wishes to thank Professor Daniel Melia
of the University of California Celtic Studies Program for his
invaluable assistance with the pronunciation guide.
Copyright © 2003 by Catherine Bernard
No part of this book may be reproduced by any means
without the written permission of the publisher.
Bernard, Catherine.
Celtic mythology / Catherine Bernard.
Summary: Introduces the Celts and their mythology, relating
seven tales with their roots primarily in Ireland and Wales and
placing each in historical and cultural context.
1. Mythology, Celtic—Juvenile literature. [1. Mythology,
Celtic.] I. Title.
BL900.B47 2003
398.2'089'916—dc21
To Our Readers: We have done our best to make sure all Internet addresses in
this book were active and appropriate when we went to press. However, the
author and the publisher have no control over and assume no liability for the
material available on those Internet sites or on other Web sites they may link to.
Any comments or suggestions can be sent by e-mail to comments@enslow.com
or to the address on the back cover.
Cover and illustrations by William Sauts Bock
Celtic Names and Places . . . . . . . . . . .
Preface and Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Coming of the
Tuatha Dé Danaan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The Milesian Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Cúchulainn and Emer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Oisín . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Gwydion and Aranrhod . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Pwyll, Head of Hades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Culhwch and Olwen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Chapter Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
and Internet Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
CELTIC NAMES AND PLACES
Pronouncing Irish Words
When pronouncing Irish words, stress usually falls heavily on
the first syllable. Vowels in unaccented syllables, particularly
final syllables, are schwas—the neutral vowel sound found,
for instance, in the first syllable of "pajamas" or the "a" in
"about," and phonetically represented here as "uh."
"Ch" represents the sound found in Scots "loch" or German
"ach."
"Gh" represents a soft, guttural sound.
There are two "th" sounds: one as in "thin" (represented here
as "th") and one as in "this" (represented here as "th").
"B" and "m," when not the first letter in a word, are, roughly,
like an English "v."
"S," when preceded or followed by an "i" or "e," is like the
English "sh."
Pronouncing Welsh Words
Stress in Welsh is usually on the next-to-last (penultimate)
syllable of a word, as in Latin. Welsh has the same "th"
contrast between unvoiced ("th") and voiced ("th") forms as
do Irish and English.
"Gh" is a soft guttural sound.
Sounds that do not occur in English include unvoiced "l,"
spelled "ll" and pronounced like "tl" said quickly. (To make
this sound in the Welsh fashion, place one side of the tongue
lightly between the upper and lower teeth on one side of the
mouth and blow gently.)
"Rh" is approximated by pronouncing it as if written "hr";
plain Welsh "r" is lightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.
As a vowel, "w" is pronounced "oo" if long and "u" if short.
When a consonant, "w" is pronounced as in English.
"U," when short, is like the "i" in "pill", when long, like "ee"
as in "feed."
"Y" has three sounds, depending on its length and whether it
is in a final syllable: "ee" as in "feed," "i" as in "pin," and "uh"
as in "but."
A single "f " is pronounced as "v."
The suggested pronunciations are very approximate.
gods; he was Cúchulainn's
maternal grandfather.
Danu (DAN-oo)—Mother of the gods;
the Tuatha Dé Danaan are named
after her.
Dian Cécht (DEE-uhn KAYCHT)—God
of medicine who makes Nuada a
silver hand.
Dyfed (DUH-ved)—Region in southern
Wales ruled by Pwyll.
Elatha (ELL-uh-thuh)—King of the
Fomori and Bres's father.
Emer (AY-ver)—Cúchulainn's wife.
Eochaid (YOCH-ee or YOCH-ith)—
Firbolg king who is killed in the
battle with the Tuatha Dé Danaan.
Eriu (AY-ryoo)—Danaan queen who
asks the Milesians to name the
island after her, should they
conquer Ireland.
Ethne (ETH-nuh)—Lugh's mother.
Fenians (FEE-nee-ans)—Band of
warriors who followed Finn mac
Cumaill.
Finn mac Cumaill (FIN mak KOOL or
FIN mak KOOVAL)—Main hero of
the myths of the Fenian Cycle.
Firbolg (FEER-bowl-uhg)—Misshapen
and stupid race that battles the
Tuatha Dé Danaan.
Fomori
(foe-MORE-ee)—Strange
beings, sometimes depicted as
giants, who inhabit Ireland.
Fotla (FODE-luh)—Danaan queen
who asks the Milesians to name the
Goibniu
(GOYV-nee-oo)—Danaan
smith god who instantly crafts new
spears for his people during their
battle with the Firbolgs.
Gronw Pebyr (GRON-oo PEB-eer)—
Blodeuwedd's lover, who plots with
her to kill Lleu Llaw Gyffes.
Gwalchmei (GWALCH-may)—Knight
Aife (EE-fuh or AYE-fuh)—Scathach's
enemy, who is defeated by
Cúchulainn.
Amargin (AV-ar-ghin)—Druid who
helps the Milesians defeat the
Annwn (AH-noon)—The Underworld.
Aranrhod (ah-RAN-rhode)—Mother of
Lleu Llaw Gyffes.
Arawn (AH-raun)—Lord of the
Underworld, who switches places
for one year with Pwyll.
Balor (BAH-lohr)—Greatest and most
evil of Fomori kings; he was
nicknamed "of the Evil Eye."
Banba (BAN-buh)—Danaan queen
Bedwyr
(BED-weer)—Knight
Arthur's court whose special skill is
speed with his sword.
Blodeuwedd (BLOW-DYE-weth)—
Woman created out of flowers by
Math and Gwydion so that Lleu
Llaw Gyffes might have a wife.
Bres (BRESS)—Chosen king of the
Tuatha dé Danaan after Nuada loses
his hand; he is overthrown once
Nuada is healed and declares war
on the Tuatha Dé Danaan.
Cian (KEY-ann)—Lugh's Danaan
Conchobar (KON-cho-var)—King of
Ulster and foster father to
Cúchulainn in the Red Branch
Cycle of myths.
Cúchulainn
(KOO-CHUHL-uhn)—
Hero of the myths of the Red
Branch Cycle.
Culhwch (KILL-hookh)—Hero of the
best-known Welsh tale concerning
King Arthur and his knights.
Dagda (DAHG-thah)—Father of the
in Arthur's court who could leave
no adventure unexplored.
Gwawl (GWOWL)—Man to whom
Rhiannon had been promised.
Gwrhyr (GOOR-heer)—Knight in
Arthur's court who is able to speak
the language of any man or animal.
Gwydion (GWID-ee-on)—Welsh god
of illusion and poetry; Lleu Llaw
Gyffes's adoptive father.
Hafgan (HAHV-gahn)—Arawn's rival
in the Underworld. Pwyll agrees to
fight him in Arawn's place.
Lleu Llaw Gyffes (LLAY-oo LLAU-oo
GUFF-ess)—Welsh counterpart of
Lugh, who is master of all trades.
Luchta (LUCHT-uh)—Danaan god of
carpentry.
Lugh (LOOGH)—Master of all trades.
After Lugh helps the Tuatha Dé
Danaan defeat the Firbolgs, he
becomes their king.
Mabinogi (mab-in-O-gee)—Oldest
written record of myths from the
Welsh mythological tradition.
Mabon (MAB-on)—Kidnap victim
whom Culhwch must find as part of
his quest.
Mac Cecht (mak KECHT)—One of the
three Danaan kings of Ireland at the
time of the Milesian Invasion.
Mac Cuill (mak KWILL)—One of the
Mac Greine (mak GRAY nuh)—One of
the three Danaan kings of Ireland at
the time of the Milesian Invasion.
Math (MAHTH)—God who must
always keep his feet on a virgin's lap.
Miach (MEE-ach)—Dian Cecht's son
who crafts a real hand for Nuada.
Milesians (mill-EE-zhuns)—The first
human inhabitants of Ireland.
Moytura (moy-TOO-ruh)—The Plain
of Towers.
Niamh (NEE-av)—Fairy who takes
Oisín to the Land of Promise.
Nuada (NOO-uh-thuh)—King of the
Tuatha Dé Danaan who loses his
hand during battle. When his hand
is replaced with a silver one, he is
no longer allowed to be king.
Ogma (OAG-muh)—Strongest man at
the court of King Nuada.
Oisín (AW-sheen)—Son of Finn mac
Cumaill; he is said to have first
written down the stories of his
father and the Fenians.
Olwen (OLE-wen)—Culhwch's true
Partholón (PAR-tho-lon)—King of the
first inhabitants of Ireland.
Pwyll (POOH-ill)—Welsh ruler of
Dyfed; he switches places with
Arawn, King of the Underworld, for
one year.
Rhiannon (rhee-AN-on)—Pwyll's wife.
Scáthach
(SKAW-thach)—Warrior
woman whom Cúchulainn fights
and eventually befriends.
Sétanta (SHAY-duhn-duh)—Original
named of Cúchulainn.
Síd (SHEE or SHEETH)—Mounds or
hills where the Tuatha Dé Danaan
are said to have fled after the
Milesians drove them from Ireland.
Sreng (SRENG)—Firbolg delegate at
the first meeting between his
people and the Tuatha Dé Danaan.
Tuatha Dé Danaan (TOO-uhth-uh day
DAHN-ann)—Godlike people who
inhabit Ireland before the coming of
the Milesians.
Twrch Trwyth (TOORCH TROO-ith)—
King who has been transformed
into a boar; he keeps a comb and
shears between his ears.
Úathach (OO-uh-thach)—Scathach's
daughter.
Ysbaddaden Pencawr (us-buh-THAHden PEN-cower)—Fearsome giant;
he is Olwen's father.
Who Were the Celts?
The Celts were one of the great founding cultures of
European civilization. Their origins can be traced back to the
second millennium B.C. The Celts' original homeland was
near the headwaters of the Rhine, Rhone, and Danube
Rivers, in what is now Austria, Switzerland, and Germany. By
the start of the first millennium B.C., however, the Celts
began a massive expansion across Europe.
Over the next seven hundred years, the Celts
conquered much of Europe. By the sixth century B.C., they
had invaded regions of France, Spain, Austria, and
Bohemia (now the Czech Republic). They also moved
westward into the British Isles. In the fourth century, the
Celts met up with two other great European empires—
the Etruscans of Italy and Macedonia's Alexander the
Great. The Celts defeated the Etruscans and even sacked
Rome circa 390–387 B.C. Their meeting with Alexander the
Great was a more peaceful conference. After his death,
though, they invaded Greece, attacking the great shrine at
Delphi. The Celts then moved to Turkey and established
the area there known as Galatia.
In the last three centuries B.C., the mighty Roman
Empire began to check the Celts' expansion. In fact, by the
first century B.C., the Romans had pushed the Celts out of
continental Europe altogether. Many of the surviving Celts
retreated to the British Isles. But by around 55 B.C., the
Romans made their way to Britain, as well. The famous
Julius Caesar led this expedition. The only areas of Britain
not to be conquered were Ireland and the Isle of Man. The
Romans occupied Britain for nearly five centuries. In that
time, the dominating Romans displaced much of the Celts'
language, culture, and customs with their own.
The Roman Empire began to decline in the third and
fourth centuries A.D. By the fifth century, Roman Britain had
collapsed altogether. Following this fall, Germanic tribes
made their way westward into Britain. The Franks moved
into Gaul, establishing France, and the Anglo-Saxon tribes
created England from the formerly Celtic Britain. Over
time, the Celts were pushed into remote areas such as
Wales and Scotland by invading tribes and cultures.
The Celts today refer less to an ethnic or national
group, but a linguistic one—meaning one connected by
language. Only six Celtic language groups have survived
to modern times. The Gaelic-speaking branch consists
of people from Ireland, Highland Scotland, and the Isle of
Man (off the Northwest coast of England). The Brythonicspeaking branch is made up of people from Wales,
Brittany, and Cornwall (the southwestern area of England).
Of course, not all the people from these areas still speak a
Celtic language. Of the 16.5 million people who live in
these places, it is estimated that only 2.5 million speak a
Celtic language. The Celtic myths available today stem
mostly from the Irish and Welsh linguistic traditions.
Understanding the Celts' own religion, as well as the
influences of outside religions, is critical to an
understanding of Celtic mythology. The Celts themselves
were pagan. Celtic paganism was polytheistic, which
means they worshiped multiple gods. Paganism was
generally very connected to nature. The pagans
personified the most powerful forces of nature into gods
and goddesses. Some of the forces worshiped included
the sky, the sun, fertility, the sea, and the earth.
The religious leaders of the tribes were known as
druids. Druids also served as teachers, advisors, lawyers,
and more. Because they were considered such important
members of the community, they were exempt from
having to serve in the army or pay taxes. Any decisions
druids arrived at were considered final and were not
subject to debate.
Much of what we know of druidic paganism comes
from the observations and writings of Roman conquerors
such as Julius Caesar. For example, it is from Caesar that
we know the Celts believed in the immortality of the soul.
As one of their leading dogmas [beliefs] they inculcate this:
that souls are not annihilated, but pass after death from one
body to another, and they hold that by this teaching men are
much encouraged to valour, through disregarding the fear
Caesar also wrote of a more brutal aspect of druidic
paganism: human sacrifice. He wrote of the druids:
All the Gauls are . . . much given to superstition, and,
therefore, persons afflicted by severe illness or involved in
wars and dangers either make human sacrifices or vow to
do so, and use the Druids as their ministers in these
ceremonies.
At the beginning of their conquest, the Romans were
themselves polytheistic, although they believed in a
different set of gods than the Celts did. Once established in
Britain, the Romans worked to rid the Celts of their
religion. As the religious leaders, the druids were
particularly vulnerable to the religious cleansing of the
Romans. Many druids were killed off in an effort to convert
the masses.
Beginning in the first century A.D., however, Christianity
began to gain favor in the Roman Empire. Christianity is a
monotheistic religion, or a religion that worships only one,
all-powerful god. By the second century A.D., Christianity
became increasingly popular in Britain, although it was still
not the dominant religion. Ironically, as the Roman Empire
declined, the religion they had imported steadily gained in
popularity. By the fifth century, missionary activity made
Christianity more popular than paganism. In Ireland, for
example, nearly the entire population had been converted
by the singular efforts of one man—the famous St. Patrick.
Celtic Myth and Literature
Throughout the Celts' existence, stories of their rich
folklore and history had been passed down orally from
generation to generation. Traveling poets and minstrels,
known as bards, made their way throughout the Celtic
world. According to some scholars, bards wandered freely
and over great distances from tribe to tribe in order to
share stories and myths. In this way, legends from Ireland,
for example, made their way to Scotland and the Isle of
Man. As a result of the myths of different Celtic people
continuously intermixing, aspects of the different linguistic
groups' stories often resemble one another.
Celtic myths and legends were not first transcribed to
manuscript form until the early Christian period. However,
the people setting the stories down were Christian monks.
The monks, of course, had their own agenda for Britain—
to convert the Celts from paganism. Many of the original
pagan elements in Celtic myths were either deleted or
rewritten with a Christianized slant.
Admittedly, then, the surviving myths from the Celtic
world may not be the fully authentic versions they once
were. Even so, they offer valuable insight into the rich
culture and customs of a nearly three-thousand-year-old
THE COMING OF
THE TUATHA DÉ
DANA AN
In the collected myths of nearly every culture is a story that
accounts for the origins of the universe. The ancient
Egyptians, for example, tell of Earth being formed once
Shu, the goddess of air, and Tefnut, the god of moisture,
joined in marriage. According to Norse mythology,
Midgard, or the place where human beings make their
home, was formed from the eyebrows of a giant named
Ymir. And the Cherokee tribe of North America believed an
ancient buzzard shaped Earth's mountains and valleys
from clay it had gathered from the bottom of the sea. The
Gaelic Celts, too, have a story for the beginning of things.
These myths differ from those of other cultures, however,
in that they are not concerned with the origin of the world
in general, but rather of the origin of their own country.
The first mysterious invaders of Ireland arrived at a
time when the country consisted of only one treeless,
grassless plain; three lakes; and nine rivers. These
creatures were led by Partholón, who brought with him his
queen and other followers—twenty-four males and
twenty-four females. They came to Ireland from the
underworld and lived there for three hundred years. In that
time, the land stretched out, making room for new plains
and lakes. Partholón was constantly doing battle with a
strange race of beings called the Fomori, who had always
inhabited Ireland. Partholón and his followers managed to
drive the Fomori to the northernmost corners of the
country. Eventually, the strange race of Partholón was
wiped out by a plague. Only one member of their tribe
survived to tell their story.
Other races invaded Ireland, as well. All came from
the underworld and all were forced to do battle with the
The Coming of the Tuatha Dé Danaan
Fomori. The most important invaders of Ireland, however,
were the people of Danu, or the Tuatha Dé Danaan. Danu
was the mother of the gods. When her people came to
Ireland, they brought with them many gifts and treasures.
The following story tells more of the Tuatha Dé Danaan
and their legacy to Ireland.
TUATHA DÉ DANA AN
The Tuatha Dé Danaan arrived in Ireland on a cloud from
the four great cities of fairyland. While in their homelands,
they had learned the arts of poetry and science. They
brought these gifts, plus great treasures from the fairy
cities, to their new home. The treasures included a stone
that confirmed the rightful king by roaring when he stood
upon it, a sword that could never be broken, a magic
spear, and a pot that could feed an army without ever
going empty.
After three days, the cloud on which the Danaans
arrived vanished. When the air cleared, the Firbolgs, a
misshapen and stupid race who lived in Ireland, realized
they were no longer alone. They sent a warrior named
Sreng to question the newcomers. Likewise, the Danaans
sent a representative from their side.
When the two ambassadors met, each was in awe of
the other's weapons. The Danaans' spears were light and
sharply pointed, while those of the Firbolgs were heavy
and blunt. The pair decided to exchange weapons so that
each tribe could learn more about the other. Just as the
pair was leaving, the Danaan ambassador suggested the
Firbolgs and Danaans should split the country into two
equal halves and join to defend it against any future
invaders.
Sreng returned to the Firbolg camp and told Eochaid,
the king, of the Danaan ambassador's offer. Eochaid
worried that if they gave the Danaans half of Ireland, they
would soon want the whole. Plus, the Firbolgs were
greedy and did not want to share the land with anyone.
Rather than agreeing to the Danaans' offer, Eochaid
refused, deciding that it would be better to declare war
The two tribes met at Moytura, or the Tower of Plains,
to wage their battle. The fighting was vicious. Nuada, the
king of the Danaans, lost his hand while fighting with a
Firbolg. The Firbolg ruler, Eochaid, was even more
unfortunate—he was killed while leading a party in search
of water. Once Eochaid was dead, the Danaans proved
much more powerful than their opponents. The Firbolgs
realized they would be defeated altogether if they
continued fighting. Rather than risk a complete loss,
they decided to make an agreement with the Danaans.
The Danaans offered the Firbolgs one-fifth of the country.
From that day, the Firbolgs made their home in the area of
Ireland known as Connaught and seldom bothered the
Danaans.
After the battle, Nuada should have remained ruler.
There was an ancient law, though, that declared no
maimed person could sit on the throne of Ireland. Nuada
had a beautiful silver hand made in the hope that he would
be allowed to remain king. However, the people still
considered it a fake and forced him to step down.
Given the troubles with the Firbolgs, the Danaans
thought it might be a wise diplomatic decision to ally with
the Fomori, a race of giants that lived under the sea. They
chose to ask Bres, son of the Fomori king and a Danaan
mother, if he would be their ruler. He agreed. As it turned
out, though, Bres was a terrible king. He was oppressive
and mean and taxed the Danaans heavily. Bres also lacked
generosity and hospitality—two of the worst offenses an
Irish ruler could commit.
While Bres tormented the Danaans, Nuada, who was
now nicknamed "Of the Silver Hand," wondered if there
was anything he could do. When he had lost his hand,
it was Dian Cécht, the god of medicine, who had crafted
the silver hand. It turned out that Dian Cécht's son, Miach,
was an even greater healer. Nuada decided to visit Miach
to see if he could help him with his hand. The son was able
to do what the father was not—he made a real hand grow
for Nuada. When the people of Ireland heard that Nuada
was no longer maimed, they rejoiced. They asked him to
reclaim his rightful position as king, which he did.
Bres, of course, was not happy about losing the throne.
He returned to his home under the sea, where he
complained to his father, Elatha. Elatha granted his son a
great army which he could use to reclaim his place on the
throne. He also advised his son to seek the help of Balor—
the greatest and most evil of Fomori kings. Balor was
nicknamed "of the Evil Eye" because only one glance from
his great eye could strike down all who looked upon it.
In his old age, Balor's eye became droopy and the lid had
to be hoisted up by his servants with ropes and pulleys.
Even so, Balor's evil eye was a great weapon.
Nuada and the Danaans grew nervous when they
heard news of Bres and Balor's alliance. They knew
they would be no match for the powerful Balor. In fact,
Balor's only weakness was an ancient prophecy that he
would be killed by his own grandson. But Balor had taken
care to kill all his only daughter's offspring, so even this
path seemed hopeless.
The Danaans assembled at the royal palace of Tara to
determine what they could do. While there, a stranger
arrived at the palace. He was greeted by the gatekeeper,
who asked the stranger his profession. No one was
admitted without being the master of some craft.
"I am a carpenter," said the stranger.
The gatekeeper replied that the king already had a
skilled carpenter and had no need of another.
"Then tell the king I am a master smith."
"We already have a smith," answered the gatekeeper.
"Then I am a warrior, too," said the stranger.
"We do not need one," replied the gatekeeper. "The
great Ogma is our champion."
The stranger went on to name all the professions and
arts he could think of—poet, harpist, scientist, physician,
sorcerer, sculptor. Each time he was told that the king
already had such a man at court.
"Then ask the king," said the stranger, "if he has with
him a man of all these crafts at once, for if he has, there is
no need for me at Tara."
When the king heard this news, he was intrigued. He
decided to test the stranger. Nuada sent his best chess
champion to play the man. The stranger won quickly,
inventing a new move in the process. With the victory,
Nuada offered him an invitation to the palace. As he
walked in, the stranger saw Ogma, the King's champion,
pushing a stone so large it would take eighty oxen to pull
it. The stranger helped Ogma by effortlessly lifting the
great rock and putting it in its place.
All the people at the palace were amazed by the
stranger's show of strength and intelligence. They
wondered if he was also a great musician, and asked him
to play upon his harp for them. First, the stranger played a
lullaby that made the crowd fall asleep for two days. Next,
he played a song so sad they all began to weep. Finally, he
played a joyous song, to which they all cheered and
danced.
Nuada and his people were all awed. They wondered
if the beautiful man might be of help in fighting the Fomori.
As it turned out, the stranger would be more than just
some help. He revealed that he was Lugh, Master of All
Arts. His father was the Danaan Cian, his mother was the
Fomor Ethlinn, but most importantly, his grandfather was
none other than Balor! Although Balor believed he had
protected himself from the prophecy by killing his
grandchildren, he was unaware that one child, Lugh, had
been rescued from death and raised in secret.
Lugh agreed to help the Danaans in their defense
against the Fomori. Before he led them into battle, though,
Lugh believed they needed certain magical instruments
and tools to ensure victory. He dispatched messengers,
soldiers, and servants across the land on various quests. In
total, it took seven years to gather everything they needed.
But in the end, the Danaans had collected several magic
items to help them in battle. A magical pig's skin, for
example, healed every wound or sickness it touched.
Seven swine provided unlimited food for the Danaans.
With these items and more in hand, the Danaans were
ready to take on the Fomori.
The giants and the gods met at the Tower of Plains—
the same site of the Danaans' battle against the Firbolgs.
They fought hand-to-hand for days on end. The fighting
itself was equal, but the results were not. While the
Danaans lost as many men and weapons as the Fomori,
their numbers never seemed to dwindle. This was
because of the gods' magic and the items they had brought
with them. Each time a Danaan spear broke, Goibhniu, the
smith god, hammered out a new spearhead with only
three blows of his mallet. Luchtar, God of Carpentry, would
instantly make a new handle. Likewise, wounds were
healed by the pig skin or by the powers of Dian Cécht, the
god of medicine.
The lack of results only infuriated the Fomori further.
They charged the Danaans with a great shout. Swords
clashed, shields shattered, and darts whistled by. In
desperation, the Fomori brought out Balor, hoping to finish
off their enemies once and for all. Balor struck down many
Danaans, including Nuada of the Silver Hand. At last, he
met up with Lugh. He ordered his servants to pull up his
great eyelid. But while the lid was only partially open, Lugh
took a slingshot and hurled a great stone. It struck Balor's
mighty eye and lodged deep in his brain. Balor fell dead,
fulfilling the prophecy that he would die at his grandson's
With Balor dead, the Danaans quickly defeated the
Fomori. Lugh, who had led them to their victory, was made
king at the battle's end.
What four gifts did the Tuatha Dé Danaan bring from
their fairy home?
The Tuatha Dé Danaan brought with them a stone that
confirmed the rightful king by roaring when he stood
How were the weapons of the Firbolgs different than
those of the Danaans?
The Firbolgs' weapons were heavy and blunt, while
the Danaans' spears were light and sharply pointed.
Why was Nuada not allowed to be king after the battle
with the Firbolgs?
Nuada was not allowed to be king because he had lost
his hand in battle and there was an ancient law that
said no maimed man could be king.
What was Balor's most powerful weapon?
What could Lugh offer that no one else at Nuada's
court could?
Lugh was a master of all skills at once.
Why did the Danaans never run out of weapons while
fighting the Fomori?
The Danaans never ran out of weapons because
Goibhniu, the Blacksmith God, and Luchtar, the God of
Balor had an "evil eye" that struck dead all those who
looked upon it.
Carpentry, instantly made a new weapon each time
one broke.
What was the ancient prophecy that Balor feared? Did
it come to pass?
Balor believed a prophecy that he would be killed by
his own grandson. Although he thought he had killed
the children of his only daughter, one of his grandsons
had been rescued and raised in secret. This was Lugh,
who eventually killed Balor by hurling a stone into his
eye with a slingshot. The prophecy had been fulfilled.
The Tuatha Dé Danaan represent the importance of certain
values in Celtic culture, such as science, poetry, and
artistic skill. In their battle with the Firbolgs, their victory
represents a greater triumph of the forces of good and
intelligence over those of dullness and ignorance. The
contrast of the Firbolgs' heavy, blunt weapons to the sharp,
light spears of the Danaans makes this metaphor clearer.
The battle with the Fomori is a bit more complicated to
interpret. In this part of the myth, the powers of the gods
come up against not exactly evil, but the negative forces of
the universe in general. According to Alexi Kondratiev, the
Fomori symbolize "the powers of the Land itself, givers of
both fertility and blight—but indiscriminately, with no
regard for the welfare of humans. T. W. Rolleston offers a
slightly different interpretation:
Again in their [the Danaans'] struggle with a far more
powerful and dangerous enemy, the Fomorians, we are
evidently to see the combat of the powers of Light with evil
of a more positive kind than represented by the Firbolgs.
The Fomorians stand not for mere dullness or stupidity, but
for the forces of tyranny, cruelty, and greed—for moral,
rather than for intellectual darkness.
The Gaelic Celts, then, did not think of their world as
innately good or evil. Rather, they acknowledged that good
and bad things can happen with little explanation why.
THE MILESIAN
While the Danaans defeated both the Firbolgs and the
Fomori, their reign in Ireland would not last forever. For all
the positive values they represented, the one thing they
could never be was human. The myth of the Danaans may
have explained how science, art, and knowledge came to
Ireland, but it did not explain the origin of mortal people. It
would take another myth—the story of the coming of the
Milesians—to provide such an explanation.
The Celts believed the Milesians most closely
resembled human beings in their current form. Even so,
they had their origin in a somewhat mystical background.
According to a purely Celtic tradition, human beings are
descendents of Bíle, the God of the underworld. Human
beings arrived from the land of the dead to make a new
home in the present world.
As the myth was retold and eventually recorded by
Christian storytellers, some of the pagan elements were
rewritten. In Christianized versions of the Milesian
invasion, human beings did not arrive from the
supernatural world of the dead, but rather from Spain. As
the original and edited version of the myths became more
and more intertwined, "Spain" came to be synonymous
with the land of the dead.
In "Spain," a man named Bregon built a very tall
watchtower. Bregon's son, Ith, liked to climb the tower
and look out over the sea. One very clear winter's day,
he noticed a land he had never seen before. Ith decided he
wanted to explore it further, so he set sail with ninety
warriors for the strange new land.
The land Ith had seen was, of course, Ireland. At that
time, there were three Danaan kings—Mac Cuill, Mac
Cecht, and Mac Greine—who ruled Ireland. As Ith landed,
he noticed the three rulers arguing. They were bickering
over how to divide the country. Seeing the stranger
approach, the kings asked Ith to help them decide. Ith had
no practical advice, but instead told the kings to act
according to the laws of justice. He then praised the
country for its moderate climate and abundance of good
food, such as fish, wheat, honey, and fruit. When the kings
heard the newcomer, they began to worry that he was
plotting to overtake their country. They killed him on the
spot, but spared his followers, who were allowed to return
to Spain with the body.
The people of Spain were furious to learn of Ith's death.
His nephew, Mil Espaine, determined to go to Ireland to
avenge his death. He set sail with his family and thirty-six
chiefs and their families. Among the Milesians, as they
came to be known, was Mil Espaine's son, Amairgin.
Amairgin was a poet and a powerful druid, or magician.
Upon landing on the Irish coast, Amairgin recited a poem,
asking the land and its resources to side with Mil Espaine
and his followers.
The group made their way to Tara, the capital and
palace of the Danaans. A short way into their march, they
met up with Banba, the wife of Mac Cuill. Banba greeted
the Milesians warmly. While she was not happy to hear
they had arrived to conquer Ireland, she asked that the
island be named after her should they win. Amairgin
promised it would be so. Further along, the Milesians met
up with another goddess, Fotla, wife of Mac Cecht. She
made the same request as Banba. Amairgin again
responded that it would be so.
Finally, as the group proceeded to the center of the
island, they met Eriu, wife of Mac Greine. Eriu greeted
the Milesians most warmly of all. She welcomed the group
to the fair island and prophesized that the human race
would be the most perfect the land would ever know. She
turned to Amairgin. Like Banba and Fotla, she asked that
the island bear her name should the Milesians be
successful in their battle. Amairgin answered that Eriu
would be the country's principal name. (While all three
names have been used to describe Ireland, it is only Eriu,
or Erin in a different form, that remains as a poetic
nickname for the island.)
After leaving Eriu, the Milesians made the last leg of
their journey to Tara. There, they found Mac Cuill, Mac
Cecht, and Mac Greine waiting for them. The kings and
other Danaans complained that the humans had not
followed the laws of warfare. According to ancient
The Milesian Invasion
traditions, invaders were required to give the inhabitants of
a country advance notice of an attack. The Milesians
admitted that they had not done this.
To settle the matter, the two sides decided to present
their case to Amairgin. The Danaans had great respect for
the druid. Even so, they threatened to kill him immediately
if his decision obviously favored the Milesians. After careful
consideration, Amairgin came to a verdict, which was
considered the first judgment ever delivered in Ireland. He
agreed that the Milesians acted unfairly and took the
Danaans by surprise. To make up for this, the Milesians had
to retreat out to sea the length of nine waves. If they were
able to return to shore, they would have rightfully earned
the land as their own.
Both sides felt Amairgin's judgment was a fair one. The
Milesians retreated to their ship and sailed nine wave
lengths back from the shore. Once the signal was given to
attack, the Milesians began paddling. Despite their
immense effort, however, the Milesians realized they were
not making any progress. Unbeknownst to them, the gods
had combined all their powers to create a strong wind to
keep the Milesians in place.
At first the Milesians thought it might be a natural storm
that was hindering them. They sent a man to climb the
highest mast to see if the wind was indeed caused by a
storm. The man quickly climbed up and then back down.
He reported that no storm could be seen on the horizon
and that the wind must therefore be supernatural in origin.
Amairgin quickly took control of the situation. He chanted
a poem that called out to the powers of the land itself—
powers far greater than even those of the gods. The land of
Ireland responded to Amairgin's spell and the winds soon
died down.
The Milesians continued to shore. Once they landed,
Amairgin called out to the sea, as he had done with the
land. With these forces behind them, the humans began
their assault on the gods. The three Danaan kings and their
wives were killed in battle. The Milesian invasion was
successful and they took over rule of the country.
While the Danaans were defeated, however, they did
not withdraw from Ireland altogether. Using their magical
powers, they made themselves invisible to the majority of
humans. From that day forward, Ireland was divided into
two realms—the earthly and the spiritual. While the
humans ruled the earthly domain, the Danaans dwelled
silently and invisibly in the spirit world. They made their
homes under mounds or hills, known as síd. The gods
became known as "the people of the hills." Every male
god was imagined as a Fear-síd, meaning "man of the hill."
Goddesses were called Ban-síd, or "woman of the hill."
Over the years, the words have evolved into their present
forms: "fairy" and "banshee." Both of these characters
remain popular in Irish folklore today.
How did Ith first see Ireland?
Why did the three kings of Ireland kill Ith?
What did each of the three queens ask of the
Milesians?
Each queen asked that the island be named after her
should the Milesians succeed in their quest to conquer
Why did the Danaans feel the Milesians' initial invasion
was unfair?
According to ancient traditions, invaders were
required to give the inhabitants of a country advance
notice of an attack. The Milesians had not done this.
How did Amairgin help the Milesians conquer the
storm that the Danaans had created?
Amairgin invoked the power of Ireland itself in order to
quiet the storm.
What happened to the Tuatha Dé Danaan after the
Milesians had defeated them?
The Danaans made themselves invisible to human
eyes and retreated to live under the hills and mounds
of Ireland.
Ith first saw Ireland from the top of a tall watchtower in
The three kings killed Ith after he praised their country
because they were afraid he was plotting to overtake it
himself.
Amairgin plays a crucial role in the Milesians' defeat of the
Danaans. In that way, he illustrates the importance of
the druid in ancient Celtic culture. Druids were much
more than magicians or poets, however. According to
Peter Berresford Ellis, druids:
were accounted philosophers, natural scientists, and
teachers and, more importantly, were able to give legal,
political, and even military judgments. They were trained in
"international law" as well as tribal law. They could prevent
warfare between tribes, for their moral and legal authority
was greater than that of chieftains or kings. Even the High
King could not speak at an assembly before his druid had
spoken.
As Christianity penetrated Celtic lands, pagan druids
were looked down on. Even so, they did not disappear
altogether. In fact, many scholars contend that "the early
saints were druids" presented in a Christianized package.
CÚCHUL AINN
AND EMER
Like most countries, ancient Ireland was divided into
different geographical areas, in this case known as
provinces. One of the more famous of these provinces
is Ulster, located on the northernmost end of the island.
Ulster still exists in Ireland today and comprises part of
what is known as Northern Ireland.
The stories surrounding this province are known
collectively as the Red Branch or Ulster Cycle. The Red
Branch myths were recorded sometime in the twelfth
century, but it is believed that they were passed down
orally for nearly a thousand years before they were written
down. This series of myths has always been and
continues to be widely known in Celtic mythology, in part
because of the popularity of the main hero, Cúchulainn.
As a child, Cúchulainn was known as Sétanta. He was
the nephew and foster son of King Conchobar, but his
maternal grandfather was said to be Dagda, the father of
all the gods, and his father was Lugh, the sun god. With or
without his divine bloodline, it was clear from the time he
was young that Sétanta was destined to be a great warrior.
At the age of seven, for example, Sétanta was on his way
to a feast in the king's honor when he was attacked by the
hound of Culann, the king's blacksmith. Although the
terrible hound was as fierce as one hundred regular dogs,
Sétanta immediately killed the beast by hurling a ball at its
The king and his subjects were surprised that the
young boy had survived such an attack. Culann, however,
was upset that his great hound was dead. Even though he
was young, Sétanta proved he was not only strong and
brave, but also honorable. He offered to train a puppy to
replace the dog he had killed. In the meantime, Sétanta
offered to fulfill the role of the hound himself, guarding
Culann's house and protecting him from enemies. From
that day forward he was called Cúchulainn, which means
"Culann's hound."
The next story is just one of many that describes
the adventures of Cúchulainn and his companions, the
Champions of the Red Branch. In it, he overcomes many
obstacles to win the beautiful Emer for his wife.
Cúchulainn's adventures give a sense of the traits most
important in the Ulster Cycle, such as bravery, cunning,
and strength. Another notable element of the myth is its
depiction of strong women—not only does Cúchulainn
pursue women, he battles them and matches wits with
them, as well.
As Cúchulainn grew older he became increasingly more
handsome. A mere glance at any woman was enough to
make her fall instantly in love with him. The men of Ulster
became worried that Cúchulainn would entice away their
wives with his good looks, so they demanded he find a
wife of his own. A party was formed and sent to the
furthest corners of Ireland, but even after a full year, they
could not find a woman Cúchulainn found suitable. At
last, Cúchulainn came across Emer, daughter of Forgall.
She possessed all six "gifts" by which women were
judged: the gifts of beauty, voice, sweet speech,
needlework, wisdom, and chastity.
When Cúchulainn first approached Emer, she laughed
at his advances, saying that he was too young. Ignoring her
dismissals, Cúchulainn admired her beauty aloud. Emer
replied that no man would ever possess her beauty before
slaying hundreds of men and making his name known
across Ireland. Cúchulainn pledged to do just that,
provided that Emer would agree to marry him once he
succeeded in his quest. Emer agreed, so Cúchulainn
went off to win his fame and fortune, stopping at King
Conchobar's palace on the way.
Emer's father, Forgall, was not pleased with these
arrangements, however. He had had a premonition that his
daughter's marriage to Cúchulainn would somehow lead
to his own death. To guard against such a fate, he wanted
to make sure that Cúchulainn would not survive his
adventures. He disguised himself as a traveler and
followed Cúchulainn to the king's court. There, he
watched Cúchulainn and the other Champions of the Red
Branch demonstrate their skill and strength before their
Still disguised, Forgall approached the king and said
loud enough to be overheard that Cúchulainn's skill was
impressive. It would be even greater, Forgall continued, if
Cúchulainn made his way to the island of Alba to study the
craft of war under Scáthach the Amazon, the fiercest
female warrior in the world. Forgall knew that
Cúchulainn, who prided himself on being the best at
everything, would not be able to resist such a challenge.
Sure enough, Cúchulainn declared he would indeed make
his way to Alba. Forgall secretly hoped that Cúchulainn
would be killed in the process.
Cúchulainn made his way to Alba, the Island of
Shadows. He faced many perils along the way. When he
finally arrived, he was faced with the Bridge of Leaps,
which offered the only passage onto the island. The
treacherous bridge was very long and worked something
like a see-saw—whenever weight was added to one side,
the other end lifted up until the entire bridge stood straight
up in the air. Three times Cúchulainn tried to cross, and
three times he failed.
Perhaps because of his divine relatives, Cúchulainn
was blessed with a few seemingly-super human powers.
When he got very angry, for example, his rage would build
up inside him to the point that he would grow hot and
Cúchulainn and Emer
almost glow. With this extra energy, Cúchulainn was able
to perform "the hero's salmon leap," which enabled him to
jump huge distances. After failing three times to cross the
bridge, Cúchulainn became enraged and did his salmon
leap directly onto the middle of the bridge. He reached the
far end of the bridge so quickly that it did not have time to
spring back on him.
Cúchulainn did not realize it, but he was being
watched by Scáthach and her daughter, Úathach, as he
crossed the bridge and approached their home. Upon
seeing the beautiful young man, Úathach fell immediately
in love with him. She went to greet him at the door. But
Cúchulainn wasted little time with Úathach and
demanded right away to know where Scáthach was.
Overcome with love, Úathach not only told him where to
find her mother, but the secret way to force her to grant
whatever he wished, as well. Úathach revealed that
Scáthach was up in a yew tree with her two sons. If
Cúchulainn were to surprise her and quickly draw his
sword on her, she would promise him anything in return
for her life.
So, Cúchulainn performed the hero's salmon leap
straight up into the highest branches of the tree. He drew
his sword on Scáthach and placed its point on her breast.
He threatened to kill her if she did not take him as her
student. Wanting to be spared a painful death, Scáthach
promised to teach him all she knew.
Cúchulainn stayed with Scáthach for a year and a day,
learning the art of battle and the techniques of war.
Cúchulainn was such a good student that Scáthach
presented him with the gae bolga—a terrible weapon that
made only one wound when entering, but exploded into
thirty small barbs once inside the enemy's body.
Cúchulainn's new skills were soon put to use on the
island. Scáthach was at the time at war with Aife, queen of
another tribe on the island and an equally fierce warrior.
The day of the great fight, Scáthach tried to prevent
Cúchulainn from fighting, thinking that the terrible Aife
would surely kill him. Scáthach gave him a sleeping potion
so that he would not be awake during the battles. But the
potion, which was strong enough to last thirty-six hours on
any normal man, only lasted one hour on Cúchulainn.
As soon as he awoke, he went to join the fight. He
arrived just in time to discover Aife had challenged
Scáthach to single combat. Cúchulainn demanded to go in
his teacher's place, but first asked Scáthach to tell him
what Aife valued most in the world. Scáthach answered
that Aife prized her two horses, her chariot, and her
charioteer above all else.
Cúchulainn and Aife began to fight, and at first it
appeared that the young man was no match for the fierce
woman warrior. With just one blow, she shattered
Cúchulainn's sword. But at the very moment it looked like
she would kill him, Cúchulainn called out "Look! Aife's
chariot and horses have fallen into the valley! They are all
dead!" When Aife turned around to see what had
happened to her beloved possessions, Cúchulainn
grabbed her and put a knife to her throat. He offered to
spare her life only if she pledged peace with Scáthach and
offered hostages as proof of the agreement. Aife agreed
and peace was returned to the island.
In the meantime, Emer was at home warding off
potential suitors. Word that Emer might be forced to marry
another made its way back to Cúchulainn on Alba. Not
wanting to lose his bride, Cúchulainn decided that it was
time to return home to Ireland. Forgall, of course, was
dismayed to learn that not only had Cúchulainn survived
his adventure, but that he was returning an even stronger
warrior than before. Forgall took great pains to guard his
home against any attacks.
The barricades Forgall put up were so strong that it
took Cúchulainn a full year just to reach the wall of the
fortress. When he finally got there he leaped over the high
walls, killing eight men with each stroke of his blade.
Forgall was among those slain. Cúchulainn quickly
grabbed Emer and her foster sister, along with their weight
in silver and gold, then performed another of his salmon
leaps to make their escape.
As they began to ride away, they heard a loud cry and
saw Forgall's sister, Scenmed, following them with a troop
of men to avenge her fallen brother. Cúchulainn killed her
on the spot, which has been known ever since as the Ford
Scenmed. Scenmed's men continued to chase the hero,
but at Glondath, Cúchulainn killed one hundred of them
with ease. Emer praised her love for his great deed and
declared the place would be called Glondath, the Ford of
Deeds, forevermore.
Cúchulainn and the women continued riding, coming
eventually to Rae Bann, the White Plain. Once again they
were attacked and once again Cúchulainn slaughtered his
assailants. As streams of his enemies' blood ran over the
once-white plains, Emer said the place would henceforth
be known as Crúfóit, Sod of Blood. Finally, the group
reached another ford near Boinne. At this place,
Cúchulainn chased his enemies northward, with the sod,
or grass, from his horses' hooves flying all over the ford. He
then repeated his action in the opposite direction, spraying
the ford with sod toward the south. From that day on, the
place has been known as the Ford of Two Sods.
With no enemies left to conquer, Cúchulainn and Emer
were free to marry. They never parted again.
Why did Sétanta become known as Cúchulainn?
What were the six gifts that women were judged by
and how many of these did Emer possess?
The gifts women were judged by were: beauty, voice,
sweet speech, needlework, wisdom, and chastity.
Emer possessed all six of these gifts.
How did Forgall trick Cúchulainn into leaving on a
journey?
Disguised as a traveler, Forgall commented that
Cúchulainn had impressive skills, but would be even
better if he studied under Scáthach. Forgall knew
Cúchulainn would not be able to resist the challenge.
What unique skill did Cúchulainn use to pass the
Bridge of Leaps?
Cúchulainn was able to leap great distances. This skill
was called the hero's salmon leap.
How did Cúchulainn conquer Aife in battle?
After killing Culann's prized hound, Sétanta not only
offered to train a puppy to replace the dog, but to fulfill
the dog's role himself until the pup was ready. From
then on, he was known as Cúchulainn, which means
Cúchulainn tricked Aife into looking away by telling her
that her prized chariot and horses had fallen into a
valley. As soon as she turned, Cúchulainn grabbed her
and put a knife to her throat.
What evidence remains from Cúchulainn's battles with
Scenmed and her men?
The names of the geographical places where
Cúchulainn fought were changed to reflect his
victories. After spilling his enemies' blood over the
White Plain, for example, it became known as the Sod
of Blood instead.
In the course of this story many real places are mentioned.
Thomas Kinsella describes how this technique was often
employed in the Ulster myths to explain the origin of
certain places' names:
Place-names and their frequently fanciful meanings and
origins occupy a remarkable place [in these myths] by
modern standards. It is often enough justification for the
inclusion of an incident that it ends in the naming of some
physical feature; certain incidents indeed seem to have
been invented merely to account for a place-name.
Other mythologists have attempted to identify the reallife counterparts to the fictional places named in the
myths. The fictional island of Alba, for example, where
Scáthach is reputed to have lived, is widely identified with
the island of Skye, a large island off the coast of Northwest
Scotland. In fact, T. W. Rolleston points out that on the
island of Skye, "the Cuchulain Peaks still bear witness to
the legend."
The inclusion of real place-names has also led scholars
to wonder about the possible real-life identities of the
characters. The supernatural powers of a character such
as Cúchulainn are obviously elements of pure myth. Even
so, some scholars argue that some characters are based
on real-life people. In answering the question, "History or
mythology?" Charles Squire, for example, writes that it is:
A mingling perhaps of both. Cúchulainn may have been the
name of a real Gaelic warrior, however suspiciously he may
now resemble the sun god, who is said to have been his
father. King Conchobar may have been the real chief of a
tribe of Irish Celts before he became an adumbration [a
representation] of the Gaelic sky-god.
OISÍN
Long after Cúchulainn and his followers died, a new group
of heroes emerged in Ireland. In this next cycle of myths,
supposedly set in the third century A .D., the central
character is a man named Fionn Mac Cumaill. The
Anglicized version of his name, which is slightly more well
known, is Finn Mac Cool. The stories surrounding Finn and
the Fianna, a band of warriors who followed Finn, are
collectively called the Fenian cycle.
Like Cúchulainn and the Champions of the Red
Branch, Finn and the men of the Fianna patrolled Ireland
to protect against invaders. They encountered many
exciting adventures along the way. Unlike the Ultonians,
however, members of the Fianna were not only expert
warriors, but learned, cultured men of poetry and science.
Finn, for example, was as wise as he was fearless.
Finn's real name was Demna. He was nicknamed Finn,
or "the fair one," because of his pale skin and goldenblond hair. Finn spent years learning to become a great
warrior, but realized that he wanted to study science and
the arts, too. He decided to study under a great druid
named Finegas.
Finegas lived by a deep pool where the "salmon of
knowledge" swam. These magical fish were the source
of all knowledge in the universe. It was prophesized that
only a man named Finn could eat them. Once he did, he,
too, would be all-knowing. Finegas assumed he was the
Finn of the prophecy and spent years trying to catch a
salmon. A short time after Finn arrived as his pupil, he
finally succeeded.
Finegas gave the salmon to his student to cook, but
warned him not to eat a bite. He left Finn to his work.
When he returned, he noticed that the boy looked
somehow different. He asked Finn if he had tasted the fish.
Finn replied that he had not eaten any. But, while he was
cooking it, he burned his thumb on the hot pan and stuck
his thumb in his mouth to cool it. Finegas realized that the
boy was the Finn who was supposed to eat the fish. He told
Finn to finish the entire salmon. Finn soon became one of
the wisest men to ever live. From that day forward, he had
only to stick his thumb in his mouth as he had when he
was burned in order to receive any knowledge he wished.
But Finn was not the only extraordinary member of the
Fianna. Finn's own son, Oisín, was just as great a warrior
as his father. He was also a gifted poet. In fact, legend has
it that he was the first person to tell and record the stories
of the Fianna.
The following myth recounts some of Oisín's
adventures and explores how he came to pass his story
down. In this story, paganism comes up directly against
Christianity. Oisín, who lives for a time in a fairy kingdom,
represents the supernatural. At the end of the story,
though, he meets up with Patrick. In the Christian tradition,
Patrick is the famous St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland.
Like most great heroes, Oisín possessed incredible beauty.
It seemed women were always falling in love with him
after gazing on his perfect face. One day, while hunting
with Finn and several members of the Fianna, Oisín
noticed a woman riding toward them on a white horse.
The beautiful maiden was dressed like royalty. She wore a
gold crown on her head and a brown silk robe with redgold stars draped over her shoulders. Even the horse on
which she rode was bedecked with gold horseshoes and
had a silver wreath around its head.
Finn asked the woman her name. She replied that she
was Niamh, daughter of Manannán Mac Lir, god of the sea
and king of the Land of Promise. She explained that she
had come all the way from her invisible fairy home
because of her love for Oisín. She asked him to return with
her. Oisín immediately agreed. Finn and his companions
could do nothing to stop the lovestruck young man. They
watched as he climbed on to the white horse behind
Niamh and wrapped his arms around her.
The pair rode for a long time—across the land and then
over the tops of the waves of the sea. Along the way,
Niamh described the Land of Promise as the sweetest and
dreamiest place in the universe. Oisín felt as if he were in
a trance. He felt very peaceful, but lost track of time and
place. Strange sights kept appearing before his eyes. He
saw fairy palaces with strange towers and gateways. A
hornless deer ran by slowly, chased by a white dog with
one red ear. These strange dogs only existed in the "other
Finally, Niamh and Oisín reached the Land of Promise.
While there, Oisín had a few adventures, such as saving a
princess from a Fomori giant. He was blissfully happy there
with Niamh. After a period of what he thought was three
weeks, though, he realized he missed his father and his
homeland. He asked Niamh if he could go back to visit.
Niamh granted his request and even lent him her fairy
horse. The only rule she had was that he could not let his
feet touch earthly soil or he would never be allowed to
return to the Land of Promise. Oisín promised and made
his way to Ireland.
When he arrived, he found the country entirely
changed. The palace of the Fianna was no longer in the
same place. The men who roamed around seemed tiny
compared to Oisín. He asked if anyone knew where he
could find Finn and the Fianna. The only responses
he received were surprised glances. He was told that those
were the names of people who had lived long ago. Oisín
had not been gone for three weeks as he had thought—he
had been gone for three hundred years!
As Oisín was trying to figure out what to do, he noticed
a group of men trying to move a great boulder. He rode
over to help them. The men were in awe of the beautiful,
giant man. He was stronger than all of them combined.
While still in his saddle, Oisín leaned over to move the
boulder. With one hand, he put it in its rightful place.
The men cheered for Oisín.
Their celebrations did not last long, though. As Oisín sat
back into his saddle, a strap broke and his foot hit the
ground. Instantly, the white horse disappeared and
the man dropped to the ground. As he stood up, the
men were shocked to see not a young, strong giant, but a
weak, withered, gray-haired man who was no larger than
they were.
The old man seemed confused. He was babbling about
Finn and asking where he could find the Fianna. Because
the old man was too weak to care for himself, the men
brought him to Patrick. Patrick had arrived in Ireland many
years earlier. He had converted the Irish to Christianity.
Rather than believing in many gods, they now believed in
only one, all-powerful god.
Patrick took Oisín into his home. He treated the old
man with great respect and hospitality. The two men did
not see eye to eye on religion, though. Patrick tried to
convert Oisín to Christianity, but Oisín always refused his
arguments. The pair spent the rest of their lives debating
the issue.
Despite their different beliefs, Patrick took a great
interest in Oisín's stories. Oisín stayed with Patrick a long
time, telling stories of the Fianna every day. Patrick
suggested Oisín write down his adventures so that the
stories of Finn and the Fianna could be preserved forever.
Legend has it that Oisín's own transcription is how people
came to know his story.
What did Finn Mac Cool do in order to gain all the
knowledge he needed?
Finn would stick his thumb in his mouth as he had
when he was burned in order to receive any
knowledge he wished.
From what land did Niamh come to find Oisín?
How long did Oisín believe he was in the Land of
Oisín believed he was in the Land of Promise for three
weeks. In reality, he was there for three hundred years.
What happened when Oisín tried to move a great
boulder for a group of mortal men?
While Oisín was trying to move the boulder, he fell
from his horse and his foot touched the ground. He
immediately transformed from a young giant to a
withered, frail old man.
Where did the group of mortal men take Oisín after he
had changed into an old man?
The men took Oisín to the home of St. Patrick.
Niamh came from the fairy country, the Land of
Promise, in order to find Oisín.
In large part, any present-day interest in Celtic mythology
and scholarship can trace its roots to the story of Oisín and
to the work of an eighteenth-century Scottish poet named
James Macpherson. Beginning in 1760, Macpherson
published the first of three volumes of poetry that has
since become known as Ossian (the Scottish version of
the name Oisín). His retelling of the tales of Finn and the
Fianna were many people's first exposure to the myths.
Macpherson claimed the works were translations from
original Gaelic manuscripts.
A huge controversy ensued over the authenticity of his
work. Famous writer and philosopher Samuel Johnson
denounced the work as a fake. Macpherson's continual
refusal to produce the manuscripts he claimed to have
translated only added fuel to the fire. It seemed all of
Europe was involved in the great literary debate of the
century. As Paul deGategno writes, however:
The debate has long since been definitively settled:
scholars agree that Macpherson did collect a number of
Gaelic Ossianic ballads, sometimes using original
characters and ideas but more typically altering these,
while adding modern, non-Gaelic characteristics of his
own.
While the poems may not have been as authentic as
Macpherson claimed, the stories did capture the public's
imagination. Readers from England to France and from
Germany to the United States were captivated by
Macpherson's Ossian. The interest would spawn an entire
literary movement, known as Romanticism, inspiring
famous poets such as William Wordsworth and Walt
Whitman. Even Napoleon Bonaparte, famous French
military leader and emperor, could not get enough of the
stories. According to deGategno, Napoleon carried a copy
of the book with him on his military campaigns.
Napoleon believed that poetry had the power to inspire
men to great deeds and to awaken the warlike spirits of a
nation. At the same time, Ossian appealed to his fatalism
and superstition. He understood the Celtic heroes of the
poems, men driven to valorous deeds, kept alive forever by
the songs of the bard.
GW YDION AND
A RANRHOD
The other tradition of Celtic mythology stems not from Irish
roots, but from Welsh ones. The name Welsh was given to
the British Celts by the Anglo-Saxons who first invaded the
area in the fifth century. The word means "foreigners,"
which is ironic considering the Welsh were the native
inhabitants.
Sadly, fewer stories from the Welsh tradition have
survived than from that of the Irish. The majority of the
Welsh literature has been preserved in two fourteenthcentury manuscripts: The White Book of Rhydderch and
The Red Book of Hergest. Collectively, the stories within
these two books are known as The Four Branches of the
Mabinogi, or simply Mabinogion in Welsh.
The stories of the Mabinogi were first recorded between
the years 1300 and 1425. Many scholars believe that the
tales themselves originated far earlier. Some of the stories,
for example, describe customs, styles, and vocabulary of a
period two hundred years earlier. The Mabinogion was not
translated into English until the nineteenth century. Lady
Charlotte Elizabeth Guest first published her English
translations between the years 1838 and 1849.
As in the Irish tradition, Welsh myths were passed
down orally long before they were recorded in books.
Traveling bards made their way from place to place
sharing the stories. As a result, different versions of the
stories became intermixed. Even elements of the Irish
myths made their way into the Welsh ones. For example,
Welsh gods and goddesses were all descended from a
single mother goddess named Dôn. Dôn is herself the
Gwydion and Aranrhod
same divine character as Danu, and the children of Dôn
are the Welsh equivalent of the Tuatha Dé Danaan.
Likewise, in the following story, we are introduced to
the son god Lleu Llaw Gyffes, who is the counterpart of the
Irish god Lugh.
GWYDION AND
Math, a Welsh god of great wealth, was burdened by a very
unusual curse: he could only live if his feet were resting on
a virgin's lap. When his original virgin foot-holder was
abducted, Math was forced to look for a new one.
Gwydion, God of illusion and magic, as well as of poetry
and science, was Math's good friend. He suggested his
sister, Aranrhod, for the job.
Aranrhod was very honored that she was being
considered. She went before Math in order for him to test
her. As it turned out, she was not a virgin at all. Much to
Aranrhod's embarrassment, when Math waved his wand
over her, she gave birth to two children on the spot.
One of the children was named Dylan Eil Ton, meaning
"Sea, Son of the Wave." The moment he was born, he
plunged into the sea because he believed it was his native
element. When he died many years later, at the hand of his
own uncle, it is said that all the seas of Britain and Ireland
wept for him.
Aranrhod's other son was rescued by Gwydion. He
raised the boy as his own child. The boy grew at a very fast
rate. When he was two, he was able to travel on his own.
When he was only four, he was the size of a boy twice his
age.
One day, Gwydion took the boy to visit his mother.
Aranrhod hated the children who had exposed her lie to
Math. She was not happy that Gwydion brought the boy
to her home. The only interest she showed was asking
what his name was. Gwydion replied that he had not yet
been named. When Aranrhod heard this she decided to
lay a curse upon the boy. She proclaimed that he would
never have a name until she herself gave him one. The
idea of not having a name was a very serious problem.
Many ancient Britons thought the name to be the same as
the soul. Gwydion determined to find a way to secure a
name for his son.
The next day, the two went to the seashore by
Aranrhod's palace. They disguised themselves as master
leather craftsmen and set up a little shop on a boat. They
made fine leather goods for the townspeople. After a short
while, word of their great skill spread back to Aranrhod.
When she heard of the craftsmen, she sent an order for a
new pair of shoes.
Gwydion and his son set out to make the shoes.
Although Aranrhod had given her measurements, they
deliberately made the shoes too big. A servant picked up
the pair and brought them back to Aranrhod. She was very
angry when she tried them on and found they did not fit.
She sent her servant back and had him demand the shoes
be made again. The second time Gwydion and the boy
crafted a pair that were intentionally too small. When
Aranrhod received another pair in the wrong size, she was
furious. She made her way to the shore to have an exact
measurement of her foot taken. She would then wait
herself while the shoes were made. Little did she know
that Gwydion and the boy had been plotting to get her
down to their boat all along.
While Gwydion measured Aranrhod's feet, a bird flew
over and landed on the deck of the ship. The boy took out
a bow and arrow. He let an arrow fly. His shot hit the bird
in the leg, which was considered to be the most difficult
shot in archery. Aranrhod was very impressed.
"Truly," she said, "the lion aimed at it with a steady
Gwydion rejoiced. He took off his disguise and told
Aranrhod that she had fulfilled her own prophecy. From
that day forward, the boy would be called Lleu Llaw
Gyffes, which means "Lion With the Steady Hand."
Aranrhod was very angry at having been tricked. In her
rage, she placed a new curse on Lleu. She swore he would
never be allowed to carry weapons until she herself gave
them to him.
Gwydion again determined to find a way around the
curse. He brought Lleu home and trained him to be a
warrior. When the boy was old enough to bear arms, they
once again made a journey to Aranrhod's palace. This
time, they disguised themselves as minstrels. Aranrhod
greatly enjoyed songs and invited the pair in to sing for her
and her household. She was so pleased with their
performance that she fed them and even gave them
shelter for the night.
Early in the morning, before anyone else was awake,
Gwydion began another trick. He used all his magic
powers to cast a spell. He made it seem as if the entire
castle were surrounded by a fleet of enemy ships. Then he
woke the household with cries of an attack.
Aranrhod sprang from bed. She was terrified when she
saw all the ships and did not know what to do. She begged
the minstrels for their help. Gwydion replied that they
could fight, but that they lacked weapons. Aranrhod
commanded her servants to provide weapons for
Gwydion. Then she herself draped weapons over Lleu. By
the time she was done, the illusion vanished. Gwydion
began laughing and revealed his true identity.
Aranrhod realized that there had never been any ships.
This time she was angrier than she had ever been before.
She came up with her worst curse yet. She promised that
Lleu would never have a human wife so long as he lived.
Gwydion was not overly concerned—he had found his
way around the other two curses; he would find a way
around this one, too.
Gwydion thought the first step would be to go to Math,
who was also a great magician. Together, they used their
magic to create a woman from flower petals. They called
her Blodeuwedd, which means "Flower Face." She was
the most beautiful woman Lleu had ever seen. He
immediately fell in love with her. He asked her to be his
bride. She agreed and the happy couple were soon wed.
As a gift, Gwydion presented them with a small castle near
The couple lived happily together. One day, though,
Lleu left the palace to visit Math. While he was away, a
stranger came hunting in the area. He was Gronw Pebyr,
one of the gods of darkness. Blodeuwedd saw him in the
woods and invited him into the palace. The two fell in love
and began a secret affair. They decided to kill Lleu so they
could be together. They plotted ways to murder him. Lleu,
however, was invincible in battle and could be hurt in only
one way. No one knew what this secret was. It was up to
Blodeuwedd to find out her husband's one weakness.
When he returned from visiting Math, Blodeuwedd
asked Lleu how he preserved his life. She lied and said she
wanted to know in order to be able to protect against it
ever happening. Lleu replied that he could only be killed
by a spear that had been worked on for one full year, but
never crafted on Sundays or holidays. In addition, he
would die only if the spear were thrown just after he had
bathed, while he had one foot upon the bath and the other
upon a goat's back. Blodeuwedd pretended to praise the
heavens that his death was so unlikely.
Over the next year Blodeuwedd continued her secret
affair. Gronw spent the time crafting the spear. When the
full year had passed, Blodeuwedd asked Lleu to show her
in detail how he could be killed. That way, she lied, she
would know how to protect him if anything ever
happened. The moment Lleu got into position, Gronw
threw the spear. It had been dipped in poison. It sank deep
into Lleu's flesh, but did not kill him. Instead, he turned
into an eagle. The mighty bird let out a great cry and flew
off. After he left, Gronw took over the palace and married
Blodeuwedd.
News of what happened made its way to Gwydion. He
set off to find his son. While searching, he ran into a
servant, who mentioned to Gwydion that one of his
master's pigs kept running off each day, but returned each
night without fail. No one could figure out where it went
during the day. Gwydion decided to follow the sow. It
traveled a great distance, but finally stopped to graze
beneath a tree. Gwydion looked to see what it was eating.
He realized that the pig fed upon pieces of meat that were
falling from the tree. It turned out that an eagle was at the
top and the meat was the scraps from its kill. Gwydion felt
in his heart that the eagle was his son.
Gwydion sang a song to the bird to coax it down. When
it finally came down, Gwydion struck it with his wand. Lleu
turned back into his human form. His father rejoiced, but
realized that his son was still very weak. Gwydion brought
Lleu to Math to heal completely.
In the meantime, Gwydion went to track down the
woman who had betrayed his son. Blodeuwedd heard he
was coming and tried to run. Gwydion soon overtook her.
When he caught her, he turned her into an owl.
Blodeuwedd was forced to spend the rest of her life
hunting at night in solitude, as an outcast from all other
What unique curse plagued Math?
How did Gwydion and Lleu trick Aranrhod into coming
to their boat?
Gwydion and Lleu disguised themselves as leather
craftsmen. They deliberately sized Aranrhod's shoes
incorrectly so she would have to come to the boat
herself to have her feet measured.
What is Lleu's full name and what does it mean?
What is the worst curse that Aranrhod lays upon her
Aranrhod swears that Lleu will never marry a human
woman so long as he lives.
How do Gwydion and Math make Lleu a wife?
How does the pig help Gwydion find his son?
Math could only live if his feet rested upon the lap of a
virgin.
Lleu's full name is Lleu Llaw Gyffes. It means "lion with
the steady hand."
Gwydion and Math use their magic powers to make a
woman out of flower petals. They call her
Blodeuwedd, which means "Flower Face."
The pig leads Gwydion to a tree, where an eagle is
eating meat. The eagle turns out to be Lleu.
As in the myths of any culture, the stories of the Mabinogi
offer insight into the social codes and customs by which
people were expected to abide. In terms of gender roles,
for example, men are usually depicted as hunters,
warriors, and landowners, while women are seen as
symbols of fertility and the home. As scholar Roberta
Valente illustrates, however, these traditional gender roles
are actually reversed in the story of Gwydion and
Aranrhod.
Aranrhod defies the norms by being a powerful,
independent woman who possesses her own castle.
Because she is unmarried, she is expected to be a virgin—
but Aranrhod resists this code, as well. Valente writes:
Presumably, Aranrhod would have known her true status,
so her answer to Math takes on the quality of a lie, a denial
of her sexual experience. A false claim of virginity before
marriage was a legal violation, and though Math is not
intending to marry Aranrhod, his dependence on the
veracity [truth] of her claim is as urgent as that of any
In addition, Aranrhod rejects the traditional role of
motherhood by cursing her own son.
Gwydion becomes the nurturer in her place, despite
the fact that he is a man. According to Valente, Gwydion
takes on "the female power of creation one more time to
'give birth' to Blodeuwedd." Of course, this gender role
switching fails Gwydion, just as it fails Aranrhod for lying
about her virginity. In a way, he is punished for his actions
when the woman he has created betrays both him and
his son.
P W YLL, HEAD OF
H ADES
The British Celts were more susceptible to the invasions of
the Romans, and later of the Anglo-Saxons than their Irish
counterparts. In fact, some historians argue that British
Celts migrated to Ireland during the invasions to escape
the foreign conquest. The stories from the Welsh tradition
were also recorded later than those of the Irish vein. As a
result, the versions of Welsh stories that still exist today
tend to reflect greater outside influence.
On the European continent, for example, medieval
tales of the eleventh and twelfth centuries focused on the
adventures of great knights and their quests. This genre of
literature was known generally as the romance. The
Continental romances depicted the strict codes of conduct
these knights lived by and the importance of courtesy at
their courts. For example, a chivalrous knight was never
expected to kill a wounded enemy. To do so would be
dishonorable. In the following story of how Pwyll became
lord of the underworld, some of the Celtic versions of
these codes are revealed.
P W Y LL, HEAD OF
Pwyll was ruler of Dyfed, located in the southwest corner
of what is now Wales. One day, Pwyll left his capital with a
group of his men to go hunting in a far-off region called
Glynn Cuch. Pwyll blew his horn and released his hounds
to begin the hunt. In a short time, he got separated from his
companions.
The lord followed the sound of his hounds. As he did
so, he heard another pack of hounds, not his own,
advancing toward him. At a clearing in the forest, Pwyll
saw his hounds chasing the other pack, who were in turn
running after a mighty stag. The strange hounds overtook
the stag and brought it to the ground.
As he took a closer look at the hounds, Pwyll noticed
that they were like none he had ever seen before. They
were dazzling white with brilliant red ears. These hounds
came from the underworld, although Pwyll did not know it
at the time. As he approached, he drove the red-eared
hounds away from the stag. Pwyll saw no other human
being nearby, so he decided to claim the killed stag as his
While Pwyll was tending to the stag, a stranger rode up
on a great gray horse. The stranger told Pwyll that he had
Pwyll, Head of Hades
never met a more dishonorable person. "In no man," said
the stranger, "have I seen greater discourtesy than driving
away the pack which has killed a stag and baiting one's
own pack upon it."
Pwyll apologized sincerely for his mistake. He offered
to do anything the stranger asked to make up for his fault.
The man on the gray horse was Arawn, a king of Annwn,
the underworld. Arawn explained that a rival king of the
underworld, Hafgan, was constantly raging war on him.
The only way for Pwyll to make up for his sin was to defeat
Hafgan in a battle, which was scheduled to take place a
year and a day from then.
Pwyll agreed to take on Hafgan, but asked how he
would do it. Arawn cast a spell that switched the two
men's likenesses. Pwyll would go to the underworld and
rule in Arawn's place, while Arawn would return to Dyfed.
No one would be able to tell the difference. After Pwyll had
defeated Hafgan, the two men would return to their own
shapes and lives.
Just as Arawn had said, no one in Annwn suspected
Pwyll was anyone other than their king. As he returned
from his hunt, he was greeted with a great feast. He dined
on the best food and wine that he had ever had. At the
feast, Pwyll sat next to Arawn's wife, who was the most
beautiful woman he had ever seen.
That night, the queen led Pwyll to bed. Pwyll, however,
would not say a word to her. He slept with his back to her
and would not touch her at all. For every day over the next
year, they spent their time talking, dining, and celebrating.
But every night, no matter how affectionate they were
during the day, Pwyll would not lay a hand on the queen.
At last the day came when Pwyll was to fight Hafgan.
With one blow, Pwyll shattered Hafgan's armor and shield,
killing him almost instantly. Hafgan's men pledged their
allegiance to the victor. In Arawn's place, Pwyll had
managed to double the size of the kingdom.
The next day, Pwyll and Arawn met at Glynn Cuch.
They restored their shapes and returned to their rightful
lands.
Arawn was happy to return to his home and his people.
Of course, they knew nothing of his absence. He spent the
day dining and celebrating, just as Pwyll had done in his
place. That night, as he got into bed with his wife, he spoke
softly to her and held her lovingly in his arms. The queen
stopped Arawn. She asked why he was caressing her all of
a sudden after ignoring her for a full year. Arawn realized
what a good friend he had found in Pwyll. He told his wife
the truth about what had happened over the last year. She
agreed that Pwyll was an uncommonly chivalrous man not
to take advantage of another man's wife.
Meanwhile, in Dyfed, Pwyll asked his nobles how the
past year had compared to previous ones. The men replied
that it had been a particularly wonderful year. Pwyll
admitted that he could not accept the credit. He let his
people know of the switch. They all exclaimed how lucky
Pwyll was to have found such a good friend.
Pwyll and Arawn continued to be good friends for life.
Each sent the other horses, hounds, or whatever other
treasures he thought his friend would enjoy. And because
Pwyll had ruled Annwn and expanded its boundaries,
Arawn even granted him the title Head of the Underworld.
Even with his new title, Pwyll continued to rule in
Dyfed. Outside his palace was a hill said to have magical
properties. One of Pwyll's men told him that when a man
of royal blood sits upon it, he is either struck down by
mighty blows, or he beholds a wonder. Pwyll did not think
he would be struck down and he wanted very much to see
a wonder, so he sat on the mound.
As Pwyll sat there, a beautiful woman dressed in
dazzling gold appeared riding on horseback. Anyone who
looked at her would have said she was riding at a very
slow pace. But when Pwyll sent a man on foot to find out
her name, he could not catch her. Soon, she disappeared
over the horizon.
The next day, Pwyll sat on the mound again. This time,
he had his man ready on horseback to ride after her. But
again, once she appeared, he was unable to catch her
although she appeared to move slowly. On the third day,
Pwyll decided to overtake her himself. He sat on the hill
and waited for the mysterious woman to arrive. As she
rode by, Pwyll mounted his horse. Ride as he might, he
was unable to catch her. He pushed his horse as fast as it
could go, but still could not overtake the woman.
In desperation, Pwyll called out to the woman to stop.
"I will, gladly," she said, "and it would have been better for
your horse had you asked me that earlier." She told Pwyll
that her name was Rhiannon, daughter of Heveydd the
Old. Rhiannon had been promised in marriage to a man
she did not love. She had come to find Pwyll to help her,
because he was the man of her dreams. Pwyll was very
happy to hear this because he, too, was falling in love. The
pair worked out a plan whereby they would meet a year
and day from then at Heveydd's court.
On the appointed date, Pwyll and ninety-nine of his
companions arrived at the old man's court. As Rhiannon
had promised, a great feast was waiting for Pwyll and his
men. Everyone sat down together to dine. Pwyll sat
between Rhiannon and her father.
As they were eating, a tall young man approached. He
asked Pwyll for a favor. Pwyll promised to grant whatever
the young man might ask. Rhiannon looked terrified of this
response. She knew that by the rules of chivalry, a man
must never go back on a favor he has agreed to.
Rhiannon's instinct proved correct when the young man
asked for her hand in marriage. He was none other than
Gwawl, the man she had been promised to, but did not
want to wed.
Pwyll apologized to Rhiannon, telling her that he had
not known who the man was. Rhiannon replied that he
had no choice but to honor himself and thus grant Gwawl
his favor. Pwyll refused, saying he could never part from
her. Rhiannon told him to do as he must, but that she
would find a way to prevent the marriage from ever taking
place. Pwyll trusted her and told Gwawl to return in one
year's time. At that date, Pwyll would have a great feast
prepared and would grant Gwawl Rhiannon's hand in
The next year, the feast was made ready. Rhiannon sat
next to her unwanted suitor. Pwyll waited outside with
ninety-nine men. While the men stood outside, Pwyll
entered the feast, disguised as an old beggar. He held in his
hand a magic bag that Rhiannon had given him a year
earlier. No matter how much was put in the bag, it would
never be filled.
Just as Gwawl had a year earlier, Pwyll requested a
favor. He told Gwawl that he was but a poor beggar and
asked that his little bag be filled with food. Gwawl agreed
and ordered his men to fill the bag with meat. They
brought serving after serving, but the bag remained nearly
empty. Finally, Gwawl asked Pwyll if it would ever be filled.
Pwyll responded that it would not be filled unless a
nobleman of rich possessions pressed the food down with
both his feet.
Gwawl agreed and stepped into the bag. As soon as
both feet were inside, Pwyll tipped the sack over and tied
it shut. Then he blew on his horn as a signal for his men to
attack the court. As each man entered the court, he hit the
sack with a stick and asked "What is this?" "A badger" was
always the reply. This was the first playing of a game called
"Badger in the Bag," a less brutal version of which
continues to be played by British children.
Rhiannon and her father asked Pwyll to stop beating
Gwawl. They suggested Pwyll release him on the condition
that he would offer gifts and promise never to seek
vengeance. Gwawl gladly agreed. He departed for his own
country to heal the many bruises he had received while in
the bag.
Once Gwawl had left, the hall was once more made
ready for a wedding. This time, of course, the couple to be
wed was Pwyll and Rhiannon. They feasted and
celebrated all night. When the wedding was over, the
couple returned to Dyfed to rule the country.
What was different about the hounds Pwyll saw while
hunting?
The hounds Pwyll saw were dazzling white with bright
red ears. They were hounds from the underworld.
Why did Arawn call Pwyll the most dishonorable man
he had ever known?
Arawn called Pwyll dishonorable because Pwyll had
claimed a stag as his own even though he did not kill it
What was said to happen when a man of noble birth
sat upon the mound outside Pwyll's palace?
When a man of noble birth sat on the mound he was
either struck down by blows or he saw a wonder.
How did Pwyll finally get Rhiannon to stop riding her
horse?
Rhiannon stopped riding once Pwyll asked her to.
What favor did Gwawl ask of Pwyll at the feast?
What magic powers did the bag that Rhiannon gave
Pwyll possess?
The bag never filled up, no matter how much was
placed inside it.
Gwawl asked for Rhiannon's hand in marriage. Pwyll
had no choice but to agree or else he would lose his
honor.
The importance of chivalry is highlighted again and again
in the story of Pwyll. To make up for his error, Pwyll agrees
without hesitation to take over the underworld in Arawn's
place. Once there, he refuses to dishonor the Queen by
sleeping with her. He holds to a promise he has made,
even if it means another man might marry the woman he
loves. There is no debate that chivalry is an important
theme in the myth. The question, however, is for whom
these morals were intended.
Celtic scholar Catherine McKenna argues that the main
audience for the myth was aristocracy.
Socially, of course, the original audience of the Four
Branches may be taken to have been an aristocratic one.
This is attested by the preoccupation of the tales with the
activities of kings and lords, as well as by what is known
about the circumstances in which literature was produced
in medieval Celtic and in early European society generally.
In addition, there are many descriptions of hunting and
feasting, which were "the major peacetime activities of
aristocratic life."
If the story of Pwyll was told primarily at aristocratic
courts, then the lord of the underworld would have served
as an example for the young lords and princes who were
listening. As McKenna points out:
In this model of lordship he [a prince] would have seen
heroism, justice, and promotion of the land's fertility and
prosperity—three qualities associated throughout Celtic
tradition with effective sovereignty.
CULHWCH AND
Perhaps the best-known legacy that Celtic mythology has
left the world is the body of literature surrounding the great
King Arthur. Stories of Arthur and his famous knights have
fascinated audiences for centuries. The sagas have served
as the inspiration for countless poems, books, plays, and
even movies.
The Arthurian legends with which most people are
familiar, however, bear little resemblance to the original
Welsh myths. The Celtic Arthurian stories are generally
considered to have originated around 1000 A.D., although
they were not first recorded until the eleventh century. The
basis for the Welsh myths was a real-life sixth century
chieftain who fought against the Anglo-Saxon invasion.
These myths were first recorded in the Mabinogi, among
other sources.
The story of Arthur first became known to people
outside the Celtic world through the work of a twelfthcentury writer named Geoffrey of Monmouth. His work
was written in Latin and titled Historia Regum Britanniae,
meaning "History of British Kings." In France, Chrétien de
Troyes penned his own Arthurian legends in the twelfth
century. He added to the myths the love affair between
Guinevere and Lancelot and the quest for the Holy Grail.
Neither of these elements existed in the original. Even in
thirteenth-century Germany, poets were incorporating
their own elements into the story. Eventually, the myths
took on a life of their own—one that was far removed from
the original Celtic myths.
The first full-fledged Arthurian tale within the Celtic
tradition is considered to be the following story of Culhwch
and Olwen. In it, Arthur plays a very different role than that
which readers typically associate with him. He is not only
a ruler, but also a participant in the quests. His wife, in
Welsh called Gwenhwyfar, does not even appear in this
particular story. Likewise, with the exception of Kai (or Kay
in English) most of the knights are different than those
people have come to associate with the legends.
CULHWCH
AND OLWEN
Culhwch was the son of Cilydid and Goleuddydd and the
cousin of the famous King Arthur. When Goleuddydd died,
Cilydid took another wife. The new wife thought Culhwch
would make a good husband for her own daughter. When
Culhwch refused her request, she became very angry. She
laid a curse on him that the only woman he could ever
marry was Olwen, daughter of the fearsome giant
Yspaddaden Pencawr. Yspaddaden would not allow any
man to marry his daughter because an ancient curse
promised he would die on the wedding day.
Even so, Culhwch blushed at the sound of Olwen's
name. He fell in love with the very idea of her and went to
his father to ask how he could win her. Cilydid reminded
his son that he was King Arthur's cousin. He suggested he
go to Arthur's court and ask for Olwen as a favor.
After a long journey, Culwhwch arrived at the gates of
Arthur's palace. It was late and the gates had been closed
for the night. The gatekeeper explained that it was Arthur's
custom to keep the gates locked until morning. Culhwch
flatly refused this response. He demanded to be allowed
in. He swore that if he were not, he would let out a shriek
so loud and so shrill that it would cause every pregnant
woman in the land to miscarry her child. The gatekeeper
brought this news to Arthur. Although several of his knights
advised him against doing so, Arthur went against custom
and allowed Culhwch to enter.
After greeting each other, Arthur offered his cousin
food and drink. Culhwch explained that he was there for a
much greater purpose and that he had a favor to ask.
Arthur promised to grant him whatever he asked. Hearing
this Culhwch replied, "Then I ask for Olwen daughter of
Chief Giant Ysbaddaden, and I invoke her in the name
of your warriors."
Neither Arthur nor any of his knights had heard of
Olwen, but they promised to help Culhwch find her
nonetheless. Arthur ordered his most skilled warriors to
accompany Culhwch on his journey. Among the men who
went along were Kai, who could hold his breath for nine
days and go without sleep for nine nights. With Kai came
his constant companion Bedwyr, who was as fast with a
sword as he was beautiful. The party was rounded out by
Gwrhyr, who could speak the language of any man or
animal, Gwalchmei, who could leave no adventure
unachieved, and Menw, who could make himself and his
companions invisible.
The party traveled together until they saw a huge
fortress on an open plain. Feeding on the plain was a
seemingly endless number of sheep. They were watched
over by a hulking shepherd and his huge dog. Menw put a
spell on the dog so that they could approach the shepherd
without harm. The party asked the shepherd his name and
whose fortress it was. He replied that he was Custennin.
The fortress belonged to Yspaddaden, who Custennin and
his wife hated. The evil giant had killed all but one of their
twenty-four sons. They kept the only survivor hidden in a
stone chest to keep him from harm. Kai offered to take the
boy under his wing and train him as a knight. In return for
his generous offer, Custennin's wife offered to secure a
secret meeting between Olwen and Culhwch.
Messengers were dispatched and Olwen came down
to the plain to wash her hair. According to the poets of old:
Her hair was yellower than broom, her skin whiter than seafoam. . . . Neither the eye of a mewed hawk nor the eye of
a thrice-mewed falcon was fairer than hers; her [skin was]
whiter than the breast of a white swan, her cheeks were
redder than the reddest foxgloves, and anyone who saw
her would fall deeply in love.3
Culhwch and Olwen talked together at Custennin's
home and quickly fell in love. As Olwen stood up to return
home, she told Culhwch to ask her father for her hand in
marriage and not to deny anything he might ask of him. In
return, she promised to spend the rest of her days with
The next day, the party made for Yspaddaden's castle.
They killed the nine gatekeepers and made their way
straight to the giant's chambers. Culhwch announced his
intention to marry Olwen. The giant glared at them. He
said he would think about the request and give them an
answer the next day. As they turned to go, he grabbed a
poisoned spear and threw it at them. But Bedwyr, quick as
lightning, caught it and hurled it back, wounding the giant's
knee.
The next day the same thing happened. Yspaddaden
told them to return and threw a second spear as they left.
Menw caught the spear and this time pierced the giant's
chest. The third day they repeated the ritual once more.
This time, Culhwch caught the spear and threw it back so
hard that it went through Yspaddaden's eye and came out
the other side. The giant finally agreed to sit down with
Culhwch and his party to discuss his daughter's marriage.
Yspaddaden agreed to let Culhwch marry Olwen, but
only after he completed several tasks. The giant then listed
thirty-nine tasks, each more impossible then the last. For
example, Culhwch was to plow a vast hill in one day's
time, which could only be achieved if they captured two
magic oxen to lead the plow, which could only be driven
by a certain plowman, and so on. After Yspaddaden
named each feat to be completed or item to be brought
back, Culhwch simply responded, "It will be easy for me to
get that, though you think otherwise."
Culhwch and his party made their way back to Arthur's
court. On the way, Kai fulfilled one of the trials by tricking
a giant named Gwrnach into giving him his sword. When
they arrived at court, they explained to the king what they
must do. Arthur immediately promised his help and
resources. The group set out to accomplish their tasks.
They realized that the most dangerous one would be
obtaining the comb and shears that rested between the
ears of Twrch Trwyth, a king transformed into a monstrous
boar.
On their way to find the boar king, Arthur and his
companions attempted to fulfill another of their tasks—to
find Mabon, the son of Modron who had been kidnapped
when he was only three days old. Arthur instructed Gwyhyr
to ask an ancient Blackbird if he knew of Mabon's
whereabouts. The Blackbird answered that while he had
been sitting in that spot long enough to peck an anvil to the
size of a nut, he had never heard anyone speak of the boy.
The bird suggested they ask a beast older than he, the Stag
of Rhedenvre. The Stag could not help them, nor could an
old Owl nor an ancient Eagle. Finally, though, they were
directed toward the Salmon of Lake Llyw, who was said to
Culhwch and Olwen
have been the oldest living creature in the world. The
Salmon indeed knew where Mabon lived. He even offered
to take Kai and Gwrhyr there on his shoulders. Together
they made their way to a stone house, where they heard
terrible wailing. It was Mabon, begging for his freedom. Kai
and Gwyhyr released Mabon, who then helped them fulfill
many of their other tasks.
After much time, Arthur decided he and his men were
ready to take on Twrch. They advanced to the castle where
the boar king lived with his seven young pig sons. The
companions fought Twrch for three days with little results.
Finally, Arthur sent Gwrhyr in the shape of a bird to
speak with Twrch. Gwrhyr begged the boar king to give up
his comb and scissors in order to put an end to all the
fighting. Twrch not only refused, he promised to do even
more damage to the land and Arthur's men.
Enraged, Twrch and his pigs swam across the sea into
Wales. Arthur and his men followed. They made their way
all over Britain chasing Twrch, encountering many
adventures and even fulfilling other tasks in the process.
Over a long period of time, the pig sons were killed one by
one until Twrch alone remained. Finally, they cornered the
king and were able to grab the comb and scissors—but not
without great effort and cost on their part. Twrch managed
to escape before Arthur had a chance to kill him.
With the comb in hand, Arthur had succeeded in
helping Culhwch fulfill his trials as promised. They made
their way back to Yspaddaden, bringing him every treasure
he had required. The gifts he had demanded turned out
to be his death wish. When Culhwch asked if Olwen was
his, Yspaddaden replied, "She is. And you need not thank
me, rather Arthur, who won her for you; of my own will
you would have never got her. Now it is time for you to
kill me."
With that, one of Arthur's men grabbed the giant and
beheaded him. Yspaddaden's head was placed on a pole
on the wall. Arthur seized the fortress and all the treasures.
Culhwch, of course, took Olwen and the couple was soon
How is Culhwch related to King Arthur?
What custom did Culhwch break when he first arrived
at Arthur's court?
Culhwch insisted on being shown into the castle even
though it was after dark and the gates had already
been locked.
What special skills did Kai possess?
Why did Custennin the shepherd hate Yspaddaden?
What did Arthur and his men believe would be the
most difficult task to fulfill?
Arthur and his men believed it would be most difficult
to obtain the comb and scissors that rested between
the ears of Twrch, the boar king.
How long had the Blackbird that Gwrhyr spoke to been
sitting in the same place?
The Blackbird had been sitting in the same place long
enough to peck an anvil down to the size of a nut.
Culhwch is Arthur's cousin.
Kai could hold his breath for nine days and go without
sleep for nine nights.
Custennin hated Yspaddaden because the giant killed
all but one of his twenty-four sons. The one surviving
child was hidden in a box for safekeeping.
French poet Chrétien de Troyes wrote his own version of
the Arthurian saga approximately eighty years after the
Welsh tales were first published. Scholar Armel Diverres
notes the many differences between the two stories. To
begin with, while there are examples of chivalry in the