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Home > Vol 2, No 12 (2008) >	Moor
Conceptualizing a New School of Political Conflict and Terrorism Studies
From Attributes to Behavior and Why Policy Makers will Care
By Will H. Moore and Stephen M. Shellman
Some interesting changes in the interchange among US government officials and social science researchers, political scientists in particular, in the nation's universities are afoot. One might date the beginning of this new relationship to then Vice President Al Gore's initiation of the State Failure Project in 1994.[1] More recently, the Defense Department's Combating Terrorism Technology Support Office has begun a Human, Social, and Cultural Behavior Modeling project, [2] and the Pentagon has recently announced the Minerva project, which seeks to "embrace eggheads and ideas" and "recruit social scientists and direct the nation's brainpower to combating security threats like the Chinese military, Iraq, terrorism and religious fundamentalism."[3]
The above mentioned projects explicitly seek the advice and input of political and other social scientists that use mathematical theoretical models, statistical tools to test hypotheses, and advanced computing resources to collect and analyze data. Many scholars and policy makers are unaware that this represents a renaissance of a similar moment in the 1970s.[4] Will this renaissance experience the same fate as its predecessor, or is there reason to believe that the scholarly community has more to offer policy makers today than we did in the 1970s? We argue that there is considerable cause for optimism and make our case by describing an important shift in the conceptual and theoretical orientation scholars are taking toward the study of dissent, repression, terror, and violent conflict within countries.
This essay emphasizes two criticisms with regard to the literature on terrorism and violent political conflict – specifically the quantitative conflict literature. First, this essay takes issue with the dominant structural and systems-oriented theoretical approaches to studying terrorism and political conflict and instead advocates an actors-based process approach to studying such phenomena. Studies of the former category emphasize specific country-attributes such as under-developed economies, the lack of democratic political outlets, and higher levels of ethnic fractionalization, that have been associated with higher levels of political conflict. Yet, many of these variables change very little over time making it difficult to explain variations in levels of violence from one point in time to the next. The approach advocated here argues that actors' decisions are based on the decisions of their opponents and this strategic inter-dependence can more effectively explain conflict processes. Second, this essay calls for more quantitative studies of terrorism to treat terror as a tactical choice within a framework of other violent and cooperative actions. Future work should model the interaction between state and nonstate actors' tactical choices (and vice-versa). Most of the previous literature treats terrorism separately from other violent political tactics and considers it as a distinct area of inquiry. More recently, other scholars have even gone further treating "suicide terror" separately from other terrorist and non-terrorist tactics (e.g., Bloom 2005, Pape 2005). Yet, terrorist tactics are often utilized within an array of other violent, non-violent, and cooperative means. This essay emphasizes that the study of terrorism should not be segregated from the larger study of political conflict and instead argues that studies focused on explanations of terror should be discussed within the broader field of contentious politics.
Structure v. Process
One way to study violent political conflict and terrorism within countries is to focus on the structural conditions that impact the chance that a country will experience such phenomena. Another way is to analyze the behavioral relationships among parties to potential conflicts, how they make decisions, how such decisions impact other parties' decisions, and how the sequences of behavioral interactions escalate and de-escalate across various thresholds of violent political conflict. Or, as Harry Eckstein put it over 25 years ago, we can distinguish between "contingency" and "inherency" approaches to the study of violent conflict.[5] The first perspective assumes that conflict is contingent on unusual or irregular conditions that cause disruptions in conventional politics. The contingent approach leads one to study the political, economic, and social attributes of countries to explain variation in their conflict experiences. The inherent perspective assumes that violent political conflict emerges out of low-level contentious interactions among a set of political players. This approach leads researchers to focus on the conditional behavior of parties to conflict and how that behavior changes over time. While Eckstein laid out these two approaches in 1980, the past 25 years have borne witness to few scholars taking the latter path.
Prior to the turn of the century, the study of intrastate conflict was much more focused on the former approach than the latter. While studying the political, economic, and social attributes of countries is a useful approach for understanding and highlighting general patterns of conflict, it is ill-suited to address conflict processes because such approaches "are essentially static 'input-output' or 'stimulus-response' type models, not dynamic models of interaction."[6] Charles Tilly argues that because "collective action is dynamic… its outcomes depend very strongly on the course of interaction."[7]
A recent wave of scholarship turns its back on the structural attributes approach and instead focuses attention on the escalation and de-escalation processes of political conflict instantiated by actors' strategic behavioral interactions.[8] A common thread running through this new generation of conflict scholarship is a shift from countries as the unit of analysis to the parties to the conflict and their behavior. This work focuses on competition between governments and various dissident groups over policy, control of the state, and—especially—the support of the population.
This shift is critically important because it means that theory becomes much more useful to policy makers: the emphasis on parties to the conflict leads this research to develop hypotheses about the conflictual behavior of dissidents in response to government behavior and vice versa. By moving away from thinking about the impact of democratic v. autocratic institutions, the size of GNP/capita, and the ethnic composition of society these scholars have begun to ask the following sorts of questions:
When does repression work? When does it backfire?
Why are some dissident groups so much more violent than others?
What explains varying levels of discrimination in targeting across time and space?
What event sequences lead to conflict escalation?
What are the effects of government countermeasures on the tactical choices of dissidents?
What explains the ebb and flow of government-dissident behavioral exchanges?
What event sequences lead to negotiated peaceful settlements?
Why can factions spoil a peace process?
Note that information about political institutions, economic output, and ethnic composition are of limited usefulness for answering these questions. Why? Because those characteristics of the country in which these conflicts unfold do not change much over time. To the extent that they change, they change rather slowly. As one recent paper put it "the factors analyzed in country level analyses are the same for a given country during war and peace, and are therefore incapable of predicting shifts from one period to the other."[9] To better understand such conflict processes, we must study the behavior of the parties to the conflict. And if we are going to study behavior, then it is surely reasonable to study it as purposive, strategic behavior that varies systematically in response to the behavior of other parties to the conflict.
To be sure, we have learned from the structural approach that characteristics of the state such as regime type, the economy, terrain, capabilities, and demographics like population and ethnicity are correlated with the level of political conflict we observe across countries. However, the structural attributes approach has not taught us much about conflict processes as they unfold over time within specific countries. For example, we know that a country with mountainous regions is more likely to experience an insurgency. Yet, knowing that El Salvador is mountainous tells us little about when we are likely to observe peace or conflict in El Salvador as those mountains change very little over time.
That said, we are not arguing that we should throw the baby out with the bathwater. Rather, the best scholarship should situate behavioral studies of conflict processes within a structural framework. And this is precisely what we see in recent studies.[10]
This essay argues that the renaissance of the policy community's interest in the scientific study of conflict is more likely to bear fruit than its predecessor because the scholarly community is conceptually and theoretically better prepared to make a contribution to the questions policymakers want answered. The shift away from the study of the correlation of national aggregates toward the study of the behavior of dissidents and states within the context of national aggregates has led to a theoretical emphasis on the strategic behavior of governments, dissident groups, and members of the population. This approach lends itself well to studying the propensity and frequency of terror attacks committed by state and nonstate actors. In addition to these new theoretical tools, exciting new data tools and statistical models have been created for the express purpose of facilitating the testing of the hypotheses implied by the new theories. We briefly describe these new developments, emphasizing what we have learned about violent dissent.
Disaggregating Violent Political Conflict
To begin, the new school points out that political conflict is not best characterized as something that countries catch (or experience): the implicit epidemiological analogy is passé. Instead the new generation of scholarship recognizes that governments often face multiple challengers fighting for the same cause and/or very different causes, and that these challenges vary across both space and time. As such, these theorists have been disaggregating the study of civil conflict across actors, tactics, space and time.
Civil conflicts often involve infighting among members or branches of the government (e.g., military coups in Nigeria) and often yield dissident group splits (e.g., the Moro Islamic Liberation Front emerged out of the Moro National Liberation Front). In other cases, multiple groups may interact with each other and even form alliances or coalitions (e.g., the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea – comprised by the Khmer Rouge, FUNCINPEC and KPLNF). Further, governments and dissident groups compete for the support of the public. Stathis Kalyvas' recent book makes the importance of distinguishing among the government, the dissidents, and the public abundantly clear: he observes that death tolls in civil wars vary systematically depending on whether either the dissidents or the government can exercise authority over the town or whether the territory is actively contested by dissident and government troops.[11] Other research has disaggregated actors and their behavior to demonstrate that both diplomatic and military intervention by third countries on behalf of dissidents or governments can have strong bearing on pushing parties to the table or escalating violent activity.[12] In sum, intrastate conflict is comprised of many different parties with different motivations, who make a variety of decisions as to how to behave in both the short and long run. To answer questions like the ones listed above we need to adopt a disaggregated unit of analysis and account for the behavior of these different parties.
Second, much of the scholarship to date has focused on particular tactics or events such as terror attacks, protests, war, militarized interstate disputes, negotiations, or treaties. By adopting a particularistic conceptualization of conflict behavior, we ignore the full underlying dimension of state and nonstate actors' behavior (Moore 2006) and fail to distinguish among the various actions available in an actor's choice set. For example, if behavior such as hostile rhetoric, guerrilla attacks, cease fires, and peace talks have a non-trivial effect on the probability of a terrorist event occurring and co-vary positively with independent variables used to explain terrorist events, then relationships reported in the terrorism literature are biased.[13] Aside from the bias introduced into empirical models of terrorism, the narrow focus on terrorist events and the desire to explain them alone without examining how other forms of behavior effect and intertwine with such events causes scholars to narrowly theorize about the behavior of insurgents, rebels, separatists, etc. Thus, a focus exclusively on terrorism has both negative theoretical and empirical consequences. As Moore (2006) puts it elsewhere, "Conceptualization matters; it influences our research agendas; it influences the questions we ask, and, ultimately, the policy implications we produce." At the present, political violence, nonviolence, diplomacy, accommodation, and terrorism are often treated as separate domains of inquiry, yet such phenomenon are clearly connected and intertwined. They are often tactical substitutes for state and nonstate actors engaged in political struggles. Making such connections should spawn new theories yielding larger explanations than extant theories. To analyze conflict processes effectively, we need to conceptualize the choices and choice sets of state and nonstate actors more holistically.
Third, civil conflicts rarely span an entire country's territory. Rather, they are often confined to sub-national regions based on certain geographic features that generate conditions favorable for conflict. Teams of researchers are making considerable progress pursuing this seemingly obvious point.[14] For example, mountains or jungle provide cover for rebels to hide and wage guerilla campaigns. Resource rich zones abundant in minerals (e.g., diamonds) or other valuables (oil, etc.) may also contribute to reoccurring conflict.[15] Motives may also determine conflict locations. For example, recent research claims that separatist groups tend to fight away from the capital in order to make their territory autonomous, whereas insurgents aiming to overthrow the state tend to fight nearer to the source of the power – in the capital city or province where the capital is located.[16] Moreover, international borders can often provide refuge from governmental control, and this may cause conflict events to cluster near international boundaries which, in turn, can have important implications for neighboring countries.[17] The general point is this: if we wish to investigate theories that have a geographic element we need to abandon the country level of analysis in favor of a disaggregated spatial approach. Importantly, doing so will produce research with far more rich policy implications than we have seen prior to the emergence of this new generation of research.
Fourth, the unit of time over which one aggregates is consequential.[18] Until recently most research has focused on the year as the unit of temporal aggregation. Marcellino explains that "temporal aggregation arises when the frequency of data generation is lower than that of data collection so that not all the realizations of the stochastic process… are observable."[19] Yearly aggregation obscures the actions and reactions of actors who respond to one another in much smaller units of time such as monthly, weekly, or even daily intervals. At what temporal units do dissidents and governments respond to one another? Surely the answer is: it varies. But just as surely the answer is not: annually! To focus on the kinds of questions that the new generation of civil conflict scholars is asking requires that we abandon annually aggregated data in favor of data collected over the unit of time in which they occur. In the next section we briefly describe the exciting data collection revolution that is taking place and making possible the renaissance we are seeing as Washington engages the scientific study of violent political conflict.
The Events Data Revolution
In the mid 1990s Phil Schrodt revolutionized the collection of events data when he released the Kansas Events Data System KEDS computer program.[20] This program demonstrated that it is possible to use computers to code news reports to generate data about the behavior of dissidents toward governments, governments toward dissidents, government toward other governments, etc. Over the past 15 years the KEDS project has spawned a number of similar projects, and this technology has spilled over into a variety of other areas of political science as well.[21] Where hundreds of hours of human labor were required to code such reports computers are able to produce such data in mere minutes. This has radically changed the information that is available to scholars. Further, the shift in conceptual and theoretical interests described above demand just such data. To illustrate, we briefly describe Project Civil Strife (PCS), which is directed by the second author of this essay.
Project Civil Strife uses computerized coding technology to generate disaggregated data useful for testing the hypotheses advanced by the new generation of intrastate conflict researchers.[22] The project directly confronts actor, tactical, spatial, and temporal aggregation head on by collecting information on multiple actors' behavioral interactions each day in various geographic locations. With respect to actors, PCS codes the behavior of just about any dissident or government group discussed in open source media reports. It codes individual's names and offices and even tracks individuals like Norodom Sihanouk in Cambodia who at different times of the conflict served as a government official and then as a rebel leader. By disaggregating the state and the social and dissident actors, scholars and policy makers can examine interactions among multiple parties as depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1A and 1B shows how one might go about constructing a model of the conflict processes between two rebel groups and the state (e.g., Democratic Kampuchea and the KPLNF in Cambodia). The first can help uncover different processes at work between the government and group 1 and the government and group 2. The second shows how the relationship between Group 1 and Group 2 might affect the relationships between the state and each group or how the relationship between the state and each group might affect the relationship between the two groups themselves. Figure 1C illustrates the potential relationships one could uncover by breaking up the government into its principle component parts. Such a model might be particularly useful in Pakistan, Chile, and/or Nigeria where the government and the military have competed in the past with each other.
Moreover, the project employs several different coding ontologies to disaggregate tactics and events. The project primarily uses the CAMEO and WEIS event codes to capture the various actions taking place by myriad actors in various places.[23]
With respect to spatial disaggregation, PCS also tracks the behavior of actors across disaggregated space. Figure 2 depicts a map of Cambodia and highlights the frequency of violent events (use of force, bombings, ambushes, etc.) across different regions. The two most populated regions in terms of conflict events include Phnom Penh and Pailin. Of course Phnom Penh is the capital of Cambodia and the central location of the government, while Pailin was a major stronghold and resource center for the Khmer Rouge. Pailin was an area rich in gem stones that was mined to fund the rebels. The preliminary spatial plot supports other findings in the literature. For example, conflict takes place in resource rich areas and in the mountains (Pailin and Kampot). Moreover, the abundance of conflict events seems to be greater near the Vietnam border (Prey Veaeng, Sbaay Rieng, Kampong Chaam, and Kracheh).
To summarize, the PCS data can be used to study multiple-party interactions over disaggregated time and space. By doing so it encourages researchers to address the types of questions identified above by studying the behavior of parties to intrastate conflicts. For example, PCS puts terrorism in the context of other violent, non-violent, and cooperative tactics such that we can theorize and empirically model a more holistic conceptualization of political behavior.[24] Such a conceptualization reduces bias and yields theories that explain more than their predecessors. It also allows for the examination of how low intensity conflict escalates into "civil war".[25] In sum the project and others like it bring together process oriented theories, holistic conceptualizations of tactical choices, and disaggregated data to better understand the causes and consequences of violent political conflict.
Paul Collier's influential World Bank project on the co-variates of civil war is an archetypical example of the structural attributes approach to the conceptualization and analysis of violent political conflict.[26] We find it instructive that the final product from that project abandoned the structural attributes approach in favor of case studies that focused attention on historical description of the behavior of the parties to the conflict.[27] Sidney Tarrow argues that this shift from the statistical analysis of structural aggregates organized in country-year data containers to descriptive-historical analyses of cases demonstrates the weakness of large-N data analysis: it can illuminate a little bit, but to really understand conflict processes we must engage in descriptive case studies.[28] While this essay shares Tarrow's concerns about the weakness of the structural aggregates approach to the study of violent political conflict, it also demonstrates the poverty of Tarrow's diagnosis: the weakness is not inherent in its methodological choices for hypothesis testing. Rather, it is a conceptual weakness about the units of analysis one chooses. One irony of Tarrow's essay is that he also reviews some of the new generation scholarship we celebrate here. Yet, rather than recognize its value for having abandoned the overly-aggregated country-year in favor of a focus on the behavior of parties to the conflicts within the context of institutions, economies, and societies, Tarrow flogs the dying horse of his generation's intellectual battleground: the so-called qualitative—quantitative divide that grew out of the behavioral revolution in political science.
Fortunately, a growing number of policy analysts in Washington are disinterested in these academic "tempests in a teapot" and recognize the potential value in leveraging the new school's insights to inform policy makers. This renaissance is welcome and it will be interesting to see how it unfolds. Political scientists are on the cusp of being able to say very interesting things about the violent behavior of dissidents and governments as the outcome of dynamic processes that vary over time and space across the countries in which such conflicts take place. We invite the reader to stay tuned.
Will H. Moore is Associate Professor of Political Science at the Florida State University with research interests in violent political conflict within and between countries.
Stephen M. Shellman is a Research Scientist within the Institute for the Theory and Practice of International Relations at The College of William & Mary and is Director of the Violent Intranational Political Conflict and Terrorism (VIPCAT) Research Laboratory.
[1] D.C. Esty, J. Goldstone, T.R. Gurr, B. Harff, P.T. Surko, A.N. Unger, and R. Chen. "The State Failure Project: Early Warning Research for US Foreign Policy Planning." Preventive Measures: Building Risk Assessment and Crisis Early Warning Systems. 1988, Vol. xx, pp. 27-38.
[2] Office of the Secretary of Defense. Broad Agency Announcement 08-Q-3028 Packet, available online at: https://www.bids.tswg.gov/tswg/bids.nsf/DownloadBAAs?OpenView.
[3] See http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/18/arts/18minerva.html?_r=2&8dpc&oref=slogin&oref=slogin for the story and http://www.arl.army.mil/www/DownloadedInternetPages/CurrentPages/DoingBusinesswithARL/research/08-R-0007.pdf for the announcement.
[4] SJ Andriole and GW Hopple. "The Rise and Fall of Event Data: From Basic Research to Applied Use in the US Department Of Defense." International Interactions, 1984. Vol. 11, pp. 293-309.
[5] Harry Eckstein. "Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Collective Political Violence." In T.R. Gurr (ed.) Handbook of Political Conflict, pp. 135-166. 1980. New York: The Free Press.
[6] Will H. Moore. "Action-Reaction or Rational Expectations? Reciprocity and the Domestic-International Conflict Nexus During the 'Rhodesia Problem'." Journal of Conflict Resolution. 1995. Vol. 39, No. 1, p.132.
[7] Charles Tilly. "Models and Realities of Popular Collective Action." Social Research. 1985. Vol. 52, No. 4, p. 1.
[8] Recent reviews of this literature can be found in Christian Davenport. "State Repression and Political Order." Annual Review of Political Science. 2007. Vol. 10, pp. 1–23, and Mark I. Lichbach. "Internal Wars Over the State: Rational-Choice Institutionalism and Contentious Politics." M.I. Midlarsky (ed.) Handbook of War Studies, Volume III. Forthcoming. University of Michigan Press.
[9] C. Butler, S. Gates and M. Leiby. "To Fight or Not to Fight: Contest Success Functions and Civil Conflict." Paper presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting. 2005. P. 18. See, also, Will H. Moore, Ronny Lindström and Valerie O'Regan. "Land Reform, Political Violence, and the Economic Inequality—Political Violence Nexus: A Longitudinal Analysis." International Interactions. 1996. Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 335-363.
[10] For example, see MaCartan Humphreys. "Natural Resources, Conflict, and Conflict Resolution: Uncovering the Mechanisms." Journal of Conflict Resolution. 2005. Vol. 49, Num. 4, pp. 508-537; Stathis Kalyvas. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. 2006. New York: Cambridge University Press; and Jeremy Weinstein. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence. 2007. New York: Cambridge University Press.
[11] Kalyvvas, 2006, op cit.
[12] Moore, 1995, op cit; Will H. Moore and David R. Davis. "Ties That Bind? Domestic and International Conflict Behavior in Zaire." Comparative Political Studies. 1998. Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 45-71; Kristian Skrede Gleditsch and Kyle Beardsley. "Nosy Neighbors." Journal of Conflict Resolution. 2004. Vol. 48, No. 3, 379-402; and Clayton L. Thyne. "Cheap Signals with Costly Consequences: The Effect of Interstate Relations on Civil War." Journal of Conflict Resolution. 2006. Vol. 50, No. 6, pp. 937-961.
[13] Moore (2006, 10) makes a similar argument about studying war only
[14] See the Conference on "Disaggregating the Study of Civil War and Transnational Violence." University of California, San Diego, 2005. Program available online at: http://weber.ucsd.edu/~kgledits/igcc/dscwtv/dscwtv_prog.pdf and the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data (ACLED) project at the Center for the Study of Civil War, Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO). Available online at: http://new.prio.no/CSCW-Datasets/Data-on-Armed-Conflict/ACLED---Armed-Conflict-Location-and-Event-Data/.
[15] See Humphreys, 2005, op cit. and Michael Ross. "A Closer Look At Oil, Diamonds, And Civil War." Annual Review of Political Science. 2006. Vol. 9, pp. 265-300.
[16] See Halvard Buhaug and Scott Gates. "The Geography of Civil War." Journal of Peace Research. 2002. Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 417-433, Halvard Buhaug and Päivi Lujala. "Accounting for scale: Measuring geography in quantitative studies of civil war." Political Geography. Vol. 24, No. 4, May 2005, pp. 399-418, and Jan Ketil Rǿd and Halvard Buhaug. "Using disaggregated grid cells for a study on the onset of African Civil Wars." 2007. Working Paper available online at: http://www.icr.ethz.ch/mccw/papers/rod.pdf.
[17] Idean Salehyan and Kristian Skrede Gleditsch. "Refugees and the Spread of Civil War." International Organization. 2006. Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 335-366.
[18] Pitirim Sorokin. Social and Cultural Dynamics: Fluctuation of Social Relationships, War, and Revolution, Volume 3, 1937, New York: American Book Company, pp. 383-408, and Stephen M. Shellman. "Time Series Intervals and Statistical Inference: The Effects of Temporal Aggregation on Event Data Analysis." Political Analysis. 2004. Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 97-104.
[19] Massimiliano Marcellino. "Some Consequences of Temporal Aggregation in Empirical Analysis.'' Journal of Business and Economic Statistics. 1999. Vol. 17, p. 129.
[20] Philip A. Schrodt, Shannon G. Davis and Judith L. Weddle. "Political Science: KEDS—A Program for the Machine Coding of Event Data." Social Science Computer Review. 1994. Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 561-587.
[21] See, for example, Paul Pennings and Hans Keman. "Towards a New Methodology of Estimating Party Policy Positions." Quality and Quantity. 2002. Vol 36, No. 1, pp. 55-79, and Burt L. Monroe, Kevin Quinn, Michael Colaresi, Dragomir Radev, Steven Abney, Michael Crespin, Yael Shomer, Akitaka Matsuo and Sarah Hobolt The Dynamics of Political Rhetoric and Political Representation. Poster presented at the 2007 Human and Social Dynamics meeting, National Science Foundation. Available online at: http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/hsd/2007.pdf, pp. 195-196.
[22] Internet links will be provided for the project, papers, publications, etc if published.
[23] See http://web.ku.edu/keds/data.dir/KEDS.WEIS.Codes.html for WEIS codes and http://web.ku.edu/keds/cameo.dir/CAMEO.SCALE.txt for the CAMEO scale.
[24] Author citation – deleted for anonymity.
[25] Andrew M. Reeves and Brandon M. Stewart. "Forecasting Escalation in Civil War: A Quantitative Case Study of the Aceh Conflict in Indonesia." Prepared for the 2007 Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association. Available online at: http://www.uga.edu/terrorismlab/documents/reeves_stewart_forecasting_escalation_civil_war.pdf.
[26] Paul Collier. Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and Their Implications for Policy. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 2000, and Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler. "Greed and grievance in civil war." Oxford Economic Papers, 2004. Vol. 56, pp. 563-595.
[27] Paul Collier and Nicholas Sambanis. Volumes I and II. Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis, Washington, D.C.: World Bank Publications. 2005.
[28] Sidney Tarrow. "Inside Insurgencies: Politics and Violence in an Age of Civil War." Perspectives in Politics. 2007. Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 587-600.


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/**
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public interface GCContext<T> {
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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Manitoba farmers set to vote on producer group amalgamation
Following a challenging year and a wet harvest, Manitoba farmers are kicking off 2020 with some crop still in the field, possibly tough grain in the bin, and a large decision on representation.
At the recent Prairie Cereals Summit, news lead Jessika Guse sat down with Pam de Rocquigny, general manager of the Manitoba Corn Growers and the Manitoba Wheat and Barley Growers, to talk about winter storage, seed testing, spring harvest of corn, and of course, the upcoming amalgamation vote happening in conjunction with the CropConnect conference in Winnipeg, Man., February 12 and 13, 2020.
The five commodity groups considering proposed amalgamation — Manitoba Corn Growers Association (MCGA), Manitoba Flax Growers Association (MFGA), National Sunflower Association of Canada (NSAC), Winter Cereals Manitoba, Inc. (WCMI), and the Manitoba Wheat and Barley Growers Association (MWBGA) — will vote, in person, at the annual general meetings of each group. Members hoping to vote need to attend the AGM in person, but do not need to be registered for the conference.
"At the end of the day, the members will have their say, and it's always been the intention that members will have the say on whether or not to amalgamate," de Rocquigny says.
Related: Alberta wheat and barley groups to vote on full amalgamation

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


There are about 20,000 genes in the human genome that contain the DNA instructions to make everything in the body. Even though all cells contain identical copies of the DNA, each cell expresses different parts of the DNA in different amounts. These varying expression levels allow cells to differentiate into diverse cell types, ranging from brain cells to muscle cells to white blood cells.
Characterizing how baseline gene expression levels vary between tissues has major implications for helping understand the molecular basis for a variety of diseases. Diseased cells have gene expression levels that are vastly different from the baseline expression levels of healthy cells. Knowledge of this differential gene expression can help physicians design more effective treatment regimens that are customized for each patient and disease. Previously, however, there was not a reference database with enough data characterizing baseline gene expression levels across different cell types. To make things even more challenging, different individuals have slight natural variations in baseline expression levels.
Since its launch in 2010, the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project has been working to provide such a data resource by collecting and analyzing tissue samples from many different donors. In a recent October 2017 paper published in Nature titled "Genetic effects on gene expression across human tissues," the GTEx Consortium reports a major expansion to the GTEx project that includes data for 44 (42 distinct) tissue types from more than 7,000 samples gathered from 449 human donors, a huge increase from the 9 tissue types that the GTEx project initially included during its pilot-phase.
To characterize the variation in gene expression levels across different tissues as well as individuals, the GTEx researchers isolated, sequenced, and mapped RNA collected from various tissue samples of different donors. Expressing a gene involves transcribing DNA into RNA. So, by measuring RNA transcript levels for a certain gene in a tissue sample, researchers can determine the level of gene expression in that tissue. High levels of RNA mean that the gene is highly expressed, and low levels of RNA mean that the gene is minimally expressed.


Rawls general conception is that all social primary goods such as liberty, opportunity, income, and wealth should be distributed equally unless unequal distribution will help support the least favored.
Rawl's TOJ revolves around two fundamental principles which would guarantee a just and morally acceptable society.Thefirst principle "is that each person is too have equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with similar liberty for others"(pg. 58) and the second that "social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both reasonably at everyone's advantage, attached to positions and offices open to all" (pg. 58.).
Rawl's introduces a theoretical "veil of ignorance" (pg 56), this provides an "objective and impartial viewpoint from which we can view our place in society and come up with principals of justice that are fair for everyone" (pg 56).This has had major influences on reform of healthcare and welfare of today however, Rawl's never says whether his system should have an obligation for a society to provide health care services.
Rawl's in a nutshell believes that everyone should have the same rights and access to the most basic liberties, and even includes the least advantaged people. While society need not provide these liberties they must make sure all have equal access to them.
Possible problems with Rawl's theory is that it does not exhibit stability and in our nature as people we are selfish and therefore envy.It also depends on progress as well as puts us in a position where self respect and material goods collides.


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Gustav Adolf von Wulffen (* 18. April 1878 in Gotha; † 4. Mai 1945 in Borkheide) war ein deutscher Generalmajor und SS-Brigadeführer.

Leben

Herkunft und Familie
Gustav entstammende dem preußischen Adelsgeschlecht von Wulffen. Er war ein Sohn des preußischen Generalleutnant Ferdinand von Wulffen (1833–1902) und dessen Frau Klara, geborene Hauff (1845–1910).

1924 heiratete Wulffen in Forst die Fabrikantentochter Margareta Cattien, geschiedene von Walcke-Schuldt. Ihr mit in die Ehe gebrachter Sohn Major d. R. Joachim von Walcke-Schuldt (* 1903; † 1944) wurde 1941 adoptiert und führte dann mit seiner Familie den Namen von Walcke-Wulffen.

Karriere
Wulffen trat nach seiner Erziehung im Kadettenkorps am 13. März 1897 als Sekondeleutnant in das Infanterie-Regiment "Graf Bose" (1. Thüringisches) Nr. 31 in Altona ein. Von Oktober 1902 bis September 1906 fungierte er als Bataillonsadjutant, wurde am 18. Mai 1907 Oberleutnant und mit der gleichzeitig erfolgten Beförderung zum Hauptmann am 1. Oktober 1912 als Adjutant der 22. Infanterie-Brigade nach Breslau versetzt.

Mit dieser zog Wulffen bei Ausbruch des Ersten Weltkriegs ins Feld und kam an der Westfront bei Longwy erstmals in Kampfhandlungen. Am 3. Mai 1917 wurde er zum Kommandeur des II. Bataillons des Großherzoglich Mecklenburgischen Grenadier-Regiments Nr. 89 ernannt. Während der Frühjahrsoffensive Ende März 1918 konnte Wulffen sich besonders bewähren, wofür ihm am 21. April 1918 die höchste preußische Tapferkeitsauszeichnung, der Orden Pour le Mérite verliehen wurde. Kurz vor Kriegsende wurde Wulffen am 18. Oktober 1918 noch zum Major befördert.

Nach Kriegsende wurde er zunächst als Regierungsrat beim Aufbau des "Landesschutzes" der Provinzen Ober- und Niederschlesien eingesetzt, jedoch nach dem Kapp-Putsch seines Postens enthoben. Nach verschiedenen Tätigkeiten in der Privatwirtschaft wurde er 1924 Geschäftsführer des Nationalclubs von 1919 in Hamburg.

Wulffen trat Anfang 1931 der NSDAP (Mitgliedsnummer 495.764) und später der SS (Mitgliedsnummer 72.208) bei. September 1933 erhielt er in Zuordnung zum Oberabschnitt Süd (Bayern) die Beförderung zum Sturmführer, Weihnachten 1933 zum Obersturmführer, September 1934 zum Sturmhauptführer, so die damals gängigen Offiziersränge in der SS. Major, also Sturmbannführer, wurde Wulffen 1935, Standartenführer 1936, Oberführer Januar 1937. Am 20. April 1939 erhielt er die Beförderung zum SS-Brigadeführer.

Er war im Stab des Stellvertreters des Führers, Rudolf Heß, zunächst für Beschwerden tätig und übernahm dort später die Leitung der Abteilung II C "Personalangelegenheiten der Partei". Am 15. November 1937 wechselte er in die Präsidialkanzlei; später wurde er in den Stab des Reichsführers SS versetzt und erhielt bewusst keine weiteren Beförderungen mehr. 1940 war er auch Oberst z. V. und Kommandant von Potsdam. Am Kriegsende übernahm er am 29. März 1945 das Kommando über die Infanterie-Division Potsdam. Diese Division wurde im April 1945 durch alliierte Truppen im Harz zerschlagen. Dabei wurde Wulffen schwer verwundet. Er starb an den Folgen der Verletzung wenige Tage vor Kriegsende.

Literatur
 Dienstaltersliste der Schutzstaffel der N.S.D.A.P. Stand 1. Oktober 1934, Personalabteilung des RF SS, Druck Birkner, vorm. Hermes, München  1934, S. 28–29.
 Hanns Möller: Geschichte der Ritter des Ordens pour le mérite im Weltkrieg. Band II: M–Z. Verlag Bernard & Graefe, Berlin 1935, S. 534–536.
 Dienstaltersliste der Schutzstaffel der NSDAP. Stand vom 1. Dezember 1938, SS-Personalkanzlei, Reichsdruckerei, Berlin 1938, S. 18–19.
 Gothaisches Genealogisches Taschenbuch der Adeligen Häuser. 1941. Jg. 40, Justus Perthes, Gotha 1940, S. 601.
 Walter von Hueck, Friedrich Wilhelm Euler: Genealogisches Handbuch der Adeligen Häuser, A, Band IX, Band 43 der Gesamtreihe GHdA, C. A. Starke, Limburg an der Lahn 1969, S. 406–407. .
 Karl-Friedrich Hildebrand, Christian Zweng: Die Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite des I. Weltkriegs. Band 3: P–Z. Biblio Verlag, Bissendorf 2011, S. 580–582. ISBN 978-3-7648-2576-8.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

SS-Brigadeführer
Generalmajor (Heer der Wehrmacht)
Major (Preußen)
Person im Ersten Weltkrieg (Deutsches Reich)
Person im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Deutsches Reich)
Ehrenritter (Johanniterorden)
Träger des Preußischen Königlichen Kronenordens 4. Klasse
Ritter des Königlichen Hausordens von Hohenzollern
Träger des Pour le Mérite (Militärorden)
NSDAP-Mitglied
Gustav
Deutscher
Geboren 1878
Gestorben 1945
Mann

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Another National Holiday, National Chocolate Chip Day, arrived today!
But really, isn't EVERY day meant to celebrate chocolate? In honor of this great holiday, we decided to celebrate with a Chocolate Chip Cocktail!
Yup. You heard right! A chocolate chip cocktail!
Mix with ice and strain into the glass of your choice garnished with a rim* of brown sugar, miniature chocolate chips, and chopped walnuts.


Hour 4. The guys are in studio for the final time before the AFC Championship game. Patriots troll Rob Parker pathetically begs for Chiefs to beat the Pats. Also, why the Patriots dynasty isn't done, even if they lose.


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where.ca > Ontario > Toronto > Alphabet Soup: Dining from A to Z
Alphabet Soup: Dining from A to Z
Where Toronto's annual dining guide is a veritable encyclopedia of the city's culinary appetites. Check out our favourite (alphabetized!) restaurants, dishes and culinary trends by clicking on any of the images below.
AFFORDABLE FAVOURITES
Keeping abreast of the fine-dining scene is a time-honoured pastime for foodies. But one can't always be gorging on foie gras, truffled spaghettini and Kobe beef. When you're pressed for time and money, this city presents myriad eating options, including flavourful crepes and coffee at Art Square Café, all-natural Persian cuisine from Camros Organic Eatery, and perfectly grilled panini from Little Italy sandwich bar Negroni.
Art Square Café
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BRUNCH
Dozens of Toronto restaurants—from top-tier tables to the greasiest of greasy-spoon diners—eagerly encourage this weekend ritual with sausages, fresh pastries and numerous interpretations of that gooey classic, eggs Benedict. It's nearly impossible to find a consensus favourite amongst so many brunch spots, but the blueberry buttermilk pancakes at Mildred's Temple Kitchen surely place this sleek eatery near the head of the pack. The Sunday brunch at The Boiler House draws its fair share of ravenous guests with large omelette and carved-meat stations as well as live jazz, while homey Le Petit Dejeuner offers its diverse spread daily.
Mildred's Temple Kitchen
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CHARCUTERIE
A showpiece for chefs who follow the nose-to-tail philosophy, this platter of pickled veg, artisan cheese and cold cuts is a hot item for "adventurous" carnivores—you know, those who relish the chance to chomp on calf's brain at the Black Hoof, a terrine of pig's tongue and ear at Cowbell and horse bresaola from Conviction.
Cowbell's charcuterie (photo by Derek Shapton)
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DESSERT
The sweet finish to your meal at these restaurants is definitely not an afterthought.

1 Servers at Colborne Lane churn delicately flavoured ice cream over liquid nitrogen right at your table.
2 Thanks to pastry chef Joanne Yolles, the coconut cream pie at Scaramouche is an adored indulgence.
3 At Senses two hemispheres are united in scrumptious harmony on a plate of westernized Chinese sweets.
Colborne Lane
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ECO-CONSCIOUS FARE
The movement toward environmentally friendly eating has progressed to the mainstream, thanks both to the specter of climate change and the fact that fresh, locally sourced cuisine often just tastes better. Taking up the challenge are restos such as Cowbell and Union, which use naturally raised meats. Also going green—with produce grown in their own gardens—are Epic, George and Veritas, while certified sustainable fish and seafood is served at Trios Bistro and Pangaea. Even chain restaurants are rising to the challenge: Canyon Creek Chophouse offers a locally focused menu that highlights Ontario's fall harvest.
Union (photo by Robert J. Brodey)
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FINE DINING
It's no secret that the recent economic downturn took its toll on the restaurant industry; some operations were inevitably shuttered, and many others looked for ways to scale back. Arguably it accelerated the return of affordable comfort fare, too. Yet, to the delight of power brokers, celebrities and anyone looking to impress a first date, most of the city's elite establishments seem to have emerged with sumptuous cuisine, luxurious decor and considerate service intact. Raise a glass to decadence at North 44°, romance at Auberge du Pommier, and innovation at Colborne Lane.
Auberge du Pommier
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GASTRONOMIE
It may have taken a Meryl Streep movie to remind the rest of the world about the joys of French cooking, but Toronto gourmands never forgot. Ask virtually any city insider and you'll learn that Pastis Express sets a high standard with pure bistro fare and the bonhomie of owner Georges Gurnon, while a Parisian charm pervades during lunch, dinner and a lauded weekend brunch at Le Sélect Bistro. The oft-changing menu dégustation at Didier puts the award-winning skills of chef Didier Leroy front and centre. In Old Town, Le Papillon on Frontearns bon notes for its savoury crepes.
Didier (photo by Paul Kittmer)
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HARBORD STREET
Sandwiched between Kensington Market and the Annex is a discreet destination for diners, featuring warm and welcoming establishments such as French-influenced faves Loire (1) and Tati Bistro (2), the homey Harbord Room (3), and venerable Splendido (4).
Harbord Street map
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INTERIOR DESIGN
The adage that we eat first with our eyes applies not only to the presentation of your entree, but also the room in which it's served. Recognizing this, many Toronto restaurants feature interiors courtesy of premier design firms. Posh luxury pervades the dining room at the Hazelton Hotel's One, resplendent in smoked glass, cowhide and tiger-eye onyx sourced by Yabu Pushelberg; eclectic elements like a wall of 15-foot-tall rooster photographs soften the nightclub-style ambience of Ultra, as envisioned by decor duo Munge Leung. Not content just to create the theatre for your dinner, local design group Castor operates its own hip restaurant, OddFellows, which offers Canadian comfort cuisine as well as a distinctive aesthetic.
Ultra (photo by Device 222)
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JUVENILE DINING
No, we don't mean unsophisticated. Travelling with children shouldn't require standing reservations at a fast-food joint. Instead, treat the family to the pasta offerings of the Old Spaghetti Factory—you'll be thankful for the carbs after a day spent chasing the little ones. There's no excuse for picky eaters at The Pickle Barrel, where more than 300 items comprise the menu. For a visual feast, check out the exotic ambience of the Rainforest Café, featuring live tropical fish and even simulated thunderstorms.
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KENNEDY, JAMIE
Despite his presence on the Toronto resto scene for the better part of three decades, this star chef is still making headlines. Kennedy was featured prominently in the national media this past summer when news broke that he was seeking a buyer for his signature wine bar, while his fine-dining venture at the Gardiner Museum was down-scaling to a sandwich bar. At the time there was much speculation about the prohibitive cost of Kennedy's commitment to using local, sustainably harvested ingredients, and yet the slow-food advocate soldiers on—not only is he a fixture at many culinary events, but his fresh and simple fare can still be had at welcoming neighbourhood outpost Gilead Café.
Jamie Kennedy (photo by Finn O'Hara)
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LATTES
On the whole, Toronto's coffee culture may not be as evolved as that of Vienna, Rome or even Seattle, but neither is this city lacking for good lattes (nor espressos or cappuccinos) to be sipped in comfort at welcoming independent cafes. Dark Horse Espresso Bar has two locations for a smooth, milk-frothed mug and the camaraderie fostered at large communal tables. Purists flock to Manic Coffee (426 College St., 416-966-3888) for a basic-black cuppa made from expertly sourced beans, and the specialty siphon coffee brewed by professional barista Sam James draws a crowd at his eponymous Sam James Coffee Bar (297 Harbord St., 647-341-2572).
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MUSEUM DINING
Combine the arts with artfully prepared cuisine—from fresh sandwiches to soft-shell crab tempura—at these major cultural institutions.
1 C5 Restaurant Lounge: At the apex of the Royal Ontario Museum's geometric Michael Lee-Chin Crystal sits a sleek restaurant and lounge featuring a thoroughly modern spread. It's best savoured following a day of contemplating the museum's many historical treasures
2 Frank: The much-applauded 2008 renovation of the Art Gallery of Ontario not only created much more space for paintings, but also for locally inspired cuisine—including a popular brunch—at this chic but casual dining space named for architect Frank Gehry.
3 Gardiner Café: Star chef Jamie Kennedy created the menu of healthy soups, salads and sandwiches, making the Gardiner Museum a noon-hour hub for a well-heeled but time- and calorie-conscious clientele.
C5 Restaurant Lounge
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NATIONAL NIBBLING
At only 142 years, Canada is a relatively young nation, and one whose population has historically been composed of immigrants. It's understandable, then, that we've just lately begun to develop a unique "True North" culinary identity, as exemplified by some of Toronto's most respected restaurants—Canoe and Lucien among them. The dishes at these top spots change often based on the seasonal availability of ingredients, but they're always patriotic in origin and inspiration. Expect a focus on game meats like bison and elk—plus naturally raised beef and pork—as well as fish and seafood from the Great Lakes and both coasts, accented by berries, locally foraged mushrooms and more.
Canoe (photo by Jo-Anne McArthur)
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OSSINGTON AVENUE
Though still a bit rough around the edges, this hip strip between Queen and Dundas streets west is home to a miscellany of recommended restos. From Queen, head north to hit chef Teo Paul's Union(1), eclectic Levack Block(2) and bistro-esque Delux(3). A few blocks more and you'll encounter a spread of Asian-fusion offerings at Foxley(4) and Pizzeria Libretto, one of the city's top spot for a thin-crust pizza pie (5).
Ossington Avenue map
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PRE-THEATRE DINING

 What's a night of entertainment without the fuel to keep you going? Kick-start your evening at one of many restos near to prominent performing arts houses. Steps from the Four Seasons Centre, Nota Bene and Forte serve delectable pre-theatre prix fixe menus from 5 to 6:30 p.m. on show nights. Dining spots along King Street West have long catered to theatre goers: 309 Dhaba Indian Excellence, La Fenice and Marcel's Bistro among them. Inform the staff of your showtime to help ensure efficient service.
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QUEEN STREET EAST
Travel east past the Don River to the homey Leslieville neighbourhood—you're spoiled for choice with inviting little boîtes lining much of its main drag: The Citizen (1), Table 17 (2), Joy Bistro (3), Lil' Baci (4), Fare Bistro (5), Leslie Jones (6), Tomi-Kro (7), Edward Levesque's Kitchen (8) and many more!
Queen Street East map
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THE RUBINO BROTHERS
Toronto's most notorious sibling restaurateurs are back in the spotlight, having recently remade their super-sleek Asian-fusion boîte, Rain, into an exotically adorned den for Japanese cuisine. Now dubbed Ame, the ambitious space in the Entertainment District is samurai-chic, a modern fantasy of a medieval izakaya with rustic wood tables, iron screens and waterfalls framing the sake bar. Chef Guy Rubino operates from the open kitchen (brother Michael handles front-of-house responsibilities), crafting intricate dishes including upscale sashimi—sample the fluke with white raisin ponzu—wagyu short ribs and bluefin tuna kabayaki, the latter hot off Guy's custom-made robata grill.
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STEAK & SEAFOOD
Few meals are more memorable than a steak dinner with all the trimmings, edible and otherwise. A chic decor update complements the gracious service, thick cuts of beef and huge wine list at Harbour Sixty; modern elegance is also on display—along with your meat, in a glass-enclosed aging room—at Jacobs & Co.. Standards remain high across town: Barberian's, Hy's, The Keg, Prime and Ruth's Chris steakhouses are all deserving of their esteemed reputations.
For those who prefer surf over turf, there's much to choose from at these establishments, too, but such specialty seafood spots as Fisherman's Wharf, Pier 4 Storehouse, Rodney's Oyster House and Starfish Oyster Bed & Grill are also notable for everything from Arctic char and Alaskan king crab legs to striped bass and Tasmasian sea trout.
Rodney's Oyster Bar
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TAPAS & FAMILY-STYLE DINING
The desire for Spanish-influenced small plates seems to have abated over the past few years, but there remains a handful of establishments that present tapas dishes with panache. Foremost isvForest Hill's Cava, which doles out dishes like clams with chorizo and bay leaves, beef tripe basquaise, and sought-after jamón ibérico. On the Danforth, Embrujo Flamenco offers an authentic spread alongside paellas for two and flamenco dancing. A popular offshoot of the tapas trend: family-style entrees at restaurants including Madeline's, Nyood and Victor—order a range of plates for your table and don't hesitate to dig in!
Victor Restaurant & Bar
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UP-HIGH DINING
It's hard to vote against 360 the Restaurant at the CN Tower in the competition for Toronto's best view. The fine-dining establishment hovers (and revolves!) 351 metres above street level, providing an unsurpassed vista from one of the world's tallest buildings. Nearby at Canoe you can gaze out from the 54th floor of the Ludwig Mies van der Rohe–designed TD Bank Tower. And 51 storeys above chic Bloor-Yorkville, Panorama claims two of the country's highest patios.
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VEGETARIAN RESTAURANTS
Offering the original green dining experience, vegetarian restaurants continue to thrive. Need proof? Just visit one of the three locations of vegetarian eatery and juice bar Fresh—they're abuzz with activity throughout the day. On Queen Street West, each dish in upscale café Fressen is made from scratch and cooked to order. An unassuming neighbourly vibe pervades at Vegetarian Haven—no surprise, really, since it's run by Buddhists. And for extreme herbivores, there's Live Organic Food Bar, which specializes in vegan-friendly dishes served raw.
A salad from Fresh
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WINE LISTS
Bacchus himself would find much to praise at this trio of grape-loving Toronto restaurants.
1 Crush Wine Bar: For those who can't decide, varied themed wine flights are offered here in a casual and congenial setting.
2 Opus: Expert oenophiles rejoice! This luxe resto features a Wine Spectator Grand Award-winning 2,300-label cellar.
3 Reds: If you don't need a full bottle, sommelier Taylor Thompson can suggest more than 80 vintages available by the glass at this Financial District favourite.
Crush Wine Bar
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XENOPHILIA
Like the city itself, Toronto's dining scene is proudly multicultural. For a different taste, check out our extensive listings of ethnic eateries: Chinese dim sum and banquet faves; numerous Greek restaurants along the Danforth and elsewhere; Indian fare—both upscale and buffet-style; sushi, soba noodles and much more at dozens of Japanese establishments; plus caliente Mexican food, flavourful Thai and more.
Amaya's basmati rice (photo by Claudia Hung)
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YYZ
While much of the city's culinary action takes place downtown, a few excellent options exist on its western edge—perfect for travellers seeking sustenance near the Toronto Pearson International Airport. Of note are two hotel-based restaurants: Grand Chinese Cuisine serves up daily dim sum and sophisticated à la carte items; Bliss offers international flavours and a WiFi-enabled lounge for professionals who need to stay connected. Cross the border to Mississauga for a meaty meal in elegant Zorro's Steak and Seafood House, or try it teppanyaki-style at Iron Chef.
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ZUPPA
Italian for soup, and a perfect pick-me-up on a cool day. Be it steaming stracciatella, hearty minestrone, or rich zuppa di pesce, you're likely to find at least one slurpable offering—and many other homestyle Italian dishes—at leading restaurants like Mistura, Osteria Ciceri e Tria,  Terroni, Trattoria Sotto Sotto and Zucca Trattoria.
Terroni on Adelaide
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Q: Unusual primitive Pythagorean triple identity I am working on another project relating to Pythagorean triples and came across an unusual property
The primitive triple generator $\left(n, \frac{n^2-1}{2}, \frac{n^2+1}{2}\right)$ for $n\in\mathbb N$ is clearly well known
However, more specifically I want to look at the subset of these such that $n\equiv 5\;(\text{mod }10)$
They can be expressed in the following form:
$$\left(10n+5, 10\sum_{k=0}^nk+2, 10\sum_{k=0}^nk+3\right)$$
I was wondering if this was well known or bore any significance or interesting explanation beyond the trivial

A: Your formula follows the Pythagorean theorem but, because Pythagorean triples have integer sides, it generates them as non-trivial triples only for odd $n>1$, which happens to include the $ n\in\{5,15,25, ...\}$ that interests you. There is a formula.
\begin{align*}
  A&=&(2n-1)^2+  & 2(2n-1)k      \\
  B&=&           & 2(2n-1)k+ 2k^2\\
  C&=&(2n-1)^2+  & 2(2n-1)k+ 2k^2\\
\end{align*}
which generates a superset of what yours does.
$$\begin{array}{c|c|c|c|c|}
Set_n & k=1 & k=2 & k=3 & k=4 \\ \hline
Set_1 & 3,4,5 & 5,12,13& 7,24,25& 9,40,41\\ \hline
Set_2 & 15,8,17 & 21,20,29 &27,36,45 &33,56,65\\ \hline
Set_3 & 35,12,37 & 45,28,53 &55,48,73 &65,72,97 \\ \hline
Set_{4} &63,16,65 &77,36,85 &91,60,109 &105,88,137\\ \hline
\end{array}$$
Your formula generates the only the first row where $n=1$ and $k>1.$
If $n=1$, the  formula becomes
$$A=1+2k\quad B=2k+2k^2\quad
C=1+2k+2k^2$$
so this formula will generate your subset plus $(3,4,5)\quad$ if $\quad k\in\mathbb{N}.$
If you let $k\in\{2,7,12\}$ you will generate
$$(5,12,13)\quad (15,112,113)\quad  (25,312,313)\quad\cdots$$

A: There's one other formula, for generating Pythagoras triplet.
taking
Hypotenuse = c
side 1 = a
side 2 = b
The formula is
c = m^2 + n^2
b = m^2 - n^2
a = 2mn
where m,n are natural numbers.
this can generate every triplet.
Proof of this is also quite simple, but I am new here so it's hard for me to write that, as I am not getting all the symbols on my laptop keyboard.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


The sweater is gorgeous!!!!! I also like the shawl pattern and the yarn (cough, cough). Can't wait to see the pictures.
I love seasilk! I don't have much patience knitting with beads, but sometimes a pattern just makes you want to. I had a similar experience with Susan Pandorf's Moroccan Days shawl. Still working on it, but so pretty and so worth it!
Will you bead the knitting by pre-stringing, crochet hook or SuperFloss? I like Superfloss best….it's so portable, with the beads on the floss, and the cats don't get at the beads with it!
I just love that sweater. As soon as I can, I'm picking up that magazine and starting yet another project….
Wowie zowie, I love that shawl! Can't wait to see it started! And your sweater is just lovely – almost matches the Lovely Lucy's eyes.
Lucy should consider herself VERY lucky. Here, where I live in SoCal, the temp is hovering around 92 degrees with very little humidity (think of your skin resembling sandpaper). At this time of year I do envy those living in a climate with a cool autumn. Luv.m.
Oooh, so it's like a modified faroese, but in a stole? How is it constructed?
Beautiful colors, btw. If you don't find beads at Earthfaire, (which I'd be mighty surprised at), there's also Fire Mountain Gems, which has a killa (so huge I had to misspell it) selection of all different sizes, styles and colors.
Looking forward to more hijinks. Hi to Lucy from Sneakers.
That's a beautiful shawl pattern. Fusion beads is a very good online site to buy beads also (fusionbeads.com). They have a large selection, good service and free shipping. I've had very good experiences with them.
I REALLY like the shawl. I love that it is shaped that way. Sort of a Faroese stole!
Oh no, this means I have to make one.
I'm looking forward to watching your rapid progress pics on the shawl when you start it. Wendy, do you plan on alternating skeins for that project? I've never done a multiple skein project with Sea Silk so was wondering what your thoughts are on variability and handling that.
Sweater is lovely and the shawl will be fabulous. It was oh so cold here today. Only about 43 degrees so had to put heat on, yuk.
Shawls shawls every where shawls.. Breaking up the scenery.
Oh! No singing – bad Megan.
I had some silk lace weight once. It was soooo slippery I had to walk away from it. I am interested to see how you like the feel of yours.
Well, if you can't find suitable beads at Earth Faire, then be sure to check out http://www.shipwreckbeads.com I won't tell you how many hours I've lost wandering their store……thankfully they have a coffee/snack bar to give you sustenance through your shopping!
I'm really loving the sweater color–it will be gorgeous on you, I think.
I agree with LizA., Shipwreck Beads is huge. I love the sidewalk in front, beads are in the cement. Next time I go, I should take a picture.
I am loving that sweater so far! As an aside, isn't Sivia Harding just the greatest? My first lace was a beaded scarf by her, and I love it.
Oh! A beautiful and stunning shawl. Let me know how you end up liking the beading part. I can't make myself do it yet..
Love the sweater and yes make it have long sleeves. And turn on the heat for Lucy, if it is as cold as it is here she needs heat!!!
That shawl is high on my list too, especially after knitting Sivia's lovely Waves in the Square shawl, which uses the same shaping technique: it really does make the wrap stay on your shoulders.
lovely! i actually enjoy a bit of beading, lol, the only thing i can do with a crochet hook!
Oh, yes, go for the beads! I just blocked my first beaded Swallowtail last night and the beads really make it. If you use the crochet method it's really simple. Waves in the Square is next with Mini-Maiden in Peridot with matching beads.
My heat came on unexpectedly last night when I got home and I immediately put a stop to it and built a fire in the woodstove instead! My cats were a bit disappointed at first but they do like the wood fires, I think.
That shawl looks quite lovely. I would really like to learn how to do beaded knitting. I will have to add that to my new year's to do list.
The stole/wrap looks stunning. I love the results I have had knitting with beads, though it can diminish portability a lot. For the crochet hook method, I try to get my beads into a tube with a cover like a tic tac box, so I can more easily just get out one or two when I need them. It's either that or I cart around one of my large bead boxes and hope that the entire thing doesn't open in transit!
I surprised myself about the beading – I am loving making and wearing shawls with beads – just a little bit of sparkle or accent for the lace. I've even been adding beads to lace patterns that don't call for beads, with good results. I'm not a granny, but I seem to favor pretty muted colors, so to me, a beautiful gray shawl sometimes looks granny-ish without some added something. Also, beads add a little heft to the fabric, making it stay where you put it. I usually use beads that are the same color as the yarn so there's no contrast – and it doesn't shout "Hey here's some beads on some lace", it's more like "look, that lace has some beads in it". I put some really nice camel colored glass pearls on a camel "shetland triangle" – turned out fantastic.
Hope you have fun – I'm going to have to check out this pattern also.


It could be nice to be able to disable the XLSX Snapshot Export for some users or group.
Excel (at least 2010) allows to set two colors for bar series, one for positive, one for negative values.
Ein Balkendiagramm, in dem für die Werte der gleichen Datenreihe untereschiedliche Farben verwendet werden können - je nachdem, ob es sich um negative oder positive Werte handelt.
Maintaining the access rights for groups in the report manager is a real "pain" if you provide more than only 1 application or report to be selected by the users.
If a new group is created in the system manager you will have to go through all report groups / reports available in the report manager to re-set the settings for security.
Would be at least good to have the option to select all / none rather than clicking one by one through a big list of groups.
Possibility to control which levels of a hierarchy in a combobox with subset is expanded, when opened the first time. Same option exists for dynaranges allready.
Beside selecting a date from the datepicker, the input field should also be filled manually without selecting from the datepicker. So the user can choose if he wants to select the date from the datepicker or if he wants to enter the date manually.
The settings on the "General" tab of Subsets and DynaRanges can be made variable by edditing the PALO.SUBSET formula.
Some of these settings cannot be made variable through the wizard. This should be possible for functions "Layout", "Hierarchy enumeration" and "Optional Settings" as well.
Allow to pick colours for dynamic charts based on DynaRanges. Currently only on colour can be picked.
is it possible to keep the printing area of Excel File in Jedox Web ?
1)	For dates: just follow the formatting of the cell for as well OUTPUT as INPUT. The same as Excel does. Now we have the situation in Jedox web that the input of dates must be in the language setting format, the output is following the cell format, this does not make any sense. So it would be better to separate date formatting from the language settings of the Jedox web user interface.
2)	For comma & thousand separator. Just separate this setting from the language, just like windows does, so cut the relation between user interface language and this setting. Now English speaking users that should report in the Netherlands should be able to have an English Jedox Web, but reports with Dutch currency settings.
Currently Jedox Spreadsheet supports Workbooks with Sheet dimensions compatible with Excel 2003 - 256 columns (A-IV), 65535 rows. Newer Excel Version (2007+) support 16384 colums and 1048576 rows. Such workbooks can be loaded into Jedox Web but their size would be truncated to 256 x 65535.
It should be possible to directly edit subsets and create/edit Dynaranges directly from the past view dialog.
Paste view to start at selected cell as opposed to standard top left. Applies to Excel equally unfortunately I can only select one functional area per idea.
The Hyperlink Manager, via menu, in Jedox Web should just generate hyperlink formulas and paste them in the selected cell.
Alternatively a unified method for creating hyperlinks i.e. removing one method and focus on implementing one method that works stable.


Small group teaching spans from small group activities within a lecture/ practical/ tutorial to a course designed for group work and group assessment.
This workshop will discuss examples of pair and group activities that can be used to increase activity and student interaction as well as implementing formative and summative group assessment.
Discuss planning considerations when introducing self and peer assessment.


text:
Watch Now: News 3 This Morning News 3 TV Schedule
NASA renames street in front of Washington headquarters to 'Hidden Figures Way'
Posted 12:06 pm, June 12, 2019, by Web Staff
WASHINGTON, D.C. – NASA renamed the street in front of its Washington headquarters to "Hidden Figures Way" Wednesday, CBS reported.
The street name honors Dorothy Vaughan, Mary Jackson and Hampton resident Katherine Johnson for their contributions to NASA's space program.
In the 1950s, human mathematicians were called "computers." NASA's "Computer Pool" relied heavily on the extraordinarily complex, hand-written calculations of black female employees.
Johnson, Vaughan, Jackson and the Computer Pool made calculations for groundbreaking, successful space missions, including Alan Shepard's 1961 voyage — which made him the first American in space — and John Glenn's 1962 mission, which made him the first American to orbit Earth.
The three women were featured in the novel and movie "Hidden Figures," which shone a light on their work and the challenges they faced.
Topics: hidden figures, Katherine Johnson, NASA
Lay's searches for Virginia smiles to feature on millions of potato chip bags
Williamsburg woman becomes one of NASA's newest astronaut
TESS mission spots Earth-size potentially habitable planet and 'Tatooine' system
Distant space object receives Powhatan name 'Arrokoth' by NASA
Hear from the Williamsburg woman selected as one of NASA's newest astronauts
Boeing's Starliner encounters a problem: Spacecraft is not in proper orbit
High school student discovers new planet with two suns 3 days into NASA internship
Jack-o'-lantern Nebula grimaces on the edge of the Milky Way
All-female Delta team flew 120 girls to NASA to get them excited about aviation careers
Watch here: The first all-female spacewalk performed by NASA astronauts
Virginia museums team up to preserve African American history
NASA posts a photo of the sun looking like a giant flaming jack-o'-lantern
NASA's Curiosity rover snapped an eerie image of the Mars horizon
Huge crowds turn out, some turned away on first day of legal recreational marijuana in Illinois


text:
CESO Stories
myCESO
International Services Indigenous Services MERIT News
CESO Blog
Evolving Human Resource Practices In The Tourism Industry
CESO Communications November 14, 2019
In the midst of the bustling district of Miraflores in Lima Peru, Girasoles Hotel welcomes guests with a stylish and modern space to rest their head and experience Lima. Their tagline says it all: "Your goal is ours". Taking to heart the variety of needs of their guests, the hotel and its staff are dedicated to providing a haven where every guest can enjoy a fulfilling visit and the diverse experiences Peru offers.
At the heart of its operations is its staff members who welcome and serve guests with bright and warm smiles, bringing to life the name of the establishment, Girasoles, meaning sunflower. The hotel is proudly managed and operated by Ms. Vanessa Lock Reyna.
Ms. Reyna is also part of Asociación Femenina de Ejecutivas de Empresas de Turismo (AFEET), a nationwide non-profit trade association dedicated to creating and promoting social and sustainable tourism practices. The organization wants to transform the sector to ensure women can fully participate in and contribute to the country's economic growth through tourism.
With over 100 members in four major regions of Peru, AFEET has a wide reach. Nevertheless, AFEET operates on a small scale and has not fully utilized its influence, challenged by the lack of engagement from its membership who are so widely spread out geographically. In 2017, AFEET signed a partnership with CESO to improve its value proposition, strengthen its operations and organizational practices, as well as provide training and development opportunities for its members.
Asociación Femenina de Ejecutivas de Empresas de Turismo (AFEET) is a nationwide non-profit trade association dedicated to creating and promoting social and sustainable tourism practices.
Since then, CESO and its expert Volunteer Advisors have worked closely with AFEET and its membership to build a strong foundation for the partnership. In 2018, a CESO expert Volunteer Advisor travelled to Lima, Peru to deliver a gender equality workshop. The workshop aimed at strengthening the voice and leadership of women in the sector.
Ms. Reyna attended the workshop delivered in Lima, Peru where Cheryl Hebert, the CESO expert Volunteer Advisor, outlined several concepts to help AFEET members improve, develop and implement gender-sensitive policies in their operations. While the bigger goal of the workshop was to increase female leadership in the sector, Cheryl delivered a workshop that highlighted practical opportunities to improve the status quo for tourism workers, especially female staff.
Work-life balance could be particularly challenging for tourism workers. From working long hours, to the lack of health benefits available to tourism workers, work-life balance could be challenging, if not non-existent. This is even truer for women in the sector.
While there are public policies to support women on maternity leave, there are certain practices within private establishments that prevent women from resuming their positions after pregnancy. Peruvian legislation states female employees are entitled to 90 days of paid maternity leave. Often, however, contracts of female employees are terminated after the three-month period. After the workshop, the hotel's administration realized that one of the ways to enhance working conditions for female employees was to modify their labour protection policies to ensure contracts will be reinstated after 90 days of maternity leave.
Additionally, after attending the workshop, the hotel administration decided to offer employees private healthcare services. "The improvement has produced direct benefits for our employees and our hotel. There's been a significant decline to sick leave, and our staff is happier," says Ms. Reyna of the change that's been implemented. Essentially, the benefit has helped staff to quickly access healthcare services that would otherwise take a longer period within the public system.
"The improvement has produced direct benefits for our employees and our hotel. There's been a significant decline to sick leave, and our staff is happier."
The work started with AFEET has brought tremendous changes to high-level corporate policies and business daily activities. It has opened doors and broken barriers for women's participation in Peru's economic growth and social advancement.
CESO Connects Newsletter
info@ceso-saco.com 1-800-268-9052
Canadian Executive Service Organization CESO | SACO is a registered charity (BN 11883 0850 RR 0001), with no political or religious affiliations. Copyright CESO-SACO 2019 • All Rights Reserved
CESO thanks and gratefully acknowledges the financial support of Global Affairs Canada, Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, and our private-sector supporters.


text:
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Class('Siesta.Util.Queue', {

    has     : {
        // array of Objects, each containing arbitrary data about queue step. Possibly keys:
        // `processor` - an individual processor function for this step
        // can also be provided for whole queue
        // will receive the: (stepData, index, queue)
        // `isAsync` - when provided, the `next` function will be also embedded,
        // which should be called manually
        // `interval` - the delay after step (except for asynchronous)
        steps                   : Joose.I.Array,

        interval                : 100,
        callbackDelay           : 0,
        // setTimeout
        deferer                 : { required : true },
        // clearTimeout - only required when "abort" is planned / possible
        deferClearer            : null,

        processor               : null,
        processorScope          : null,

        currentTimeout          : null,
        callback                : null,
        scope                   : null,
        isAborted               : false,

        observeTest             : null,

        currentDelayStepId      : null,

        isDestroyed             : false
    },

    methods : {

        // step is an object with
        // {
        //      processor : func,
        //      processorScope : obj,
        //      next : func (in case of async step, will be populated by queue)
        // }

        addStep : function (stepData) {
            this.addSyncStep(stepData)
        },

        addSyncStep : function (stepData) {
            this.steps.push(stepData)
        },

        addAsyncStep : function (stepData) {
            stepData.isAsync = true

            this.steps.push(stepData)
        },

        addDelayStep : function (delayMs) {
            var origSetTimeout = this.deferer;
            var me = this;

            this.addAsyncStep({
                processor : function(data) {
                    me.currentDelayStepId = origSetTimeout(data.next, delayMs || 500);
                }
            });
        },

        run : function (callback, scope) {
            this.callback   = callback
            this.scope      = scope

            // abort the queue, if the provided test instance has finalized (probably because of exception)
            this.observeTest && this.observeTest.on('testfinalize', function () { this.abort(true) }, this, { single : true })

            this.doSteps(this.steps.slice(), callback, scope)
        },

        abort : function (ignoreCallback) {
            if (this.isDestroyed) return

            this.isAborted      = true

            var deferClearer    = this.deferClearer

            if (!deferClearer) throw "Need `deferClearer` to be able to `abort` the queue"

            deferClearer(this.currentDelayStepId);
            deferClearer(this.currentTimeout)

            if (!ignoreCallback) this.callback.call(this.scope || this)

            this.destroy()
        },

        doSteps : function (steps, callback, scope) {
            this.currentTimeout = null

            var me          = this
            var deferer     = this.deferer
            var step        = steps.shift()

            if (this.isAborted) return

            if (step) {
                // Normally, the `doSteps` is called recursively for every step in the chain
                // but, steps may complete synchronously, which means, stack will grow
                // since some version, FF has smaller stack size than other browsers
                // and it starts behaving unstable when stack grows
                // because of that, we perform a special check if step has completed synchronously
                // and processing the next step in the same `doStep` context (in the loop), avoiding recursion

                // if `doOneStep` has returned `true`, then step has completed synchronously
                // and the flow did not recurse into `doSteps`
                // in this case we continue processing to the next step
                while (this.doOneStep(step, steps, callback, scope) && !this.isAborted) {
                    if (steps.length)
                        step = steps.shift()
                    else {
                        this.doSteps(steps, callback, scope)
                        break;
                    }
                }
            } else {
                if (callback)
                    if (this.callbackDelay)
                        deferer(function () {
                            if (!me.isAborted) { callback.call(scope || this); me.destroy() }
                        }, this.callbackDelay)
                    else {
                        callback.call(scope || this)
                        me.destroy()
                    }
            }
        },

        doOneStep : function (step, steps, callback, scope) {
            var me              = this
            var deferer         = this.deferer

            var processor       = step.processor || this.processor
            var processorScope  = step.processorScope || this.processorScope

            var index           = this.steps.length - steps.length - 1

            if (!processor) throw new Error("No process function found for step: " + index)

            if (step.isAsync) {
                var stepHasCompletedSynchronously   = false
                var processorHasCompleted           = false

                var next = step.next = function () {
                    // if at this point `processorHasCompleted` is still `false`, that means that "next" function
                    // has been called before the `processor` function has returned, and thus, step has completed
                    // synchronously
                    // see the comment in `doSteps` why we treat this case differently
                    if (!processorHasCompleted)
                        stepHasCompletedSynchronously   = true
                    else
                        me.doSteps(steps, callback, scope)
                }

                // processor should call `next` to continue
                processor.call(processorScope || me, step, index, this, next)

                processorHasCompleted               = true

                if (stepHasCompletedSynchronously) return true
            } else {
                processor.call(processorScope || me, step, index, this)

                if (this.isAborted) return

                var interval = step.interval || me.interval

                if (interval)
                    this.currentTimeout = deferer(function () {
                        me.doSteps(steps, callback, scope)
                    }, interval)
                else
                    me.doSteps(steps, callback, scope)
            }
        },

        // help garbage collector to release the memory
        destroy : function () {
            if (this.isDestroyed) return

            this.callback   = this.observeTest      = this.deferer = this.deferClearer = null
            this.processor  = this.processorScope   = null

            // cleanup paranoya, this shouldn't matter in general, since "next" here is from the same context
            for (var i = 0; i < this.steps.length; i++) this.steps[ i ].next = null
            this.steps          = null

            this.isDestroyed    = true
        }
    }
})
</pre>
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</html>


text:
The Weiner Saga: Fighting Loss of Privacy With More Loss of Privacy
Commentary Media
Jun 9, 2011, 9:15am Robin Marty
Was the answer to Weiner being "exposed" really that his wife had to expose herself, too?
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Confession: I'm sort of a prude. I think fidelity is a pretty big deal in my marriage, and would go off the deep end if I found out my husband was having flirtatious chats with other women, especially ones that involved pictures.
I also recognize that people's private lives are private for a reason, and none of my business. How I feel about my marriage has no bearing on what other's do in theirs. Something I may find unforgivable is something that another couple may just see as an issue that needs to be worked through, or maybe no issue at all. So be it — I'm not them, and I am in no place to judge.
These days, frankly, I don't find myself shocked when I hear that a politician is having an affair. The only reaction I have is, "Why is it so hard to keep them private?"
Politicians have been flirting, entering into physical relations, or paying people besides their spouses to engage in sexual behavior with them since the beginning of time. In the days of the monarchies it was a sign of strength and vigor to bed as many partners as you could. These relationships weren't covered up, they were reveled in as rulers showed their prowess to adoring (or not so adoring) subjects.
These days, no one expects that such things have disappeared, only that politicians be discrete. I'm reminded of a scene in "American President" where Martin Sheen tells Michael Douglas "Mr. President, this is an election year. If you're looking for female companionship, we can make certain arrangements that will ensure total privacy."
The Anthony Weiner scandal isn't a scandal because of what he did, as much as it is a scandal because he did it so poorly. Any 16-year-old kid can tell you that if you send a naughty photo of yourself, it's going to end up on the internet. Weiner forgot the number one rule when it comes to conducting an e-affair: There is no privacy in the digital age.
But it's not the lack of privacy for Weiner that has me angry. He should have expected exactly what fallout occurred, as exposure was completely inevitable.
No, the violation of privacy that has me so angry is that this media frenzy has lead to Weiner's wife and her new pregnancy being dragged into the spotlight, too.
Why did Huma Abedin being pregnant need to be splashed on every paper, tabloid and web page in the country? Was the news released to try and bring some sympathy to Weiner, or as an attempt to put up a barrier to help the story come to a conclusion? Was it meant to explain why they were staying married, so the press would stop badgering them with questions regarding the state of the relationship, or as a potential out in case Weiner does resign, with an "I need to focus on my family now" escape hatch? Was it leaked by friends or colleagues, either well-meaning or otherwise? By Weiner to try and save his career, or by Abedin herself?
Whatever the reason, be it intentional or not, this is the violation of privacy that offends me the most. A woman should never be forced to reveal a pregnancy before she herself wants to tell the world. Especially early on, when the risks of loss are still so high.
There's a general rule of dealing with a pregnancy that every mother tries to adhere to: never tell anyone you are pregnant that you don't want to "untell" later if something happens. Friends, family, strangers — no one has the right to more information than you are willingly ready to share.
That rule was violated when the story of her pregnancy first ran in the New York Times. Even if Weiner's wife was the one to allow friends to tell newspaper outlets, you can be sure that she had no intention of doing so if this scandal was not occurring.
Whether or not Weiner had his privacy violated when the pictures and emails were released doesn't matter much to me. Some will say that as the relationship involved two consenting adults, it's none of our business. Others will argue that since he lied, and he is a public figure, we had a right to know. Or still others, like me, will simply say, "Really, what did you expect?"
But by forcing Abedin to "confess" to a pregnancy she was not likely planning on discussing in public, at least, not this early, the media truly performed a disgraceful violation of privacy, and should be ashamed.
anthony weiner, Politics, Pregnancy, privacy, sex