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Function of a large biarticular hip and knee extensor during walking and running in guinea fowl (Numida meleagris)
Jennifer A. Carr, David J. Ellerby, Richard L. Marsh
Jennifer A. Carr
For correspondence: carr@fas.harvard.edu
David J. Ellerby
Richard L. Marsh
Physiological and anatomical evidence suggests that in birds the iliotibialis lateralis pars postacetabularis (ILPO) is functionally important for running. Incorporating regional information, we estimated the mean sarcomere strain trajectory and electromyographic (EMG) amplitude of the ILPO during level and incline walking and running. Using these data and data in the literature of muscle energy use, we examined three hypotheses: (1) active lengthening will occur on the ascending limb of the length–tension curve to avoid potential damage caused by stretch on the descending limb; (2) the active strain cycle will shift to favor active shortening when the birds run uphill and shortening will occur on the plateau and shallow ascending limb of the length–tension curve; and (3) measures of EMG intensity will correlate with energy use when the mechanical function of the muscle is similar. Supporting the first hypothesis, we found that the mean sarcomere lengths at the end of active lengthening during level locomotion were smaller than the predicted length at the start of the plateau of the length–tension curve. Supporting the second hypothesis, the magnitude of active lengthening decreased with increasing slope, whereas active shortening increased. In evaluating the relationship between EMG amplitude and energy use (hypothesis 3), we found that although increases in EMG intensity with speed, slope and loading were positively correlated with muscle energy use, the quantitative relationships between these variables differed greatly under different conditions. The relative changes in EMG intensity and energy use by the muscle probably varied because of changes in the mechanical function of the muscle that altered the ratio of muscle energy use to active muscle volume. Considering the overall function of the cycle of active lengthening and shortening of the fascicles of the ILPO, we conclude that the function of active lengthening is unlikely to be energy conservation and may instead be related to promoting stability at the knee. The work required to lengthen the ILPO during stance is provided by co-contracting knee flexors. We suggest that this potentially energetically expensive co-contraction serves to stabilize the knee in early stance by increasing the mechanical impedance of the joint.
Physiological and anatomical evidence suggests that the postacetabular portion of the iliotibialis lateralis muscle (ILPO) is functionally important for rapid running in birds. The ILPO is a biarticular muscle with extensor actions at the hip and the knee (Fig. 1). The changes of energy use with speed during level locomotion in guinea fowl, indicate that the ILPO is most important in running, because energy use by this muscle is very low during walking (Ellerby et al., 2005). Evidence from comparative anatomy also suggests that the evolution (or retention) of a large ILPO is specifically associated with fast running in ground dwelling birds. The ILPO constitutes 13% of the hindlimb muscle mass in guinea fowl, making it the largest single hindlimb muscle, and it is of a similar relative size in flightless ratites (Harris et al., 1994) (http://ag.ansc.purdue.edu/poultry/ratite/ostrich.pdf) (R.L.M., personal observations). The prominence of the ILPO in these groups of able runners, contrasts dramatically with its reduction or absence in other groups of birds that mainly use other forms of locomotion. The ILPO has been reduced or completely lost in many birds that spend a large amount of time swimming, wading or diving, e.g. ducks, geese and gulls, and its reduction or absence is also notable in many species of birds that are excellent flyers but spend little or no time on the ground, e.g. albatrosses, hawks, swifts and hummingbirds (George and Berger, 1966). The large size of the ILPO in birds adapted for rapid running, its high energy use during this activity and its actions at both the hip and knee suggest that information about the mechanical function of this muscle could be important for understanding stable, economical bipedal running in general.
Previous studies have demonstrated that during running the ILPO in the guinea fowl and turkey actively lengthens and absorbs work during the first part of stance, then actively shortens to produce work during the latter half of stance (Buchanan, 1999; Marsh, 1999; McGowan et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 2007). The function of substantial active lengthening of this large muscle is not clear. Other researchers have suggested that the active lengthening–shortening cycle might enhance economy of force production (McGowan et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 2007). However, active lengthening of muscle fibers beyond their short-range elasticity absorbs work that cannot be recovered, and replacing this negative work could increase the cost of legged locomotion (see Discussion). Lengthening of active muscle can also cause fiber damage (Proske and Morgan, 2001). Given these potential costs one might predict a counterbalancing benefit for active lengthening, such as enhanced joint stability.
The present study combined data on regional strain and muscle activation from two companion studies of level running (Carr et al., 2011a; Carr et al., 2011b) with data on uphill running collected here, and muscle energy use from previous studies. We used these data to test hypotheses related to alterations in mechanical function induced by speed and slope. The first hypothesis was that active lengthening of the ILPO would occur on the ascending limb of the length–tension curve to avoid potential damage caused by stretch on the descending limb (Proske and Morgan, 2001). The second was that the activity of the muscle would shift to favor active shortening when the birds ran uphill, and shortening would occur on the plateau and shallow ascending limb of the length–tension curve. The third was that changes in active muscle volume, as indicated by electromyographic (EMG) amplitude, would best correlate with changes in muscle energy use when the mechanical function was similar. To test this we examined the activity and mechanical function of the ILPO in relation to muscle energy use as measured by blood flow (Ellerby et al., 2005; Rubenson et al., 2006). We predicted that the relative magnitudes of the changes in volume and energy use would be different when the mechanical function of the muscle changes, e.g. more active shortening compared with active lengthening. Finally, with the information obtained here and in previous studies we reconsider the function of the active lengthening–shortening cycle in the ILPO.
Animals and training
Five guinea [Numida meleagris (Linnaeus 1758)] fowl averaging 1.54±0.08 kg body mass were used for this experiment. The guinea fowl were housed in individual cages at the Northeastern University Animal Care Facility, with food and water provided ad libitum. Before surgery and experimental recordings, the birds were trained to run inside a three-sided box on a motorized treadmill. The birds were trained for 3–5 days per week for a minimum of 5 weeks. Each training session lasted 30 min. After training the birds could, in an individual session, maintain level speeds of 2.5 m s–1 for 15 min, 2.78 m s–1 for 3 min and 3.0 m s–1 for 3 min. Once a bird was sufficiently trained, surgery was performed to insert sonomicrometry and electromyographic (EMG) sensors as described below. After surgery, birds were allowed to recover in individual cages for at least 40 h before any experimental recordings. Animals were killed with Euthasol® (pentobarbital and phenytoin). All in vivo procedures were approved by the Northeastern University Animal Care and Use Committee.
Sonomicrometry and electromyography
More detailed descriptions of sonomicrometry and electromyography surgical techniques, sarcomere measurements and calculations of length and velocity are given in Carr et al. (Carr et al., 2011a).
The anterior fascicles of the ILPO were implanted with two sonomicrometry transducers that spanned the majority of the length of the fascicle (Fig. 1). The posterior fascicle was too long to be spanned by a single set of sonomicrometry transducers and instead was implanted with four transducers that measured length change in the proximal, central and distal segments of the posterior fascicle (Fig. 1). The length changes that occurred in the individual segments of the posterior fascicle were summed. Two fine-wire bipolar EMG electrodes were implanted at the approximate midpoint of each segment. Sonomicrometry signals were acquired digitally with a sampling frequency of 613 Hz using Sonoview software and a Sonometrics TRX Series 8 interface (Sonometrics Corp., London, ON, Canada). Digital signals were transferred to the application IGOR Pro (Wavemetrics Inc., Portland, OR, USA) and processed using custom-written functions. The EMG signals were amplified by WPI model DAM-50 preamplifiers (World Precision Instruments, Sarasota, FL, USA) with analog high- and low-pass filters set at 10 and 3000 Hz, respectively. The signals were digitized at a frequency of 10 kHz using an ADInstruments Power Lab 16 bit A-D converter (Model 16SP, ADInstruments, Colorado Springs, CO, USA) controlled by a Macintosh computer using the application Chart from ADInstruments. The data were then filtered (finite impulse response band-pass filter, 90–000 Hz) and rectified using the application IGOR Pro (Wavemetrics Inc.). The mean rectified value was calculated both for duration of the burst and the duration of the stride.
Position of the iliotibialis lateralis pars postacetabularis (ILPO) in the guinea fowl hindlimb. Black circles indicate the position of the sonomicrometry crystals. EMG electrodes were placed along the fascicles at the approximate mid-point of each pair of sonomicrometer transducers. Dashed lines indicate the divisions used to calculate the weight average strain and velocity. Figure drawn by Dr David Ellerby.
In vivo segment lengths measured by sonomicrometry (Lso) were converted to sarcomere lengths using reference sonomicrometer and sarcomere lengths measured in rigor. Following the experimental measurements the animals were killed, allowed to go into rigor, and sonomicrometer segment lengths (Lso,ref) measured. Portions of the muscle from each segment were then removed, frozen and sectioned to measure mean sarcomere length in rigor (Lsc,ref). In vivo sarcomere lengths (Lsc) were then calculated using the equation:
The sarcomere lengths were then converted to fractions of optimal length (L0) by dividing by 2.36, which is the sarcomere length expected in the center of the plateau of the length–tension curve based on filament lengths (Carr et al., 2011a). Fascicle strains are similarly given as ΔLsc divided by 2.36.
Calculating average values across the muscle
Small but statistically significant differences in strain and velocity were found between the anterior and posterior fascicles of the ILPO (Carr et al., 2011b). Therefore, we calculated a mass-weighted average of the values from the anterior and posterior regions to arrive at the values presented here. We dissected the muscle and divided it into three regions, as indicated by the dashed lines in Fig. 1. The most posterior region has fascicles running from the pelvis to the knee and was considered to have strains equal to the measured values in the posterior region. The middle region has gradients of decreasing fascicle length and hip moment arm from posterior to anterior and was considered on average to have strains equal to the mean of the anterior and posterior values. The anterior portion was assumed to have strains equal to the measured values in the anterior fascicles. The fractional mass distribution of the three regions was: 0.44±0.01, 0.45±0.01 and 0.11±0.01 (means ± s.e.m., N=3) for the posterior, middle and anterior regions, respectively. Therefore, the overall weighted average values were calculated as 0.335 (measured anterior values) + 0.665 (measured posterior values).
No significant regional differences were found in measures of EMG amplitude or timing among the various electrode sites (Carr et al., 2011a; Carr et al., 2011b). Therefore, we calculated the average values for the whole muscles by taking the mean of the values at the different electrode sites.
Matching blood flow data from the literature to EMG data
Estimates of energy use by the ILPO are based on the rate of blood flow to the muscle during activity (Ellerby et al., 2005; Ellerby and Marsh, 2006; Rubenson et al., 2006). Marsh and Ellerby reviewed the use of muscle blood flow as an indicator of muscle energy use and concluded that for aerobically supported exercise the data from human and animal studies support a linear and proportional relationship between blood flow and energy use (Marsh and Ellerby, 2006). The speeds used in the blood flow studies are in some cases slightly different from those used here to measure the EMG activity, but are not expected to influence the comparisons. For three of the five birds this speed was 2.78 m s–1, but for the other birds the speed was ∼2.5 m s–1. For comparison with the running speed of 2.4 m s–1 used by Rubenson et al., we used the EMG data collected at 2.5 m s–1, and for the fast running speed used by Ellerby et al. we used data collected at 2.78 m s–1 (Rubenson et al., 2006; Ellerby et al., 2005).
Average EMG values reported in various publications represent either the integrated value divided by the duration of the burst or the integrated value divided by the entire cycle time. Because the metabolic rate of the muscle is measured over many strides, the average over the stride would seem a priori to be the better measure to compare with the estimates of muscle metabolic rate, particularly if the duty factor of the muscle changes. We consider both of these measures in our comparisons.
All blood flow and EMG data were converted to relative values by dividing by the values obtained at a running speed of 1.5 m s–1. This running condition was chosen as a reference because it was used in all the relevant studies of muscle blood flow in guinea fowl (Ellerby et al., 2005; Ellerby and Marsh, 2006; Rubenson et al., 2006).
ANOVA was conducted using the general linear model in the application SPSS (version 18.0 for Mac OS, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). In addition to the dependent variables, the ANOVA models included: animal identifier as a random factor, and speed and incline as fixed factors. Results of all statistical tests were considered significant if the P-values were less than 0.05. Results are reported as means ± 1 standard error of the mean (s.e.m.).
Mean length of the ILPO as a function of stride duration from foot-down to foot-down when guinea fowl walked or ran on the treadmill with a slope of 0% (black) and 20% (red) at speeds of 0.5 (A) or 2.0 (B) m s–1. Horizontal black and red bars indicate the duration of EMG activity at 0.5 and 2.0 m s–1, respectively, assuming an electromechanical delay of 25 ms. Black arrows indicate toe-off. Shaded bands indicate ±1 s.e.m.
Effects of speed and incline on muscle length change and velocity
Under all conditions the fascicles of the ILPO underwent active lengthening–shortening cycles during stance (Fig. 2). During swing, the ILPO showed periods of passive lengthening and shortening (Carr et al., 2011a; Carr et al., 2011b), but these passive length changes will not be considered here.
Active strain during lengthening and shortening was significantly influenced by speed and slope (Table 1; Fig. 3). Both shortening and lengthening strain showed a large increase between speeds of 0.5 and 1.0 m s–1, corresponding to a gait change from a walk to a run (Fig. 3). Above 1.0 m s–1, shortening strain continued to increase markedly, whereas lengthening strain remained approximately constant. If the 0.5 m s–1 data are excluded from the model, the lengthening strain shows no significant increase in speed (P=0.06). Lengthening strain decreased significantly with slope, whereas shortening strain increased significantly (Table 1; Fig. 3).
Results of the ANOVA model testing the effects of speed and slope on active strain velocity in the fascicles of the iliotibialis lateralis pars postacetabularis (ILPO)
Average active shortening velocity (Fig. 4) increased significantly with both incline and speed (Table 1; Fig. 4). However, lengthening velocity was significantly influenced by speed but not slope.
Sarcomere measurements
The mean sarcomere length at the estimated start of active lengthening (25 ms after the EMG onset) got significantly longer with increasing incline, but was not significantly affected by speed (Table 2; Fig. 5). The maximum active length (Lmax) increased significantly as incline was increased, but showed no significant influence of speed (Table 2; Fig. 5). The minimum active length (Lmin) decreased significantly with both speed and incline (Table 2; Fig. 5).
Results of the ANOVA model testing the effects of speed and slope on in vivo sarcomere lengths
EMG activity
The timing and amplitude of the EMG burst was significantly altered by speed and slope (Table 3; Figs 6 and 7). The EMG start time relative to foot-down showed a significant effect of speed. This effect was due to a shift in the start time with speed during uphill running. On the level, the EMG burst started before foot-down and this time was relatively constant across all speeds (mean of –0.037±0.002 s). When the birds ran uphill the EMG start time shifted significantly later compared with level running, and shifted earlier with increasing speed. For example, when the birds walked uphill at 0.5 m s–1, the mean EMG start time was after foot-down, whereas, when running uphill at speeds of 1.5 m s–1 or faster the start time was at or before foot-down. The EMG burst duration decreased significantly with speed on all slopes, reflecting the significantly shorter stance time at faster speeds. However, the duration was not significantly affected by slope because start and end times increased by similar amounts. Average EMG amplitude measured as either average value per burst or average value per stride increased significantly with increasing speed and increasing slope (Table 3; Fig. 7).
Results of the ANOVA model testing the effects of speed and slope on electromyographic (EMG) timing and amplitude
Strain in the ILPO as a function of speed during active lengthening (positive values) and active shortening (negative values) when guinea fowl ran on the level (black), 10% incline (blue), 15% incline (green) and 20% incline (red) as a function of speed. A significant effect of speed and incline was demonstrated for both active lengthening and active shortening. Values are offset on the speed axis for clarity. Error bars indicate ±1 s.e.m.
During level running the ILPO is initially lengthened while active in the first half of stance and then actively shortens during the last half of stance. By inference it first absorbs work and then produces work while active. The lengthening in early stance is related to knee flexion (Carr et al., 2011b), and shortening corresponds to a period of both knee extension and hip extension (Carr et al., 2011b). The overall strain cycle of the active ILPO found in the present study, taking into consideration regional strain, was qualitatively similar to previous studies of this muscle in guinea fowl and turkeys using a single segment length (Buchanan, 1999; McGowan et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 2007), and quantitative differences can probably be explained by differences in regional strain (Carr et al., 2011a). Buchanan (Buchanan, 1999) and McGowan et al. (McGowan et al., 2006) reported larger strains than those found in the present study, probably because strain was estimated using measurements in the central to distal portions of the posterior fascicles (Carr et al., 2011a). The larger strains found in the ILPO of turkeys (Roberts et al., 2007) may have a similar cause, although a species difference cannot be ruled out. Similar to the ILPO in guinea fowl, the ILPO of turkeys shows increased shortening and decreased lengthening when the birds run uphill. However, unlike the results for guinea fowl, the ILPO of turkeys showed no significant increase in either lengthening or shortening strain with increasing running speed.
Velocity during active shortening (positive values: level, black; 10% incline, blue; 15% incline, green; 20% incline, red) and active lengthening (negative values) in the ILPO as a function of speed. A significant effect of speed and incline was demonstrated for active shortening velocity. The velocity during active lengthening was not significantly different across slopes, but there was a significant effect of speed. Error bars indicate ±1 s.e.m.
Using our data collected on regionally averaged sarcomere strain and EMG activity during level and uphill running along with previously collected data on blood flow, we examined three hypotheses: (1) the ILPO would be lengthened on the ascending limb of the length–tension curve to avoid potential damage caused by stretch on the descending limb; (2) the activity of the muscle would shift to favor active shortening when the birds ran uphill and shortening would occur on the plateau and shallow ascending limb of the length–tension curve; (3) measures of EMG intensity would best match energy use when the mechanical function was similar, but would differ when the mechanical function shifted, e.g. when the birds ran uphill. In addition, we will use the information obtained here and in previous studies to re-consider the function of the active lengthening–shortening cycle in the ILPO.
Active lengthening occurs on the ascending limb of the length–tension curve
Routine active lengthening of muscle can potentially damage muscle fibers, and damage is hypothesized to be more likely when active lengthening occurs on the unstable descending limb of the length–tension curve (Proske and Morgan, 2001). Muscles subjected to repeated bouts of active stretch have been shown to add sarcomeres in series, presumably to prevent the fibers from lengthening beyond the plateau of the length–tension curve (Lynn and Morgan, 1994; Lynn et al., 1998; Koh and Herzog, 1998; Butterfield et al., 2005). Consistent with the hypothesis that muscles adjust the number of sarcomeres to avoid lengthening on the descending limb, the maximal length of the ILPO was on the ascending limb of the predicted length–tension curve except when the birds ran up the highest slope (20%) when the maximal length was on the plateau (Fig. 5).
When running uphill, the ILPO increases active shortening and operates at longer lengths
Unlike most major knee extensors in mammals, the biarticular ILPO is also a hip extensor. The ILPO can, therefore, do positive work during both knee and hip extension. However, we predict that the majority of positive work is done at the hip because angular extension is greater at the hip than the knee, and the posterior part of the ILPO, which contains the bulk of the muscle volume, has a larger moment arm at the hip than at the knee (Carr et al., 2011b). Based on what is known about the maximum shortening velocity (Vmax) of muscles in turkeys (Nelson et al., 2004) and considering the size difference between the species, the Vmax of the ILPO is estimated to be 15 L0 s–1. During level and uphill running the ILPO actively shortened by 10–22% while shortening at 1–2 L0 s–1, which should allow the active fibers to produce a substantial amount of work.
Estimated mean sarcomere lengths of the ILPO during treadmill exercise at different speeds and slopes. The values at the start of active lengthening varied with slope but not with speed, and thus the mean values across all speeds are plotted as single upward-directed triangles. The mean maximum sarcomere lengths (the values at the end of lengthening and start of shortening) are indicated by closed circles, and values at the end of active shortening by inverted triangles. Treadmill slope is indicated by color: level, black; 10% incline, blue; 15% incline, green; 20% incline, red. Some values are offset on the speed axis for clarity. Error bars indicate ±1 s.e.m. Shaded areas indicate the calculated plateau and ascending limb of guinea fowl ILPO length–tension curve, based on filament lengths.
Roberts et al. found that the turkey ILPO shifted function with changing slope (Roberts et al., 2007). They noted increased lengthening and decreased shortening during downhill running and decreased lengthening and increased shortening when running uphill. They hypothesized that work absorption by the muscle (negative work) predominated when the birds ran downhill and positive work output predominated during uphill running. We did not examine running on a downhill slope, but did demonstrate a decrease in active lengthening and an increase in active shortening when the birds ran uphill (Fig. 3). The shift from negative to positive strain will tend to favor work output when running uphill. However, the net work output of the ILPO will also be influenced by other features of the strain trajectory. A second factor tending to increase work is a shift to longer sarcomere lengths (Fig. 5), placing a portion of the shortening on the plateau of the length–tension curve. However, the increase in positive strain during uphill running is accompanied by an increase in shortening velocity (Fig. 4), which would be predicted to decrease force and thus work. Of course, the net work will also be influenced by altered recruitment, and average EMG per burst and average EMG amplitude increased as incline increased (Fig. 7). On balance it seems probable that positive work per stride increases above the value in level running when the birds run uphill. This conclusion is consistent with the substantial increase in energy use by the ILPO during uphill running (Rubenson et al., 2006).
The period of electromyographic (EMG) activity in the ILPO at different speeds and slopes. Zero time indicates foot-down. The mean start and stop times for the EMG burst are connected with a thick bar, with thin error bars at the ends indicating ±1 s.e.m. Values are grouped by speed on the vertical axis with the slope indicated by color (0%, black; 10%, blue; 15%, green, 20%, red). The thin bars on the right indicate the mean stance times ± 1 s.e.m.
The relationship of energy use to EMG activity changes with mechanical function
EMG amplitude has been used for many years (Inman et al., 1952; Bigland and Lippold, 1954) as the most common in vivo measure of the relative volume of muscle recruited. Thus, intense interest over the years has focused on whether EMG amplitude correlates with muscle force, mechanical power output and metabolic rate (Bigland-Ritchie and Woods, 1976; De Luca, 1997; Kooistra et al., 2006; Disselhorst-Klug et al., 2009). Studies with isolated muscle (Woledge et al., 1985; DeHaan et al., 1989; Beltman et al., 2004; Trinh and Syme, 2007) and in vivo studies (Bigland and Lippold, 1954; Bigland-Ritchie and Woods, 1976; Aura and Komi, 1986; Takarada et al., 1997) predict that the relationship between active fiber volume, as estimated by EMG intensity, and all these variables will vary with the mechanical state of the muscle, including fiber length and shortening velocity. However, in vivo data for individual muscles are limited, particularly with regard to metabolic rate.
Mean values for average EMG per burst (A) and average EMG values per stride (B) in the ILPO on the level (black), 10% incline (blue), 15% incline (green) and 20% incline (red) as a function of speed. Values are offset on the speed axis for clarity. Error bars indicate ±1 s.e.m.
Estimates of energy use based on blood flow for all of the individual muscles in the guinea fowl hindlimb (Marsh et al., 2004; Ellerby et al., 2005; Ellerby and Marsh, 2006; Rubenson et al., 2006) allows us to compare variation in EMG intensity of the ILPO (McGowan et al., 2006) (this study) with the variation in the metabolic rate of this muscle under conditions of varying speed, slope and trunk loading. Because of the tight coupling of increases in blood flow and increases in oxygen consumption in vertebrate skeletal muscle, blood flow can be used as a quantitative measure of metabolic rate (Marsh and Ellerby, 2006). As a measure of EMG intensity, we have used averaged filtered and rectified EMG signals and for metabolic rate we have used the increases in blood flow above the blood flow at rest. To compare EMG intensity with metabolic rate we have recalculated both the EMG values and the increases in muscle blood flow relative to the values obtained in the birds running on the level at 1.5 m s–1 (see Materials and methods).
Our data, collected during level running, indicate that although measures of EMG intensity are correlated with energy use by the ILPO the quantitative changes in EMG intensity and metabolic rate sometimes differ widely, probably because of differences in mechanical function, and perhaps other factors (Fig. 8). The metabolic rate of the ILPO estimated from blood flow increases dramatically when the birds switch from walking to running and increases further with increasing speed during level running. When the birds walked at 0.5 m s–1, the metabolic rate of the ILPO was only 4% of the value found during running at 1.5 m s–1. When the birds increased speed from 1.5 to over 2.4 m s–1, the metabolic rate increased by 75%. The average EMG intensity per stride also changed substantially with running speed, but the changes were much smaller than the changes in metabolic rate. At 0.5 m s–1 the average EMG was ∼60% of the value at 1.5 m s–1, and when running speed was increased to 2.78 m s–1 the average EMG per stride increased by only 20% over the value at 1.5 m s–1. The change in the relationship of EMG intensity to muscle metabolic rate with running speed corresponds to major changes in mechanical function with speed and gait. During walking at 0.5 m s–1 the ILPO lengthens and shortens very slowly while active, only changing length by a few percent (Fig. 3) (also McGowan et al., 2006). Both active lengthening and active shortening velocity and strain increase substantially when the birds switch to a running gait and increase further with increasing running speed (Figs 3 and 4) (McGowan et al., 2006). Isolated muscle and in vivo studies predict that for the same level of activation, metabolic rate will be substantially higher during active shortening than during active lengthening or isometric contractions (Aura and Komi, 1986; Beltman et al., 2004; Bigland-Ritchie and Woods, 1976; Woledge et al., 1985). Nevertheless, the magnitude of the differences between recruitment measured by EMG and muscle metabolic rate are very large, particularly when comparing the EMG intensity found during walking and with that obtained during running at 1.5 m s–1. Other factors can alter the relationship of EMG intensity to the recruited volume, including the fiber type and motor unit synchrony (Milner-Brown and Stein, 1975; De Luca, 1997; Farina et al., 2004).
Relative changes in blood flow (red) and average EMG amplitude (green) in the ILPO under various exercise conditions. Values are expressed relative to the values measured during level, unloaded running at 1.5 m s–1. Error bars indicate ±1 s.e.m.
The lack of quantitative correspondence between muscle recruitment measured by EMG intensity and muscle metabolic rate is also evident during uphill running. When the birds ran up a 15% grade at 1.5 m s–1, the average rectified EMG increased by ∼20% over the value for level running at the same speed, whereas the metabolic rate of the ILPO doubled between level and uphill running on a 15% grade (Fig. 8). For uphill running, two mechanical changes probably contribute to this difference in relative values. First, the ILPO shortens farther and faster during uphill compared with level running. Second, less time is spent in active lengthening, and, therefore, more of the EMG burst serves to activate the muscle during the more costly shortening phase of activity.
Data from guinea fowl carrying trunk loads are also consistent with the hypothesis that the changes in EMG intensity and metabolic rate in the ILPO are quantitatively more similar if similar mechanical conditions are maintained when metabolic effort changes. McGowan et al. measured average EMG intensity in the guinea fowl ILPO during unloaded level running and when birds carried a trunk load of 22% of their body mass (McGowan et al., 2006). This protocol matched that used by Ellerby et al. who measured blood flow under the same conditions. In this case muscle metabolic rate, as indicated by blood flow, increased by 35% in loaded running, whereas average EMG intensity per burst increased by 22% (Ellerby and Marsh, 2006). Given the measurement errors reported in both studies the 13% difference between the relative increase in EMG intensity and the relative increase in metabolic rate is not statistically significant. Correspondingly, the mechanical conditions for the active ILPO, as indicated by the shortening velocity and strain, are similar in loaded and unloaded running (McGowan et al., 2006).
Function of the active lengthening–shortening cycle in the ILPO
The active lengthening during knee flexion in early stance may be functionally similar to that seen in the single joint vastus lateralis of quadrupedal mammals and the femerotibialis of birds (Gillis and Biewener, 2001; Gillis et al., 2005; Hoyt et al., 2005; Roberts et al., 2007). Active lengthening of fascicles in the knee extensors of humans may also occur during stance knee flexion (Cutts, 1989), but in vivo data on this point are lacking. All these knee extensors co-contract with knee flexors during early stance (Ford et al., 2008; Gatesy, 1999; Gillis and Biewener, 2001; Gillis et al., 2005; Mann and Hagy, 1980; Osternig et al., 1995).
Minimizing energy use has usually been considered an important selective force in the evolution of walking and running. In this regard, substantial lengthening of the fascicles in large muscles during level legged locomotion, as occurs in the ILPO and other knee extensors during running, presents a puzzle. McGowan et al. and Roberts et al. suggested that active lengthening of the ILPO in running birds could function to improve the economy of force production and possibly the efficiency of subsequent work production (McGowan et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 2007). However, if the muscle fibers in the ILPO absorb work during early stance knee flexion this mechanical energy will have to be subsequently restored by active muscle shortening leading to an increase in energy cost. When a muscle–tendon unit is stretched, lengthening can occur in the tendon and/or the active muscle fibers. Tendon stretch and elastic recoil can save energy during legged locomotion by decreasing the positive work done by the muscle fibers during a stride (Roberts et al., 1997). However, stretch of the muscle fibers beyond their short-range stiffness results in mechanical energy loss. Small stretches during activation may increase net work output during subsequent shortening (Josephson, 1993), but during longer stretches mechanical energy is lost because muscle force is enhanced during stretch and decreases during shortening (Chapman et al., 1985; Ettema et al., 1990; Ettema, 1996; Takarada et al., 1997).
If the volume of actively stretched muscle is large, supplying the mechanical work to lengthen the active fibers could have a substantial metabolic cost and decrease the economy of locomotion. Although the metabolic rate of the active muscle during stretch is expected to be relatively low (Bigland-Ritchie and Woods, 1976), costly positive muscle work will have to be done to restore the mechanical energy balance during the stride. Positive muscular work will be required either to directly supply the mechanical work during the stretch, or to replace the mechanical work supplied from another source. For example, if work was supplied in early stance from the kinetic energy of the body, this energy would have to be replaced by positive work later in the stride. In the case of the ILPO, fiber lengthening is caused by active knee flexion. During this part of the stride, inverse dynamics calculations in quail (Clark and Alexander, 1975), turkeys (Roberts, 2001) and guinea fowl (R.L.M., unpublished data) indicate that net positive work is required to produce knee flexion. The work to stretch active knee extensors will add to this externally calculated work and thus must be provided directly by the knee flexors, increasing their energy use. The hypothesis that co-contraction increases metabolic cost is supported by evidence from humans (Frost et al., 2002; Mian et al., 2006).
If active lengthening of the knee extensors in early stance costs metabolic energy, it seems likely that this muscle activity has balancing beneficial functions. We hypothesize that the system of co-contracting muscles at the knee, including the ILPO, functions to improve stability by increasing the mechanical impedance (stiffness and damping) of the joint. The ILPO early in stance is actively lengthened by the co-contracting knee flexors, including the flexor cruris lateralis and the posterior iliofibularis (Gatesy, 1999; Hoogendyk, 2005). Impedance control has been identified as a major neural control strategy (Burdet et al., 2001; Full and Kotitschek, 1999; Hogan, 1985) that allows stable kinematic trajectories in the face of externally (Wagner and Blickhan, 2003) or internally (Selen et al., 2005) generated variability in joint moment. Numerous human studies suggest that co-contraction increases in situations that increase loading variability or uncertainty, and thus require higher joint impedance for stable movement (Hewett et al., 2005; Lamontagne et al., 2000).
↵† Present address: Department of Organismal and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
↵‡ Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, Wellesley College, 106 Central Street, Wellesley, MA 02481, USA
This work was supported by grants NIH RO1-AR47337 and NSF IOB-0542795 to R.L.M. Jade McPherson, Havalee Henry, Thomas Hoogendyk, Karen Bioski and Julia Vasic helped with the in vivo experiments and data analysis. Deposited in PMC for release after 12 months.
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ILPO
iliotibialis lateralis pars postacetabularis
optimal length (length at the middle of the plateau region of the length–tension curve)
maximum active length
in vivo sarcomere length
Lsc,ref
reference sarcomere length
in vivo segment lengths measured by sonomicrometry
Lso,ref
sonomicrometer length
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California Business & Professions Code Section 25658(A) BPC: Selling or Furnishing an Alcoholic Beverage to a Person Under 21
The legal drinking age in California is 21 and this limit is strictly enforced. Under California Business and Professions Code Section 25658(a) BPC, it is a crime to sell or furnish alcohol to a person under the age of 21. Business and individuals caught violating this law face significant penalties if convicted.
In order to convict a defendant of selling or furnishing alcohol to someone under 21, the following elements must be proven:
The defendant sold, furnished or gave away, or caused to be sold, furnished or given away, an alcoholic beverage to a specific person.
When the defendant did so, that person was under 21 years old.
A defendant is not guilty of this offense if he or she reasonably and actually believed that the person was at least 21 years old. Additionally, a defendant would not be guilty of this offense in the following circumstances.
The defendant or his or her employee or agent demanded to see a government-issued document as evidence of the person's age and identity
The person showed the defendant a government-issued document, or what appeared to be a government-issued document as evidence of age and identity
AND the defendant actually relied on the document as evidence of the person's age and identity.
Purchase of Alcoholic Beverage by Person Under 21 – California Business and Professions Code Section 25658(b) BPC
Contributing to the Delinquency of a Minor – California Penal Code Section 272 PC
A man is walking into his neighborhood liquor store when he is approached by a young woman. She tells the man that she is only 20 years old and asks if he will purchase alcohol on her behalf. The woman gives the man money and he makes the purchase for her and gives her a bottle of vodka, as requested. This man could be charged with furnishing an alcoholic beverage to a person under 21. The California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control and local law enforcement agencies often team up to conduct sting operations using underage decoys to solicit others to purchase alcohol for them.
In another example, a man has a son who is 18 years old. The man knows that his son will be throwing a party and that alcohol will likely be consumed at this party. The man helps his son with food and decorations but does not provide any alcohol and is not present when the party occurs. At the party, many people under the age of 21 consume alcohol. This man would likely not be criminally liable under California Business and Professions Code Section 25658(a) BPC, as California courts have held that assisting with food and decorations cannot conceivably be construed as acts of "furnishing" liquor and that furnishing alcohol requires an affirmative act.
4. Defenses to Selling or Furnishing an Alcoholic Beverage to a Person under 21
As described above, if the defendant did not take some affirmative action to supply alcohol to the underage drinker, he or she would not be guilty of this offense. In addition, there may be instances where the defendant relied on a fake ID that appeared authentic. In these cases, the defendant may have a strong mistake of fact defense if charged criminally.
5. How Selling or Furnishing an Alcoholic Beverage to a Person under 21 Cases Are Defended
In many cases, a person is charged with selling or furnishing an alcoholic beverage to a person under 21 after being caught in a sting operation using underage decoys. The defendant would be cited and provided an arraignment date in court.
The early involvement of a Los Angeles criminal defense attorney can be crucial as a skilled attorney may be able to intervene in order to prevent criminal charges from being filed.
If the case is filed and unable to resolve, the matter would go to trial before a judge or jury. The defendant would be able to raise affirmative defenses to show he or she is not guilty of the charged offense. Ultimately a judge or jury would reach a determination regarding the defendant's guilt.
A defendant who furnishes or sells alcohol to a minor can be assessed fines of up to $1000 and must perform at least 24 hours of community service on a misdemeanor conviction. If the underage person causes or suffers great bodily injury as a result of the alcohol unlawfully provided, the defendant could face between six months and a year in jail. Business who are convicted of selling or providing alcohol to underage patrons can potentially have their liquor license suspended or revoked.
7. Criminal Defense for Selling or Furnishing an Alcoholic Beverage to a Person under 21 Cases
If you have been cited for this offense, it is crucial that you consult with a Los Angeles Criminal Defense Attorney immediately. As a former Deputy District Attorney with over 14 years of prosecutorial experience, Los Angeles Criminal Defense Attorney Michael Kraut understands how to effectively defend clients charged with offenses like this.
For more information about selling or furnishing an alcoholic beverage to a person under 21, and to schedule your free consultation, contact Los Angeles Criminal Defense Lawyer Michael Kraut at the Kraut Law Group located at 6255 Sunset Boulevard, Suite 1480, Los Angeles, CA 90028. Mr. Kraut can be reached 24/7 at 888-334-6344 or 323-464-6453.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Clarissa Vanner in Food on Jul 16, 2018
Meghan Markle, now the Duchess of Sussex, has been in the spotlight long before her royal commitment. Her acting career dates back to young Markle appearing on commercials from 1993 all the way up to her big acting job with the TV show "Suits" from 2011-2017, where she plays Rachel Zane, a paralegal. Apart from her big acting career, Markle also maintained a successful blog, The Tig. One thing that remained true right up until becoming the Duchess of Sussex, is that Meghan is a natural Foodie.
When appearing on the TV show Chopped Junior as a guest food judge in 2016, Markle said "Growing up, my fondest memories, at least for me, were in the kitchen,". You see, at a young age, Markle began to fall in love with food and the aesthetics. During an interview with Best Health Magazine, she told this story of her food-loving beginnings:
Many sources claim that Markle liked to maintain a vegan diet during the week, especially while filming the tv show, Suits. She would do this because she loved to have her meals revolve around fresh, wholesome ingredients and ensured veggies were the highlight of the plate. On the weekends, however, she would allow flexibility in her favorite indulgences. While Markle would work and travel she wrote about her favorite food experiences and even her own recipes on her blog, The Tig (RIP). Since her relationship with Prince Harry, she retired her site in 2017 to report to her new Royal duties. She said a farewell to her readers and encouraged her most important message of all, self-love. You can read Markle's farewell letter HERE. The Tig's name came from her favorite Italian wine, Tignanello. This was sparked by her love for wine and the moment that she truly understood it. From then on she treated every "aha moment" as a Tig moment, which you can watch her explain HERE. However, we wanted to dig deep to find out what Meghan Markle actually loves to eat. While this may not include her new Royal diet, it's an interesting look at her life before Royalty from her morning start. lunch and even weekend indulgences. All of this to discover how we too can eat and drink like the fabulous Meghan Markle.
1. Start Of The Day: Lemon And Water
If you want to wake up feeling refreshed and ready to go like Meghan Markle then you'll want to start your day with a cup of hot water and lemon. Several sources claim she likes to start her day with lemon and water rather than coffee regardless of how early she has to wake up.
Starting your day with lemon water is a great way to get a generous dose of potassium, vitamin B & C, calcium, magnesium, antioxidants, and iron. It is also beneficial for our overall health because it can boost our immunity and digestive system while boosting natural cleansing too. No wonder Meghan loves to wake up this way every day.
2. Breakfast: Steel Cut Oats With Banana
Meghan doesn't like to skip breakfasts and does enjoy a nutritious meal to start her day. A simple and satisfying breakfast for her would be a bowl of steel cut oats with banana. To add a touch of sweetness she likes to add agave syrup.
If steel cut oats are a little do beige for your liking Meghan even writes about a deliciously toasted oatmeal brulee on her blog. Considering her website isn't live anymore we can thank sites like Way Back Machine for archiving some of her recipes. This warm and inviting oatmeal is full of wholesome ingredients that will keep you satisfied and satiated. Best yet, with this recipe we'll be living vicariously through Markle's breakfast routine.
https://web.archive.org/web/20150320110250/http://thetig.com/oatmeal-brulee/ PHOTOS AND RECIPE HERE: THE TIG
3. Breakfast: Acai Bowls
Along with steel cut oats, another wholesome breakfast Markle likes to enjoy regularly are acai bowls. She even created her recipe on EyeSwoon.com where she demonstrates how simple it is to throw together while maintaining a lot of nutrition in one bowl. Along with the recipe, she shares some secrets about her foodie loving life.
Acai berries are native to Central and South America. Many acai bowls can be made by either adding in the frozen packets or adding in acai powder to your own frozen berries. Some consider acai berries to be a superfood but they do come with a pretty price tag. If you want to be like Meghan Markle but can't afford the acai berries, any frozen blueberries, raspberries and strawberries are just as rich in antioxidants too.
https://eye-swoon.com/a-tig-moment-with-meghan-markle/ PHOTOS HERE: EYE SWOON
4. Lunch: Ceasar Salad With Grilled Lettuce
Meghan enjoys a mostly gluten-free diet. She claims that ever since ditching the gluten she's been able to have glowing skin. This, however, won't stop her from enjoying and indulging in homemade pasta, because after all, she does still enjoy her carbs.
Meghan was featured on Today, where she showed exactly how to enjoy a Caesar salad with grilled romaine. On the show she explains, "You can grill lettuce and it has the most amazing flavor". Now, this isn't something I've tried before but Markle's got me feeling all sorts of inspired. By grilling the lettuce, Markle also goes onto explain how it can be a playful way for kids to enjoy a barbecue if they have a gluten intolerance. It feels as if you're holding a bun or taco but really, it's a lettuce boat filled with tasty shrimp and drizzled with creamy caesar dressing.
FULL RECIPE HERE
5. Lunch: Fish Tacos
Meghan Markle has a love for seafood. She'll often enjoy tuna in salads, seafood in pasta and for lunch, she enjoys delicious fish tacos. During an interview with Today, she explained that growing up in California has sparked her interest in Baja-style food since very early on.
Markle believes a flaky white fish works best for fish tacos. She likes to enjoy it with grilled peppers and onions combined with a generous sprinkle of salt and pepper and freshly squeezed lime juice. She then recommends stuffing all those delicious ingredients into a warm tortilla.
6. Lunch: Sushi/Sashimi
Since a young age, Meghan Markle has demonstrated an explorative and large palate to embrace unique and divine flavors. Markle's love for fish extends much further than just fish tacos. She loves sushi and sashimi and has loved it since the young age of just 6 years old. Her Mother began by giving her cucumber rolls and as she got older she progressed to California rolls.
In an archived article from The Tig, titled The Art Of Sushi, Markle devotes a post to her love for sushi. She explains the difference between sushi (fish and rice) and sashimi (fish without rice) and how sashimi allows you to experience the "pure flavors of the fish". Markle even shares her favorite restaurants from Los Angeles to London, New York and even Toronto where you can eat her favorite sushi, sashimi, and maki rolls. To read more about her love for sushi read HERE.
https://web.archive.org/web/20150330132809/http://thetig.com/art-sushi/ PHOTOS BY: THE TIG
7. Snack: Almond Butter & Apple Slices
Meghan Markle calls herself a "nibbler" in an interview with The New Potato. One of her favorite snacks to nibble on is almond butter with apple slices. To make the snack extra special she likes to add a sprinkle of sea salt.
Many are aware that apples are healthy on their own, after all, "an apple a day keeps the doctor away" but combining a nutritious fruit with nutrient-dense food like almond butter makes an already healthy snack even healthier. Almond butter offers a generous dose of magnesium (promotes heart health), Vitamin E and antioxidants (lower cholesterol), potassium (maintain healthy blood pressure) and many other great benefits. It's even believed to help encourage healthy skin and really, who doesn't want Markle's glowing and flawless complexion.
8. Snack: Crudités And Hummus Plate
Along with almond butter and apple slices, Markle tells The New Potato, her other favorite snack is a crudités and hummus plate. Crudités are traditional French appetizers that generally consist of whole or sliced vegetables. They're often served with a vinaigrette or dipping sauces of other sorts. Markle enjoys her platters with a healthy serving of hummus.
Hummus makes an excellent dip for veggies and it's definitely healthier than the go-to ranch dressing. Hummus is traditionally made of chickpeas, tahini, and olive oil but now there are many variations and flavors. Humus is full of fiber, antioxidants and protein. With all healthy ingredients that make up a crudités platter, there is no wonder why Meghan Markle likes to lean toward this snack often.
9. Pick-Me-Up: Green Juice
For many, a pick-me-up consists of a cup of coffee or a shot of espresso to help give you that last jolt of energy you need to make it through the day. This, however, isn't the case for Meghan. When Meghan needs an energy booster she'll often reach for a cup of fresh green juice.
Markle said in an interview with Shape "…trying to go for coffee or things like that only end up hurting you in the end. So to get a really good natural source of energy like a great green juice…Something that gets right into your system is a nice pick-me-up." When Meghan Markle was filming the tv show, Suits in Toronto she would spend long hours and found this to be the most beneficial and healthy form of energy. She would make many trips to her favorite fresh juice shop, Revitasize, while filming in Toronto.
PHOTOS BY: INSTAGRAM
10. Pick-Me-Up: Kombucha
Following her interview with Shape, Markle explains that another great alternative to coffee, for her, is kombucha. For those that aren't familiar with kombucha, it's a fermented drink that is made from bacteria and yeast. It's often mixed with black or green tea and sugar.
This health drink has been around for well over 2,000 years but has quickly become a popular drink of choice as of late. Kombucha is known for its gut-friendly properties, is said to help improve digestion, could help to aid weight loss and provide a generous dose of energy. It's easy to see why Meghan Markle would love this healthy beverage.
11. Dinner: Soup
Meghan Markle is often more hungry at lunch rather than dinner. By listening to her body she'll often indulge in a larger wholesome meal at lunch and will enjoy something lighter, like soup for dinner. She even wrote about some of her favorite soup recipes on her blog, The Tig.
We've found an archived recipe for one of those favorite soups. Markle's recipe is inspired by leftover Thanksgiving feasting. The Tig Turkey Tortilla Soup is made of shredded leftover turkey, a savory broth and loads of hearty and healthy ingredients.
https://web.archive.org/web/20150330005444/http://thetig.com/turkey-tortilla-soup/ PHOTOS AND RECIPE HERE: THE TIG
12. Weekend Indulgence: Poutine
Meghan devotes her efforts to eating healthy foods during the week to feel her best. However, when the weekend rolls around Meghan isn't afraid to let loose, and enjoy some of her favorite weekend treats. Firstly, Meghan loves fries she even said "I'm always hoping I'm having lunch with people, so we can share fries. It's its own food group for me" in an interview with Delish.
Furthermore, while filming in Toronto Markle experienced and fell in love with an authentic Canadian dish, poutine. Poutine is a dish made of fries that is sprinkled with cheese curds and drenched in gravy. Along with her love of fries, there is no question of why she would love a dish like that.
13. Weekend Indulgence: Mac & Cheese
Meghan admits in her interview with Eye Swoon, her secret guilty pleasure is boxed mac and cheese. She explains how now, she'll often reach for Annie's Organic brand as a healthier option. She even recommends throwing in frozen peas for a "simple childlike meal".
Markle is also not afraid to admit that another guilty pleasure is tater tots. To eat like Markle however, you'll have to make sure you dip them in ketchup and sriracha. I don't know about you but she's my kind of gal!
14. Dessert: Chia Seed Pudding
Meghan explains that chia seed pudding is something she keeps in her fridge every week during an interview with Good HouseKeeping. It's extremely easy to make all you need is chia seeds and almond milk to make Meghan's favorite.
Although Meghan likes to enjoy this healthy pudding for dessert every week, it's so healthy you could enjoy it as a breakfast too. The fun thing about chia seed pudding is that it's very customizable. You can eat it plain, add berries or maple syrup to make it extra sweet, the options are endless!
15. Dessert: Red Wine
Meghan Markle tells Best Health Magazine that her kryptonite, along with fries is – wine. She says "Of course I'm going to have that glass of wine, it's delicious and I'll enjoy it. Do the things you enjoy within reason. Know your body and what works for you and you'll be fine."
Markle's love for wine extends to the dessert menu. She'll often pass up a sweet dessert for a crisp white or a good red. After finding out she named her blog after her favorite wine, there is no question that she has a true love for it.
The Grossest Things You Didn't Know You Were Eating
Interestingly enough, there are many ingredients in your everyday foods that are shockingly not what they seem.
Foods That May Help Reduce Anxiety & Stress


Comparison of IR-LED Model's Video Images Under Different Conditions.
The images provided here are samples shot by a Network Camera equipped with an IR-LED under three different lighting conditions: with the room lights on; in the dark with the IR-LED off; and in the dark with the IR-LED on.
Images shot with the IR-LED on are black-and-white.
Reference material for a number plate sample (actual size) and possibility of facial recognition.
A registration key must be registered to begin use of the Network Disk Recorder.
This video explains the required procedure to register a store in order to obtain a registration key.
This video explains the procedure to obtain a main body activation registration key.
This video explains the procedure to register a registration key to the recorder.
This video explains how to copy data recorded on the NV recorder to SD cards or USB memory, and how to play it.
Mounting methods and directional adjustment for different installation locations(upward-facing).
This video explains how to install the camera in an upward-facing direction, and how to adjust the joint holding camera and to adjust the camera angle.
Mounting methods and directional adjustment for different installation locations(wall).
Mounting methods and directional adjustment for different installation locations(ceiling).
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Description: Funeral program for Artman E. Bland, born in 1907 and died September 24, 1996. The funeral was held Tuesday, October 1, 1996 at Second Baptist Church, officiated by Robert L. Jemerson. Funeral arrangements were made through Sutton Funeral Home and he was buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery near San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Mr. Ben Williams Sr., born July 5, 1908. The funeral was held November 1, 1996 at New Birth Baptist Church, officiated by Rev. Kelvin Nelson. Funeral arrangements were made through Sutton-Sutton Mortuary, Inc., and he was buried in Meadowlawn Memorial Park in San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Bertrand Ellis, born April 2, 1936 and died November 25, 2005. The funeral was held December 1, 2005 at Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery, officiated by Rev. Terrence K. Hayes. Funeral arrangements were made through Sutton-Sutton Mortuary, Inc. and he was buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery near San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Billie E. Robinson, born August 25, 1934 and died January 17, 2011. The funeral was held February 1, 2011 at F.E. Lewis Memorial Chapel, officiated by Minister Barbara Crawford. Funeral arrangements were made through Lewis Funeral Home and he was buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery in San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Bruce Norman Edwards, born April 19, 1934 and died October 23, 2001. The funeral was held November 1, 2001 at Lewis Funeral Home Chapel, officiated by Rev. W. D. Harris. Funeral arrangements were made through Lewis Funeral Home and he was buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery near San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Mary Lee White Foster, born March 12, 1944 and died May 28, 2001 and Carol Denise Matlock Douglas, born June 6, 1965 and died May 27, 2001. The funeral was held June 1, 2001 at St. Paul United Methodist Church, officiated by Rev. James Daniels. Funeral arrangements were made through Sutton-Sutton Mortuary; Mary Foster was buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery near San Antonio, Texas and Carol Douglas was buried in Correville Community Cemetery in Blanchard, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Christine Robinson, born December 9, 1955 and died January 26, 2010. The funeral was held Monday, February 1, 2010 at True Vision Church, officiated by Pastor Michael Steve Brown. Funeral arrangements were made through Sunset Funeral Home & Memorial and she was buried in San Antonio, Texas. Includes a remembrance card.
Description: Funeral program for Demaurice Boyd, born May 8, 1926 and died October 26, 2007. The funeral was held Thursday, November 1, 2007 at Grace First Baptist Church, officiated by Walter L. Starks. Funeral arrangements were made through Lewis Funeral Home and he was buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery near San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Mr. Dolph P. Watson, Jr., born April 15, 1952 and died May 26, 1996. The funeral was held June 1, 1996 at St. Peters Baptist Church, officiated by Rev. H. Jones. Funeral arrangements were made through Anderson Funeral Home, and he was buried in Southern Memorial Park in San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Don Edward James, born March 22, 1945 and died November 26, 2006. The funeral was held Friday, December 1, 2006 at New Light Baptist Church, officiated by Rev. J. S. Smith. He was buried in Meadowlawn Memorial Park in San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Sister Dora Mae Johnson Ziegler, born February 5, 1929. The funeral was held May 1, 2002 at New Light Baptist Church, officiated by Rev. Dr. J. S. Smith. Funeral arrangements were made through the Carter-Taylor-Williams Mortuary, and he was buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery near San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Mrs. Dorothy Mae Rivers, born April 15, 1935 and died February 25, 2008. The funeral was held Saturday, March 1, 2008 at St. Stephens Baptist Church, officiated by Rev. Willie Harper. Funeral arrangements were made through Lewis Funeral Home and she was buried in Southern Memorial Park in San Antonio, Texas.
Description: Funeral program for Mrs. Dorothy Sims Lewis, born November 7, 1918 and died August 26, 2006. The funeral was held Friday, December 1, 2006 at Second Baptist Church, officiated by Rev. Dr. Robert L. Jemerson, Pastor. Funeral arrangements were made through Lewis Funeral Home and she was buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery near San Antonio, Texas.


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Home » Features and Interviews » Shakespeare Shuffle: carving up Macbeth
Shakespeare Shuffle: carving up Macbeth
Author: Clare Annamalai in Features and Interviews 29 January 2015	0 888 Views
'Five acts. Five approaches. One thrilling play shown five different ways.', says the blurb for Shakespeare Shuffle. Clare Annamalai went to meet some of the people behind this new production of Macbeth.
Paul Moss of The Handlebards (HB), Yaz Al-Shaater and Ashlea Kaye of Smooth Faced Gentlemen (SFG), Scott Ellis of The Merely Players (MP), Sean Turner of Permanently Bard (PB).
ET: First off, can you tell me a bit about the show?
SFG: Shakespeare Shuffle is a whole new way to see a production of Macbeth, where we have four different, exciting young companies, with four very different, contrasting styles, each taking on one act of the Scottish play and then coming together for the final act, to either collaborate or clash – you'll have to come and see the situation for yourself!
ET: How are the companies different, and why have you each chosen to approach Shakespeare in the way you have?
HB: The Handlebards spend summers touring around the UK and Europe on bikes, carrying all the set, props and costume with us. And it's just four guys, so our approach is dictated by the necessity of what we can carry. It's very comic, very irreverent, very quick. I suppose it's imaginative, if I can blow my own trumpet, because we have to be able to carry our props on the road with us.
MP: The Merely Players are a rep company who use no costume, no set and minimal props. Cost is not the main reason… it's an added bonus! But artistically we feel that any sort of concept put onto the text is limiting, so we put all the focus onto the characters, the actors, the storytelling, and the audience's understanding of the text. One actor doing one role each, actors wearing their own clothes.
SFG: Smooth Faced Gentlemen are the UK's only female Shakespeare company. Our tagline is all the Fs – fun, fast, fresh and faithful. A female cast forces the audience to see Shakespeare in a way they haven't done before. It allows some amazing female actresses to take on the meaty roles that we've all wanted to do from a young age and never realised that we could.
PB: Permanently Bard are the UK's only company to perform entirely in pub gardens. We tour pubs over the summer, in traditional dress, and with a very irreverent, unfaithful style. We add a lot and we take a lot away. It's full of anachronisms, bawdy and drunken. We do that to take it back to basics. That's what Shakespeare and his men were doing. We're taking it back to the masses, outside of theatre walls, which can be terrifying for non Shakespeare-going audiences, and putting it in a more comfortable space for the family or for people who've never seen Shakespeare.
ET: A 'fast-paced' approach seems to be common to all four companies. What is it about speed?
It comes from making theatre for the audience, instead of for the actor. It stops you being self-indulgent.
MP: For us, rhythm is really important, with the way that Shakespeare writes. Unless it's a well-earned pause, a pause in Shakespeare is time when nothing's happening on stage, when what you really want to be doing is listening to the brilliant text. It keeps the audience engaged, keeps them excited, makes sure that they're always having to concentrate.
PB: He writes fast, doesn't he? It's as simple as that.
SFG: I think that in wider theatre in general, I've noticed a thing that a lot of young companies are reexploring is speed. Because if you go to a lot of the big institutions, it's so slow and difficult.
HB: It's not just about delivery either, it's speed of production. With the Handlebards, it's not necessarily fast-talking, but we have quick costume changes and set changes. It's the Twitter of theatre!
MP: It comes from making theatre for the audience instead of for the actor. It stops you being self-indulgent.
SFG: It's how life works, as well. We all speak quickly and do things quickly, and when you do have that moment for the audience to breathe, it really means something.
ET: When you put the team together, was there any temptation to include a company that 'plays it straight' with Shakespeare?
We're all irreverent, but reverent to the text.
HB: We never steered away from anything, we just wanted a sense of variety. The Handlebards have done Macbeth as a comedy, and the Smooth Faced Gents are all female, so if anything, we were looking for a straight take on the play, to contrast with what we were already doing, so that it wasn't too wacky for the entirety.
MP: The Merely Players play it pretty straight. I know we don't have any costume, but we very much play it the way the play requires.
PB: And although we take liberties with it, we do have traditional values and traditional costumes. So in a way we play it quite straight.
MP: What does playing Shakespeare straight mean anyway? If you think about the audience back in those days, most of it being the drunkards in the yard, then I think 'straight Shakespeare' is a phrase that can get confused with 'creating boring Shakespeare'.
HB: We're all irreverent, but reverent to the text. We're irreverent to the fashion of Shakespeare as it's performed in the big institutions.
SFG: All four companies exist in that tension between what's traditional, accepted, and can be very boring, and what's innovative, fresh, irreverent and exploratory, which can veer into….well, bad! Shakespeare's text is stunning, and none of us would be here if we didn't already think that, but I think all of us probably thirst to see something slightly different from what our national institutions show us.
ET: How did you allocate the acts?
The Smooth Faced Gentlemen are pretty violent, so we wanted an act with some fighting and killing in it.
SFG: We were all incredibly polite about it! And some things stood out, because they suited the strengths of a particular company.
MP: What The Merely Players find most difficult is when Shakespeare portrays the supernatural, because our stuff is so basic. So we were like 'Act 2 doesn't have any witches in it. We'll take Act 2, where there's people killing and shouting at each other and talking a lot!'
SFG: The Smooth Faced Gentlemen are pretty violent, so we wanted an act with some fighting and killing in it.
HB: When we started we had no idea what to do for Act 5; how to make the shuffle work, without making it too confusing… it's still a work in progress! It's our first time.
MP: I've not seen any of the other stuff yet, and I'm so excited about it.
HB: That's it. None of us has seen each other's acts yet. The first time we'll see them is during the technical rehearsal.
ET: Have you had to sacrifice anything of your own style to make this collaboration work?
MP: We normally work in the round, because you wouldn't have a set anyway, so it looks like an artistic choice. But that's the only real thing for us.
HB: We'll have tech for the first time! We just work by daylight usually.
PB: We've lost all the booze, I guess, and we normally work in traverse. Just the scenery of gardens too. We redesign the show for each garden that we go to. If it's got a big tree, or a playground, that becomes part of the concept. It'll be interesting for us to be inside, and to have a roof.
ET: What future plans do you have for Shakespeare Shuffle?
SFG: There's been some talk of doing something similar in Edinburgh, or something more site-specific. Greenwich have already asked if we want to do it there again.
MP: Everyone wants us basically. We're taking over the world!
ET: In the corporate world, a collaboration like this is often a dry run for a full merger. Is there anything you'd like to tell Everything Theatre readers?
MP: Well I'm not allowed to be in the Smooth Faced Gentlemen, so….
HB: It's not a merger, but I think it sparks the beginning of the collaboration.
SFG: I think it opens the door for more collaborations like this. We're not the only young Shakespeare companies in London. There are lots of other people doing great work, and if it can inspire other people to work together a bit more.
MP: We hope that in ten years time these companies will be fully-fledged professional theatre companies, and the people working in them will be working actors, working directors…. It's about creating the next generation of the industry.
HB: It makes sense for us. Because we're all competing for the same funding. It seems a shame not to do this, and help each other out.
SFG: Exactly. It's better to be friends and support each other.
MP: There isn't really direct competition as far as audiences are concerned. Nobody's going to say 'I saw the Smooth Faced Gents' Hamlet, so I'm not going to go and see the Merely Players' one.' The main positive for each company out of this is cross-pollination of audiences.
PB: It's a chance to learn from each other's experiences and processes, as well, which is kind of rare in this industry.
ET: If you were 'permanently bard' from performing Shakespeare, whose work would you choose instead?
MP: I'd quite fancy the challenge of doing a 'no costume, no set, minimal props Chekhov.' I think the energy and pace that we use would work and be different. Like Shakespeare…. noone writes human nature better than those two.
HB: We're considering the Handlebards' Wilde Ride. But that's just based on a pun, and nothing else!
PB: We're kind of hampered by our name, but we'd like to do some Arthur Miller at some point.
SFG: Beckett and Stoppard and some of that era of work could also be quite exciting. Some of that farcey, comedy stuff, with the darker undertones, could work well with an all-female cast.
SFG: I struggle to even think about moving away from the era of Shakespeare. Because I love sitting down with the text; the clues are all there, and it's like finding your way to the treasure pot at the end. When you get to the treasure pot, it's such an amazing feeling.
ET: Finally, most of your shows involve audience participation. Can we expect any in this Macbeth?
SFG: We're not going to give that away!
HB: I can speak for my act, but I don't know about the others.
SFG: Greenwich Theatre is a big theatre. So if you're scared of audience interaction, then there are 399 people who can get picked before you!
Shakespeare Shuffle is at the Greenwich Theatre on Friday 30 and Saturday 31 January 2015.
Ashlea Kaye collaboration Greenwich Theatre Macbeth Paul Moss Permanently Bard Scott Ellis Sean Turner Shakespeare Shuffle Slider Smooth Faced Gentlemen The Handlebards The Merely Players Yaz Al-Shaater	2015-01-29
Clare Annamalai
Tagged with: Ashlea Kaye collaboration Greenwich Theatre Macbeth Paul Moss Permanently Bard Scott Ellis Sean Turner Shakespeare Shuffle Slider Smooth Faced Gentlemen The Handlebards The Merely Players Yaz Al-Shaater
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About Clare Annamalai
Clare works in arts administration, after a previous career in retail and pharmaceuticals. She is a backseat driver of Everything Theatre, and navigator to two children. Always more positively disposed to shows that publish their running time.
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GRAND JURY TARGET
Tracking Key Issues in White Collar Prosecutions
About Sara and Andrea
February 18, 2019 Kropf Moseley
Same Same, But Different: The Basics of Congressional Investigations
By Dan Portnov[1]
The swearing in of the 116th Congress last month brought with it promises of vigorous new investigations into the Trump administration – as well as other related public and private industry conduct. Last week's brief standoff between former Acting Attorney General Matthew Whitaker and House Judiciary Committee over a possible subpoena to the former showed that the Democrat-led House committees are eager to make a statement. While the nature and scope of future investigations are yet to be revealed, defense attorneys specializing in congressional investigations (that includes us!) have been salivating over the opportunity for new work.
Congressional investigations are a curious beast – not criminal, not civil, but nonetheless perilous. This series of posts will provide some basics on congressional investigations and key ways in which they differ from criminal or regulatory investigations.
There are a number of committees and subcommittees that exist solely for the purpose of investigations and oversight. Two of the better known, active committees are the House Oversight and Reform (the main investigative committee of the House) and the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations (of the Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee). Additionally, the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence has been very busy for the past two years investigating continuing Russian interference in U.S. elections.
Authority to Conduct Investigations
Congressional power to investigate is implied from its explicit power to legislate. In 1790, in one of the first investigations, Robert Morris requested Congress to investigate his tenure as U.S. Superintendent of Finance – specifically his handling of the country's finances during the end of the Revolutionary War – and thus set the precedent for future congressional investigations. The Supreme Court has also weighed in, from time to time, to resolve challenges to this power, typically in favor of Congress.
Nowadays, Congress delegates investigative and oversight authority to standing committees and subcommittees, and these bodies enjoy broad authority to investigate matters within the scope of that delegated authority. It is generally accepted that investigations look into three main types of conduct: actions or omissions of the Executive Branch, conduct of individual members of Congress, and investigations in aid of current or prospective legislation.
Investigative Tools
Congressional committees use both public and non-public tactics to gather information. In the past, committees relied more on public hearings and subpoenas, while in recent years, committees have shifted to non-public information gathering, relying more on congressional staff.
Staff interviews and depositions
Informal interviews and closed-door depositions are particularly useful when the committee needs to collect and evaluate potentially sensitive or inflammatory testimony before it becomes public. Informal interviews are just that, without a subpoena or a transcript of testimony; designed to get background information or just dot "i's" and cross "t's". Depositions may be taken where a committee or subcommittee is authorized by chamber rule or resolution. In the latter case, the rule or resolution will provide procedure for the deposition, including how notice is provided, how questions are asked and answered, whether a transcript is made public, and the witnesses' right to counsel.
Both forms of inquiry carry the requirement that the witness tell the truth, under penalty of prosecution for perjury (if the false statement is made during sworn testimony) or false statements (if made during sworn or unsworn testimony).
Congress may also hold hearings – public or closed – during which witness testimony may be taken. Testimony may be sworn or unsworn; nevertheless, as Michael Cohen knows well, there are criminal consequences for lying to Congress in either case.
There are some important procedural and substantive differences between giving testimony to Congress and providing the same to law enforcement. On the procedural side, witnesses appearing in congressional hearings may be afforded a right to give an opening statement. (And unlike in law enforcement interviews, this may be a good idea!) Witnesses may also submit a statement beforehand and questioning usually alternates between majority and minority congressmembers or staff, according to pre-set time intervals.
Substantively, the Congressional investigative hearing is not a criminal proceeding so right to counsel is not guaranteed by the Constitution. It is, nonetheless, acknowledged and allowed by separate Senate and House rules.
The role of counsel during a Congressional hearing is significantly limited, however. Counsel may not object to questions, do any coaching of, question or cross-examine witnesses. Their lone role (at least as circumscribed by House rule) is to advise their client on their Constitutional rights, e.g. the Fifth Amendment protection against self-incrimination. Counsel who step out of line during hearings may be punished by censure, exclusion (getting kicked out of the chamber) or even held in contempt (which comes with its own set of procedure and penalties).
A congressional committee may also apply to courts to obtain immunity for witness for their testimony, and thus compel a witness to testify before it. Such an act requires two-thirds vote of the committee and has been taken in past high profile investigations such as Watergate and Iran-Contra.
Subpoenas for documents and information
Congressional committees have broad subpoena power as long as they have "congressionally authorized subject matter jurisdiction" and the inquiries are "only about information generally relevant to its jurisdiction."[2] Each committee has its own procedural rules for issuing subpoenas. Since 2015, committee subpoena issuance has been generally within the province of the majority party, with the minority reduced to (largely ignored) letter writing.
A Congressional subpoena may request documents or written responses. Its form seeks to emulate judicial or administrative subpoenas, but in practice it falls short. This is because the subpoena is typically drafted by non-lawyers or lawyers who may not be experienced in litigation or enforcement. Still, a Congressional subpoena is enforceable by Congress' inherent contempt authority, so a response must be made.
Congress may also obtain evidence located outside the U.S. through a court order. Upon application by the committee, a U.S. District Court will request assistance from foreign counterparts, drawing on powers agreed-upon in mutual legal assistance treaties (MLATs) or letters rogatory. However, there are few examples of a congressional committee's attempts to serve or enforce subpoenas abroad.
Having written about Congress' authority to conduct investigations and its investigative tools, our next post on the topic will discuss the consequences of investigations, parallel investigations with other law enforcement authorities, and tips for those who are being investigated.
[1] With thanks to Ramona Lin for providing helpful research.
[2] Susan Hennessey and Helen Klein Murillo, The Rules of Congressional Investigations and Trump's Growing Russia Problem, https://www.lawfareblog.com/rules-congressional-investigations-and-trumps-growing-russia-problem.
Congressional investigation
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[…] What are the basics of a Congressional investigation? Dan Portnov is back on com. […]
Congressional Investigations: Tips from the Pros | Grand Jury Target says:
[…] have written about congressional investigations before (here and here), and note that they are indeed unique creatures. The panel reinforced this notion. Among […]
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