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Deal on binding pay transparency rules to close the gender pay gap - S&Ds' long-standing demand!
S&D - Socialists & Democrats in the European Parliament
The S&D's long-standing demand to have strong, binding EU rules on pay transparency is finally coming true with a deal reached today by negotiators from the European Parliament and the Council.
After five rounds of trilogues, they agreed on the main points of the Directive on Pay Transparency - a first and necessary step to end pay differences between men and women which still remain too high. On average, women in the EU earn 14.1% less than men in comparable positions.
According to the agreement, all workers in all companies - no matter the size of the company - will have the right to annually receive information on the level of pay of workers who are performing the same work, or work of equal value within the company. Recruiters will be forbidden from asking candidates about their current pay. This will help to break the pattern of pay inequalities.
S&D negotiators Evelyn Regner and Marc Angel secured strong provisions on penalties and fines for non-compliance which will be key in ensuring that companies actually take the new pay transparency rules seriously. S&D also reinforced the role of social partners in the implementation of the Directive. Finally, to fight the systematic lower pay in female-dominated sectors, the S&D negotiators insisted on provisions allowing cross-sector comparisons and the collection of more data.
Evelyn Regner MEP, S&D negotiator on pay transparency in the women's rights and gender equality committee, said:
"Today is a good day, not only for women but for all workers! With the new law, we are a step closer to finally closing the gender pay gap, and making sure Europeans receive equal pay for equal work, or work of equal value.
"We, the Socialists and Democrats can be really proud, because not only have we fought for this Directive for such a long time, but we also managed to considerably improve the Commission's proposal by strengthening workers' rights.
"For us, it was also crucial that the burden to close the gender pay gap lies on companies and member states, rather than on workers, mostly women, who have to go to court to prove pay discrimination. All workers will be able to share information on their pay internally and externally. This means the effective ban of pay secrecy clauses. We also secured the rights of Trade Unions to collective bargaining and the involvement of social partners."
Marc Angel MEP, S&D negotiator in the employment and social affairs committee, said:
"The agreement reached today will make a real difference, because transparency is key in the fight for equality! Currently a large majority of EU countries have no legal framework on pay transparency.
"As S&Ds, we wanted all companies - no matter their size - to be included in the whole scope of the Directive, meaning that all companies must report and take remedial measures if a gender pay gap exists. This was not possible. Yet, we significantly lowered the threshold from originally covering companies from 250 workers and upwards to now only 100*.
"Nevertheless, we did secure that other tools in the Directive apply to all companies. I am also proud of the gender-neutral language which we were able to include for the first time in a Directive so that it applies to all workers in all their diversity."
According to the agreement, companies with at least 100 employees (instead of 250 as originally proposed by the Commission) will have to report information to a monitoring body and inform its own workers. This makes it easier for those working for the same employer to compare salaries and expose any existing gender pay gap in their organisation. If pay reporting shows a gender pay gap of 5% or more, member states will have to ensure employers, in cooperation with their workers' representatives, conduct a joint pay assessment to remedy any pay gap. If this is not done, penalties including fines will be imposed.


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The emerging science of gastrophysics and its application to the algal cuisine
Ole G Mouritsen1,2
Flavour volume 1, Article number: 6 (2012) Cite this article
This paper points to gastrophysics as an emerging scientific discipline that will employ a wide range of the most powerful theoretical, simulational and experimental biophysical techniques to study the empirical world of cooking and gastronomy. Gastrophysics aims to exploit recent advances in the physical sciences to forward the scientific study of food, its raw materials, the effects of processing food and quantitative aspects of the physical basis for food quality, flavour and absorption into the human body. It suggests the use in cooking of a class of raw materials little used in the Western world, the marine macroalgae or seaweeds, as a laboratory for defining, characterizing and shaping the emerging scientific discipline of gastrophysics. In relation to gastronomy, seaweed materials are virtually unexplored scientifically by physical experimentation and theory. The sea is one of the last resorts for humankind to exploit the ability to obtain more food to feed a hungry world, because world fisheries can no longer meet the need for healthy seafood. Hence, seaweeds offer a rich and virtually unexploited source of primary marine foodstuff in the Western world. To explore the full gastronomical potential of this resource, there is a need for fundamental research into the gastrophysics of seaweeds.
Gastronomy and gastrophysics
The father of gastronomy, Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, defined 'gastronomy' in his 1825 masterpiece, Physiologie du goût (The Physiology of Taste) [1], as the knowledge and understanding of everything that relates to man as he eats. Its purpose is to ensure the conservation of men, using the best food possible. Nowadays, 'gastronomy' is used as a broad term that covers the art and science of good cooking, including aesthetics, the qualities of raw materials, food preparation and cooking techniques, flavour and the cultural history of cooking. A wide range of established scientific disciplines relate to gastronomy, in particular food chemistry and technology, sensory sciences and human nutrition. A recent trend, pioneered by the British-Hungarian physicist Nicolas Kurti [2] and the French chemist Hervé This [3, 4] and fuelled by a close collaboration between scientists and chefs, has led to the new term 'molecular gastronomy'. A closer inspection of what molecular gastronomy is claimed to be shows that in most cases it tends to involve few if any quantitative molecular considerations. Despite the somewhat misleading terminology, or maybe exactly because of the use of this terminology, molecular gastronomy has received a lot of publicity among the general public and celebrated chefs. Some prominent chefs, including Heston Blumenthal, from restaurant The Fat Duck, and Ferran Adrià, from restaurant El Bulli, have issued disclaimers stating that their art and style of cooking cannot be described by the concept of molecular gastronomy [5].
In a recent review of molecular gastronomy, the British physicist Peter Barham and his colleagues [6] made a serious attempt to define what molecular gastronomy is and how it differs from gastronomy. These authors advocate the very pragmatic viewpoint that molecular gastronomy "should be considered as the scientific study of why some food tastes terrible, some is mediocre, some good, and occasionally some absolutely delicious" (p. 2315). In this way, they strike a delicate balance between, on the one hand, considering food simply as materials with certain properties described by food chemistry, and, on the other hand, taking into account the empirical fact that there are very passionate feelings associated with food and eating. Although according to this definition there seems to be no specific reference to why the term 'molecular' is invoked, it is presupposed that the field is based on the utilisation of molecularly based sciences such as chemistry for the scientific and systematic study of all aspects of food, including raw materials, cooking procedures, flavour, acceptance of food and systematisation of recipes and cooking procedures. In contrast, aspects of human nutrition and health are less emphasised. The Barham et al. review ultimately concludes that "perhaps the most important objective of [molecular gastronomy] should be to delineate the essential principles that underpin our individual enjoyment of food" [6] (p. 2361).
Molecular gastronomy heavily relies on well-established sciences such as food chemistry, general food science and food-processing technology, which are themselves, of course, of seminal importance for the food industry [7–9], although it has been claimed that there is very little science in the food industry [10]. A related focus on the chemistry of food is internalized in a less well-defined discipline called 'culinary chemistry', a term directly inspired by the title of an 1821 book by the German chemist Friedrich Accum, who wrote about the practical aspects of applying scientific principles, in particular chemistry, to cooking [11].
The application of physical principles to study foods from a materials science perspective is well-established in research on food physics and food biophysics [12], with a focus on physical and physicochemical properties such as texture, foam stability, emulsification properties, phase transformations, the physical principles underlying cooking processes and so on. These approaches are traditionally separated from sensory sciences, and they are often less concerned with gastronomical considerations. Several popular science books are embodiments of this category [13–17]. The most celebrated monograph on the science of cooking is Harold McGee's by now classic and encyclopaedic monograph, On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen [18].
In recent years, the collaboration between famous chefs and scientists has materialized in cookbooks that contain a significant element of scientific explanations, such as Heston Blumenthal's The Fat Duck Cookbook [19], and books that focus on the science of particular types of food, such as the science of ice cream [20], chocolate [21, 22], pizza [23] and sushi [24]. The most recent development in writing on the science of cooking is embodied in the monumental five-volume tome by Nathan Myhrvold and colleagues on what is called 'Modernist Cuisine' [25]. To date, Myhrvold's books provide the most comprehensive accounts of the physical aspects of food and cooking and could well qualify as a gastrophysical body of work, although he and his colleagues do not use the term 'gastrophysics' in their five-volume series. In fact, very little, if anything, that can be called 'scientific' is written about gastrophysics [26, 27], and there appear to be no published scientific papers about gastrophysics.
It is the contention of the present paper that gastrophysics has as its goal the demonstration that fundamental principles of physics, in particular soft matter physics, biophysical chemistry and molecular biophysics, can and should be brought together in scientific work dealing with food and should focus on molecular aspects, as well as scientific mechanisms and explanations, and their relation to gastronomy to a much higher degree than traditional food chemistry and food physics. The perspective on the plethora of possible research activities within gastrophysics should be gastronomy itself. Gastrophysics takes gastronomy as its departure point of inspiration and uses gastronomical problems as a driving force. The intrinsic dynamics of this way of doing science is very similar to what has been witnessed in recent decades in the case of another emerging field of science, biological physics [28], which deals with biologically inspired physics problems. Biological physics not only solves problems in biology but also contributes to physics in general by revitalizing it and opening up a new empirical world for physicists. In a similar vein, gastrophysics uses gastronomical problems as a motor. Gastrophysics hence places itself as an emerging new scientific and molecularly based subdiscipline at the borders between soft matter physics and chemistry, culinary sciences, food chemistry and molecular gastronomy.
It is to be expected that a sufficiently original, ambitious and courageous research endeavour should be able to make significant advances in defining the emerging and little developed field of gastrophysics and demonstrate where it could lead. This is not to say that the various experimental, computational and theoretical methodologies, typical of the three pillars of modern natural science, which should be applied to gastrophysics, are in a similarly less advanced and less well-defined stage. On the contrary, the idea is to use, so to speak, the 'sharpest knives in the kitchen' to carve out the future of the field. These 'knives' include molecular simulation, single-molecule studies of taste, high-resolution micro- and nanoscale visualisation of macromolecular aggregates of food molecules and particles, measurements of physical forces controlling the stability of food formulations, molecular-structural characterization of raw food materials and their transformation during preparation, cooking, ageing, drying, conservation and fermentation, as well as the design of physical model systems tailored to mimic, for example, the absorption of food molecules and food particles in the intestines. All of these approaches are highly sophisticated and advanced and are likely to make a strong impact on the emerging field of gastrophysics.
The present paper suggests that a unique and clear-cut opportunity exists to carve out the future for gastrophysical research by focusing attention on a specific class of materials, the marine macroalgae or seaweeds, which are virtually unexplored in a quantitative gastronomical setting. The bidirectional value of the approach, as implied by the analogy described above regarding biological physics, can then be assessed by investigating (1) how gastrophysics contributes to developing the algal cuisine and (2) how a focus on algae helps to frame gastrophysics as an emerging science.
Use of gastrophysics to explore and gastronomically chart a new territory: the kingdom of algae
The food we eat is derived from the mighty biological kingdoms of animals, plants and the fungi, as illustrated in Figure 1. Each kingdom contributes to our food and food cultures, with each their varieties in species, nutritional value and taste. Yet another big kingdom is out there which we hardly use for food: the algae. In terms of organic production on Earth, the algae are by far the most important, and because algae also perform photosynthesis, they are the main suppliers of atmospheric oxygen [29]. Algae are not plants, although the green algae are believed to be the ancestors of the higher (flowering) plants. Algae are at the bottom of the food chain, hence they are the primary source of many of the valued nutrients, as well as flavour compounds, that end up in, for example, marine animals such as fish and shellfish.
The tree of life. The phylogenetic tree highlighting the three classes of marine macroalgae: the green, the red and the brown seaweeds.
The algal kingdom is a very diverse group of organisms, many of which are only very distantly related [29, 30]. The unicellular algae constitute the largest group. Some of them are related to plants, whereas others are bacteria, such as the green-blue algae, which are cyanobacteria. The multicellular algae that live in the sea are called 'marine macroalgae' or 'seaweeds'. Seaweeds are traditionally classified into three categories: brown, red and green seaweeds. The classification scheme is the subject of much dispute, and it is noteworthy that the brown and green seaweeds are, loosely speaking, genetically as distinct as plants and animals [31] (Figure 1). There are about 10,000 different species of seaweeds, and seaweeds are found in all climatic regions of the globe. It is interesting to note that whereas many plants and fungi are poisonous and unsuitable for human consumption, all seaweeds harvested in clean water are not poisonous, except for a few species in the tropics. Viewed in this light, seaweeds comprise a rich new territory for gastronomical exploitation and innovation which is almost comparable in richness to the addition of the plant kingdom to a hypothetical cuisine based only on animal products.
The marine macroalgae are an almost unexploited resource for primary foodstuff in the Western world, whereas it is an essential part of the daily diet in the East [32]. In the West, however, and in Europe in particular, seaweeds are exploited mostly as extracts for additives and stabilizers in processed food, specifically alginate, carrageenan and agar (E400-E407). There is, however, a growing interest in North America and some parts of Europe in using raw and processed forms of seaweeds as foods and food supplements, and one also notices that an increasing interest in healthy Asian food stimulates a local demand for seaweeds such as nori, wakame and konbu. In Europe and North America, small companies in Iceland, Brittany, Wales, Ireland, Maine, British Columbia and California produce and market various forms of dried and salted seaweed products for human consumption.
To put the potential of an algal cuisine into the context of sustainability, it should be remarked that the sea is one of the last resorts for humankind to exploit for obtaining more food to feed a hungry world. The domestication of species in the ocean is now increasing at a much more rapid speed than terrestrial species [33], and the ocean holds the greatest potential for obtaining more food. Furthermore, food from the ocean, that is fish, shellfish and marine algae, is known to be beneficial for human nutrition as well as for general health and well-being [34]. However, fisheries can no longer meet the needs of the world population [35].
Seaweeds are in many ways optimal for human nutrition because they contain a bounty of important minerals, trace elements, vitamins, proteins, iodine and polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are listed in Table 1[34, 36–45]. Moreover, seaweeds have plenty of soluble and insoluble dietary fibres (45% to 75%) and hence contain few calories. Their actual composition depends very much on the seaweed species, age, location of growth, time of harvesting and storage conditions. The protein content varies generally from 7% to 35%, and it involves most of the essential amino acids. Nori (Porphyra spp.) is one of the seaweeds with the highest amount of protein. The mineral content of seaweeds is generally ten times higher than that of terrestrial plants. It is noteworthy that the salty taste of many types of seaweed is due to a large extent to potassium salts, which generally outbalance the sodium salts. This makes seaweeds a good salt substitute in food and may be a way of combating the increasing global problem of hypertension.
Table 1 Important nutritional elements in seaweedsa
Although the fat content of seaweeds is generally low (about 2% to 3% on a dry weight basis), it is noteworthy that generally more than one-half of the fat is made up of unsaturated fatty acids, the majority of which are essential polyunsaturated ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids [34]. An important group of ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids are the very long and superunsaturated fatty acids, specifically arachidonic acid (AA) in the ω-6 family and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the ω-3 family. Whereas microalgae contain all three of these fatty acids, it is noteworthy that seaweeds contain only AA and EPA and very little, if any, DHA. An interesting observation is that the ratio of the amount of ω-3 to ω-6 fatty acids in seaweeds is in the range of unity or even greater in certain cases [34, 40]. This should be contrasted to a typical European or North American diet, which has ratios of about 0.1 and 0.05, respectively [46]. Nutritionists generally recommend that the diet be equally balanced with regard to ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids [46]. The severe imbalance toward too much ω-6 in the Western diet is believed to be one of the main causes of the burden of ill health, in particular in relation to heart and coronary diseases, obesity, diabetes and certain mental diseases [47–49]. Because seaweeds contain large amounts of natural antioxidants such as polyphenols [36], one can speculate that these antioxidants are instrumental in protecting the polyunsaturated fatty acids in the seaweeds when they are used as whole foods. Little is known to this effect, and a study of these important fatty acids, their amounts, their flavours and their bioavailability in foods could well turn out to be a rewarding gastrophysical project.
Seafood, including seaweeds, was probably the most important component of our ancestors' diet and part of the basis for the evolution of our brain and neural system, which are characterized by a large content of the superunsaturated ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids at a proportion close to 1:1 [49]. Seaweeds may therefore be considered to be brain food, and it is their polyunsaturated fatty acid content and their perfect balance between ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids that are particularly beneficial for our health.
Seaweeds can be harvested in the wild or grown in the sea in large amounts in a sustainable fashion. Undoubtedly, seaweeds will become a larger part of our daily diet in the future. Importantly, these 'vegetables of the sea' will help us to renew and balance our diet and may contribute to combating the increased incidence of Western lifestyle-related diseases, in particular cardiovascular and heart diseases, such as hypertension, cancer and obesity, as well as mental disorders [46, 48].
A 2010 international seaweed symposium [50] rallied key actors in the science and use of seaweeds for foodstuff and also attracted practitioners in the fields of aquaculture, the food industry, gastronomy, nutrition and the health sciences. It became clear at the conference that there is a very strong and growing interest in seaweeds as food, and it was concluded that there is an urgent need for more research and the establishment of scientifically based knowledge about the uses of seaweeds for human consumption in people's ordinary diets, in futuristic functional foods and in gastronomy at all levels.
Therefore, to introduce the algal cuisine in the Western world, there is a need for a gastronomically inspired approach to using algae in cuisine. It is the contention of the present paper that the emerging science of gastrophysics can be defined and can show its potential by being applied to algal cuisine.
Traditional uses of algae in cooking
Whereas many microalgae, in particular spirulina [51] and Chlorella [52], are widely used for human consumption and food supplementation, in particular because of their high content of proteins, essential fatty acids and various minerals, these algae are not particularly interesting for gastronomical uses, except possibly for their unique ability to impart a green hue to dishes and drinks such as 'smoothies'. Microalgae generally have no interesting taste and texture. In contrast, macroalgae are very interesting, in particular because of their flavours and textures.
Although brown, red and green seaweed species have been eaten by all coastal peoples since prehistoric times [53], the regular consumption of seaweeds has predominantly survived to the present primarily in the contemporary cuisines of Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, China and the Philippines. In Japan especially, seaweeds are both fully integrated into the daily diet and used to create gastronomic specialties. Elsewhere seaweeds are now overwhelmingly linked to the preparation of Asian-style meals. Nevertheless, the globalization of foods such as sushi has raised their profile in North America and, increasingly, in Europe.
The traditional use of seaweeds as part of the normal diet has almost died out in the Western world, but it can still be encountered here and there. The pattern of consumption is on an upward trend, however, no doubt driven by an awareness of its possible beneficial effects on overall health. In Europe, and particularly in Ireland [54], there are signs of a revival of interest in cooking with seaweeds, although this is still considered quirky and exotic. Many of today's leading chefs, however, have become fascinated with marine algae and are experimenting with their tastes, textures and colours in familiar dishes and in exciting, new gastronomic creations.
In some of the coastal areas of North America and northern Europe, the traditional consumption of seaweeds has been preserved and has become more prominent in the past few decades. This is especially the case in California and Maine in the United States, in British Columbia and Nova Scotia in Canada, and in Iceland, where dried seaweeds are now available in many supermarkets. In Europe, seaweeds still have a place in the popular cuisines of Brittany, Wales and Ireland. In Iceland, dulse is eaten in dried form as a snack and is mixed into salads, bread dough or curds, just as it was in the time of the sagas. Chefs in Scandinavia are actively finding creative ways to use seaweeds in fusion dishes as part of a revitalization of the Nordic food cultures of former times and the rise of the New Nordic Cuisine [55].
Seaweeds in gastronomy
Whereas there is a large body of scientific literature about the nutritional composition of various seaweeds, in particular with respect to protein, fibres, carbohydrates, minerals and fatty acids (see [34, 36–45]), virtually no scientific studies of the basic physical and physicochemical properties of seaweeds in the context of gastronomy and gastronomical innovation have been undertaken. This is surprising, considering that the world market for seaweeds for human consumption amounts to almost $10 billion annually. Over the past few years, the interest among the public and chefs up to the Michelin star level has been on a steep increase. At the same time, some European aquaculturists have expressed an interest in farming seaweeds for human consumption.
It is the seaweeds' content of high amounts of minerals, proteins and essential amino acids, trace elements, vitamins, iodine, low-calorie dietary fibres and polyunsaturated fatty acids which underlie their many nutritional qualities as human foodstuff. This is well-recognized in the East, such as in China, Korea and Polynesia, and particularly in Japan, where seaweeds are an essential part of the classic cuisine and highly regarded for their nutritional value, flavour and texture [32].
In the Western world, the interest in using seaweeds for cooking was stimulated by the macrobiotic diet movement in the 1960s and 1970s. Judith Cooper Madlener's classic seaweed cookbook was published during this period [56]. Later the globalization of Asian food, in particular sushi from Japan and its revival in Californian cuisine, introduced seaweeds such as konbu, wakame and particularly nori to the Western palate [24]. A number of cookbooks focused on seaweeds were subsequently published, many of them with reference to the macrobiotic and health food movements [57–65], others with a firm basis in the experience of individual seaweed harvesters [66–69] and a few books penned by scientists [34, 54, 70].
Seaweed as a novel raw material for foods has a unique potential for gastronomical and sensory innovation. Although it has been used for centuries in other parts of the world, a serious and dedicated research program has to be carried out to develop and exploit this potential in a Western context and for the Western palate. It is noteworthy that whereas a very substantial body of scientific literature exists on seaweed farming, processing and nutrition, there is hardly any science-based sensory and gastronomical knowledge about seaweeds available on the international scene. Prominent exceptions are studies of the large brown seaweed konbu as a source of umami related to its contents of monosodium glutamate [55, 71–74]. Together with 5--ribonucleotides such as inosinate and guanylate, glutamate promotes synergistic flavour enhancement effects (umami) [75] and may have applications in salt and sugar reduction in a variety of foods, including meats [74, 76, 77].
Probably no other ingredients used for cooking are as versatile as seaweeds. They can be eaten raw, cooked, baked, toasted, puréed, dried, granulated or deep-fried. They can be eaten on their own or combined in countless ways with other cold or hot ingredients. In most instances, the seaweeds are believed to retain the greater part of their nutritional value in unchanged form, although much research along these lines is needed.
One can turn for inspiration to the greater attention that has been paid to marine algae during the past few years by many serious practitioners of 'haute cuisine'. This has been driven to a certain extent by a felicitous combination of factors: the locavore movement, a much greater consciousness of promoting sustainable food sources and the desirability of eating healthy, pesticide-free foods.
For the professional chef, the challenge of how to use raw materials is on a completely different plane from the one faced in the home kitchen. Like art and the search for new knowledge, gastronomy is driven by a combination of craft, desire for renewal, self-criticism, vision and delight in playing with new ingredients and ideas. For most chefs in Europe and North America, seaweeds are a relative novelty, which inspires them to rework traditional recipes in daring ways and to devise pioneering gastronomic experiences.
In inventive gastronomy, the goal is to invent fabulous new dishes in which seaweeds have been incorporated as essential, and often surprising, elements, which elevate the resulting creation to something unique and possibly sublime, something that calls out for both sensory and aesthetic appreciation. Well-known chefs have already embraced the use of seaweeds in their kitchens and restaurants to capitalise on the profusion of tastes, textures, shapes and colours that are characteristic of marine algae. Often this involves making excursions to harvest fresh seaweeds from their local surroundings, a natural extension of the quest for wild, edible plants and herbs in forests and fields. Others have drawn inspiration from classic Asian cuisine, where seaweeds have retained a prominent role.
One might wonder how the patrons of high-end expensive restaurants react to finding seaweeds on the menu. It seems that part of the appeal lies in the ingredients themselves. The diners appear to be intrigued by the idea of eating seaweeds and take an interest in learning more about them and their places of origin. In this way, tasty and flavourful marine algae may win a permanent place on the menu and, in the future, be featured more prominently, which would represent a vindication for the food of our ancestors.
Research questions for gastrophysics applied to the algal cuisine
The present paper has advocated for the viewpoint that there is a need to apply concepts, methodologies and state-of-the-art methods from physics and biophysical chemistry to solve gastronomically inspired problems. This approach which we call 'gastrophysics' employs a wide range of the most powerful theoretical, simulational and experimental biophysical techniques to study the structure, dynamics and functional properties of raw and processed foodstuff with a focus on small-scale, macromolecular physical properties and how they relate to flavour and texture.
Among many others, the following could be some of the specific focal areas of the gastrophysical study of seaweeds: (1) visualization and characterization of structure on the small scale of raw and processed seaweeds; (2) determination of the stability and micromechanical properties of foodstuff derived from seaweeds and optimisation of these properties with respect to enhanced taste, mouthfeel and flavour; (3) measurement of the release of flavour compounds as well as the absorption and transport of algal food particles and nutrients via physical models of the intestinal barrier; (4) assessment of the biophysical properties of the precious ω-3 fatty acids and sterols synthesised by algae and the effect of seaweed bioactive compounds on cell membranes; (5) characterization of the physics of the taste sensory system stimulated by glutamate from seaweeds using single-molecule receptor taste compound binding assays; and (6) investigations of synergies in taste by computer simulation of the umami receptor.
The plethora of physical studies should be fully integrated to define and characterise the emerging science of gastrophysics with seaweeds as the test case. En route, collaboration with food chemists, phycologists, sensory scientists, science communicators, high-level chefs and gastronomical entrepreneurs will help to shape the research directions and provide the means for implementation of scientific achievements in tomorrow's cuisine.
Conclusion and future outlook
The empirical world of cooking and gastronomy is a promising new territory for application of state-of-the-art methods used in physics and biophysical chemistry that may not only transform our study of this empirical world into a new science, 'gastrophysics', but also revitalize the physics of the kind of soft matter of which foodstuffs are made, potentially leading to new fundamental insights that can be translated into a more scientifically inspired approach to gastronomy. The field of gastrophysics will employ a wide range of the most powerful theoretical, simulational and experimental biophysical techniques to study the structure, dynamics and functional properties of raw and processed foodstuff materials with a focus on small-scale and macromolecular physical properties and how they relate to flavour and texture.
This paper presents a vision of a gastrophysical journey into an overlooked and neglected territory of foodstuff, the seaweeds, well-known in the Asian cuisine but only beginning to enter Western cuisine. Seaweeds are basically unexplored scientifically in relation to gastronomy. For reasons related to the world's future supplies of food, a low-carbon imprint of sustainable food production, human health and nutrition, and gastronomical innovation, seaweeds appear to be an ideal subject of study for the emerging science of gastrophysics.
The future use of seaweeds and seaweed products for human consumption will be a highly innovative enterprise because the market is basically virgin in Europe and North America. There is currently a large import of seaweeds from Asia, and individuals make purchases via the internet, but the potential for seaweed use is increasingly steeply because of consumers' growing interest in healthy foods that are produced in an environmentally sustainable way. Many leading chefs and gastronomical entrepreneurs are spearheading this trend, and food writers, nutritionists and food scientists are fuelling the interest with novel ideas and factual information.
Consumers have started asking for products available in restaurants and stores. This underscores an urgent need for scientifically based information on which consumers, producers, and companies can base their purchases and strategies for gastronomical development, respectively.
Hence the time is ripe for gastrophysical studies of seaweeds, and it can be expected that the results of such studies may have an impact on decision-making among producers, manufacturers and gastronomical entrepreneurs. Last but not least, knowledge-based information communicated to the public will provide the best support for consumers' ability to navigate tomorrow's food market, which invariably will involve more seaweed products than we have ever seen before. It is worth pointing out that a recently launched plan in the Nordic countries for a special terroir-based 'New Nordic Diet' does indeed now recommend regular consumption of seaweed products [78].
Application of gastrophysical studies of seaweeds are hence timely and should serve as a nucleus for the growth of a sector comprising the production and processing of seaweeds for human consumption, with a clear aim of creating gastronomical value and, not least, flavour. The anticipated results of gastrophysical investigations of seaweeds will provide a valuable source of knowledge for (1) future recommendations regarding the development and production of select, high-quality seaweeds for human consumption (fresh, dried and processed); (2) best practice designs of drying and storage procedures; (3) selection of algal species with maximal health benefits and desirable sensory perceptions; (4) inspiration of gastronomical entrepreneurs and producers and distributors of seaweed products; and (5) information for the general public about the various benefits of a diet with a certain content of seaweed products.
Wider informed use of seaweeds and seaweed products in the diet is likely to lead to a number of general health benefits and may aid in combating diet-related lifestyle-related diseases. Gastronomical innovation based on seaweeds is expected to create a demand for seaweeds as foodstuff or food ingredients and hence to fuel the creation of new industries and small businesses, as well as to rejuvenate the commercial potential for existing producers of daily foodstuff. The development of farmed seaweed production, possibly with organic certification, will provide a new and sustainable use of the resources of local waters.
DHA:
EPA:
eicosapentaenoic acid.
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Belitz HD, Grosch W, Schieberle P: Food Chemistry. 2004, Burghagen MM, transl. Heidelberg: Springer, 3
Damodaran S, Parkin KL, Fennema OR: Fennema's Food Chemistry (Food Science and Technology). 2007, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 4
Coultate TP: Food: The Chemistry of Its Components. 2002, Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, 4
This H: Hay muy poca ciencia en la industria alimentaria [in Spanish]. SEBBM. 2010, 166: 25-29.
Accum FCA: System of Theoretical and Practical Chemistry. 1808, Philadelphia: Kimber and Conrad
Barham P: The Science of Cooking. 2001, Heidelberg: Springer
Wolke RL: What Einstein Told His Cook: Kitchen Science Explained. 2002, New York: W.W. Norton & Co
Wolke RL: What Einstein Told His Cook 2: Further Adventures in Kitchen Science-The Sequel. 2005, New York: W.W. Norton & Co
Hillman H: The New Kitchen Science: A Guide to Knowing the Hows and Whys of Fun and Success in the Kitchen. 2003, New York: Houghton Mifflin
Joachim D, Schloss A: The Science of Good Food: The Ultimate Reference on How Cooking Works. 2008, Toronto: Robert Rose
Potter J: Cooking for Geeks Real Science, Great Hacks, and Good Food. 2010, Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly
McGee H: On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2004, New York: Scribner, Revised
Blumenthal H: The Fat Duck Cookbook. 2008, London: Bloomsbury
Clarke C: The Science of Ice Cream. 2004, Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry
Beckett ST: The Science of Chocolate. 2000, Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry
Rowat AC, Hollar K, Rosenberg D, Stone HA: The science of chocolate: phase transitions, emulsification, and nucleation. J Chem Educ. 2011, 88: 29-33. 10.1021/ed100503p.
Rowat AC, Hollar K, Rosenberg D, Stone HA: The science of pizza: the molecular origins of cheese, bread, and digestion using interactive activities. J Food Sci Educ. 2010, 9: 106-112. 10.1111/j.1541-4329.2010.00101.x.
Mouritsen OG: Sushi: Food for the Eye, the Body, & the Soul. 2009, New York: Springer
Myhrvold N, Young C, Bilet M: Modernist Cuisine: The Art and Science of Cooking. 2011, Bellevue, WA: The Cooking Lab, 6:
Parkers K: Recipe for success: teachers get inspiration from 'gastrophysics'. Phys Educ. 2004, 39: 19-
Ogborn J: Soft matter: food for thought. Phys Educ. 2004, 39: 45-51. 10.1088/0031-9120/39/1/001.
Physics of Biological Systems. Edited by: Flyvbjerg H, Hertz J, Jensen MH, Mouritsen OG, Sneppen K. 1997, Heidelberg: Springer
Barsanti L, Gualtieri P: Algae: Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology. 2006, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
Andersen RA: Diversity of eukaryotic algae. Biodivers Conserv. 1992, 1: 267-292. 10.1007/BF00693765.
Braune W, Guiry MD: Seaweeds: A Colour Identification Guide to the Common Benthic Green, Brown and Red Algae of the World's Oceans. 2011, Revised and translated by Guiry MD. Königstein, Germany: Koeltz Scientific Books
Arasaki S, Arasaki T: Low Calorie, High Nutrition Vegetables from the Sea to Help You Look and Feel Better. 1983, Tokyo: Japan Publications Inc
Duarte CM, Marbá N, Holmer M: Rapid domestication of marine species. Science. 2001, 316: 382-383.
Mouritsen OG: Seaweeds. Edible, Available & Sustainable [in Danish]. 2009, Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag Arnold Busck
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. 2010, [http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e00.htm]
Løvstad Holdt S, Kraan S: Bioactive compounds in seaweed; functional food applications and legislation. J Appl Phycol. 2010, 23: 543-597.
Pereira L: A review of the nutrient composition of selected edible seaweeds. Seaweed: Ecology, Nutrient Composition and Medicinal Uses. Edited by: Pomin VH. Happauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers,
Colombo ML, Risè P, Giavarini F, De Angelis L, Galli C, Bolis CL: Marine macroalgae as sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2006, 61: 67-72.
Khotimchenko SV, Vaskovsky VE, Titlyanova TV: Fatty acids of marine algae from the Pacific Coast of North California. Botanica Marina. 2002, 45: 17-22.
Dawczynski C, Schubert R, Jahreis G: Amino acids, fatty acids, and dietary fibre in edible seaweed products. Food Chem. 2006, 103: 891-899.
Rupérez P: Mineral content of edible marine seaweeds. Food Chem. 2002, 79: 23-26. 10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00171-1.
Teas J, Pino S, Critchley A, Braverman LE: Variability of iodine content in common commercially available edible seaweeds. Thyroid. 2004, 14: 836-841. 10.1089/thy.2004.14.836.
van Netten C, Hoption Cann SA, Morley DR, van Netten JP: Elemental and radioactive analysis of commercially available seaweed. Sci Total Environ. 2000, 255: 169-175. 10.1016/S0048-9697(00)00467-8.
Sánchez-Machado DI, Lopez-Cervantes J, López-Hernández J, Paseiro-Losada P: Fatty acids, total lipid, protein and ash contents of processed edible seaweeds. Food Chem. 2004, 85: 439-444. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.08.001.
MacArtain P, Gill CIR, Brooks M, Campbell R, Rowland IR: Nutritional value of edible seaweeds. Nutr Rev. 2007, 65: 535-543. 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2007.tb00278.x.
Simopoulos AP: The importance of the ratio of ω-6/ω-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother. 2002, 56: 365-379. 10.1016/S0753-3322(02)00253-6.
Valentine RC, Valentine DL: Ω-3 Fatty Acids and the DHA Principle. 2010, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
Poly-unsaturated fatty acids, neural function and mental health. Biol Skr Dan Vid Selsk. Edited by: Mouritsen OG, Crawford MA. 2007, 56: 1-87.
Cunnane SC, Stewart KM: Human Brain Evolution: The Influence of Freshwater and Marine Food Resources. 2010, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell
Seaweed Symposium: Seaweeds for Human Consumption, Bioactive Compounds, and Combating of Diseases. 2010, An international interdisciplinary symposium, Carlsberg Academy, Copenhagen, Denmark, [http://www.tangbog.dk/?page_id=597]
Spirulina in Human Nutrition and Health. Edited by: Gershwin ME, Belay A. 2008, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
Ley BM: Chlorella: The Ultimate Green Food. 2003, Golden Valley, MN: BL Publications/NHL Ministries
Dillehay T, Ramírez DC, Pino M, Collins MB, Rossen J, Pino-Navarro JD: Monte Verde: Seaweed, food, medicine, and the peopling of South America. Science. 2008, 320: 784-786. 10.1126/science.1156533.
Rhatigan P: Irish Seaweed Kitchen: The Comprehensive Guide to Healthy Everyday Cooking with Seaweeds. 2010, Co Down, Ireland: Booklink
Mouritsen OG, Williams L, Bjerregaard R, Duelund L: Seaweeds for umami flavour in the New Nordic Cuisine. Flavour.
Cooper Madlener J: The Seavegetable Book: Foraging and Cooking Seaweed. 1977, New York: Clarkson N Potter
Babel K: Seafood Sense: The Truth About Seafood Nutrition & Safety. 2005, Laguna Beach, CA: Basic Health Publications
Bradford P, Bradford M: Cooking with Sea Vegetables: A Collection of Naturally Delicious Dishes Using to the Full the Bountiful Harvest of the Oceans. 1985, New York: Thorson Publishers
Chavannes CD: Algues: Légumes de la mer. 2002, Sète, France: Editions La Plage
Cooksley VG: Seaweed: Nature's Secret Balancing Your Metabolism, Fighting Disease, and Revitalizing Body & Soul. 2007, New York: Stewart, Tabori and Chang
Ellis L: Seaweed, A Cook's Guide: Tempting Recipes for Seaweed and Sea Vegetables. 1998, San Francisco: Fisher Books
Fryer L, Simmons D: Food Power from the Sea: The Seaweed Story. 1977, Austin, TX: Acres U.S.A.
Gusman J: Vegetables from the Sea. Everyday Cooking with Sea Greens. 2003, New York: William Morrow Cookbooks
Huston F, Milne X: Seaweed and Eat It: A Family Foraging and Cooking Adventure. 2008, London: Virgin Books
Maderia CJ: The New Seaweed Cookbook: A Complete Guide to Discovering the Deep Flavors of the Sea. 2007, Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books
Lewallen E, Lewallen J: Sea Vegetable Gourmet Cookbook and Wildcrafter's Guide. 1996, Mendocino, CA: Mendocino Sea Vegetable Co
Erhart S, Cerier L: Sea Vegetable Celebration. 2001, Summertown, TN: Tennessee Book Publishing Co
McConnaughey E: Sea Vegetables: Harvesting Guide & Cookbook. 2002, Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers
Harbo RM: The Edible Seashore: Pacific Shores Cookbook & Guide. 1988, Surrey, BC: Hancock House
Druehl L: Pacific Seaweeds: A Guide to Common Seaweeds of the West Coast. 2000, Madeira Park, BC: Harbour Publishing
Ninomiya K: Umami: a universal taste. Food Rev Int. 2002, 18: 23-38. 10.1081/FRI-120003415.
Kasabian A, Kasabian D: The Fifth Taste: Cooking with Umami. 2005, New York: Universe Publishing
Blumenthal H, Barbot P, Matsushisa N, Mikuni K: Dashi and Umami: The Heart of Japanese Cuisine. 2009, London: Eat-Japan, Cross Media
Mouritsen OG, Styrbæk K: Umami: The Gourmet Ape & the Fifth Taste [in Danish]. 2011, Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag Arnold Busck
Zhang F, Klebansky B, Fine RM, Xu H, Pronin A, Liu C, Tachdjian C, Li X: Molecular mechanism for the umami taste synergism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008, 105: 20930-20934. 10.1073/pnas.0810174106.
Strauss S: Parse the salt, please. Nat Med. 2010, 16: 841-843. 10.1038/nm0810-841.
López-López I, Cofrades S, Jiménez-Colmenero F: Low-fat frankfurters enriched with n-3 PUFA and edible seaweed: effects of olive oil and chilled storage on physicochemical, sensory and microbial characteristics. Meat Sci. 2009, 83: 148-154. 10.1016/j.meatsci.2009.04.014.
Mithril C, Dragsted LO, Meyer C, Blauert E, Holt MK, Astrup A: Guidelines for the New Nordic Diet. Pub Health Nutr. 2012,
Mithril C, Dragsted LO, Meyer C, Blauert E, Holt MK, Astrup A: Guidelines for the New Nordic Diet. Pub Health Nutr 2012, 17:1-7.
The author gratefully acknowledges many discussions with Per Lyngs Hansen and Amy Rowat about the science and practicalities of cooking and for coining and clarifying the term 'gastrophysics'. Felix Gõni is thanked for references to papers on the science of cooking in the Spanish magazine SEBBM. Mariela Johansen is gratefully acknowledged for careful translation, from Danish into English, of some of the author's writing on seaweeds. MEMPHYS was supported as a centre of excellence by the Danish National Research Foundation for the period 2001 to 2011. The Nordic Food Lab is an independent institution supported by Danish government sources, external funds and private companies, as well as by foundations such as NordeaFonden. This work was supported by a grant (J.nr. 3414-09-02518) from the Danish Food Industry Agency.
MEMPHYS, Center for Biomembrane Physics, Department of Physics and Chemistry, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, Odense M, DK, 5230, Denmark
Ole G Mouritsen
Nordic Food Lab, 93 Strandgade, Copenhagen K, DK, 1401, Denmark
Search for Ole G Mouritsen in:
Correspondence to Ole G Mouritsen.
Mouritsen, O.G. The emerging science of gastrophysics and its application to the algal cuisine. Flavour 1, 6 (2012) doi:10.1186/2044-7248-1-6
Accepted: 04 April 2012
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2044-7248-1-6
gastrophysics

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
import Ember from 'ember-metal/core';

/*
  Ember can run in many different environments, including environments like
  Node.js where the DOM is unavailable. This object serves as an abstraction
  over the browser features that Ember relies on, so that code does not
  explode when trying to boot in an environment that doesn't have them.

  This is a private abstraction. In the future, we hope that other
  abstractions (like `Location`, `Renderer`, `dom-helper`) can fully abstract
  over the differences in environment.
*/
var environment;

// This code attempts to automatically detect an environment with DOM
// by searching for window and document.createElement. An environment
// with DOM may disable the DOM functionality of Ember explicitly by
// defining a `disableBrowserEnvironment` ENV.
var hasDOM = typeof window !== 'undefined' &&
             typeof document !== 'undefined' &&
             typeof document.createElement !== 'undefined' &&
             !Ember.ENV.disableBrowserEnvironment;

if (hasDOM) {
  environment = {
    hasDOM: true,
    isChrome: !!window.chrome && !window.opera,
    location: window.location,
    history: window.history,
    userAgent: window.navigator.userAgent,
    global: window
  };
} else {
  environment = {
    hasDOM: false,
    isChrome: false,
    location: null,
    history: null,
    userAgent: "Lynx (textmode)",
    global: null
  };
}

export default environment;

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


DESCRIPTION: Montegrappa stands proud as an originator amongst the manufacturers of superior writing implements. Drawing on their considerable expertise, Montegrappa will be offering the ideal pen to commemorate the Home Of Golf, St Andrews Links.
2010 welcomes the return of The Open Championship to The Old Course at St Andrews Links, marking its 150th anniversary. With such a momentous year, interest in the world's most famous golf venue has never been higher. Golf fans around the world will be able to own a very special, officially licensed product, commemorating this milestone year.
A new range of writing instruments, produced under the Montegrappa brand, will represent the quality, history and beauty associated with St Andrews Links.
Fittingly utilizing green celluloid and detailed with a golf ball cabochon on the cap with a reproduction of an original illustration of St Andrews Links on the barrel, the Montegrappa pens will signify six centuries of golf played on the Links at St Andrews since approximately 1400 AD.
By the 19th century, golf had woven its way into the fabric of the local community, becoming a way of life for local citizens, as players, caddies or ball and club makers.
Golf remains the cultural and economic life-blood of St Andrews to this day.


text:
Dark Matter, Dark Energy, Dark Gravity
Enabling a Universe that Supports Intelligent Life
Do we have a CoGeNT direct detection of Dark Matter?
By darkmatterdarkenergy
CoGeNT detector during installation (Credit: Pacific Northwest National Laboratories)
(cogent = clear, logical, convincing)
The race to demonstrate direct detection of WIMP (weakly interacting massive particle) dark matter is heating up with this month's release of results from the CoGeNT experiment, located in a mine in northern Minnesota*. They have just published results collected during the first 15 months of data taking. CoGeNT, as the Ge in the name indicates, uses a detector made of germanium.
There are quite a few such experiments that seek to measure the impact of WIMP dark matter as it directly strikes nucleons, that is, protons and neutrons, in some target material. The cross sections expected for such direct impact are extremely low, thus the experiments require relatively large detectors, high sensitivity, and long runs to gather sufficient statistical evidence of impacts and separate good events from background events due to other causes. The most favored candidate is a WIMP with mass somewhat under 10 GeV to perhaps as high as 200 GeV (the proton rest mass is .938 GeV, a GeV is a billion electron volts, and the mass is stated in energy equivalent units).
While XENON, CDMS (located in the same Soudan laboratory in Minnesota) and other direct experiments have not detected dark matter, for a number of years the DAMA/LIBRA project in Italy has been claiming the detection of an annual modulation of a dark matter signal. The modulation is said to be due to movement of the Earth toward and then away from the galactic center as it orbits the Sun each year, with the signal peaking in the second quarter of the year.
The CoGeNT experiment is also now claiming a detection of an annual modulation with about 2.7 or 2.8 sigma (standard deviations) of statistical significance, which is at the margin of a good detection. DAMA/LIBRA, which uses a thallium-doped sodium iodide crystal (salt) detector, claims a very high statistical significance of 8.9 sigma. Generally, 3 sigma of significance is considered sufficient for a good detection and 5 sigma would be considered a solid detection. The DAMA/LIBRA events have until now been unconfirmed, and have appeared to be in conflict with limits from other experiments including XENON and CDMS.
The CoGeNT results are consistent with DAMA/LIBRA in two respects. First, they together imply a relatively low mass of 5 to 12 GeV for the dark matter WIMP. Second, both the CoGeNT and DAMA experiments are consistent with an annual modulation peak occurring sometime between late April and the end of May, as is expected based on the Earth's orbit combined with the Sun's movement relative to the galactic center.
While the CDMS results appear to set limits which contradict both the CoGeNT and DAMA results, there are a number of uncertainties in the actual sensitivity of the respective experiments that may allow resolution of the apparent discrepancy.
We eagerly await further results from CoGeNT and from other experiments including CRESST and COUPP that are well suited to measurement of a relatively low mass WIMP particle such as CoGeNT is claiming to have detected.
*The mine is located in a state park, and tours down into the mine run during the summer months. It is also near to the beautiful Boundary Waters Canoe area that crosses into Canada, where I took a ten day canoe excursion as a Boy Scout, decades ago.
http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/New_data_still_have_scientists_in_dark_over_dark_matter_999.html
http://cogent.pnnl.gov/
C. Aalseth et al. 2011, "Search for an Annual Modulation in a P-type Point Contact Germanium Dark Matter Detector" http://arXiv.org/pdf/1106.0650
D. Hooper and C. Kelso 2011 "Implications of CoGeNT's New Results for Dark Matter" http://arXiv.org/pdf/1106.1066v1
2 Comments	| tags: Cogent, Dark matter, direct detection, WIMP	| posted in Dark Matter
Dark Matter Powered Stars
GRB (gamma ray burster) 070125. Credit: B. Cenko, et al. and the W. M. Keck Observatory.
So what is a "dark star"? It is not a Newtonian black hole as suggested by John Michell in the 18th century who used the term while postulating that gravity could prevent light escaping from a very massive, compact star. It is not a "dark energy star", which is related to a black hole, but rather than having a singularity at the center, quantum effects cause infalling matter to be converted to vacuum state energy, dark energy. It is not a comic book, science fiction comedy film, or Grateful Dead song.
In this blog entry we are writing about dark matter powered stars. These would be the very first stars, formed within the first few hundred million years of the universe's existence. The working assumption is that dark matter consists of WIMPs – weakly interacting massive particles, in particular the favored candidate is the neutralino. The neutralino is the lightest particle among the postulated supersymmetric companions to the Standard Model suite of particles. As such it would be stable, would not ordinarily decay and is being searched for with XENON, CDMS, DAMA, AMS-02 and many other experiments.
The first stars are thought by astrophysicists to have been formed from clouds of ordinary hydrogen and helium as well as dark matter, with dark matter accounting for 5/6 of the total mass. These clouds, called "dark matter halos" are considered to have contained from about one million to 100 million times the Sun's mass. The ordinary matter would settle towards the center as it cooled via radiation processes and the dark matter (which does not radiate) would be more diffuse. The stars forming at the center would be overwhelmingly composed of ordinary matter (hydrogen and helium nuclei and electrons).
Without any dark matter at all, ordinary matter stars up to about 120 to 150 solar masses could form; above this limit they would have very hot surfaces and their own radiation would inhibit further growth by infall of matter from the halo. But if as little as one part in a thousand of the protostar's mass was in the form of dark matter this limitation goes away. The reason is that the neutralino WIMPs will, from time to time, meet one another inside the star and mutually annihilate since the neutralino is its own anti-particle. The major fraction of the energy produced in the annihilation remains inside the star, but some escapes in the form of neutrinos (not neutralinos).
Annihilation of these neutralinos is a very efficient heating mechanism throughout the volume of the star, creating a great amount of heat and pressure support, basically puffing up the star to a very large size. The stellar surface is, as a result, much cooler than in the no dark matter case, radiation pressure is insignificant, and accretion of significantly more material onto the star can occur. Stars could grow to be 1000 solar masses, or 10,000 solar masses, potentially even up to one million solar masses. Their sizes would be enormous while they were in the dark matter powered phase. Even the relatively small 1000 solar mass star, if placed at the Sun's location, would extend through much of our Solar System, beyond the orbit of Saturn.
We have mentioned the neutralino meets neutralino annihilation mechanism. A second mechanism for heating the interior of the star would be direct impact of neutralinos onto protons and helium nuclei. This second mechanism could help sustain the duration as a dark matter powered star potentially even beyond a billion years.
Eventually the dark matter fuel would be exhausted, and the heat and pressure support from this source lost. The star would then collapse until the core was hot enough for nuclear fusion burning. Stars of 1000 solar masses would burn hydrogen, and later helium, and evolve extremely rapidly because of the high density and temperature in their cores. After their hydrogen and helium fusion cycles completed there would be no source of sufficient pressure support and they would collapse to black holes (or maybe dark energy stars).
It is calculated with detailed simulations that the dark star mechanism allows for much more massive stars than could be formed otherwise, and this provides a potentially natural explanation for the creation of massive black holes. Our own Milky Way has a black hole around 3 million solar masses at its center, and it appears a majority of galaxies have large black holes. The image at the top of this blog is of a gamma ray burst detection that may have come from a large black hole formation event.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_star_(dark_matter)
Freese, K. et al 2008, Dark Stars: the First Stars in the Universe may be powered by Dark Matter Heating, http://arxiv.org/pdf/0812.4844v1
Freese, K. et al 2010, Supermassive Dark Stars, http://arxiv.org/abs/1002.2233
http://news.discovery.com/space/did-dark-stars-spawn-supermassive-black-holes.html
2 Comments	| tags: Dark matter, dark matter annihilation, first stars, neutralinos, WIMPs	| posted in Dark Matter


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Do you or someone you love struggle with anxiety?
Are relationships limited to due social anxiety?
Is there tension in your body and do you have difficulty focusing because your mind is racing?
Neurofeedback can help create the calm you need. You can feel relaxed. Call us at 720-583-9332 to learn more!
Neurofeedback (NFT) is a safe, smart and natural solution to not only treat anxiety, but to help you take control of your life.
An all-natural, safe and medication-free solution for treating anxiety, neurofeedback can help you live a happier, healthier life free of anxieties holding you back. For more information, please check out our Neurofeedback page, or call 720-583-9332 for a free 20-minute phone consultation or to schedule an appointment.


Yes, can you please (everyone) scale down future images so it doesn't stretch the page out? Thanks.
edited the rsrc file myself to get the adidas logo for the apple menu button.
Looking at your Dreamweaver MX 2004. You should upgrade to 8.
I don't have money to spend on it at this point. The dreamweaver in the dock is a demo, so I don't even use it anymore. I've been using NVU as of late.
Haha, I edited the speach bubble to fix the creator's terrible spelling lol!
here's my desktop for April.
I would be more than happy to share if anyone thinks they are good.
Can anybody guess what the icons are?
Oh yes. Your photos are very nice Basden.
Here's my current desktop. I like my workspace neat and clean and I don't use the dock for anything except for stashing open windows. All my apps are launched via Butler. Image is from interfacelift.com. 10 points for whoever can guess what all my devices are named after!
Are they by any chance rides at 6 flags?
Yes, we have a winner! But they're not just coasters from Six Flags. They're from a variety of parks and are my favorites (so far).
Charles, how did you get your dock to be at the top?
i feel like a loner. i cant use shapeshifter to change my computer around.
thats all i get to have.
Can anybody guess what my icons are for? This is in my last screenshot post.
I googled it and your post came up before any app. Can you provide a URL?
Also you could do what I did and use the terminal.


text:
Board of Supervisors officially adopts countywide strategic plan
FFXnow.com October 6, 2021 at 11:00am
Fairfax County officially has its first countywide strategic plan.
The Board of Supervisors voted 9-1 yesterday (Tuesday) to adopt the document, which presents an all-encompassing, coordinated vision for the county's operations, priorities, and services over the next two decades.
In the works since 2019, the strategic plan focuses on 10 "community outcome areas" that "represent the issues of greatest importance" to the community:
Cultural and recreational opportunities
Effective and efficient government
Empowerment and support for residents facing vulnerability
Housing and neighborhood livability
Lifelong education and learning
"The Countywide Strategic Plan will help guide our future together so the Board, residents and staff are working toward the same goals and outcomes," Board of Supervisors Chairman Jeff McKay said in a press release. "This plan will be a centralized, coordinated way for us to be even more efficient as a government so we're more responsive to our community's needs."
The strategic plan was initially developed prior to the pandemic, but the county paused the process due to the public health emergency and reworked the plan to encompass new prioritizations from the last 18 months.
The main change was the separation of health and environment into two separate categories.
It's intended to be a living document that integrates other broad planning efforts like the Fairfax County Public Schools' strategic plan and the One Fairfax policy. It will also help the board focus its legislative efforts over the next several years.
In the press release, County Executive Bryan Hill called Fairfax County's first-ever "unified" strategic plan "a key milestone" in the government's efforts to shape the county's future.
"I'm grateful to the tens of thousands of residents and hundreds of staff who have developed this plan," Hill said. "I look forward to the next steps, including reporting results to the community, aligning existing plans within this framework and further advancing our One Fairfax equity lens across all outcome areas."
At yesterday's Board of Supervisors meeting, Springfield District Supervisor Pat Herrity was the only board member to vote against adopting the plan, citing insufficient community feedback.
He also argued that the plan should do more to address traffic congestion and that it will continue to allow taxes to be too high.
The other supervisors approved the strategic plan, despite several noting that they were not 100% pleased with the process and expressing concern that the document is too vague.
Dranesville District Supervisor John Foust criticized the lack of prioritization, information about implementation, or how the county is progressing based on over 150 metrics identified by the plan.
"I don't think we are done, to say the least," Foust said. "This is not, in my opinion, a roadmap for the county executive to prioritize and budget…We need to keep working, and the board has to stay involved to complete the process."
Several supervisors observed that there was a lack of participation from a diverse set of voices.
As of September, the county had received nearly 22,000 survey responses in eight different languages. A fourth survey closed on Sept. 24, so that number will be updated later this month.
A feedback session held in July found that the attendees' preferred focus areas were cultural and recreational opportunities, economic stability and mobility, financial sustainability and access to services.
Now that the plan has been adopted, the county will start implementing its guidelines, a process that will include further community engagement, prioritization, and identifying "headline metrics" in each of the 10 areas that will be used to develop the fiscal year 2024 budget.
Construction contractor selected for 495 NEXT toll lanes projectPet of the Week: Mia, a small but saucy "hot tamale" who loves to play and cuddle


text:
Is this the Greatest Safari in the World?
Dixon Yacht Designs 'Game Changer' 70m/230ft Project NewDawn
Top 101 Largest Superyachts in the World Revealed
Ferretti Yachts 920 PURE: It Feels Just Like Home
CRN Unveils Concept of New Superyacht M/Y 138
Superyacht Magazine
Explorer Yachts
Home > Design > The Superyachts of the Future are Bigger, Better, and Bolder
The Superyachts of the Future are Bigger, Better, and Bolder
October 24, 2019 editor
It used to be thought that superyachts couldn't get any bigger, better, or more extravagant. Well, think again. The superyachts of the future boast futuristic design, state-of-the-art technology, and an increasing roster of green credentials. Here, we take a look at some of the key next generation trends in the yachting world.
Superyacht design is challenging expectations
Superyacht design is getting ever more innovative and unusual, marrying technology and science to create yachts that turn heads wherever they go.
Today's yacht owners are younger than ever, and it is these millennial magnates that are challenging expectations when it comes to superyacht construction, requesting increasingly more extreme designs that push the limits, from futuristic looking silhouettes, to the use of new and innovative materials.
The superyachts of the future are also increasingly embracing glass. As glass technology has continued to advance, windows are getting bigger and playing a far larger role in the look and feel of the next generation of yachts.
Superyachts of the future are also getting bigger, with an increasing number now exceeding the 100-metre mark, with the world's longest yacht now measuring 180-metres. This rise in supersized yachts is linked to an increase in the world's number of billionaires, who now have more cash than ever to splurge on a superyacht that wows.
Eco-friendly superyachts of the future
Superyacht design is now not only challenging expectations on how today's yachts look, but yacht designers and owners are also pushing the boundaries on creating greener more sustainable vessels that offer low-impact, environmentally conscious cruising.
Hybrid yachts, vessels that utilise hybrid propulsion systems that combine both electric battery and engine power, are becoming increasingly popular, reducing the use of fuel-burning engines and generators.
The superyachts of the future are also embracing a host of green features, including solar panels, battery-storage systems, wastewater recycling systems, variable pitch propellers, solar sails, and state-of-the-art dynamic positioning systems. Materials such as carbon fibre also help reduce the weight of superyachts, meaning less power is needed to propel them through the water, thus lowering their impact on the environment.
Superyachts of the future are experience-led
The superyachts of the future are all about experiences. Today's owners want to travel further and enjoy more of what the world has to offer. With this in mind, superyacht owners are increasingly requesting yachts that double up as genuine ocean-going vessels, creating a new breed of superyacht; the explorer yacht.
These superyachts of the future have the capacity to chart more extreme waters, allowing owners to get away from the crowds and the traditional blue-water havens that most yacht owners seek. These explorer yachts boast rugged exteriors that are equipped for adventure; however, their interiors still offer all the luxuries of a traditional superyacht.
Superyachts of the future boast extravagant features
Gone are the days of superyachts featuring traditional interior lounges, suites, deck space, and little else. The superyachts of the future boast a roster of extravagant design features, offering the ultimate onboard experience.
Owners increasingly want to make the most of a yacht's exterior space and embrace life at sea. Multi-purpose rooms that can quickly be opened up to bring the outside in are de rigueur amongst yacht owners, while beach club areas are becoming increasingly popular, giving owners and their guests the opportunity to be as close to the water as possible, without actually getting wet.
Other notable features that are leading the way in modern superyacht design include extravagant wellness centres, including sumptuous spa spaces boasting saunas, steam rooms, treatment areas, and state-of-the-art gyms. Stabilised pool tables, surf-riding machines, bowling alleys, infinity pools, nightclubs, and casinos are all increasingly becoming standard on today's yachts. Some yachts now even feature snow rooms, an icy spa chamber with snowflakes that tumble from the ceiling.
So, just when you though yachts couldn't get any bigger or better, the superyachts of the future are raising the bar even further.
Article by Joanna Lewis
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Order of the National Green Tribunal regarding stone crushing units affecting health, District Nagaur, Rajasthan, 15/05/2019
Order of the National Green Tribunal in the matter of Ganpat Ram Mirdha Vs State of Rajasthan & Others dated 15/05/2019 regarding the health effects of air pollution caused by stone crushing units in the villages of Koliya, Naka ke Dhani, Nozalo ke Dhani and Bandolai ke Dhani in Tehsil Didwana, District Nagaur, Rajasthan.
NGT had directed the Director Medical Health, State of Rajasthan to constitute a team of three medical doctors from Jaipur, in consultation with the Principal Medical Colleges, Sawai Man Singh, Hospital, Jaipur, relating to pulmonary diseases. The said team was to immediately visit four villages namely, Koliya, Naka ke dhani, Nozalo ke Dhani and Bandolai ke Dhani in Tehsil Didwana, District Nagaur and submit a report. But the report was filed by the Chief Medical & Health Officer, Nagaur, Rajasthan and the study area was also limited to just one village of Koliya.
The NGT directs appointment of a Court Commissioner, who will be a doctor having experience of pulmonary diseases. The Commissioner would have a team of two or more doctors and visit the four villages and examine all the villagers.
Order Dated 26/04/2019
Nagaur (D)


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#Apex2018: How to build a global brand with a local insight
26 Jul 2018 | Email | Print | PDF
By: Jessica Tennant
Veteran marketer Sharon Keith shared on the topic 'Our world: a small global village' four basic principles in explaining how to build global brands at the local level and examples to demonstrate these at the Association for Communication and Advertising's Apex 2018 'Next Level of Thinking Masterclass' last week.
Sharon Keith
What's interesting is that, according to the latest Interbrand Rankings, the top 10 global brands at the moment constitute 42% of the total value of the brands surveyed and seven of which are tech-based. "If you look at those brands, there's absolutely no way that they could become global brands if they weren't relevant, credible and interesting to people at an extremely local level.
"There is very little that can be taken from some sort of mythical global head office, and just plug and play… What we've got to do is start integrating and using some of those tricks of the trade." So, how do you build global brands at a local level?
Here, what marketers need to do if they want to be successful...
1. Build a brand vision and a mission that inspires (and translates in) local markets
"We've all come across marketing campaigns that have been quite misguided and flung into South Africa, and you can just see and marvel that the people haven't spent the time trying to translate and express that global vision and mission at the local level."
Jonnie Walker, for example, stumbled upon an insight that people all around the world seek to progress in their lives. "They want to do better than the previous generation. They want their children to have a better life, and they want to be able to mark that personal progress."
By acting on this insight, the brand went from being just another status whiskey to celebrating and marking those steps along the way on everybody's journey. "This is something that resonates everywhere in the world, but the amount of work that goes into translating that in SA, in Uganda, in Kenya, in wherever, is the important piece… Instantly, people get it. There isn't even much copy there. Just 'keep walking', and that's what inspires people."
2. Put a global brand operating system in place to drive consistency: visuals; narrative
I know this sounds counterproductive because on the one hand you've got this vision and this mission and it's all very higher purpose stuff, but on the other hand you've got a system and rules and constraints.
But these are absolutely necessary. Consistency is not only important for the visual identity but also in terms of the brand's story, what the brand stands for and how it differentiates itself.
#AfricaMonth: Sharon Keith on leaving the Coca-Cola high
By Leigh Andrews 22 May 2018
Although Keith recently left the Coca-Cola Company (where her role was marketing director for the Southern & East African Business Unit), she thought it relevant to mention that the brand has a portal called 'Dmex', which is "a repository of absolutely everything related to the brand, from the colours to the copy, to the creative ideas to the digital marketing assets, to everything", she explained. "This is not only available to the people within the Coca-Cola company, but also to all of its partner agencies, suppliers and bottling companies that work with Coca-Cola so that you don't end up getting a sort of pinky-red Coca-Cola umbrella or an orangey-red Coca-Cola tablecloth."
This may sound petty or pedantic to some, but what this means is that everyone involved ends up treating the brand and its assets with the reference and consistency that shows up everywhere in the world. Coca-Cola isn't the only multinational using this kind of tool.
Global brand operating system in place: Visuals – Heineken
Heineken is particularly disciplined about how the brand is treated. "It just doesn't show up in any kind of hand-fisted, amateurish way. It always looks absolutely beautiful, and the amount of money they spend on that photography and designing their visual inventory pays off because everybody uses it. Whether the brand is showing up in Vietnam or Mexico, this is what it looks like:"
(c) fabio bergamasco - 123RF.com
Global brand operating system in place: Narrative – Dove
"When you're building a global brand, you are going to make mistakes, but I think the narrative on Dove has been absolutely consistent, and there has been a system to keep that narrative consistent around the world."
Dove apologises for 'racist' whitewashing ad, social media won't accept
By Jessica Tennant 9 Oct 2017
While the brand has made the occasional misstep, it generally gets its narrative right, and in so doing, they've transformed the way women feel about themselves and about what constitutes beauty. "I think that has made it a much more valuable brand, as they've allowed everybody around the world to build the brand in their own way."
3. Translate your global narrative locally (collaborate for localised consumer insight)
The keyword here is collaboration.
Don't just use Netflix and things from somewhere else. Go and immerse yourself in the deeply local things that people know and care about, because that is where you'll find the greatest insights.
For a while, Pampers used this motif of the stork supplying pampers. They put it all over their packaging and their advertising and they were mystified when the brand just did not succeed. After discovering the local insight that Japan doesn't know the story of the stork delivering babies, the brand changed its packaging, as well as the story and the narrative in Japan. "This has transformed the brand's performance in Japan, so sometimes it's the interpretation of the narrative that's really important to making the difference."
The 'Coca-Cola celebrating Ramadan' campaign is about translating the global narrative locally. "Coca-Cola is a very inclusive brand. It's a brand that speaks to connecting people, that speaks to happiness, and this was the recent Coca-Cola ad that was produced for Ramadan…
"This wasn't made in Atlanta. This wasn't developed by some global brand manager. This was developed in Dubai for Dubai and was used in a number of different countries around the world because it represented an idea and an ideal that the brand stands for."
The 'Coca-Cola Coke Fanta' campaign recently won Gold at Cannes, and this was entirely conceived and developed locally in Brazil for a uniquely Brazilian insight. "I think what's important here is that the global team trusted the local team to take a very brave stance on a local insight that was very real in Brazil."
This demonstrates how to take a global brand and an intensely local insight to find the sweet spot. "It's work like this that changes people's attitudes and behaviour… and that's what keeps a global brand alive."
#CannesLions2018: Design Lions winners!
#CannesLions2018: Reach Lions winners!
4. Use your common sense (don't assume anything)
"We often get tangled up in the latest academic journal articles and technical terms. We're human beings: we respond like human beings; we're not machines; and understanding that response is what makes for great marketing and allows for big creative ideas."
#FairnessFirst: H&M's diversity manager and the #pinkify debate
By Leigh Andrews 22 Jan 2018
Here she used the H&M example. "We've all been there, and seen these mistakes, and I don't believe that they were just bad marketers, I just think that they probably didn't think enough about who they were aiming this work at and how are they were going to respond.
"First and foremost, let's really get to the heart of who our consumers are and what they care about."
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About Jessica Tennant
Jess is Senior Editor: Marketing & Media at Bizcommunity.com. She is also a contributing writer. moc.ytinummoczib@swengnitekram
Read more: Association for Communication and Advertising, Coca-Cola Company, Apex, Sharon Keith, APEX masterclass, Apex Masterclass
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The Queensland Government has launched a pool safety education campaign, on the day that new laws come into effect.
All pool fences will have to comply with new safety requirements within five years, but safety inspections will be required if a property is sold or rented before then.
Infrastructure Minister Stirling Hinchliffe says pool owners have a responsibility to protect children from drowning.
"There was always going to be information needed to be got out further," he said.
"This is the right time to be doing it when it comes into force, but for the vast majority of pools of course there's a five year phase-in period."


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Organisations must be signatories to the ACFID Code of Conduct to become Full Members. Becoming a signatory to the Code can be done as part of the application process. If you are an NGO that is eligible for Full membership but decide NOT to take this up, you cannot choose to be an Affiliate member instead, nor only become a Code signatory.
Entitled to nominate a person for election to the Executive Committee.
Affiliate Membership is open to Australian organisations and institutions that share ACFID's vision and wish to work with Australian NGOs through joint advocacy, research, information provision, training, funding or other services.
Affiliate Membership is only open to organisations and institutions that are ineligible for Full Membership. Eligibility under these criteria is at the discretion of the ACFID Executive Committee.
Affiliates can choose whether or not to become signatories to the ACFID Code of Conduct. Those Affiliates who do choose to become signatories will be expected to prepare additional documents as part of the application process.
Able to participate in committees and working groups of ACFID.
The Research for Development Impact Network is a collaboration between ACFID Member NGOs and Australian universities. The network is based upon a collective desire to widen the debate on international development and to strengthen collaboration between academics and members of ACFID.
For ACFID and ACFID Members, universities represent valuable partners with whom we can increase our collective impact against poverty and enhance the sector's capacity for development effectiveness and research.
For universities, ACFID offers a valuable platform to establish industry partners in the aid and development sector, increasing the impact and applicability of teaching and research conducted in the university.
Universities wishing to engage with ACFID through The Research for Development Impact Network are encouraged to consider Affiliate Membership as a way to strengthen their collaboration with ACFID Members.
If you would like any more information on ACFID membership, please contact us.


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Rod Sandberg is wary of making comparisons, so the Whitworth head football coach adheres to a don't-worry-about-them strategy. But Sandberg, who holds a 23-8 record since taking the reins for the Pirates in 2014, was quick to make this distinction: Of the eight Northwest Conference football members last fall, Whitworth was the only team without artificial turf. Playing games at the well-manicured Pine Bowl was well and good, but even tiny Washington high schools were going the synthetic route. "Royal (City), a little farm town with a great football program. It had field lights and turf. It was beautiful," Sandberg said while recalling a recruiting trip. "And we were the only team in our conference without turf." Those days are over. This month Whitworth unveils its FieldTurf Revolution 360 surface, a $1 million dollar project and the first of three donor-funded pursuits for the school's athletic department. A new amenity-filled Pine Bowl press box and a centralized athletics building – an estimated $13 million between the two projects – are still in the planning and funding stages.
The new turf, which features Whitworth's flag logo at midfield and reads "Pirates" in both black and crimson end zones, is near completion. It's slated for use before the football team's Aug. 26 scrimmage. The push for a turf field was spawned last fall and the wheels were swiftly put in motion, Whitworth campus construction project manager Fred Johnston said. "We were very hungry to get this going and worked hard to make it happen," Johnston said. "In a lot of cases, it takes around two years to do this. We had a lot of support." Last November, Whitworth trustee Walter Oliver and his wife Kay donated $3.1 million to the athletic department to help fund the proposed plans. The turf field will also service the track and lacrosse programs. "The trend is schools going to turf fields," Johnston said. "This keeps us competitive in recruiting, it leads to less injuries and there's less maintenance." A study from Dr. Michael C. Meyers of the Department of Health and Human Development at Montana State University confirmed that FieldTurf is safer than natural grass sports surfaces, citing 20 percent fewer severe injuries an 11 percent few concussions. FieldTurf's robust national clientele includes the Seattle Seahawks, the University of Washington and Washington State University.
"The No. 1 reason I wanted this was for recruiting," Sandberg said. "Eastern (Washington) has the red (turf), Boise (State) has the blue. Our grass field was still good, but it's not about what you or I think. It's about what an 18-year-old thinks and it can affect their decision." Cade Foisset, a Whitworth junior middle linebacker, noted that the majority of his teammates' high school fields were turf. "The turf helps us because we're a fast team," said Foisset, a Bend, Oregon, product. "It's exciting. It also gives you more options. Grass is great, but during winter conditioning, it's easier to get the snow off of turf." Puget Sound, which has a turf practice facility, will be the only NWC member playing its home games on grass this season.
Whitworth athletic director Tim Demant's office is a five-minute walk from some of his coaches. Sandberg has to walk across the parking lot to get to a copy machine. Baseball coach Dan Ramsay essentially works out of a closet. "There's a lot of sharing," said Noelle Bouillard, Whitworth's women's lacrosse coach. Coaches and administration at Whitworth are spread throughout the campus, some in outdated digs. The building project is geared to house all the coaches together in a new, centralized location for athletic leadership. According to the proposal, the second floor is for locker rooms, offices and meeting spaces. Currently, 120 football players share 60 lockers. The new 10,000 square-foot press box is also geared to boost the school's recruiting and boost fan experience. It is slated to be two stories and include luxury suits, merchandising, concessions, lounges and media rooms. Construction will begin when fundraising is complete, but the school's hope is to break ground next spring.
"Updating the Pine Bowl and constructing an athletics-administration building will not only provide our football players and fans with a state-of-the-art facility equal to the excellence our team strives for each and every day," Demant said in a press release. "but will also create a place where our coaches and staff can work more collaboratively to foster the amazing culture and camaraderie that exist between coaches, staff and student-athletes. Of Whitworth's 2,700 students, nearly 25 percent are involved in athletics. "With that many student-athletes, a central athletics building will be a great thing," Johnston said.


Conceptually, Stephanie Barber's short film LETTERS, NOTES is simplicity itself: found photographs hold the screen as animated texts transcribe brief notes and letters unmoored from context. And yet the elusive poignancy that emerges of this exquisite corpse structure is richly suggestive of the roots of narrative. If a code is a "reduced version of lang." (as one of the more enigmatic notes reads) then Barber's film might be said to explore the possibilities of decoding: specifically, how cinema makes it possible to rewrite sounds and images as emotions. LETTERS, NOTES is another remarkable selection from the Cinemad Almanac.
This is a prime example of simplicity being the best strategy. The juxtaposition of text and images creates odd connections in the mind of the viewer. The lack of a soundtrack keeps the viewer focused on his/her relationship with the visual.
Amazing. Top notch. So much can be done with so little.


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