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Book - A History of Science 18
Williams HS. A History of Science. (1904) Harper and Bros. New York.
A History of Science: Arabian Medicine | Mediaeval Science in the West | The Great Anatomists | The coming of Harvey | Leeuwenhoek Discovers Bacteria | Medicine in the 16th and 17th Century | Philosopher-Scientists and new Institutions | 18th Century Anatomy and Physiology Part 1 | 18th Century Anatomy and Physiology Part 2 | 18th Century Anatomy and Physiology Part 3 | 19th Century Anatomy and Physiology Part 1 | 19th Century Anatomy and Physiology Part 2 | 19th Century Anatomy and Physiology Part 3 | Theories Of Evolution Part 1 | Theories Of Evolution Part 2 | 18th Century Medicine | 19th Century Medicine Part 1 | 19th Century Medicine Part 2 | Brain and Mind | Brain Structure | Embryology History
1 19th Century Medicine Part 2
1.1 Lister and Antiseptic Surgery
1.2 Preventive Inoculation
1.3 Serum-Therapy
1.4 Next
1.5 Glossary Links
19th Century Medicine Part 2
Lister and Antiseptic Surgery
Joseph Lister (1827 – 1912)
Meantime, in a different though allied field of medicine there had been a complementary growth that led to immediate results of even more practical importance. I mean the theory and practice of antisepsis in surgery. This advance, like the other, came as a direct outgrowth of Pasteur's fermentation studies of alcoholic beverages, though not at the hands of Pasteur himself. Struck by the boundless implications of Pasteur's revelations regarding the bacteria, Dr. Joseph Lister (the present Lord Lister), then of Glasgow, set about as early as 1860 to make a wonderful application of these ideas. If putrefaction is always due to bacterial development, he argued, this must apply as well to living as to dead tissues; hence the putrefactive changes which occur in wounds and after operations on the human subject, from which blood-poisoning so often follows, might be absolutely prevented if the injured surfaces could be kept free from access of the germs of decay.
In the hope of accomplishing this result, Lister began experimenting with drugs that might kill the bacteria without injury to the patient, and with means to prevent further access of germs once a wound was freed from them. How well he succeeded all the world knows; how bitterly he was antagonized for about a score of years, most of the world has already forgotten. As early as 1867 Lister was able to publish results pointing towards success in his great project; yet so incredulous were surgeons in general that even some years later the leading surgeons on the Continent had not so much as heard of his efforts. In 1870 the soldiers of Paris died, as of old, of hospital gangrene; and when, in 1871, the French surgeon Alphonse Guerin, stimulated by Pasteur's studies, conceived the idea of dressing wounds with cotton in the hope of keeping germs from entering them, he was quite unaware that a British contemporary had preceded him by a full decade in this effort at prevention and had made long strides towards complete success. Lister's priority, however, and the superiority of his method, were freely admitted by the French Academy of Sciences, which in 1881 officially crowned his achievement, as the Royal Society of London had done the year before.
By this time, to be sure, as everybody knows, Lister's new methods had made their way everywhere, revolutionizing the practice of surgery and practically banishing from the earth maladies that hitherto had been the terror of the surgeon and the opprobrium of his art. And these bedside studies, conducted in the end by thousands of men who had no knowledge of microscopy, had a large share in establishing the general belief in the causal relation that micro-organisms bear to disease, which by about the year 1880 had taken possession of the medical world. But they did more; they brought into equal prominence the idea that, the cause of a diseased condition being known, it maybe possible as never before to grapple with and eradicate that condition.
Preventive Inoculation
The controversy over spontaneous generation, which, thanks to Pasteur and Tyndall, had just been brought to a termination, made it clear that no bacterium need be feared where an antecedent bacterium had not found lodgment; Listerism in surgery had now shown how much might be accomplished towards preventing the access of germs to abraded surfaces of the body and destroying those that already had found lodgment there. As yet, however, there was no inkling of a way in which a corresponding onslaught might be made upon those other germs which find their way into the animal organism by way of the mouth and the nostrils, and which, as was now clear, are the cause of those contagious diseases which, first and last, claim so large a proportion of mankind for their victims. How such means might be found now became the anxious thought of every imaginative physician, of every working microbiologist.
As it happened, the world was not kept long in suspense. Almost before the proposition had taken shape in the minds of the other leaders, Pasteur had found a solution. Guided by the empirical success of Jenner, he, like many others, had long practised inoculation experiments, and on February 9, 1880, he announced to the French Academy of Sciences that he had found a method of so reducing the virulence of a disease germ that when introduced into the system of a susceptible animal it produced only a mild form of the disease, which, however, sufficed to protect against the usual virulent form exactly as vaccinia protects against small-pox. The particular disease experimented with was that infectious malady of poultry known familiarly as "chicken cholera." In October of the same year Pasteur announced the method by which this "attenuation of the virus," as he termed it, had been brought about--by cultivation of the disease germs in artificial media, exposed to the air, and he did not hesitate to assert his belief that the method would prove "susceptible of generalization"--that is to say, of application to other diseases than the particular one in question.
Within a few months he made good this prophecy, for in February, 1881, he announced to the Academy that with the aid, as before, of his associates MM. Chamberland and Roux, he had produced an attenuated virus of the anthrax microbe by the use of which, as he affirmed with great confidence, he could protect sheep, and presumably cattle, against that fatal malady. "In some recent publications," said Pasteur, "I announced the first case of the attenuation of a virus by experimental methods only. Formed of a special microbe of an extreme minuteness, this virus may be multiplied by artificial culture outside the animal body. These cultures, left alone without any possible external contamination, undergo, in the course of time, modifications of their virulency to a greater or less extent. The oxygen of the atmosphere is said to be the chief cause of these attenuations--that is, this lessening of the facilities of multiplication of the microbe; for it is evident that the difference of virulence is in some way associated with differences of development in the parasitic economy.
"There is no need to insist upon the interesting character of these results and the deductions to be made therefrom. To seek to lessen the virulence by rational means would be to establish, upon an experimental basis, the hope of preparing from an active virus, easily cultivated either in the human or animal body, a vaccine-virus of restrained development capable of preventing the fatal effects of the former. Therefore, we have applied all our energies to investigate the possible generalizing action of atmospheric oxygen in the attenuation of virus.
"The anthrax virus, being one that has been most carefully studied, seemed to be the first that should attract our attention. Every time, however, we encountered a difficulty. Between the microbe of chicken cholera and the microbe of anthrax there exists an essential difference which does not allow the new experiment to be verified by the old. The microbes of chicken cholera do not, in effect, seem to resolve themselves, in their culture, into veritable germs. The latter are merely cells, or articulations always ready to multiply by division, except when the particular conditions in which they become true germs are known.
"The yeast of beer is a striking example of these cellular productions, being able to multiply themselves indefinitely without the apparition of their original spores. There exist many mucedines (Mucedinae?) of tubular mushrooms, which in certain conditions of culture produce a chain of more or less spherical cells called Conidae. The latter, detached from their branches, are able to reproduce themselves in the form of cells, without the appearance, at least with a change in the conditions of culture, of the spores of their respective mucedines. These vegetable organisms can be compared to plants which are cultivated by slipping, and to produce which it is not necessary to have the fruits or the seeds of the mother plant.
The anthrax bacterium, in its artificial cultivation, behaves very differently. Its mycelian filaments, if one may so describe them, have been produced scarcely for twenty-four or forty-eight hours when they are seen to transform themselves, those especially which are in free contact with the air, into very refringent corpuscles, capable of gradually isolating themselves into true germs of slight organization. Moreover, observation shows that these germs, formed so quickly in the culture, do not undergo, after exposure for a time to atmospheric air, any change either in their vitality or their virulence. I was able to present to the Academy a tube containing some spores of anthrax bacteria produced four years ago, on March 21, 1887. Each year the germination of these little corpuscles has been tried, and each year the germination has been accomplished with the same facility and the same rapidity as at first. Each year also the virulence of the new cultures has been tested, and they have not shown any visible falling off. Therefore, how can we experiment with the action of the air upon the anthrax virus with any expectation of making it less virulent?
"The crucial difficulty lies perhaps entirely in this rapid reproduction of the bacteria germs which we have just related. In its form of a filament, and in its multiplication by division, is not this organism at all points comparable with the microbe of the chicken cholera?
"That a germ, properly so called, that a seed, does not suffer any modification on account of the air is easily conceived; but it is conceivable not less easily that if there should be any change it would occur by preference in the case of a mycelian fragment. It is thus that a slip which may have been abandoned in the soil in contact with the air does not take long to lose all vitality, while under similar conditions a seed is preserved in readiness to reproduce the plant. If these views have any foundation, we are led to think that in order to prove the action of the air upon the anthrax bacteria it will be indispensable to submit to this action the mycelian development of the minute organism under conditions where there cannot be the least admixture of corpuscular germs. Hence the problem of submitting the bacteria to the action of oxygen comes back to the question of presenting entirely the formation of spores. The question being put in this way, we are beginning to recognize that it is capable of being solved.
"We can, in fact, prevent the appearance of spores in the artificial cultures of the anthrax parasite by various artifices. At the lowest temperature at which this parasite can be cultivated--that is to say, about +16 degrees Centigrade--the bacterium does not produce germs--at any rate, for a very long time. The shapes of the minute microbe at this lowest limit of its development are irregular, in the form of balls and pears--in a word, they are monstrosities--but they are without spores. In the last regard also it is the same at the highest temperatures at which the parasite can be cultivated, temperatures which vary slightly according to the means employed. In neutral chicken bouillon the bacteria cannot be cultivated above 45 degrees. Culture, however, is easy and abundant at 42 to 43 degrees, but equally without any formation of spores. Consequently a culture of mycelian bacteria can be kept entirely free from germs while in contact with the open air at a temperature of from 42 to 43 degrees Centigrade. Now appear the three remarkable results. After about one month of waiting the culture dies--that is to say, if put into a fresh bouillon it becomes absolutely sterile.
"So much for the life and nutrition of this organism. In respect to its virulence, it is an extraordinary fact that it disappears entirely after eight days' culture at 42 to 43 degrees Centigrade, or, at any rate, the cultures are innocuous for the guinea-pig, the rabbit, and the sheep, the three kinds of animals most apt to contract anthrax. We are thus able to obtain, not only the attenuation of the virulence, but also its complete suppression by a simple method of cultivation. Moreover, we see also the possibility of preserving and cultivating the terrible microbe in an inoffensive state. What is it that happens in these eight days at 43 degrees that suffices to take away the virulence of the bacteria? Let us remember that the microbe of chicken cholera dies in contact with the air, in a period somewhat protracted, it is true, but after successive attenuations. Are we justified in thinking that it ought to be the same in regard to the microbe of anthrax? This hypothesis is confirmed by experiment. Before the disappearance of its virulence the anthrax microbe passes through various degrees of attenuation, and, moreover, as is also the case with the microbe of chicken cholera, each of these attenuated states of virulence can be obtained by cultivation. Moreover, since, according to one of our recent Communications, anthrax is not recurrent, each of our attenuated anthrax microbes is, for the better-developed microbe, a vaccine--that is to say, a virus producing a less-malignant malady. What, therefore, is easier than to find in these a virus that will infect with anthrax sheep, cows, and horses, without killing them, and ultimately capable of warding off the mortal malady? We have practised this experiment with great success upon sheep, and when the season comes for the assembling of the flocks at Beauce we shall try the experiment on a larger scale.
"Already M. Toussaint has announced that sheep can be saved by preventive inoculations; but when this able observer shall have published his results; on the subject of which we have made such exhaustive studies, as yet unpublished, we shall be able to see the whole difference which exists between the two methods--the uncertainty of the one and the certainty of the other. That which we announce has, moreover, the very great advantage of resting upon the existence of a poison vaccine cultivable at will, and which can be increased indefinitely in the space of a few hours without having recourse to infected blood."[8]
This announcement was immediately challenged in a way that brought it to the attention of the entire world. The president of an agricultural society, realizing the enormous importance of the subject, proposed to Pasteur that his alleged discovery should be submitted to a decisive public test. He proposed to furnish a drove of fifty sheep half of which were to be inoculated with the attenuated virus of Pasteur. Subsequently all the sheep were to be inoculated with virulent virus, all being kept together in one pen under precisely the same conditions. The "protected" sheep were to remain healthy; the unprotected ones to die of anthrax; so read the terms of the proposition. Pasteur accepted the challenge; he even permitted a change in the programme by which two goats were substituted for two of the sheep, and ten cattle added, stipulating, however, that since his experiments had not yet been extended to cattle these should not be regarded as falling rigidly within the terms of the test.
It was a test to try the soul of any man, for all the world looked on askance, prepared to deride the maker of so preposterous a claim as soon as his claim should be proved baseless. Not even the fame of Pasteur could make the public at large, lay or scientific, believe in the possibility of what he proposed to accomplish. There was time for all the world to be informed of the procedure, for the first "preventive" inoculation--or vaccination, as Pasteur termed it--was made on May 5th, the second on May 17th, and another interval of two weeks must elapse before the final inoculations with the unattenuated virus. Twenty-four sheep, one goat, and five cattle were submitted to the preliminary vaccinations. Then, on May 31 st, all sixty of the animals were inoculated, a protected and unprotected one alternately, with an extremely virulent culture of anthrax microbes that had been in Pasteur's laboratory since 1877. This accomplished, the animals were left together in one enclosure to await the issue.
Two days later, June 2d, at the appointed hour of rendezvous, a vast crowd, composed of veterinary surgeons, newspaper correspondents, and farmers from far and near, gathered to witness the closing scenes of this scientific tourney. What they saw was one of the most dramatic scenes in the history of peaceful science--a scene which, as Pasteur declared afterwards, "amazed the assembly." Scattered about the enclosure, dead, dying, or manifestly sick unto death, lay the unprotected animals, one and all, while each and every "protected" animal stalked unconcernedly about with every appearance of perfect health. Twenty of the sheep and the one goat were already dead; two other sheep expired under the eyes of the spectators; the remaining victims lingered but a few hours longer. Thus in a manner theatrical enough, not to say tragic, was proclaimed the unequivocal victory of science. Naturally enough, the unbelievers struck their colors and surrendered without terms; the principle of protective vaccination, with a virus experimentally prepared in the laboratory, was established beyond the reach of controversy.
That memorable scientific battle marked the beginning of a new era in medicine. It was a foregone conclusion that the principle thus established would be still further generalized; that it would be applied to human maladies; that in all probability it would grapple successfully, sooner or later, with many infectious diseases. That expectation has advanced rapidly towards realization. Pasteur himself made the application to the human subject in the disease hydrophobia in 1885, since which time that hitherto most fatal of maladies has largely lost its terrors. Thousands of persons bitten by mad dogs have been snatched from the fatal consequences of that mishap by this method at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, and at the similar institutes, built on the model of this parent one, that have been established all over the world in regions as widely separated as New York and Nha-Trang.
Serum-Therapy
In the production of the rabies vaccine Pasteur and his associates developed a method of attenuation of a virus quite different from that which had been employed in the case of the vaccines of chicken cholera and of anthrax. The rabies virus was inoculated into the system of guinea-pigs or rabbits and, in effect, cultivated in the systems of these animals. The spinal cord of these infected animals was found to be rich in the virus, which rapidly became attenuated when the cord was dried in the air. The preventive virus, of varying strengths, was made by maceration of these cords at varying stages of desiccation. This cultivation of a virus within the animal organism suggested, no doubt, by the familiar Jennerian method of securing small-pox vaccine, was at the same time a step in the direction of a new therapeutic procedure which was destined presently to become of all-absorbing importance--the method, namely, of so-called serum-therapy, or the treatment of a disease with the blood serum of an animal that has been subjected to protective inoculation against that disease.
The possibility of such a method was suggested by the familiar observation, made by Pasteur and numerous other workers, that animals of different species differ widely in their susceptibility to various maladies, and that the virus of a given disease may become more and more virulent when passed through the systems of successive individuals of one species, and, contrariwise, less and less virulent when passed through the systems of successive individuals of another species. These facts suggested the theory that the blood of resistant animals might contain something directly antagonistic to the virus, and the hope that this something might be transferred with curative effect to the blood of an infected susceptible animal. Numerous experimenters all over the world made investigations along the line of this alluring possibility, the leaders perhaps being Drs. Behring and Kitasato, closely followed by Dr. Roux and his associates of the Pasteur Institute of Paris. Definite results were announced by Behring in 1892 regarding two important diseases--tetanus and diphtheria--but the method did not come into general notice until 1894, when Dr. Roux read an epoch-making paper on the subject at the Congress of Hygiene at Buda-Pesth.
In this paper Dr. Roux, after adverting to the labors of Behring, Ehrlich, Boer, Kossel, and Wasserman, described in detail the methods that had been developed at the Pasteur Institute for the development of the curative serum, to which Behring had given the since-familiar name antitoxine. The method consists, first, of the cultivation, for some months, of the diphtheria bacillus (called the Klebs-Loeffler bacillus, in honor of its discoverers) in an artificial bouillon, for the development of a powerful toxine capable of giving the disease in a virulent form.
This toxine, after certain details of mechanical treatment, is injected in small but increasing doses into the system of an animal, care being taken to graduate the amount so that the animal does not succumb to the disease. After a certain course of this treatment it is found that a portion of blood serum of the animal so treated will act in a curative way if injected into the blood of another animal, or a human patient, suffering with diphtheria. In other words, according to theory, an antitoxine has been developed in the system of the animal subjected to the progressive inoculations of the diphtheria toxine. In Dr. Roux's experience the animal best suited for the purpose is the horse, though almost any of the domesticated animals will serve the purpose.
But Dr. Roux's paper did not stop with the description of laboratory methods. It told also of the practical application of the serum to the treatment of numerous cases of diphtheria in the hospitals of Paris--applications that had met with a gratifying measure of success. He made it clear that a means had been found of coping successfully with what had been one of the most virulent and intractable of the diseases of childhood. Hence it was not strange that his paper made a sensation in all circles, medical and lay alike.
Physicians from all over the world flocked to Paris to learn the details of the open secret, and within a few months the new serum-therapy had an acknowledged standing with the medical profession everywhere. What it had accomplished was regarded as but an earnest of what the new method might accomplish presently when applied to the other infectious diseases.
Efforts at such applications were immediately begun in numberless directions--had, indeed, been under way in many a laboratory for some years before. It is too early yet to speak of the results in detail. But enough has been done to show that this method also is susceptible of the widest generalization. It is not easy at the present stage to sift that which is tentative from that which will be permanent; but so great an authority as Behring does not hesitate to affirm that today we possess, in addition to the diphtheria antitoxine, equally specific antitoxines of tetanus, cholera, typhus fever, pneumonia, and tuberculosis--a set of diseases which in the aggregate account for a startling proportion of the general death-rate. Then it is known that Dr. Yersin, with the collaboration of his former colleagues of the Pasteur Institute, has developed, and has used with success, an antitoxine from the microbe of the plague which recently ravaged China.
Dr. Calmette, another graduate of the Pasteur Institute, has extended the range of the serum-therapy to include the prevention and treatment of poisoning by venoms, and has developed an antitoxine that has already given immunity from the lethal effects of snake bites to thousands of persons in India and Australia.
Just how much of present promise is tentative, just what are the limits of the methods--these are questions for the future to decide. But, in any event, there seems little question that the serum treatment will stand as the culminating achievement in therapeutics of our century. It is the logical outgrowth of those experimental studies with the microscope begun by our predecessors of the thirties, and it represents the present culmination of the rigidly experimental method which has brought medicine from a level of fanciful empiricism to the plane of a rational experimental science.
Brain and Mind
Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2019, July 19) Embryology Book - A History of Science 18. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Book_-_A_History_of_Science_18
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Sustainable Aviation Fuel: Review of Technical Pathways Report
Aviation Fuel (Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)), Biofuels Engine Design, Books Web Sites etc, Business News/Analysis, Energy, Federal Agency/Executive Branch, Funding/Financing/Investing, Government Resources, Infrastructure, Marketing/Market Forces and Sales, R & D Focus, Resources, Sustainability
(U.S. Department of Energy) The Sustainable Aviation Fuel: Review of Technical Pathways report provides an overview of commercial jet aviation fuel and summarizes learnings from three BETO-supported workshops. In addition, the report focuses on insights for reducing costs and optimizing the value proposition of sustainable aviation fuel. Download the report to learn more.
Cost-competitive sustainable alternative jet fuels and high-performance fuels for aviation are needed to decouple carbon growth from market growth. With this in mind, the U.S. Department of Energy Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) published a report titled Sustainable Aviation Fuel: Review of Technical Pathways.
BETO's report describes potential pathways to produce sustainable alternative fuels suitable for use by the commercial aviation sector. It also presents a vision of low-cost, clean-burning, and low-soot-producing jet fuel uniquely available from renewable and wasted carbon sources. READ MORE
Sustainable Aviation Fuel: Review of Technical Pathways (U.S. Department of Energy)
Excerpt from report: The 106-billion-gallon global (21-billion-gallon domestic) commercial jet fuel market is projected to grow to over 230 billion gallons by 2050 (U.S. EIA 2020a). Cost-competitive, environmentally sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) are recognized as a critical part of decoupling carbon growth from market growth. Renewable and wasted carbon can provide a path to low-cost, clean-burning, and low-soot-producing jet fuel. Research shows an opportunity to produce fuel in which aromatics are initially diluted with the addition of renewable iso-alkanes, aromatics are later fully replaced with cycloalkanes, and finally high-performance molecules that provide mission-based value to jet fuel consumers are introduced. Key to this fuel pathway is sourcing the three SAF blendstocks—iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, and high-performing molecules—from inexpensive resources. When resourced from waste carbon, there are often additional benefits, such as cleaner water when sourcing carbon from wet sludges or less waste going to landfills when sourcing the carbon from municipal solid waste or plastic waste. Jet fuel properties differ from gasoline and diesel, so research will be most successful if it begins with the end result in mind.
U.S. airlines have improved efficiency by 130% compared to 1978 levels (Airlines for America 2020). Additional efficiency improvements in planes and engines are not likely to be enough. Meeting the 2050 goal will required fuels that have a lower carbon footprint, referred to as sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)—defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as alternative aviation fuels that "(i) achieve net GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions reduction on a life cycle basis; (ii) respect the areas of high importance for biodiversity, conservation and benefits for people from ecosystems, in accordance with international and national regulations; and (iii) contribute to local social and economic development, and competition with food and water should be avoided" (ICAO 2018).
A second challenge is that the price of SAF today is higher than petroleum-based Jet A fuel. Fuel price is a hurdle because fuel is 20%–30% of the operating cost of an airline (IATA 2018). Research and development (R&D) can help bring the cost down.
Unlike light-duty vehicles, the low energy density of even the best batteries severely limits opportunities for electrification.1 While many are working on electrification, efforts are for smaller aircraft and airlines will have no alternative for some time but to use SAF to operate in a GHG-emission-constrained future.
Part I of this report provides an overview of commercial jet aviation fuel: how it compares to fuels for cars and trucks, its composition, its specification, and its certification process.
Original equipment manufacturer (OEM)-led ASTM D4054 fit-for-purpose testing generally costs several million dollars and can require years to be approved (ASTM 2018). A fast-track approval process has been accepted for fuels in which the SAF blending component is limited to 10% and consists of the same types of molecules that are in petroleum-based jet fuel. A clearinghouse annex has also been proposed to reduce cost and time for approval.
Part I finishes by summarizing the learnings from three BETO-supported workshops. These include the Alternative Aviation Fuel Workshop held in Macon, Georgia, in 2016, which focused on SAF production; the JET workshop held in Cleveland, Ohio, in 2017, which focused on high-performance fuels; and the Trilateral Biojet Workshop held in Richland, Washington, in 2018, which focused on jet fuel R&D collaborations between Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Some of the key learnings from these workshops include:
• The aviation industry seeks to reduce its GHG emissions significantly, decoupling airline growth from carbon growth.
• The current cost of SAF is high. Airlines are willing to support SAF development by purchasing some fuel at a higher price, but for SAF to scale, prices need to be reduced.
• OEM-led ASTM D4054 approval and evaluation process is expensive and time-consuming. Developing new engines is even more onerous regarding timescale and cost, and hence a program coupling fuel development and engine development R&D would not help overcome industry barriers.
• Existing engines can use fuels that have a much higher heat of combustion than Jet A, and specific energy (i.e., heat of combustion) increases can deliver greater range, higher payload capacity, or decreased fuel consumption.
• More sources of low-cost feedstock are required as fats, oils, and greases are not currently available in enough volume to meet SAF demand.
• The use of cover crops to increase availability of oil seeds while improving soil quality as well as use of other lipid-rich streams, such as manures and sludges, may increase availability. Processes for their conversion will need to be approved through ASTM.
• Techno-economic analysis (TEA) and life cycle analysis (LCA) are inconsistent across the SAF industry, but the consistent message from most models is that the main cost drivers are feedstock costs, yields, and plant capital recovery.
• Current policies are skewing renewable fuels towards diesel and away from the jet market.
Part II provides insights resulting from a study of the aviation fuel industry, challenges of and successes with
the approved pathways, and BETO capabilities and R&D portfolio.
Examples of work could include the following:
• In the near term (0–5 years), research can help further reduce the cost of existing approved pathways to iso-alkanes and synthetic paraffinic kerosene molecules. Research could include low-cost routes to cycloalkanes, including alkylated cyclohexanes, and understanding the properties of molecules with various ring structures available from catalytic, biological, thermal, and hybrid approaches.
• Public–private partnerships and collaborations across agencies may accelerate cost reductions by ensuring a diverse set of stakeholders are involved early in the solution to ensure it can address barriers for industrywide use.
• In the longer term, as SAF volumes increase, aviation fuels may provide better performance and reduced emissions (i.e., soot).
• Use of nontraditional raw materials including carbon oxides, methane, deconstructed plastic, and other waste materials may keep cost in parity with conventional fuels.
BETO's R&D capabilities and feedstock/technology portfolio provide tools for meeting the technical needs to overcome hurdles preventing SAF deployment, including cost reduction. READ MORE
Executive Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. vi
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….1
Part I – Background……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2
1 Jet Fuel Markets…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3
1.1 Jet Fuel Versus Ground Transportation Fuel Markets………………………………………………………….. 3
1.2 How Is Jet Fuel Similar to and Different from Other Transportation Fuels? …………………………… 5
1.3 Why Invest in SAF? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
2 Jet Fuel Specifications………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7
2.1 Properties: Performance, Operability, and Drop-In Requirements…………………………………………. 8
2.1.1 Performance …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 8
2.1.2 Operability …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8
2.1.3 Drop-In………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9
2.1.4 Other Properties ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.1.5 Fuel Properties Derived from Bulk Versus Trace Composition …………………………………. 10
2.2 Molecular Families in Jet Fuel ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.2.1 n-Alkanes and iso-Alkanes …………………………………………………………………………………… 12
2.2.2 Aromatics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12
2.2.3 Cycloalkanes………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 13
2.2.4 Blended Fuels……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
2.3 Beyond Current Fuels – High Performance………………………………………………………………………. 14
2.4 Review of Chapter 2……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15
3 Jet Fuel Certification ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16
3.1 Getting a Fuel Approved ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
3.2 A Fast Track to ASTM Approval……………………………………………………………………………………. 18
3.3 Currently Approved and Emerging Fuels…………………………………………………………………………. 19
3.4 Summary of Current SAFs…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20
4 Workshop Learnings ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21
4.1 Alternative Aviation Fuel Workshop……………………………………………………………………………….. 22
4.2 JET Workshop……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
4.3 Trilateral Canada–Mexico–U.S. Biojet Workshop…………………………………………………………….. 23
Part II – Analysis and Insights……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25
5 R&D – Fuel Molecules …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
5.1 Vision: Reduce Aromatic Content and Increase iso-Alkanes and Cycloalkanes ……………………. 26
5.2 High-Quality iso-Alkanes………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
5.2.1 Crack Large Molecules………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
5.2.2 Build Up Small Molecules……………………………………………………………………………………. 31
5.2.3 Direct Fermentation …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 32
5.2.4 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 32
Sustainable Aviation Fuel: Review of Technical Pathways
5.3 Alkylcycloalkanes, Six-Carbon Rings……………………………………………………………………………… 33
5.3.1 Zeolite-Catalyzed Aromatization Followed by Hydrotreating……………………………………. 34
5.3.2 Phenol Hydrogenation………………………………………………………………………………………….. 35
5.4 Cycloalkanes, Other Ring Sizes, and Fused Rings…………………………………………………………….. 36
5.4.1 Ring Contraction…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 36
5.4.2 Ring-Forming Reactions………………………………………………………………………………………. 36
5.4.3 Ring Motifs in Wood Extractives and Fermentation…………………………………………………. 36
5.4.4 Esoteric Cycloalkanes………………………………………………………………………………………….. 37
5.5 Low-Aromatic, High-Energy-Content Fuel Properties ………………………………………………………. 38
5.5.1 Gaps in Understanding Cycloalkane Properties……………………………………………………….. 38
5.5.2 Quantifying the Value of SAF ………………………………………………………………………………. 39
5.6 Quantifying the Value Added with SAFs…………………………………………………………………………. 40
5.7 Summary of Fuel Molecules…………………………………………………………………………………………… 40
6 R&D — Cost Reduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
6.1 Feedstock-Related Research…………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
6.1.1 "Solve Another Problem" …………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
6.1.2 Collected Carbon from Existing or Developing Processes………………………………………… 42
6.1.3 Waste Gases……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42
6.1.4 CO2 as a Carbon Source……………………………………………………………………………………….. 42
6.2 Reducing Capital Cost…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 44
6.2.1 Use Current and Distressed Infrastructure ………………………………………………………………. 44
6.2.2 Petroleum Refinery Integration……………………………………………………………………………… 45
6.2.3 Separations…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
6.2.4 R&D Needs for Small-Scale Distributed Refineries…………………………………………………. 45
6.3 Rethinking Biorefineries………………………………………………………………………………………………… 46
6.3.1 Sugars to Products, Lignin to Fuels ……………………………………………………………………….. 46
6.3.2 Focus R&D on Conversion Platforms That Provide Product Flexibility ……………………… 46
6.3.3 Feedstock Flexibility to Use Full Capacity……………………………………………………………… 47
6.4 Sourcing Hydrogen……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 48
6.5 Analysis of Cost Reduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 48
6.6 Summary of Cost Reduction…………………………………………………………………………………………… 49
7 Summary and Insights………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 49
7.1 An R&D Strategy for SAF …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 49
7.2 Insights on R&D…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 50
7.2.1 Focus R&D on Low-Cost iso- and Cycloalkane Production ……………………………………… 50
7.2.2 Focus on Low-Cost Feedstocks …………………………………………………………………………….. 51
7.2.3 Focus R&D on Conversion Platforms that Provide Product Flexibility ………………………. 51
7.2.4 Provide Replacement for Hydrogen Gas in Distributed Processing ……………………………. 51
7.2.5 Refine and Expand Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………. 51
7.2.6 Sequencing R&D to Achieve Impact in the Short, Medium, and Long Term ………………. 52
7.3 Cooperative Opportunities for R&D ……………………………………………………………………………….. 52
7.3.1 Collaboration Between the National Laboratories……………………………………………………. 52
7.3.2 Intersection with FAA Center of Excellence and USDA…………………………………………… 52
7.3.3 Intersection with North American Partners……………………………………………………………… 53
7.3.4 SAF Working Group……………………………………………………………………………………………. 53
Appendix 1. Bioenergy Technologies Office Mission……………………………………………………………………….. 58
Appendix 2. ASTM Fuel Approval Prescreening Tests …………………………………………………………………….. 59
Appendix 3. Workshop Learnings……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 60
A3.1 Macon Workshop ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60
A3.2 Cleveland Workshop ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 61
A3.2.1 Two Schools of Thought……………………………………………………………………………………………. 61
A3.2.2 High-Performance Fuel Options…………………………………………………………………………………. 61
A3.2.3 Engine and Combustor Options………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
A3.2.4 Aircraft On-Board Considerations………………………………………………………………………………. 64
A3.2.5 High-Performance Fuel Development to Deployment……………………………………………………. 65
A3.2.6 Key Takeaways………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 66
A3.3 Richland Workshop……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 66
A3.3.1 Synopsis of the Workshop Report……………………………………………………………………………….. 67
A3.3.2 Key Takeaway Messages…………………………………………………………………………………………… 67
alkanesaromaticsASTMASTM D7566 (Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons)ASTM standardsaviation fuel (SAF) benefitsaviation fuel (SAF) priceAviation Fuel/Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)cover cropsDepartment of Energy (DOE)drop-in biofuels/hydrocarbonsEngine/Fuel Co-optimizationFederal Aviation Administration (FAA)FeedstocksFOG (Fats/Oils/Grease)GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions)heat of combustionInvestingjet AJetfuel (Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF))life cycle analysis (LCA)manuremarket forcesmarkets/salesMSW (Municipal Solid Waste)oil seed cropsparticulatesrecycled plasticsRenewable Diesel/Green Diesel/HVO/Paraffinic Dieselsludgesoil healthsootSustainabilitytax incentivesTransportation Fuels Policywaste-to-fuel


text:
The Cadillac of Nail Guns
The Wire, Season 4 Intro. The best one since the first.
Labels: the wire
More on Bloomberg's Terror Gap
ScrappleFace posted a quote of Bloomberg's that I couldn't resist.
"The FBI ought to be able to block the sale of these items, and perhaps others, to American citizens who have not yet been charged with a crime, but who are viewed as potential threats by the FBI," said Mayor Bloomberg. "Anyone who opposes closing the 'terror gap' is essentially an accessory to terrorism…a virtual member of al Qaeda, and a threat to our national security. In fact, opposition to my sensible proposal ought to provide grounds for putting someone on the no-buy list."
Is it any wonder that hizzoner is shaping up as the number one antagonist of the gun rights crowd? It takes extreme measures to fight extreme people.
In fact, opposition to my sensible proposal ought to provide grounds for putting someone on the no-buy list.
Now, that should be the quote of the day on many of the gun blogs. What do you think?
Labels: gun laws, gun rights, mayor bloomberg
$10,000 Reward Offered in GA Gun Theft
The Washington Examiner reports on the ATF's offer of a reward for information leading to the arrest of gun thieves.
ATLANTA — Authorities are offering a reward of up to $10,000 in hopes of catching two men accused of stealing two dozen guns from a shop in Woodstock.
The burglary occurred at Pannell's Firearms and Range on April 27. Security cameras show two men smashing glass countertops and putting guns into bags before fleeing the area at around 3:15 a.m.
Now, wait a minute, some people get so upset when I "blame the victim," but I don't think it's too much of a stretch to question the security measures taken by the gun shop. Don't they have jewellery stores in Atlanta that put all the stuff in a big safe at night for this very reason? Why in the world would gun dealers not be required to do something like that?
Jewellers take these common sense precautions in order to protect themselves and their property. What is the gun dealer thinking who leaves his merchandise under glass all through the night? To me this is the height of irresponsibility. If gun dealers don't have the common sense to take basic precautions against theft, then they should be held partly responsible for that theft.
I think the problem goes right down the line from the NRA lobbyists who enjoy the reputation of being among the most powerful on K Street to the individual gun owner who believes he's sanctioned by god to carry his gun anywhere he want to. It's a type of arrogance, an attitude which says I'm special and I'm different and I don't have to comply with common sense rules like everybody else. It's the attitude that says I can leave my gun in the glove box of the car or in the display case of the store and if a thief breaks in only he's responsible for his actions.
Labels: gun control, gun crime, gun rights
Austin Police Officer Fired
The Houston Chronicle reports.
AUSTIN, Texas — An Austin police officer who fatally shot a man in 2009 has been fired after being arrested in January for alleged drunken driving.
Police Chief Art Acevedo on Thursday fired Quintana, who in May 2009 fatally shot Nathaniel Sanders II.
A grand jury declined to indict Quintana. Sanders had been sleeping in a car that police were investigating as possibly being used in crimes.
A disciplinary memo says Quintana went out Jan. 11 and drank alcohol, then drove to Leander. A 911 call about a traffic accident led to his arrest.
Quintana's arrest came hours after he was questioned as part of a federal civil rights lawsuit into the fatal shooting.
I'm not sure if I understood it correctly, but I think they said he shot and killed a guy who was sleeping in his car, and the "grand jury declined to indict." Well, that certainly sounds like Texas and it certainly sounds like how they treat cops, not just in Texas, but other places too.
Then, I guess the bosses just had enough with his drinking and finally fired him.
What I'm wondering is this: will he now be just another unfit Texas gun owner with a drinking problem? If they didn't indict him for the shooting and he lost his job for the DWI, he should still be entitled to his sacred 2nd Amendment rights, don't you think?
I guess what it boils down to is he'll not take his place among the Famous 10%, until, of course, he does something else stupid enough to be classified as an out and out criminal.
Labels: gun control, gun rights, police coverup, texas justice
Murder - Suicide in Florida Leaves 3 Dead
WDBO.com reports on a terrible shooting that left three dead in Florida. Like something you see in the movies, the enraged ex-husband came around with a gun and killed the new husband, the ex-wife and himself.
Nothing was mentioned about his criminal record or where the gun came from. But short of presuming he was just another legitimate gun owner gone berserk, I'll say this was not a gang-related drug shootout, which is supposed to account for the majority. So, what the heck, I may as well say it. This was another legitimate gun owner gone berserk.
It's cases like this that prove gun control works. Laws that make it harder for people like this go get guns make it less likely that something like this will happen. It's simple.
Labels: gun control, gun rights
More on the Terror Gap
The New York Times published an op-ed about the Congressional discussions about closinig the terror gap. This has been pretty well covered by both sides, but this article contained some interesting points.
Yes, if you are on the terrorist watch list, the authorities can keep you from getting on a plane but not from purchasing an AK-47. This makes sense to Congress because, as Graham accurately pointed out, "when the founders sat down and wrote the Constitution, they didn't consider flying."
The subject of guns turns Congress into a twilight zone. People who are perfectly happy to let the government wiretap phones go nuts when the government wants to keep track of weapons permits. A guy who stands up in the House and defends the torture of terror suspects will nearly faint with horror at the prospect of depriving someone on the watch list of the right to purchase a pistol.
"We make it so easy for dangerous people to get guns. If it's the Second Amendment, it doesn't matter if they're Osama bin Laden," said Paul Helmke, the president of the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence.
What do you think about that? How could people who accept illegal wiretapping of American citizens be so upset about the Constitutional implications of this proposal?
Labels: mayor bloomberg, terrorist watch list
Obama Hatred
The Obama haters are sometimes so silly it requires no response, but this one was too good to resist.
From The Rude Pundit.
Tell you what, motherfuckers, when dead people are left to rot in the sun because of the incompetence of the federal government, when corpses are floating in the streets, when the President passively ignores the pleas of the governors of Gulf Coast states, when entire neighborhoods have been physically destroyed, when the federal government strands tens of thousands of people without food or water, when the federal government starts to blame the local governments, when the President praises the work of a failed, incompetent bureaucrat while a major city rots, then you can say that this is Barack Obama's "Katrina."
What's your opinion? Is comparing this oil leak to Katrina one of the stupidest things you're ever heard, or what?
Labels: barack obama, conservatives
Oklahoma Veto Upheld
The Associated Press reports on the failure of the Oklahoma Senate to overturn an important gubernatorial veto.
OKLAHOMA CITY — A group of Oklahoma state senators have failed to override their governor's veto of a bill that would exempt firearms and ammunition produced and kept in the state from federal regulations.
The Republican-controlled Senate voted 28-16 on Wednesday with 36 votes needed to override Democratic Gov. Brad Henry's veto of the "Oklahoma Firearms Freedom Act." There was no debate.
Republican state Sen. Randy Brogdon, who is running for governor, vowed to try again to override the veto.
The bill says firearms, gun accessories or ammunition made in Oklahoma would not be subject to interstate commerce laws and federal regulations if they remain in the state.
Henry warned the bill would give criminals easy access to a wide array of weapons.
Doesn't it seem like the gun rights crowd want whatever laws make their gun owning activities easier. If the fed limits gun control, they're all for it, but when a State wants to exempt itself from federal regulations, they're all for that.
Is there an inconsistency here? Or is it absolute in its consistency - less gun control, regardless of where it comes from?
Jon Stewart on the Times Square Bomber and Other Things
Explosive and the City 2
Well the lush separation unfolds you --
and the products of wealth
push you along on the bow wave
of the spiritless undying selves.
And you press on God's waiter your last dime --
as he hands you the bill.
And you spin in the slipstream --
timeless -- unreasoning --
paddle right out of the mess.
Labels: jethro tull
Murder-Suicide in Winston-Salem
WXII12.com reports on the recent tragedy.
First his father died. Then he lost his job. Then his house was in the process of being foreclosed upon.
It became too much for 50-year-old Tony Guy Buchanan to handle and, like a volcano, he erupted on Tuesday afternoon, Buchanan's cousin, Dale Gallimore, told WXII 12 News on Wednesday.
"It has to be the economy," Gallimore said. "It has to be. Everything had gone against him and he didn't reach out and ask for help. If he had, we could have helped him.
"Police said Buchanan shot and killed his brother, 59-year-old Randy Buchanan, while Randy was working as a Winston-Salem inspector along Northwest Boulevard. Tony then turned the gun on himself.
When it becomes too much, what's a legitimate gun owner to do?
Alaska Woman Loses Gun
The Associated Press reports on a stolen gun incident in Alaska.
JUNEAU, Alaska — A 24-year-old Juneau woman went into a public restroom packing heat and left burned. The Juneau Police Department reports Veronica Balle-Arnes was carrying a Ruger .380 — a small pocket pistol — worth about $400 with her Friday night.
She told police she took the gun out of her waistband and set it on top of a toilet paper dispenser in the women's room at the Fisherman's Wharf, a building on Juneau's downtown waterfront with a bar, eateries and shops.
She told police she forgot to pick it back up. When she realized it was missing a few moments later, she returned to the restroom but the gun was gone.
She did what? She took it out of her waistband? What would a 25-year-old woman possibly be doing going around the "eateries and shops" of Juneau's waterfront with a gun in her waistband? Is this why Alaska is supposedly so safe because the young chicks carry pistols in the pants like in the movies? But that brings up two problems.
In the movies, isn't it usually the bad guys who carry guns like that? And that supposed low gun crime in Alaska isn't all it's cracked up to be when you consider the population. Isn't that right?
What's your opinion? Do you think there might be many unreported incidents like this one? It must be embarrassing for a gun owner to admit such stupidity. But, of course there are no sanctions for it, lost guns can easily be replaced, again and again. Someone's got to feed that gun flow.
One more question, in a case like this, would young Veronica bear some of the responsibility for what happens next? Shouldn't her involvement in allowing the theft tie her right into whatever crime the gun is used for, let's say it's used in a murder tonight?
Bloomberg on the "Terror Gap"
The Huffington Post reports on the latest efforts by Mayor Michael Bloomberg to elicit support in Congress to close the so-called "terror gap."
With his city still on edge over this weekend's attempted truck-bombing in Times Square, New York Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg heads to Capitol Hill on Wednesday to give Congress a piece of his mind on a closely related issue.
Bloomberg is upset about a federal loophole that, amazingly enough, allows people on the FBI's Terrorist Watchlist to legally buy guns and explosives.
Current federal law specifies only a limited number of reasons the government can cite to block the purchase of guns or explosives -- and being in the FBI's database of those "known or reasonably suspected of being involved in terrorist activity" isn't one of them.
Many people are concerned that the government puts people on the watch list too easily and sometimes for alternative reasons. I agree these are concerns which much be addressed. But the NRA position seems a bit paranoid to me.
"H.R. 2159 isn't about making America safe from terrorists; it's about giving the federal government new, arbitrary authority to prohibit loyal Americans from exercising their constitutionally-protected right to keep and bear arms. Cloaking it in terms of 'national security' doesn't change that fact."
Labels: gun control, gun rights, mayor bloomberg
Disarming an Attacker
From The Truth About Guns.
It looks so easy in the sunlit park with a toy gun, but I wonder how it works in real life. Don't the pro-gun folks often talk about how quickly they can shoot. We've even seen a guy who can reload the gun in the time it takes for this guy to "disarm" his opponent.
The other problem I have with these things is why do we not hear of them once in a while on the gun blogs. I read ten or twenty gun blogs fairly regularly and I can only remember once when Caleb handled a would-be mugger with his cup of coffee.
If these violent incidents were as frequent as we're led to believe and if there were as many DGUs as they say, even the kind which require nothing more than brandishing the gun to scare away the bad guy, we would hear about them on the blogs.
But we don't. I think I know why. What do you think?
Pennsylvania Gun Laws
Ohh Shoot provided this humorous / scary piece. My only response is, A MISDEMEANOR!?? Are they kidding? What's wrong with those people in Pennsylvania?
A 22-year-old Pennsylvania man pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor charge of involuntary manslaughter in the shooting death of his 20-year-old friend. Under the terms of the agreement he will serve up to four years in jail. He insists the shooting was an accident.
On the night of the shooting he unloaded the gun and set it aside to finish eating. When he picked up the .38-caliber handgun it unintentionally discharged, striking his friend in the abdomen, killing him.
Jonathan Reyes said he is "very against guns" but began to carry one to protect himself and his family. He said that he had had a gun pulled on him 12 times, his brother was shot at twice and his mother was "jumped by 30 people."
He said he "obtained a permit and carried a gun because he was the only one in his family who could do so legally."
Ohh shoot.
Labels: gun control, gun laws, gun rights
Randy Steidl on the Death Penalty
The Westprot Patch reports on the former death-row inmate who, having been exonerated, now speaks against capital punishment.
Steidl on Sunday recalled his 17-year saga of being found guilty of killing a newlywed husband and wife at home in their bed, having his death sentence reduced to life without parole because an Illinois judge found his trial attorney had not adequately prepared for his sentencing hearing, and being freed after a federal judge ruled it was "reasonably probable'' that a jury would have acquitted Steidl had his defense attorney done more to challenge the state's case.
But according to Steidl, there was more than poor representation by counsel that resulted in his plight. He pegged a local businessman involved in organized crime as a suspect, saying he was a big contributor to the Illinois governor's campaign and was the boss of the woman murdered.
Steidl, 58, described how he went from conviction in 1986 to exoneration in 2004 before about 60 people in the sanctuary of the Westport Unitarian Church on Lyons Plains Road as part of a "Death Row to Freedom Tour," organized by the Connecticut Network to Abolish the Death Penalty.
Steidl said his speaking engagements before legislators, faith groups and college audiences are "kind of my therapy, it keeps me sane," when he considers he is among almost 140 people who have been released from death row because of wrongful convictions.
Following Steidl's presentation, Andrew L. Schneider, executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Connecticut, told the audience the death penalty is not only immoral in principle, but is unfair and discriminatory in practice, assures the execution of the innocent and is the ultimate denial of civil liberties.
In the upcoming elections for statewide office, Schneider said, "We have a great opportunity here in Connecticut of abolishing this unjust and inhumane institution."
Schneider said the death penalty is mistakenly thought to be a deterrent to committing crimes, while states that have the death penalty have a higher rate of violence than those that do not.
I don't think I've ever read my own sentiments summed up so well. "The death penalty is not only immoral in principle, but is unfair and discriminatory in practice."
Labels: capital punishment, death penalty
The Super Sniper
From FishyJay again. The Mail Online reports.
An army sniper has earned a place in military history by killing two Taliban machine gunners from more than a mile and a half away.
Craig Harrison's record breaking shots felled the insurgents with consecutive bullets - even though they were 3,200ft beyond the official range of his rifle.
The Household Cavalry veteran's kills from a distance of 8,120ft beat the previous record by 150ft.
He was using the British-built L115A3 Long Range Rifle, the Army's most powerful sniper weapon.
He was so far away that the 8.59mm-calibre bullets took almost three seconds to reach their target. Scores of Taliban gunmen h-ve fallen to the gun which has been nicknamed The Silent Assassin.
It is only designed to be effective at up to 4,921ft - just less than a mile - and capable of only ' harassing fire' beyond that range.
But Corporal Harrison took his record-breaking shots after his commander and Afghan soldiers were attacked during a patrol in Helmand in November last year.
His vehicle was further back on a ridge, with his sights trained on a Taliban compound. He said: 'We saw two insurgents running through its courtyard. They came forward carrying a machine gun and opened fire on the commander's wagon.
I don't mean to be too sceptical, but is something like this even possible? I honestly can't picture it. I realize the implication that there's a conspiracy to invent this guy as a hero is equally difficult to believe, but I just can't imagine a shot like that is possible, let alone two in a row.
Labels: big guns
The Nevada ACLU
FishyJay provided a wonderful link for us.
The Nevada ACLU has declared its support for an individual's right to bear arms, apparently making it the first state affiliate in the nation to buck the national organization's position on the Second Amendment.
The state board of directors reached the decision this month after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Second Amendment protects the rights of individuals to own handguns.
"The Nevada ACLU respects the individual's right to bear arms subject to constitutionally permissible regulations," a statement on the organization's Web site said. "The ACLU of Nevada will defend this right as it defends other constitutional rights."
"This was the consensus," said Allen Lichtenstein, general counsel for ACLU of Nevada. "There really wasn't a lot of dissent."
But the state affiliate's position puts it at odds with the national organization.
The New York City-based ACLU disagrees with the Supreme Court ruling, saying in a statement that it interprets the Second Amendment as a collective right to own guns and not an individual one.
Here's the ACLU's position.
Given the reference to "a well regulated Militia" and "the security of a free State," the ACLU has long taken the position that the Second Amendment protects a collective right rather than an individual right. For seven decades, the Supreme Court's 1939 decision in United States v. Miller was widely understood to have endorsed that view.
The Supreme Court has now ruled otherwise. In striking down Washington D.C.'s handgun ban by a 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court's 2008 decision in D.C. v. Heller held for the first time that the Second Amendment protects an individual's right to keep and bear arms, whether or not associated with a state militia.
The ACLU disagrees with the Supreme Court's conclusion about the nature of the right protected by the Second Amendment. We do not, however, take a position on gun control itself. In our view, neither the possession of guns nor the regulation of guns raises a civil liberties issue.
What's your opinion? Is the dissent of the Nevada branch of the ACLU a hint of things to come? Couldn't the same thing happen in other gun-friendly states?
What about the idea that all the other ACLU affiliates support the national policy? Do you think they're all wrong? Isn't each branch comprised of lawyers and other professionals who have qualified opinions? We're not talking about a fringe element of radical thinkers, we're talking about the ACLU which represents a major segment of American politics.
Labels: 2nd amendment, aclu, gun control, gun rights
When Money is No Object
MEXICO CITY — Mexican soldiers have seized an arsenal of gold-plated, diamond-encrusted weapons believed to belong to the Valencia gang, allies of the powerful Sinaloa drug cartel, prosecutors said Monday.
Photos of the weapons show that most of the 31 pistols found in a raid on a home in western Mexico had gold or silver-plated grips or glittered with diamonds — apparently flamboyant examples of the sort of gaudily customized weapons favored by some drug gangsters.
Three of the assault rifles are almost entirely gold-plated.
Wouldn't some rap singers in the States like these things? Wouldn't anyone with enough money and this particular kind of taste go in for something like this?
What's your opinion? If money were no object, what would you do?
Please leave a comment. This came from FishyJay, who is becoming my main source.
Christopher Walken Sings Delilah
Labels: christopher walken, great movies
Off-duty Cop Commits Murder in Philadelphia
CBS3.com reports.
PHILADELPHIA (AP) ― Prosecutors say an off-duty Philadelphia police officer has been charged with murder in the shooting death of a man during an apparent dispute over a neighborhood water fight.
Authorities say 26-year-old Rudolph Gary shot and killed 22-year-old Howard Williams in an altercation that witnesses say started when children and adults tried to beat the heat by spraying each other with water. Investigators say two others were wounded in the Sunday evening shooting.
Prosecutors say Gary, an officer since November 2008, was charged Monday with murder, aggravated assault and simple assault. Police say he has been suspended with intent to dismiss.
What's wrong with the Philadelphia Police Department? Don't they screen these guys at all? Gun-rights advocates claim the average gun owner is more responsible and more careful because they realize what's at stake, but if that's true, shouldn't it count for cops even more?
Maybe the answer is the same for both cops and civilians. Before you can own a gun, you need to demonstrate the capacity to handle it properly, that's both mental and physical capacity.
Labels: gun control, gun rights, police shooting
Neighborly Disagreement in Maryland
The Washington Post reports on a Maryland shooting.
A double shooting in broad daylight in a quiet Brandywine neighborhood on Sunday afternoon stemmed from a neighborhood dispute and left one man dead and his teenage son wounded, Prince George's County police said. It was one of a spate of shootings that left three dead and nine wounded during a 24 hour period.
The name of the victims were not released. Officer Evan Baxter said a neighbor who apparently had a longstanding disagreement with the dead man was taken into custody after the shooting and was being questioned.
Residents of the 8800 block of Charm Court told news reporters that they were aware of the dispute between the men, but never suspected it would lead to violence.
These guys sound like ordinary citizens, probably law-abiding folks up until the time the dispute went over the line. In other words these are exactly the kind of people that are affected most by gun control laws.
This is the kind of incident which is made more commonplace with the easy availability of firearms.
What's your opinion? Doesn't a story like this put the lie to the old rationale that gun control laws are ineffective because criminals don't obey the laws?
Another New Favorite Blog
Robert Farago runs a pro-gun blog with a difference. On The Truth About Guns, you're liable to read such things as The Irresponsible Gun Owner of the Day, complete with video proof and commentary, and most impressive of all, official retractions when proven to have been wrong.
I realize these blogging standards are unusual across the board, but I find them especially noteworthy in the gun rights world.
Labels: blogging, blogging etiquette, gun rights
Cute Cartoon from FishyJay
Labels: defensive shooting, home invasion
Dan Choi - Don't Ask, Don't Tell
Advocate.com posted a wonderful article and video about the issue of gays in the military.
As Lt. Dan Choi and about 100 LGBT activists staged a "don't ask, don't tell" protest Sunday afternoon across the street from the White House, six plain-clothed civilians chained themselves to the White House gates.
Choi, who has twice been arrested after handcuffing himself to the White House gates and has now been court ordered not to enter a certain perimeter around the White House, was joined by a handful of other speakers, including former Vermont governor and Democratic National Committee chairman Howard Dean, Servicemembers United executive director Alex Nicholson, and Servicemembers Legal Defense Network executive director Aubrey Sarvis.
The protest came on the heels of a letter leaked late Friday afternoon in which Department of Defense secretary Robert Gates urged House Armed Services Committee chairman Ike Skelton "in the strongest possible terms" to delay legislative action on repeal until the Pentagon completes its assessment of how to implement repeal.
In the video, Choi explains that the current policy results in enforced closets for gay soldiers. What do you think about that? Is it a problem?
There's also a reference to the fact that Democrats generally favor repeal of this law while Republicans do not. Why is that? Why do the Republicans have to be such nay-sayers?
I couldn't help but remember some previous discussions we've had in which we talked about the conservative / liberal divide. Conservatives, generally speaking, are against gun control, for capital punishment, racist against blacks and now we can add against gays in the military. Liberals are the opposite. I know that's a sweeping generalization, but is it true?
Opinione had a post about this the other day, but I wasn't sure what he meant by this.
Some of these soldiers look like should be in Key West and San Francisco, instead of a forward operating base in Afghanistan.
Labels: gay, homosexuality
Tam on Her Favorite Gun Control Cliché
Over at View From The Porch, Tam published a typically sarcastic post about a WSJ article opposing open carry. She likened the article to a "cliché stew," which according to her exaggerated commentary, contained every single cliché.
Well, except for one. If you're playing along at home and your bingo card has "penis compensation joke" on it, you'll have to wait for her next try, because she missed it this time 'round.
This is another case of the pro-gun person bringing up the stupidity of penis comparison.
On the Uncle post, which Tam hat-tipped, he made no mention of this silliness, but a commenter did. I guess that's where the idea came from. Of course, some of Tammy's commenters were right with her, even referencing Freud's On Narcissism.
What's your opinion? Why is it so often the pro-gun folks who bring this up? Why do they keep saying it's a gun control cliché when they're the ones who keep saying it?
Is this a case of putting words in the mouth of your opponent? The article in the WSJ presumably had enough to complain about, why was it necessary to introduce this too?
Posted by Unknown at 12:41 PM 33 comments: Links to this post
The Truth About Guns reports on the concealed carry situation in the Lone Star State.
Total number of active CHL licenses (including instructors): 404,795 souls, or roughly 2.25% of all [documented] Lone Star State residents.
That sounds like a high percentage to me. How would that compare to places like Arizona with their new law, I wonder?
Do you think Texas is safer because of all the concealed carry permit holders? Do you think it would be even better off if they'd adopt a policy like Arizona's?
Labels: concealed carry, gun laws, gun rights
It Must Be Virginia
I just can't decide whether Virginia or Arizona tops the list. I guess it's Virginia, after all. Ohh Shoot reports.
A Virginia man bought a 9mm handgun. Two hours later while he was trying to clear the chamber he unintentionally discharged the gun. The bullet went through his apartment wall and into his neighbor's apartment. A 14-year-old girl lying on her bed heard the gunshot and saw a picture hanging on her wall break. The bullet was later found on her floor.
The bullet went through three walls and hit a fourth. Fortunately, no one was injured.
Virginia does not require any gun safety training when purchasing a firearm.
Labels: virginia
Kids Shooting Each Other
Click on Detroit reports on the latest child shooting.
This has become such a familiar story there's no need to copy and paste it. The uncle was upstairs, the 4-year-old brother shot his 2-year-old sister in the head. She's in critical condition.
The video contained a couple interesting things. The police chief said, "The terrible thing about it is the parents have to be responsible..." I guess what he meant was the terrible thing is gun owners who are parents are not acting responsibly.
At the end of the video, the news guy said the police said there "could be charges, with the emphasis on could."
I guess that about sums it up. Even where responsibility is direct, charges are only possible. No wonder we can't seem to put an end to this stuff.
Labels: gungun accidents
Sebastian on Outing the Opponents
I made a critical comment over on Sebastian's blog the other day, which I must admit was fairly well received. For some reason four or five of my most vicious detractors stayed out of it. Part of my remark, the gist of it really was this.
Thirdpower discovered this dirty secret about Josh Horwitz, just like that famous case with John Lott and his female alias. I say, "so what – who cares?". What a waste of time for Thirdpower and what a waste of time for you Sebastian. Talk about getting off the topic, this whole topic is off the topic. This is immediate personal attack, nothing else.
FishyJay made an interesting follow-up comment.
I have not seen MikeB say "so what – who cares?" about the John Lott case when it comes up on his blog, but now I expect Mikeb do so in the future.
I guess that's a fair point, but unless I actively condoned the outing of poor John Lott in some way, it does not disprove my claim that I say, "so what - who cares."
In another post, Sebastian took up the idea for further clarification. Basically he laid out a description of the difference between attacking someone's political existence and his personal existence. I don't find the explanation very convincing. How about you?
Do you think this is all about personal attacks or is it like Sebastian says, some of it is political or professional and therefore in bounds?
Jon Stewart on the Times Square Bomber and Other T...


To be a logistics provider of choice in any city or country in which Wared Logistics has a presence. To reach this goal we must provide a strong value proposition which enables our clients to entrust the outsourcing of their logistics and transport management needs to Wared, freeing them to focus on their core activities and creating a symbiotic win-win relationship.
To develop and maintain best-of-breed services and solutions, underpinned by state-of-the-art technologies, to provide highly efficient and robust logistics and distribution platforms for our clients' growth, and which seamlessly integrate into their market delivery objectives.


text:
'use strict';

// ----------------------------------
// available tasks:
//    'gulp stats:psi' : page speed info stats task
// ----------------------------------
// config:
//     config.task.stats : task name
// ----------------------------------

module.exports = function(gulp, $, path, config) {

};

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
This domain "www.newyork.am" and site is for sale. Call US! 212.203.1705
NEWYORK.AM | Hotels, Apartments, Museums, Nightlife, Bars, Shopping, City Guide, Transportation
The 10 best clubs in NYC
We highlight our go-to nightlife venues and dance clubs in NYC, from Bushwick to the Meatpacking district
Bossa Nova Civic Club
This "tropical fantasy dance club" is another staple in the thriving Bushwick scene—setting itself apart from its competitors with a legitimate sound system and consistently hot lineups of underground house and techno DJs manning the decks. The bar-meets-club has made a big name for itself since opening in 2012, curating its own stage at Sustain-Release and hosting numerous industry pioneers. Bossa's "DJ résumé" continues to impress—highlights include: Adam X, Ron Morelli, Heather Heart, Marcos Cabral, Reade Truth, Jamie xx, Henning Baer and Mike Simonetti.
Good Room
Located in the home of former venue Club Europa, Good Room was redesigned by nightlife impressario Steve Lewis and opened in October 2014. The main room was designed with the DJ in mind with a perfectly placed booth, solid sound system, ample dance floor and small stage for performances. Another area houses their massive square bar with surprisingly reasonable drink prices, while a side smaller room—the Bad Room—houses a massive wall of vinyl and another DJ set-up for separate tunes. For people who don't want to deal with the hassle of Brooklyn's newer mega clubs, Good Room is the perfect club antidote.
Amid the handful of both legit and underground DIY venues popping up (and vanishing just as quickly) in Brooklyn, Black Flamingo appears to be here to stay. The chill two-level location opened its doors quietly in 2015, but partiers quickly adopted the restaurant-bar-nightclub, and for good reason: David Shapiro and Etan Fraiman of Battery Harris, Eli Goldstein of Soul Clap, Philipp Jung of M.A.N.D.Y., Gadi Mizrahi of Wolf + Lamb and creative partner, Bryce David, are all scene veterans behind the venue, which serves food upstairs while hosting excellent DJs downstairs and go-to parties like Kaviar Disco Club in the warm, wood-crafted den.
House of Yes
This wild Bushwick spot opened in 2016 and quickly established itself as a reliable way for Brooklyn revelers to wear insane costumes and lose their inhibitions just about every weekend. With exhibitionist parties like "House of Love" and the immersive "Little Cinema" film tributes, along with a panoply of aerialists, magicians and dancers on retainer, House of Yes is constantly inventing new ways to make a night out more than just drinks at the bar.
At an unmarked hideaway under the Williamsburg Bridge, the swinging clientele dances by candlelight to Latin-infused beats laid down by sexy DJs. Take a breather from the samba or salsa and refuel with tequila shots at the sleek wooden bar. Regulars swear by the unusual postshot practice of dipping one side of the lime in fresh-ground coffee and the other in sugar. You'll have to try it for yourself.
This multiroom dance club, located next to the Wythe Hotel in North Williamsburg, was hailed as the savior of NYC nightlife even before it opened. Enjoy its great sound system and firm commitment to the underground, both in its house- and techno-heavy booking policy and general lack of bottle-service inanity. While the lines can get quite long and the dancefloor a bit too crowded on busy Fridays and Saturdays, the pristine Funktion-Ones and excellent bookings usually make the hassle worthwhile.
This substantially-sized music venue features two floors—each equipped with its own dance space—as well as a smoking deck and dual bathrooms. Not to mention a bar menu that includes crab cakes for your post-club-night cooldown snack. What more could you ask for?
Decked out in surprisingly convincing '70s decor, this Brooklyn lounge puts its sizeable performance space to a diverse number of uses: the eclectic calendar of live music and DJ sets ranges from groovy funk combos to blippy synth-pop acts, not to mention bingo and burlesque nights. Regardless of what you stumble upon, though, you'll find plenty of dance space available for showcasing your latest moves.
Judging by the neighborhood's flashy vibe, you'd never guess that the attitude at this club is close to zero, at least once you get past the bouncers guarding the door. On the sunken dance floor, hip to hip crowds gyrate to deep beats from top DJs, including NYC old-schoolers François K, Tedd Patterson and Louie Vega. Cielo, which features a crystal-clear sound system, has won a bevy of best club awards in its half a decade of existence—and it deserves them all.
Trans-Pecos
Intrepid local booker Todd P, the granddaddy of the Brooklyn DIY scene, oversees this show space and community hub in the Silent Barn's former digs. Booking comes courtesy of various local tastemakers, including plenty of weekday parties in the basement. Expect eclectic music and laid-back friendly crowds.
The 10 best New York attractions
From historical landmarks to newer destinations, here are the best New York attractions for locals and tourists alike
Try imagining NYC's skyline without the towering spire of the Empire State Building. Impossible, right? Taking a mere 11 months to construct, the 1,454-foot-tall emblem became the city's highest building upon completion in 1931. During your visit, pay special attention to the lobby, restored in 2009 to its original Art Deco design. You can also impress your pals with these tidbits while queuing for the observation decks: In 1945, 14 tenants were killed when a plane crashed into the 79th floor during heavy fog; a terrace on the 103rd level was once intended for use as a docking station for airships; and the topper's three tiers of lights can illuminate up to nine colors at a time. —Tim Lowery
No mere river crossing, this span is an elegant reminder of New York's history of architectural innovation. Whe…
The 10 best restaurants in NYC
From unimpeachable classics to buzzy newcomers, these are the best restaurants in NYC you need to know about right now
Swiss chef Daniel Humm still mans the kitchen post-revamp at this Gramercy jewel, which began life as a brasserie before evolving into one of the city's most rarefied and progressive eateries. The service is famously mannered, and the room among the city's most grand. But the heady, epic tasting menus are the true heart of Eleven Madison Park, a format that spotlights Humm's auteur instincts. Tableside flourishes are part of the fun: Look out for even more dazzling showmanship—including one dish presented by way of a sleight-of-hand trick.
Le Bernardin New York dining mores have experienced a seismic paradigm shift in the past decade, toppling Old World restaurant titans and making conquering heroes of chefs that champion accessible food served in casual environments. But Le Bernardin—the city's original temple of haute…
The 10 best hotels in NYC From glam boutique hotels to dazzling luxury properties, these are the best hotels in NYC
The NoMad Hotel Acclaimed drinks, dining and decor combine in this stunning Flatiron hotel.
Time Out tip: Guests who like to push the envelope shouldn't miss the nearby Museum of Sex, which boasts X-rated exhibits like The Sex Lives of Animals and a bounce house made out of breasts. Not sure you're ready to go all the way? Grab a drink in the museum's admission-free Disco Lounge bar lined with black and white portraits of the 70's club scene.
The New York EDITION The decor of this hotel might be sleek and modern, but nearby landmarks such as the Flatiron building and Madison Square Park give it the flavor of old New York.
Time Out tip: When wandering the streets of NYC, one will be faced with multiple options to grab a ice-cold beer. But if you're looking for a place with a great crowd, a great playlist, and an extensive beer selection, stop by BXL Zoute. This buzzy little p…
The Best shopping in NYC
We've got the lowdown on where to go shopping in NYC, whether you're looking for dresses, shoes, jewelry or swimwear
We know: Brooklynites have been bemoaning the arrival of big-brand chain stores for the past few years. But guess what? The borough has been home to an awesome minichain for quite some time. Bird, the fashion-forward women's boutique where prices run the gamut, has been in business for 15 years and shows no sign of stopping. Three locations exist; fingers crossed that a fourth isn't too far behind.
Every four to six weeks, this Chelsea gem shuts down and reopens with a totally new theme. Mirroring the editorial style of a magazine, the store collaborates with guest curators and architects for each cycle. The current motif (until August 17), "Cool Story," spotlights the Aros (a new air conditioner from Quirky), beach bags and more. Past themes have included "Love Story" and "Good Story." Our predictions for future iterations: "My Story" …
Located in the home of former venue Club Europa, Good Room was redesigned by nightlife impressario Steve Lewis and opened in October 2014. The main room was designed with the DJ in mind with a perfectly placed booth, solid sound system, ample dance floor and small stage…
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Thermal performance of the MSD624 02, as with any dry suit, is dependent on the type and thickness of the undergarment worn. Mustang Survival's MSL600 GS Dry Suit Liner is the perfect companion for the MSD624 02.
The MSD624 Specification Sheet is a pdf file. If you are unable to open it you will need to download the latest FREE version of Adobe Acrobat Reader.
The MSD624 Owner Manual is a pdf file. If you are unable to open it you will need to download the latest FREE version of Adobe Acrobat Reader.


text:
Beginning CareKit Development
by Christopher Robert Baxter
200 Pages · 2016 · 5.8 MB · 2,550 Downloads · New!
Agile Swift
by Godfrey Nolan
Application Development with Swift
by Hossam Ghareeb
After years of using Objective-C for developing apps for iOS/Mac OS, Apple now offers a new, creative, easy, and innovative programming language for application development, called Swift. Swift makes iOS application development a breeze by offering speed, security and power to your application development process. Swift is easy to learn and has awesome features such as being open source, debugging,interactive playgrounds, error handling model, and so on. Swift has simplified its memory management with Automatic Reference Counting (ARC) and it is compatible with Objective-C.
Beginning iPhone Development with Swift 2
by David Mark
This is the definitive guide to the Swift programming language and the iOS 9 SDK, and the source code has been updated to reflect Xcode 7 and Swift 2.
Beginning iPhone Development with Swift 3, 3rd Edition
Assuming little or no working knowledge of the Swift programming language, and written in a friendly, easy-to-follow style, this book offers a comprehensive course in iPhone and iPad programming. The book starts with the basics, walking through the process of downloading and installing Xcode and the iOS 10 SDK, and then guides you though the creation of your first simple application.
Beginning iPhone Development with Swift 4, 4th Edition
by Molly K. Maskrey
552 Pages · 2017 · 20 MB · 2,224 Downloads · New!
Learn how to integrate all the interface elements iOS users have come to know and love, such as buttons, switches, pickers, toolbars, and sliders. In this edition of the best selling book, you'll master a variety of design patterns, from the simplest single view to complex hierarchical drill-downs.
by Wallace Wang
Learn how to integrate all the interface elements iOS users have come to know and love, such as buttons, switches, pickers, toolbars, and sliders. In this edition of the best selling book, you'll also learn about touch gestures, table views, and collection views for displaying data on a user interface.
Beginning CareKit Development (Preview)


I say it's a bad move. She has to answer to him about her ancestry, to a guy who won't release his own tax returns to the public. It's someone tacky to me to prove one's authenticity. It gives credence to the voice of criticism, rather than appeasing that voice. After all, this is the same man who wouldn't accept a state-certified birth certificate, or the judgment of twelve jurors, or the findings of over half dozen investigations into the same controversy. The same man who poked at her by calling her Pocahontas.
Elizabeth Warren will play herself out. Her shine will fade right along with Trump's when he's out of office. She's making her fame standing up to Trump and his rhetoric. That's fine, it's what everyone else is doing. But what will she have to show for it? What has she accomplished? What has she actually stopped him from doing?
Speaking of indigenous issues, where was Warren when Obama turned a blind eye to fracking, drilling, and piping on sovereign indigenous lands in the US? Where was her voice on the Senate floor when Congress abetted the White House in ignoring federal treaties with recognized tribes, and rejected "unrecognized" tribes on technicalities? Does she get a pass because she's standing up to Trump about her own heritage, without actually doing a thing for the people of her shared heritage?
What about any of this, either way, is nothing less than a publicity stunt? Check your emails and see how quickly this issue compels the next fundraising request (Republican or Democrat)?
With a possible 2020 presidential run looming, Sen. Elizabeth Warren released results of a DNA test that found she is primarily of European descent, but likely had a Native American ancestor.


text:
Q: How to build the GCC HTML documentation from source into a single page? I had asked a similar thing for GDB at: How to build the GDB documentation from source? , and it changed my life, now I want the same for GCC!
I managed to build the docs on Ubuntu 16.04 and gcc 6.4.0 source tree (to match my host) with:
./contrib/download_prerequisites
./configure
make
host-x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/gcc
make html
xdg-open HTML/gcc-6.4.0/gcc/index.html

But I could not make it put everything into a single page, I tried:
make html MAKEINFO=makeinfo MAKEINFOFLAGS='--no-split'

but it does not work as for binutils.
If I don't build GCC itself first, and do just make html directly, it fails with:
checking for x86_64-pc-linux-gnu-gcc... /data/git/gcc/host-x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/gcc/xgcc -B/data/git/gcc/host-x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/gcc/ -B/usr/local/x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/bin/ -B/usr/local/x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/lib/ -isystem /usr/local/x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/include -isystem /usr/
local/x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/sys-include
checking for C compiler default output file name...
configure: error: in `/data/git/gcc/x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/libgomp':
configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables
See `config.log' for more details.
Makefile:24442: recipe for target 'configure-target-libgomp' failed
make[1]: *** [configure-target-libgomp] Error 1
make[1]: Leaving directory '/data/git/gcc'
Makefile:1268: recipe for target 'do-html' failed
make: *** [do-html] Error 2

The problem is that the file:
host-x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/gcc/xgcc

does not exist, I wonder why it is needed since all I want is to build the docs.
I would like to obtain the docs available at: https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-6.4.0/gcc/ and hopefully other manuals listed at https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/ such as CPP manual, each of them as a single HTML page that I can Ctrl + F easily on.

A: this worked for me:
git clone git://gcc.gnu.org/git/gcc.git gcc
cd gcc/gcc
./configure
make gcc-vers.texi
mkdir HTML
makeinfo --html --no-split -Idoc -Idoc/include -o HTML doc/gcc.texi

Same for gccint.html, cpp.html, etc. gcc's makefiles ignore the MAKEINFOFLAGS variable.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


A wilderness area, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man—where man himself is a visitor who does not remain. A wilderness area is further defined to mean an area of state land or water having a primeval character, without significant improvement or permanent human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve, enhance and restore, where necessary, its natural conditions.
The High Peaks Wilderness Area (HPWA) falls short of this definition. In the last decade, the High Peaks have been inundated with an unprecedented increase in visitors. Between 2005 and 2015, the number of hikers registering at the Van Hoevenberg Trail near Adirondak Loj soared by 62 percent, to over fifty-three thousand. During the same period, the number of hikers to Cascade Mountain more than doubled—to more than thirty-three thousand. The Summit Steward program reported that between 2007 and 2017, the number of contacts with hikers skyrocketed from slightly over fourteen thousand to more than thirty-one thousand. And last year, a study found that close to 80 percent of all trailheads leading into the High Peaks and surrounding Wilderness Areas were routinely above capacity and that thirty-five parking lots designed to accommodate fewer than a thousand cars frequently had more than two thousand trying to park at them.
The huge influx of hikers and campers has had catastrophic impacts on natural resources and the wilderness experience. Overuse of trails, campsites, and summits has caused widespread and serious erosion; damaged and destroyed fragile alpine vegetation; and left areas littered with trash and human waste. Moreover, the hordes of users eliminate any chance that the HPWA can provide "outstanding opportunities for solitude." Most insidious is that, as documented in studies by Dr. Chad Dawson, users are now changing their perception of wilderness to accommodate these dramatic shifts: "wilderness" in the minds of many is now synonymous with packed trailheads, visible and widespread evidence of human presence, and crowded summits.
Overuse of the HPWA is not a new problem. The 1999 unit management plan (UMP) for the area recognized that heavy use was, even then, harming natural resources and diminishing visitors' wilderness experience. The Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), the state agency entrusted with management of the Forest Preserve, has for years sought to address the overuse problem through indirect controls such as rerouting trails, closing campsites, limiting group size, and attempting to persuade hikers to visit other, less-used areas. Indirect measures such as these are important and well-recognized tools of wilderness management; however, a more direct measure—a permit system to control access—is called for when, as now, they prove ineffective.
Indeed, the 1999 UMP called for DEC to evaluate a camping-permit system for the HWPA, but this was never done. Now is clearly the time for DEC to seriously evaluate implementation of a day-use and camping-permit system. Permits are a proven and effective means of preventing overuse. The National Park Service's successful permit system for Wilderness Areas under its jurisdiction has been in place for decades. And this year, following two years of indirect controls to manage overcrowding at a swimming area on Rondout Creek in the Catskill Park, DEC instituted a permit system.
The advantages of a permit system are clear. Limiting the number of people who access a Wilderness Area preserves the opportunity to experience solitude; reduces impacts to and degradation of natural resources; and allows previously damaged resources to recover. It is a far more reliable method of preventing overuse than indirect methods such as limiting parking or attempting to convince users to go to less heavily used areas. As recent experience shows, hikers who may have driven for hours to hike or camp in the HPWA are not likely to be deterred by a full parking lot. And if the goal is to shift use to other Wilderness Areas in the Park, what better way to do this than by letting prospective users know that they need a permit (limited in number) for the HPWA?
DEC could institute a permit system on a trial basis, say for five years, in order to evaluate its success. My guess is that, once hikers adapt to the permit system, they will appreciate the opportunity to experience this remarkable area free from crowding, trash, and waste.
DEC should take advantage of this important opportunity to reverse the decades-long downward spiral of the HPWA and restore it to its rightful place as the premier wilderness of the Adirondack Park.
Christopher Amato is vice chair of Adirondack Wild: Friends of the Forest Preserve. He served as DEC assistant commissioner for natural resources from 2007 to 2011.