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The 'European idea' (broadly, the belief that, regardless of historical, cultural and language differences, Europe constitutes a single political community) was born long before 1945. Before the Reformation of the sixteenth century, common allegiances to Rome invested the Papacy with supranational authority over much of Europe. Even after the European state-system came into existence, thinkers as different as Rousseau, the socialist Saint-Simon (1760–1825) and the nationalist Mazzini (1805–72) championed the cause of European cooperation, and in some cases advocated the establishment of Europe-wide political institutions. However, until the second half of the twentieth century such aspirations proved to be hopelessly utopian. Since WWII, Europe has undergone a historically unprecedented process of integration, aimed, some argue, at the creation of what Winston Churchill in 1946 called a 'United States of Europe'. Indeed, it has sometimes been suggested that European integration provides a model of political organization that would eventually be accepted worldwide as the deficiencies of the nation-state become increasingly apparent
The EU is an example of a regional bloc whose member states have integrated so deeply (in terms of the EU's functions and powers) that it can arguably be seen as an example of federalism.
In a federal system, power is shared between a central authority above nation-state level (in this case, where member states have given up power over some decisions to central institutions of the EU, such as the European Commission) and state-level authority (in this case, where states retain power over other decisions in their national governments).
Regionalism grew in significance in the late twentieth century. Just as states have looked for means of global governance at international level, for example through the United Nations (UN), states have also tried to find ways of working.
The driving forces behind regionalism can derive from economic, security and/or political grounds. The European Economic Community (EEC), the forebearer to the EU, is a clear example of economic regionalism. The whole justification for the EEC was to enhance economic growth and development within the European continent. The economic success of the organisation in its early years managed to attract countries around it who soon sought membership. For instance, the United Kingdom was drawn towards the European project partly due to the relative economic success of the EEC.
The EU is the most significant example of regionalism, due to the unique level of integration among its member states and its expanding membership. It is a collection of 28 European countries (pre-Brexit) and both intergovernmental and supranational institutions, and is designed to promote cooperation centred on its shared values, aims and agreements.
1949 Council of Europe and the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)
Created a mechanism for human rights to be agreed and protected above nation-state level, enforced by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). The ECHR and ECtHR were founded as part of the Council of Europe, which now has 47 members, including Russia and Turkey, and is separate to the EU.
1951 Treaty of Paris, founding the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
Created a common market for coal and steel between Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany. One of its founders, former French foreign minister Robert Schumann, said that it would 'make war [between its member states] not only unthinkable but materially impossible'.
1957 Treaty of Rome, founding the European Economic Community (EEC)
The six members of the ECSC signed a treaty creating the EEC, which committed its members to making 'ever closer union among the peoples of Europe'. The treaty formed the main institutions of today's EU, the European Commission, the European Court of Justice, the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers.
1963 Founding of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
The first attempts to create regional governance in Africa. The OAU was founded as former colonies gained their independence and was designed to strengthen and defend newly independent states' sovereignty.
1967 Founding of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
The first members of ASEAN were Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. ASEAN's aim was to enhance economic cooperation in the region.
1992 Maastricht Treaty — the European Community becomes the EU
By now, the EU had developed into a common market of 12 members (the UK joined in 1973), with free movement of people, goods and services. The treaty began the process for creating a single European currency. The euro came into circulation in 2002 in 13 member states.
1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Agreed between Canada, Mexico and the USA in order to eliminate tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade in the North America region.
2001 Organisation of African Unity becomes the African Union (AU)
The AU has seen African states cooperate on both security and development issues. It has sent peacekeepers to Somalia and, as a bloc, has also threatened to withdraw from the International Criminal Court (ICC), stating that the ICC is biased against Africans.
2007 Treaty of Lisbon
Created a constitution for the EU and included moves to make decision making simpler (by reducing the policy areas where unanimous agreement was needed), given that the EU had seen its biggest enlargement in 2005 with ten new members states, including many former Soviet states in eastern Europe. The treaty also created the position of President of the European Council (as of 2017, Donald Tusk) and a High Representative for Foreign Affairs, designed to strengthen the EU's independent voice on the world stage.
To some extent, the drift towards European integration was fuelled by an idealist commitment to internationalism and the belief that international organizations embody a moral authority higher than that commanded by the state. This was evident in the federalist dream of an integrated Europe that was espoused by, for example, Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman (1886–1963). Early dreams of a federal Europe in which the sovereignty of the European states would be pooled came to nothing, however. Instead, a functionalist road to unity was followed. This is why the European project tended to focus on the means of promoting economic cooperation, seen by states as the least controversial but most necessary form of integration. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was founded in 1952 on the initiative of Monnet, advisor to the French foreign minister, Schuman. Under the Treaty of Rome (1957), the European Economic Community (EEC) came into existence. This was committed to the establishment of a common European market and the broader goal of an 'ever closer union among the peoples of Europe'. The EEC was incorporated into the European Community (EC) in 1967 and eventually into the European Union (EU) in 1993.
Enlargement
As well as deepening integration (which considers the loss of sovereignty for the wider interests of the EU), there has been much discussion in relation to the widening integration of the EU, in particular to its expansion to include additional member states. As the timeline of the EU's formation demonstrates there have been various waves of enlargement throughout the regional bloc's history. When it was first established, the EU had only six original members (known as the Inner Six), in contrast to the 28 members of today (pre- Brexit). Since then it has seen several waves of enlargement:
■ Inner Six (1951): Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands
■ First Enlargement (1970s): Denmark, Ireland, the UK (including Gibraltar)
■ Mediterranean Enlargement (1980s): Greece, Portugal and Spain
■ Northern Enlargement (1990s): Austria, Finland and Sweden
■ Post-Communist/Eastern Enlargement (2000s): Czech Republic, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia (2004), Bulgaria, Romania (2007), Croatia (2013)
There are many states that are still waiting to join the EU, with the Balkan states, in particular those of the former Yugoslavia, being the main contenders. In 2022 Ukraine was granted candidate status in response to the Russian invasion.
Some argue that it would be easier for the EU to absorb these states, given that EU funding already makes contributions towards their development. One of the more controversial applicants is Turkey, which has been under negotiation to join since 1987 Enlargement on this grand scale has been controversial — Russia, in particular, has seen the EU's growth as antagonistic, given that the EU's border looks increasingly similar to that of NATO's and many of the newer eastern European members were former Russian allies or satellite states. Therefore, the EU, designed to promote peace and security in the region, has had to consider the wider impact of allowing eastern European countries to join and how has contributed to the war in Ukraine.
Furthermore, newer members often have weaker economies, putting pressure on the existing members' economies. Another issue relates to the significant cultural differences of possible new EU members. Given that the EU has grown to have more of a collective cultural identity, accepting countries that have quite different outlooks (such as Turkey) could prove to be problematic.
Finally, there is the issue of effectiveness — the larger the EU, the larger the base of interests it needs to coordinate. This may make it harder for the EU to form cohesive policies, especially in regards to foreign policy. This is especially problematic when unanimity is called for, for example in the Council of Europe.
The Economic and Monetary Union
The process of European integration broadly followed three stages:
1 economic union
2 monetary union
3 political union
As the middle stage of integration, the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) clearly had both economic and political elements. The origins of the EMU go back to 1978, when the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) was established. The ERM was designed to tackle one of the biggest issues with trade in the EU: fluctuating exchange rates. The ERM would reduce exchange rate variability and achieve monetary stability in Europe. In 1992, the pathway to EMU was agreed under the Maastricht Treaty. It represented a clear move beyond stabilising exchange rates to establishing a single currency. In practice, the EMU is a group of policies aimed at converging the economies of EU member states in three stages (the euro convergence criteria), with each stage designed for progressively closer economic integration. Only once a state participates in the third stage can it adopt the euro as its official currency. Some EU member states opted out of the single currency (namely Denmark and the UK), but those who qualify today have to meet the euro convergence criteria set out by the Maastricht Treaty as, after the enlargement of the EU in 2004–7, all new EU member states must commit to participate in the third stage in their treaties of accession. As part of the 1996 Dublin Summit, the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) was established, which was designed to ensure that EMU members had a strict budgetary discipline and to maintain the EMU's stability. However, the SGP was non-binding and some member states did not comply with the need for budgetary discipline.
What kind of organization is the EU, and how much influence does it exert?
The EU is a very difficult political organization to categorize. Is it a state, perhaps even a 'superstate'? Is it an international organization, and, if so, what kind of international organization? Is the EU merely an arena or space within which member states can interact, or has it become a meaningful actor in its own right? These questions are best considered by examining, first, the internal structure of the EU and then its relationship with the outside world. One of the difficulties with understanding the structure of the EU is that it has been substantially reshaped and institutionally redesigned on a number of occasions since the establishment of the ECSC in 1952. Not only has the ECSC given way to the EEC, the EC and, in due course, the EU, but other changes have, for example, seen the creation of a single market (through the Single European Act (SEA) in 1986), monetary union (agreed by the TEU in 1993) and the establishment of the EU as a single legal entity (through the Lisbon Treaty in 2009). Most significantly, the EEC/EC/EU has gone through a substantial process of widening and deepening. It has widened as the original Six (France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg) became, over time, 27 and it has deepened as successive waves of integration have transferred certain areas of decision-making authority from member states to EU bodies.
As time progressed and the economic ties became deeper through the adoption of the Single Market and monetary union, it was clear that the EU was increasingly taking on more of a political role. Various treaties, especially the Maastricht Treaty (1993), saw developments in the EU's key institutions and systems of governance. Increasingly there was a common political agenda and a growing feeling that its institutions should be acting on behalf of the EU as a single entity. During this period, questions of sovereignty were up for debate, with measures such as subsidiarity (the idea that a central authority should perform only those tasks that cannot be performed at local level) demonstrating the clear adoption of a more political role.
The EU has also increasingly taken on more of a security role. After the Treaty of Lisbon (2009) the External Action Service was established, which is the EU department that formally implemented the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP), later called the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). This covers EU defence and military aspects, as well as civilian crisis management, and falls under the jurisdiction of the EU itself.
Furthermore, particularly since the early 2000s, the EU has been increasingly involved in humanitarian work, and has performed operations in Europe itself (the former Yugoslavia), Africa and Asia. While the EU has no standing army, it does have the European Union Force (EUFOR) and the European Union Naval Force (EUNAVFOR), both of which have been involved in interventions with a military focus.
Increasingly, the EU's various intelligence services and armed and police forces are also working collectively in response to the increased terrorism threat. For example, the 2016 attack on Berlin's Christmas market saw Italian police authorities arrest the perpetrator within Italian borders. Furthermore, this has led to a growing and symbolic sense of a shared European identity, with various landmarks across Europe being lit in the colours of the national flags of those nations affected.
In strict terms, the EU is no longer a confederation of independent states operating on the basis of intergovernmentalism, as the EEC and the EC were at their inception. The sovereignty of member states was enshrined in the so-called 'Luxembourg compromise' of 1966. This accepted the general practice of unanimous voting in the Council of Ministers (now known as the Council), and granted each member state an outright veto on matters threatening vital national interests.
However, this confederal image of the EU has become difficult to sustain for at least three reasons. In the first place, starting with the SEA and continuing with each of the subsequent major treaties – the TEU, Amsterdam, Nice and Lisbon – the practice of qualified majority voting, which allows even the largest state to be outvoted in the Council, has been applied to a wider range of policy areas. This has progressively narrowed the scope of the national veto, which, in turn, circumscribes state sovereignty.
Second, this trend has been compounded by the fact that EU law is binding on all member states. This, indeed, is one of the key differences between the EU and other international organizations. The EU has a body of law which supersedes national law in areas where the EU has 'competence', a position backed up by rulings from the European Court of Justice. The creation of this body of law has involved the voluntary surrender of powers by member states in a broad range of policy areas, and the development of a new level of legal authority to which the member states are subject.
Third, and linked to this, the powers of certain EU bodies have expanded at the expense of national governments. The result is a political body that is a complex blend of intergovernmental and supranational features. Nevertheless, although the EU has done much to realize the Treaty of Rome's goal of establishing 'an ever closer union', moving well beyond Charles de Gaulle's and Margaret Thatcher's vision of a confederation of independent states, it stops short of realizing a 'United States of Europe'.
While the EU has not created a federal Europe, still less a European 'superstate', the superiority of European law over the national law of the member states perhaps suggests that it is accurate to talk of a 'federalizing' Europe. A major check on centralizing tendencies within the EU has been respect for the principle of subsidiarity, embodied in the TEU, and the pragmatic approach to integration adopted by key states such as France and Germany. Decision-making within the 'New Europe' is increasingly made on the basis of multilevel governance, in which the policy process has interconnected sub national, national, intergovernmental and supranational levels, the balance between them shifting in relation to different issues and policy areas. This image of complex policy-making is more helpful than the sometimes sterile notion of a battle between national sovereignty and EU domination. The desire to bring greater coherence and formality to this complex and sometimes inefficient policy process nevertheless gave rise to the idea of an EU Constitution, which would codify major rules and principles, incorporating and superseding all previous treaties. However, although the Constitutional Treaty, which would have established this Constitution, was approved by heads of state or government in 2004, it was not ratified because of referendum defeats in the Netherlands and France in 2005. Although many of the elements of the Constitutional Treaty were incorporated into the Lisbon Treaty, which was ratified in 2009, this episode highlights the extent to which, despite decades of institutional deepening, EU member states continue to function as states, still orientated around issues of national interest.
The EU and the world
.How much political power does the EU really have on the global stage? Can it be seen as a superpower? Many have argued that it cannot, given that there is a lack of a central authority or a clear figurehead in the same way as exists in superpower nation-states.
The former US secretary of state Henry Kissinger (in office as secretary of state between 1973 and 1977) once asked the question, 'Who do I call if I want to speak to Europe?' on a matter of international importance. Traditionally, the USA has relied heavily on France, Germany and the UK as the most powerful voices in Europe and therefore the most reliable and influential European governments to work with on issues of major significance.
The EU has increasingly attempted to expand its role from a regional body coordinating policy within Europe to a regional body with power and influence as a global actor in its own right. For some, the idea that the EU acts as a spokesperson for the peoples and governments of EU member states is a controversial one, and represents a threat to individual member states' sovereignty and their ability to conduct their own, independent foreign policy. Others see a useful role in the EU gaining influence as a more independent and unified voice on the world stage, perhaps at last answering Kissinger's famous question.
The most crucial area here has been foreign and defence policy. In its early incarnations, foreign policy, and, for that matter, the wider issue of political union, played little part in the developing European project.
One of the EU's most significant weaknesses is its lack of a central military power. The EU employs forces primarily for humanitarian intervention, but it does not have a central standing army. The EU relies on NATO (which has a very similar membership to the EU) for defence, but this has led to some seeing the EU as the USA's military puppet. This was highlighted during the war in the former Yugoslavia, and especially in Kosovo, during which NATO had to step in to end the conflict. The EU was largely seen as weak for allowing the largest genocide since the Second World War to happen in its own back yard.
The Treaty of Rome made no mention of foreign policy and the EEC focused essentially on economic policies and issues. Such initiatives as there were to promote political integration tended to be piecemeal and had little impact. For example, the European Defence Community was proposed in 1950, most actively by France, but it was widely viewed as a threat to the authority of NATO, and the idea was abandoned in 1954 when it was rejected by the French National Assembly.
The idea of an EU foreign and defence policy resurfaced through the Treaty of Amsterdam, and the new position of High Representative for foreign affairs, and by the high-profile appointment of Javier Solana, the former Secretary General of NATO, to this office. The Common Foreign and Security Policy has had a number of achievements. These include the deployment of over two dozen missions of peacekeepers, police officers and civilians to troubled parts of the world, including Bosnia, Chad, Eastern Congo and the Aceh province of Indonesia. It has also engaged in international diplomacy, particularly the EU3's (The EU together with France, Germany and the UK) efforts to persuade Iran to abandon its uranium enrichment programme. However, failures have been more prominent than successes.
However. when it comes to the most pressing international problems, such as Afghanistan, Pakistan and North Korea, the EU has either been largely invisible or absent. Although the EU's presence in Bosnia and Kosovo has helped to ensure peace, EU policy in the Balkans has become less resolute and coherent over time. Lacking a military force of its own, the EU was forced to leave the resolution of the 1999 Kosovo crisis to US-led NATO forces. When the USA and most EU states recognized the independence of Kosovo in 2008, five EU states failed to, shattering the hard-won united approach to the Balkans that had been forged in the 1990s. Similarly, Slovenia is blocking Croatia's accession to the EU because of a border dispute, while Greece is thwarting Macedonia's progress towards membership because of its name (Macedonia is also a region in northern Greece).
There are many impediments to developing an effective common foreign and defence policy within the EU. In the first place, there are permanent tensions between member states that have an 'Atlanticist' approach to foreign policy, such as the UK, and those that have a 'Europeanist' approach, especially France. For the former, any EU defence policy, particularly the development of an EU military arm, must occur within, not outside or as an alternative to, the framework of NATO.
Second, member states have generally been much more reluctant to support political integration, rather than economic integration, and this especially applies in the case of foreign and defence policy. As the core purpose of the state is to ensure the 'high politics' of security and survival, independent control over foreign and defence affairs is widely viewed as the most important dimension of state sovereignty.
Third, Europe's ability to develop an effective external presence has long been hampered by confusion about who represents the EU. As Henry Kissinger put it, 'Who do I call when I want to call Europe?' In the case of foreign and defence policy the EU has traditionally been represented by the 'troika', made up of the High Representative for foreign affairs, the European Commissioner for External Affairs and the foreign minister of the state currently holding the presidency of the Council. The confusions implicit in this arrangement were recognized by the creation, in the Lisbon Treaty, of the post of High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. However, the appointment of the relatively inexperienced Catherine Ashton as the first post-holder suggests that this office may not fulfil the expectations of those who devised it.
Fourth, an effective common defence policy requires levels of funding that few member states are prepared to support, particularly since the global financial crisis of 2007–09. It also needs a standardization of equipment and, ideally, a single, harmonized defence industry, which is a long way from being achieved and may, anyway, be impossible.
Fifth expansion has created an economic strain on EU countries because the newer members tend to have weaker economies, thereby creating an economic burden on the stronger states. Additionally, not all EU member states have accepted the euro and of those that have, there have been winners and losers. Germany has done well from having a devalued currency, which has made its exports more appealing to the global market, while other countries, such as Italy, which would ordinarily have used methods such as devaluation to overcome recession, have been prevented from doing so. There has also been significant disagreement over policies such as the CAP,( Common Agricultural Policy) demonstrating the difficulty in an organisation of 28 member states (pre-Brexit) of reaching agreement on matters of trade.
However, beyond the implications of the war in Ukraine for energy resources, migration, food security and value chains, it has led to major shifts in the EU's security and defence orientation. In terms of military assistance, EU member states have provided lethal equipment to the tune of €2 billion via the EU's European Peace Facility for the very first time. In line with a flourishing "Team Europe" logic, EU member states have also sold, leased and/or provided arms on a bilateral basis with the purpose of strengthening Ukraine's relative positioning vis-à-vis Russia in the current war.
Most EU member states have contributed in some way to the delivery of anti-aircraft systems, grenade-launchers, machine guns and ammunition. The European Union has formally approved the Strategic Compass
Can the EU be considered to be a superpower?
■ Economic power: the EU has significantly increased its economic power by unifying its currency and establishing the largest free-trade area in the world.
■ Structural power: the EU has been highly influential in global institutions, particularly in relation to certain issues such as human rights and the environment.
■ Soft power: the EU has a significant influence over other states, with many countries still very keen to join it (e.g. other Balkan states, Turkey).
■ Organisation: the EU has made changes to its structure in efforts to become more efficient, strengthening the role of its institutions and giving it a clear figurehead (Donald Tusk).
■ Economic: the EU has not been immune to fluctuating global markets and was a major victim of the global financial crisis.
■ Lack of military power: the EU has no standing army and has been seen as the USA's puppet, given its reliance on NATO for defence.
■ Lacks cohesion: given its diverse range of members and therefore interests, the EU does not have a clear foreign policy, which also hampers its structural power within global organisations.
■ Lack of central authority: arguably there is no clear central authority and its 'leaders' act more as chairpersons or managers.
It can also be argued that the UK's decision to leave the EU has proved detrimental to the EU's structural power, especially when seeing Europe as a counterbalance to the USA in organisations such as the World Bank and the IMF. The UK is one of the key EU powers, and its 'special relationship' with the USA has helped to bolster the EU's overall influence on the international stage.
Nevertheless, the EU's external presence in economic affairs, particularly in trade matters, is much clearer. Because the EU is a customs union with a common commercial policy and a common external tariff, the Commission, rather than member states, conducts trade relations with outside parties. These include trade agreements with virtually all parts of the world and negotiations with GATT and, more recently, the WTO. The Commission also negotiates economic cooperation arrangements with other regional trading blocs as well as with individual states, an example being the biennial Asia-Europe Meeting.
An additional aspect of the EU's external presence is over aid and development. Motivated both by the fact that key EU member states – notably the UK, France and Belgium – were once major imperial powers, and an awareness that the global South constitutes a particularly important market for EU exports, the EU has become the single biggest source of official development assistance in the world, collectively accounting, for instance, for just over half the total of $52 billion given in 2001. Most EU aid goes to sub-Saharan Africa, but an increasing proportion is going to Latin America. The EU also provides extensive emergency humanitarian aid and is, after the USA, the second largest provider of food aid in the world.
Ukraine Could Become an EU Member. What Would That Mean?
On February 28, 2022, four days after Russia invaded Ukraine, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy requested his country's immediate admission to the European Union (EU). The European Commission responded by recommending Ukraine be elevated to candidate status (along with Moldova), and in June, the twenty-seven EU leaders unanimously approved that recommendation. While the path to full membership is likely to be long and arduous, gaining candidacy has clarified the stakes of the conflict for the Ukrainian people Matching the EU's rigorous conditions to join the bloc can take years, especially for a country in a state of war. Demands range from creating a competitive market economy to guaranteeing democratic rule. Ukraine, a country with 40 million people, would be a massive addition to the EU. For example, the European parliament's 750 seats are divided based on population, and it would lead to other countries losing seats, and thus, power.
The EU in crisis?
Pronouncements about the stalling of the European project, and even predictions about the EU unravelling, have occurred throughout the history of the EEC/EC/EU. For some, the failure of the EU has always been just a matter of time. In this view, the level of diversity within the EU, in terms of history, traditions, language and culture, means that the EU can never match the capacity of the nation-state to engender political allegiance and act effectively on the world stage. However, two issues have proved to be particularly problematical in the early twenty-first century. The first is EU enlargement and its implications. A significant part of the success of the early process of European integration stemmed from the fact that the original Six were bound together by powerful historical, political and economic factors, not least the overriding desire to ensure peace and stability between France and Germany and the wish of smaller, neighbouring states to participate in the benefits that might flow from Franco-German rapprochement.
However. enlargement has reshaped the European project at each stage, sometimes through the incorporation of countries that had a weaker commitment to the European ideal (such as the UK and Denmark) and, on other occasions, through the incorporation of economically less prosperous countries of southern Europe (Spain, Portugal and Greece). Nevertheless, no enlargements have been as ambitious and significant as those that saw the eastward expansion of the EU during 2004–07 . In some respects, these enlargements were the crowning achievement of the EU, in that they underpinned and, in a sense, completed the politico-economic transformation of central and eastern Europe, marking the Europe-wide triumph for liberal democracy. However, they also caused profound difficulties, not least by permanently shifting the balance between unity and diversity within the EU firmly in favour of diversity. If the EU can no longer be 'managed' through deals done between a relatively small number of large states (notably France and Germany, but also, to some extent, the UK), the prospect of effective decision-making and coherent thinking within the EU has perhaps been lost forever. If the EU has a future, it may be less as an economic and political union, and more as a 'multispeed' Europe or a two-tier or even three-tier Europe.
The second key challenge facing the EU is economic rather than political. Although economic union has, by common consent, been more successful than political union, there are reasons to believe that the EU's continued economic success is by no means assured. The EU's share of world trade and production are set to diminish, a trend widely associated with the determination of influential member states to maintain social protections and welfare provision in the face of growing global competitive pressures. These long-term problems have been compounded by the 2007–09 global financial crisis, which had more serious implications for EU economies than it did, for instance, for emerging economies such as China, India and Brazil. The global recession led to spiralling deficits in many parts of the EU, but particularly in Greece, Spain, Portugal, Ireland and, to some extent, Italy within the eurozone, and in the UK outside the eurozone. The crisis in Greece was so severe in May 2010 that it precipitated a massive German-led eurozone bail-out, backed up by the IMF, with other vulnerable economies in danger of being sucked into the crisis. A similar EUIMF bail out was agreed for Ireland in November 2010. This eurozone crisis threatens to have profound and far-reaching implications, however. In the first place, it highlighted lax regulation within the eurozone itself, which, far from making weaker economies more competitive, had served as a kind of shelter under which Greece, and others, used the benefit of low interest rates to fuel asset bubbles without reforming their economies. At the very least, this implied a much greater emphasis, within the eurozone but also beyond, on fiscal rectitude, cutting levels of government spending, particularly by scaling back welfare and reducing the size of the public sector. Such retrenchment, nevertheless, will be impossible to achieve without bringing social and political tensions to the surface, possibly creating problems for years to come. A further implication of the euro crisis is its effect on Germany. Germany is both the largest economy within the EU and the lynchpin of integration, in that, perhaps more than any other state, Germany has traditionally viewed EU interests as identical with its national interests. However, Germany's role in bailing out Greece in 2010 raised serious questions in Germany about its responsibilities within the eurozone and even about its commitment to the single currency. To the extent that these matters are thrown into question, the European project itself may be put at risk.
Did Brexit harm or strengthen the EU?
The United Kingdom left the European Union — now an economic and political partnership of 27 countries — on January 31, 2020 under the terms of a negotiated divorce deal (the Withdrawal Agreement and Political Declaration, bringing to an end 47 years of British membership of the EU and the institutions that preceded it.
At the time of the referendum, there were concerns that Britain's exit from the EU would lead to a mass exodus of other member-states and the eventual break-up of the Union. However, it seems as if most Europeans feel like the unity of the EU countries has not been affected by Brexit. In the wake of the UK's vote to withdraw, opinion polls showed that support for the EU surged across Europe. Surveying shows that the EU has the highest support in 35 years. The UK's departure from the EU's Single Market and Customs Union has brought significant disruption to trade, particularly to UK exports to the EU, due to new border rules and red tape. In the UK, an exodus of European workers and tighter immigration rules have contributed to a shortage of people to fill jobs.
However, the impact of Brexit on shortages has at times been difficult to distinguish from that of the coronavirus pandemic. As of January 2022 the UK has begun introducing some import controls on EU goods, having repeatedly delayed imposing border checks, citing supply chain issues.
EU-UK relations have continued to be strained. London and Brussels have clashed over several issues including diplomatic representation, coronavirus vaccine exports — and above all, new arrangements for Northern Ireland, where post-Brexit negotiations are ongoing over the divorce deal protocol setting out the rules.
Has Brexit worked for the UK?


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HomePoliticsGovernment meets key demands of Sierra Leone health workers
Government meets key demands of Sierra Leone health workers
December 10, 2018 Abdul Rashid Thomas Politics 2
Ministry of Information: Sierra Leone Telegraph: 10 December 2018:
The Government of President Julius Maada Bio has agreed to pay risk and on-call allowances to clinical health workers, as well as location allowance to workers outside Freetown to the tune of $12 Million.
This followed intense negotiations between representatives of health workers including the Pharmaceutical Society of Sierra Leone, Sierra Leone Midwives Association, Young Pharmacists' Group, Sierra Leone Nurses Association, Sierra Leone Association of Community Health Officers (CHOs), Sierra Leone Medical and Dental Association, Junior Doctors' Association and Government to amicably resolve the ongoing Doctors' strike.
While the Pharmaceutical Society of Sierra Leone and the Sierra Leone Midwives' Association dissociated themselves from the strike action, the Young Pharmacists' Group, Sierra Leone Nurses Association and the Sierra Leone Association of Community Health Officers (CHOs) agreed to call off their pending strike notice.
Unfortunately, representatives of the Sierra Leone Medical and Dental Association and the Junior Doctors' Association insisted on their demands (Additional hospital spaces, construction of infectious disease centre, equipment and supplies, post graduate training, medical insurance scheme for the poor and destitute, increase salaries and allowances exceeding 1,000 percent, among others) hence refused to cooperate.
Government's representatives at the negotiations – Minister of Finance acob Jusu Saffa, Health Minister, Dr Alpha Tejan Wurie, Labour Minister Adekunle King and Financial Secretary Sahr L. Jusu, underscored government's commitment to recruit 4,000 professional health workers, including government-funded health workers upon graduation as well as establishment of the Wages and Salaries Commission that will review and harmonize wages and salaries of public sector workers, health sector workers included.
It was further pointed out in the meeting held in the office of the Minister of Finance that there has been a 10% increase in transport allowance for workers in Grades 1 to 6 in the 2018 Supplementary Budget; and the 10% and 5% salary increases in the 2019 Budget for professional health workers in Grades 1 to 6 and Grades 7 and above respectively.
While appreciating the decision of well-meaning Sierra Leonean health workers who have agreed to continue work and save lives, government calls on all those who have decided to continue with the strike action to be patriotic by resuming work.
It could be recalled that negotiations between government and health workers were suspended on the 4th of November 2018, after the latter requested to consult their respective memberships. The negotiations however resumed on 6th December 2018.
Although the demands come after the preparation of the 2019 Budget, government has bent backwards to entertain the concerns of the doctors, because of its fervent belief in human capital development by agreeing to pay new allowances to health workers amounting to $12 Million.
The Strategic Communications Unit, Sierra Leone Ministry of Information and Communications
Development starts with healthy people – says UNDP Sierra Leone
President Bio speaks about intra-Africa trade
Momodu Kamara says:
After paying the medical personnel so much and spending a fortune on medical procurement, the health facility in the Country is Zero. Why not privatise the entire medical sector?
Mr. Kamara, privatisation is the wrong direction. All will become more expensive and most of the Sierra Leoneans will die earlier for they are not able to pay the doctor or the hospital. What you need is a health insurance like in Scandinavian countries or Germany for all, not private but in responsibility of the state.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
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When the current government announced the Perth Freight Link project in their 2014 budget, I was quite surprised. It was a project that no-one had ever heard of and for which there had been no submissions whatsoever. What we found out, though, was that it was essentially the Roe 8—a project that had been rejected—with an extension on the end. It was one, though, that did not actually go to the port. A freight link project that does not carry the freight to the port!
Here we have, up until the 11 March election when there will be the chance to make a decision on it, a project that does not go to the port, that will not achieve any outcomes, and where this government is saying $1.2 billion of funding will be withheld from WA—funding that should be used for the Outer Harbour, for METRONET, for the North Lake Bridge, for the Wanneroo Road upgrade, for Scarborough Beach Road and for the Denny Avenue grade separation project.


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Home Asia Malaysia 35 Things to do in Penang
35 Things to do in Penang
January 28, 2020 Updated on January 3rd, 2022
Beautiful beaches and fabulous food are only two of the things that attract travellers to Penang. Penang island is an attractive blend of old and new, a mosaic of British Colonial mansions, Asian temples, museums and bazaars. With a list of culture, food, history and nature-based things to do in Penang, this is a destination to tick off your bucket list when planning a trip to Malaysia.
My father was born in Penang, my grandparents lived in Penang and when I lived in Kuala Lumpur as a child, we spent many school holidays in Penang. Although much has changed since I visited as a schoolgirl, Penang still holds fond memories of summer holidays by the sea for me.
Penang island is part of the state of Penang and has a colonial past and a history as a trading port. Penang's culture is a fusion of Chinese, Malay and Indian influences. Its capital, George Town, is a UNESCO World Heritage city and one of the few places in Malaysia known for Baba and Nyonya (or Strait's Chinese) culture. Planning a trip to Penang? Here's what to do in Penang.
One of the top Penang attractions is spending time on the beach. Is Batu Ferringhi the best beach in Penang?
Penang Travel Guide
35 Incredible Things To Do In Penang
1- Explore the streets of George Town
2- Take a tour of Penang on a trishaw
3- Explore Penang Hill attractions
4- Wander around Penang Botanical Gardens
5- Step back into history at Fort Cornwallis
6- Visit The Pinang Peranakan Museum
Penang Mansions
Penang temples
9- Visit Yap Temple
10- Explore Dharmikarama Burmese Temple
13- Explore Nattukotai Chettiar Temple
14- See the sculptures in the Sri Mahamariamman Temple
Museums in Penang
15- Stretch your mind at the Upside Down Museum
16- Whet your appetite in the Wonderful Food Museum
17- The Camera Museum and Asia Camera Museum
18- Hunt for ghosts in the Penang War Museum
Other Penang attractions
19- See rare species at the Butterfly Farm
20- Admire the beauty of St George Church
21- Marvel at the Kapitan Keling Mosque
22- Explore the Heritage Trail in Little India
23- Photograph Penang Street Art
24- Hunt for the best Penang Laksa
25- Discover Penang Avatar Secret Garden
26- Stroll along Gurney Drive
27- Go Swimming on Batu Ferringhi Beach
28- Discover Nature in Penang National Park
29- Photograph UNESCO World Heritage Buildings
30- Taste Tropical Fruit
31- Attend a Service At The Penang Cathedral
32- Enjoy Penang At Night
33- Have Fun At The Top Penang
34- Watch The Sunset At The Floating Mosque
35- Go Shopping At The Batu Ferringhi Night Market
Where is Penang?
When is the best time to visit Penang?
There are plenty of things to do in Georgetown Penang but sometimes, just wandering around is the best way to get the lay of the land.
If you love colonial architecture, you're sure to fall in love with the old part of George Town. Founded by Sir Francis Light in 1786, Penang was a trading post for the British East India Company. Georgetown attractions include the docks and buildings in the historic centre, which are visually pleasing.
There are lots of things to do in Georgetown Penang if you want to get organised. But sometimes, wandering through the heart of the old city with no particular agenda is one of the first things to do in Penang you should aim for.
It's certainly an awe-inspiring walk through the past and a reminder of Penang's noble history as a Southeast Asian trading post.
Once you've oriented yourself, it's worth joining a guided walking tour for an in-depth peek into Penang's past.
Looking for a tour? Here are some you might enjoy:
Georgetown Half-Day City Tour
Georgetown Heritage Tour
Georgetown Scenic Night Tour
Save your feet from getting sore! Continue your Penang sightseeing on a trishaw.
Penang's weather can get rather steamy so allow someone else to do the hard work by carting you around the sights is a great idea.
Continue your Penang sightseeing on a trishaw, which is a cross between a tricycle and a rickshaw.
A Penang Heritage Trishaw Tour is a fun way to soak up the atmosphere, get into the swing of the city and you can get to most Georgetown attractions without tiring yourself out.
Feeling energetic? Penang Hill is a popular spot on the Penang tourist map.
You can climb the hill as there's a path that passes through the Botanical Gardens leading to the top.
The hill is only 821m above sea level but as Penang's weather can be pretty steamy, most people take the cable car to the top where the views are definitely worth the trip.
Penang Hill was where the British lived in roomy colonial mansions but most of these are now guesthouses or restaurants. Book your tour here.
Another of the Penang Hill attractions is located at the bottom of the hill.
The Penang Botanical Gardens is a lovely spot for a wander along landscaped pathways that wind past lush garden beds and trees.
The population of local monkeys will keep you entertained but beware of cheeky monkeys as they will not think twice about pinching your camera or any loose belongings.
Penang Botanical Gardens is at George Town, Penang.
Fort Cornwallis is one of the historic attractions in Penang.
Another good historic Penang place to visit, Fort Cornwallis may be past its glory, but a quick stop at the fort is a reminder of the British rule over this region.
These days, all that remains of the legacy of the British is a fort wall, garden, a chapel, prison and barracks.
You'll get a pretty good idea of how the British conquered and controlled the region.
Captain Sir Francis Light of the British East India Company arrived in Penang in 1786 and built the fort to defend the island, naming it after the Governor-General in Bengal.
Fort Cornwallis is at Jalan Tun Syed Sheh Barakbah, George Town, Pulau Pinang. You can visit the fort and other heritage sites by booking this heritage tour.
Exploring the Penang Peranakan Museum is one of the things to do in Penang for culture hounds.
The former home of a wealthy merchant, this 19th-century mansion is another fascinating spot for your Penang itinerary. It now houses the Pinang Peranakan Museum and is a showcase of the Peranakan culture.
The interior is decked out with furniture and all the trimmings that will give you an insight into the unique Baba and Nonya culture.
The museum has over 1000 antique and collectible items on display.
The Babas and Nyonyas (or Straits Chinese) are the descendants of Chinese immigrants, many of whom married local Malay women.
Penang, Melaka and Singapore are linked by this common heritage.
Pinang Peranakan Museum is at 29 Church Street, George Town, Pulau Pinang.
7- Explore Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion
Better known around the world as the Blue Mansion, the Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion has a fascinating history and architecture.
The 1880s mansion combines Su Chow architecture with English furnishings and has lovely Art Nouveau stained glass windows.
Constructed with feng shui, the Chinese art of geomancy, in mind, the former home of wealthy individual Cheong Fatt Tze is now a boutique hotel.
So, for a true immersion into history, book a room in the mansion or have a meal at Indigo Café.
8- Discover Khoo Kongsi Mansion
Khoo Kongsi is another Penang must-see.
The ancestral home of the Khoo clan, the ornate mansion is a chance to see how Penang's prosperous traders lived.
Penang grew to become a wealthy state after 15th-century Chinese immigrants migrated there to make their fortunes.
The house was a central meeting point for the entire extended family, many were traders and some lived in mansions like Khoo Kongsi.
Khoo Kongsi is at 18 Cannon Square, George Town, Pulau Pinang. Visit this and other temples on a Georgetown Heritage Tour.
Admiring the architecture of Yap Temple is one of the things to do in Penang.
The clan temple of the Lum Yeong Tong Yap Kongsi is a mysterious temple honouring the Chinese god of prosperity.
Once the base of the Tua Pek Kong secret society, which was a society for the Straits Chinese, the temple's decorative dragon roof is eye-catching, as is its stone walls and pillars.
Yap Temple is at the corner of Armenian Street and Cannon Street.
One of the largest and more impressive Buddhist temples in Penang, the Dharmikarama Burmese Temple pays homage to the Burmese population of Penang.
The temple's colourful frescoes are eye-catching and it is possibly the best working Burmese temple outside Myanmar.
It's opposite the Wat Chayamangkalaram Thai temple.
Both temples together are two interesting places in Penang to visit, especially as it's convenient to compare the temples from two different cultures.
Dharmikarama Burmese Temple is at Lorong Burma, Penang.
11- Take a viper selfie at Snake Temple
Once known as the Temple of the Azure Cloud, Penang's Snake Temple has a mystical aura.
The main attraction is the vipers, which have been de-venomed but not defanged.
Stories about how the vipers found their way to the temple are used to scare Malaysian children.
The temple was built in in the 19th century as a memorial to a Buddhist monk who was said to have had a bond with vipers in the forest.
Penang Snake Temple is at Sungai Kluang, Bayan Lepas, Southwest Penang.
12- Visit Kek Lok Si Temple
Exploring Kek Lok Si Temple is one of the top things to do in Penang.
Kek Lok Si Temple (or Temple of Supreme Bliss) is one of the best spots for your temple selfies, with a lovely panorama of golden pagodas and rows of Buddha statues.
It's one of the most serene Penang points of interest and worth spending a bit of time exploring.
The Buddhist temple was built in 1890 and has prayer halls, monasteries and landscaped gardens.
The Liberation Pond is a central feature and home to turtles, which are symbols of strength, longevity and freeing a turtle is a symbolic act of spiritual liberation.
Kek Lok Si Temple is at Ayer Itam, Pulau Pinang. This tour combines a visit to Kek Lok Si and Penang Hill.
Being a multicultural island, Penang has many Hindu temples but the most significant and impressive is the Nattukotai Chettiar temple.
The temple was built by the Chettiars who migrated to Penang from Tamil Nadu, a state of southern India.
A place to worship Lord Thandayutha, the temple is a calming escape with hundreds of wall paintings.
For an eye-popping cultural experience, visit during the Thaipusam festival in January.
Nattukotai Chettiar Temple is at Lorong Air Terjun, Pulau Pinang.
The oldest Hindu temple in Penang is in Little India among shops selling incense, saris and banana leaf curry houses.
The temple was constructed in 1833 temple to worship Hindu god, Lord Subramaniam, and started as a simple shrine for early Indian immigrants to Penang.
The glitzy south Indian Dravidian style architecture has an impressive entrance (gopuram) and a four-tiered tower decked out with colourful sculptures of soldiers, Hindu gods and goddesses.
A stunning statue of Lord Subramaniam is quite a feature at the Sri Mahamariamman Temple.
Sri Mahamariamman Temple is at Jalan Masjid Kapitan Keling, Lebuh Pitt.
Tick the Upside Down Museum off your Penang museum list.
Penang has many cool museums that are fun to visit and there's a choice of quirky museums perfect for a rainy day.
If you only have time for one or two, tick The Upside Down Museum off your Penang museum list.
This museum is an interactive museum with fun experiences, photo opportunities and delightful displays the kids will love.
Upside Down Museum is at Kimberley Street, Penang.
Discover the stories behind Penang's food.
The tasty food in Penang is one of the main reasons the island attracts visitors so it makes sense to learn more about Penang's food history and stories behind Penang's tasty dishes.
With displays of Malay, Chinese and Indian cuisine, the Wonderfood Penang Museum is the place to learn everything you need to know about Penang food.
Wonderful Food Museum is at 49 Lebuh Pantai, Georgetown, Pulau Pinang.
If you're keen on photography, you'll want to visit these two museums to ogle at 2,000+ types of cameras on display.
The interactive exhibits will walk you through the history and future of photography.
The Camera Museum is at 49 Lebuh Muntri, George Town, and Asia Camera Museum is at 71 Lebuh Armenian, George Town.
Housed in an abandoned WWII fort, the Penang War Museum tells the story of the island's war history.
The fort fell to the Japanese in 1041, thus starting a gruesome period in Malaya's history.
Set on a hill known as Bukit Hantu (or ghost hill), the fort is where many were beheaded.
Penang War Museum is at Bukit Batu Maung, Baya Lepas, Penang.
Another Penang hotspot is the Butterfly Farm
The Butterfly Farm in Penang has more than 4,000 butterflies and over 120 species of butterflies, insects and reptiles, including the Rajah Brooke and the endangered Yellow Birdwing butterfly.
The organisation has a research centre that provides educational talks and runs breeding programs.
The Butterfly Farm is at Jalan Teluk Bahang, Teluk Bahang, Penang.
Admiring the architecture of St George's Church is one of the things to do in Penang to soak up British history.
The oldest Anglican Church in South East Asia was built in 1818, bombed by the Japanese in 1041 and restored in 1946.
The original church was built by the East India Company and modelled after the St. George's Cathedral in Madras in the Georgian-Palladian style originating in 67BC.
The St George's Heritage Centre next to the church has a cafe and an art collection.
St George Church is at 1 Farquhar Street, Georgetown, Penang.
This mosque is a popular spot for a Penang city tour
The Indo-Moorish architecture of Kapitan Keling Mosque makes it one of the most beautiful and unique mosques in the country.
The mosque was built by Indian Muslim settlers who served in the East India company regiment during the 1700s.
It has dreamy domes and turrets, a madrassah where religious instruction is conducted and a minaret where the muezzin delivers his call to prayers.
Kapital Keling Mosque is at the corner of Lebuh Buckingham and Lebuh Pitt, Penang.
A walk through Little India's heritage trail reveals vibrant and colourful shops and stalls.
The aromatic scents of spices waft through the air as foot-tapping Bollywood music blasts from the shophouses.
It's enough to make anyone want to get up and dance through this section of Georgetown.
Little India covers an area around Queen Street, Chulia Street and Market Street in George Town.
Photographing street art is a fun thing to do in Penang for everyone.
There's no need to hire a tour guide to see Penang's street art.
The walls of Georgetown have been painted with impressive murals that you're likely to stumble upon while walking around.
Many of the murals are the works of Lithuanian street artist Ernest Zacharevic and other international artists.
You can admire these fantastic works on Muntri Street, Weld Quay, Lebuh Leith, Armenian Street, Ah Quee Street. This tour may help.
You don't need to dine at the best restaurant in Penang to enjoy a decent Penang laksa.
Penang is a haven for hawker food and there are many food courts and local coffee shops that dish up all kinds of delicious temptations.
Penang's iconic dish is the Penang Laksa, which has a broth made of fish and tamarind served with chewy, translucent noodles.
This type of laksa is sweet, sour and spicy, with flavours of fresh pineapple, cucumber, red onion, torch ginger and shrimp molasses.
You certainly don't need to eat at a top Penang restaurant to enjoy this dish as it's served everywhere.
There's a popular hawker stall in Pasar Ayer Itam that has been serving this dish since 1955.
Looking for a Penang food tour? Check these out:
Penang Small-Group Food Tour
Heritage On A Plate Food Tour
Fans of the movie Avatar will want to put this attraction on their Penang itinerary.
The garden is an Avatar-inspired creation that is delighting visitors of all ages and especially enchanting at night when the trees are lit up like a fairyland.
Penang Avatar Secret Garden is at 336 Jalan Tokong Thai Pak Koong, Tanjung Tokong, Tanjung Bungah, Pulau Pinang.
If you're wondering where to go in Penang for shopping and eating, head to Gurney Drive.
If you have time for shopping in your Penang itinerary, take a stroll along Gurney Drive (also known as Persiaran Gurney among the locals).
The walk by the sea passes by shops, malls and along the way you can stop to sample local fare in one of the alfresco eateries.
Besides shopping, eating on Gurney Drive, you can even pop into a temple or two.
Wat Chaiya Mangkalaram and the Dharmikarama are on Gurney Drive, along with modern shopping malls Gurney Plaza and Gurney Paragon.
Swimming, sunbaking and watersports are some of the things to do in Penang when you hit the beach.
Penang's main family beach area, Batu Ferringhi, is well set up for water sports.
The strip with beachfront hotels, seafood restaurants, local shops and night markets is a popular spot for local holidaymakers.
Exploring Penang National Park is one of the outdoorsy things to do in Penang.
One of the smallest national parks in Malaysia and only 40 km from George Town, Penang National Park has some lovely beaches and forest treks.
Trek to Monkey Beach (Teluk Duyung) or Pantai Kerachut for pristine sand and clear water.
Along the way, while walking in the tropical forest, you might spot monkeys, lizards, butterflies and pythons.
The Canopy Walkway is a 250 m timber bridge suspended among the treetops (currently closed).
Penang National Park is at Jalan Hassan Abbas, Teluk Bahang, Penang. An organised tour is the easiest way to visit Monkey Beach.
Photographing UNESCO World Heritage buildings is one of the things to do in Penang for your instagram feed.
The buildings of George Town and Melaka were listed on the UNESCO World Heritage list as Historic Cities of the Straits of Malacca.
George Town's buildings were influenced by the British during the 18th century and a mishmash of different architectural styles.
Highlights are City Hall, the Penang State Museum and Art Gallery, Fort Cornwallis along with Chinese and Indian temples.
There's a tropical fruit farm near the Butterfly Farm, which has orchards with over 250 types of tropical fruit.
Taste durian, jackfruit, star fruit, jambu, rambutan, mangosteen and West Indian cherries.
Built in 1786 when Captain Francis Light arrived in Penang, the Cathedral of the Assumption is Penang's oldest church.
It was the first Roman Catholic church built by the British in Malaysia and houses a pipe-organ.
When the Japanese occupied Penang in 1941, the church was closed and when it re-opened in 1955, the Vatican conferred the status of cathedral upon the church.
The Cathedral of the Assumption is at Lebuh Farquhar, George Town.
A bar crawl at night is one of the fun things to do in Penang.
As Penang's weather can be rather steamy during the day, it makes sense to tour the city at night.
Not only are the attractions lit up like a fairyland, but you'll be able to stay out of the blazing sun.
A night tour covering street art and other Instagram-worthy spots, historic George Town and views of the skyline will give you a good taste of Penang.
Finish the evening with a delicious meal at a local restaurant and a trishaw ride.
The Top Penang is an indoor theme park with 18 attractions, restaurants, bars and shops high up in the sky.
Look down at Penang beneath your feet from the Rainbow Skywalk on the 68th floor of Komtar Tower and enjoy a cocktail at the Coco Cabana Bar & Bistro.
Watch a show in the 7D Discovery Motion Theatre or get an adrenalin rush on the Gravityz obstacle ropes course.
Komtar is at 1, Jalan Penang, George Town Penang.
Watching the sunset at the floating mosque is a relaxing thing to do in Penang.
Haggling with local vendors at a night market is a way of life in Penang and visiting a night market is one of the fun things to do there.
It's a great way to shop for souvenirs to take home and taste local food.
Make sure you bargain hard as the first price is usually way too high.
Penang is an island on the northwest coast of Malaysia.
It's a six-hour drive from the nation's capital, Kuala Lumpur.
The best time to visit Penang for active sightseeing is between November and January when Penang celebrates the festive season.
A less crowded time to visit Penang is between February and April while May to October is the wet season.
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Defective remodeling of cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol in barth syndrome
P. Vreken, F. Valianpour, L.G.J. Nijtmans, L.A. Grivell, B. Plecko, R.J.A. Wanders, P.G. Barth
Molecular Biology and Microbial Food Safety (SILS, FNWI)
Cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) are the major polyglycerophospholipids observed in mammalian tissues. CL is exclusively found in the inner mitochondrial membrane and is required for optimal function of many of the respiratory and ATP-synthesizing enzymes. The role of CL in oxidative phosphorylation is, however, not fully understood and although reduced CL content leads to aberrant cell function, no human disorders with a primary defect in cardiolipin metabolism have been described. In this paper we present evidence that patients with the rare disorder X-linked cardioskeletal myopathy and neutropenia (Barth syndrome, MIM 302060) have a primary defect in CL and PG remodeling. We investigated phospholipid metabolism in cultured skin fibroblasts of patients and show that the biosynthesis rate of PG and CL is normal but that the CL pool size is 75% reduced, indicating accelerated degradation. Moreover, the incorporation of linoleic acid, which is the characteristic acyl side chain found in mammalian CL, into both PG and CL is significantly reduced, whereas the incorporation of other fatty acids into these phospholipids is normal. We show that this defect was only observed in Barth syndrome patients' cells and not in cells obtained from patients with primary defects in the respiratory chain, demonstrating that the observed defect is not secondary to respiratory chain dysfunction. These results imply that the G4.5 gene product, which is mutated in Barth syndrome patients, is specifically involved in the remodeling of PG and CL and for the first time identify an essential factor in this important cellular process
https://doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.2000.3952
Vreken, P., Valianpour, F., Nijtmans, L. G. J., Grivell, L. A., Plecko, B., Wanders, R. J. A., & Barth, P. G. (2000). Defective remodeling of cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol in barth syndrome. Biochemical and biophysical research communications, 279(2), 378-382. https://doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.2000.3952
Vreken, P. ; Valianpour, F. ; Nijtmans, L.G.J. et al. / Defective remodeling of cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol in barth syndrome. In: Biochemical and biophysical research communications. 2000 ; Vol. 279, No. 2. pp. 378-382.
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title = "Defective remodeling of cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol in barth syndrome",
abstract = "Cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) are the major polyglycerophospholipids observed in mammalian tissues. CL is exclusively found in the inner mitochondrial membrane and is required for optimal function of many of the respiratory and ATP-synthesizing enzymes. The role of CL in oxidative phosphorylation is, however, not fully understood and although reduced CL content leads to aberrant cell function, no human disorders with a primary defect in cardiolipin metabolism have been described. In this paper we present evidence that patients with the rare disorder X-linked cardioskeletal myopathy and neutropenia (Barth syndrome, MIM 302060) have a primary defect in CL and PG remodeling. We investigated phospholipid metabolism in cultured skin fibroblasts of patients and show that the biosynthesis rate of PG and CL is normal but that the CL pool size is 75% reduced, indicating accelerated degradation. Moreover, the incorporation of linoleic acid, which is the characteristic acyl side chain found in mammalian CL, into both PG and CL is significantly reduced, whereas the incorporation of other fatty acids into these phospholipids is normal. We show that this defect was only observed in Barth syndrome patients' cells and not in cells obtained from patients with primary defects in the respiratory chain, demonstrating that the observed defect is not secondary to respiratory chain dysfunction. These results imply that the G4.5 gene product, which is mutated in Barth syndrome patients, is specifically involved in the remodeling of PG and CL and for the first time identify an essential factor in this important cellular process",
author = "P. Vreken and F. Valianpour and L.G.J. Nijtmans and L.A. Grivell and B. Plecko and R.J.A. Wanders and P.G. Barth",
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Vreken, P, Valianpour, F, Nijtmans, LGJ, Grivell, LA, Plecko, B, Wanders, RJA & Barth, PG 2000, 'Defective remodeling of cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol in barth syndrome', Biochemical and biophysical research communications, vol. 279, no. 2, pp. 378-382. https://doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.2000.3952
Defective remodeling of cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol in barth syndrome. / Vreken, P.; Valianpour, F.; Nijtmans, L.G.J. et al.
In: Biochemical and biophysical research communications, Vol. 279, No. 2, 2000, p. 378-382.
T1 - Defective remodeling of cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol in barth syndrome
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AU - Valianpour, F.
AU - Nijtmans, L.G.J.
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AU - Plecko, B.
AU - Wanders, R.J.A.
AU - Barth, P.G.
N2 - Cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) are the major polyglycerophospholipids observed in mammalian tissues. CL is exclusively found in the inner mitochondrial membrane and is required for optimal function of many of the respiratory and ATP-synthesizing enzymes. The role of CL in oxidative phosphorylation is, however, not fully understood and although reduced CL content leads to aberrant cell function, no human disorders with a primary defect in cardiolipin metabolism have been described. In this paper we present evidence that patients with the rare disorder X-linked cardioskeletal myopathy and neutropenia (Barth syndrome, MIM 302060) have a primary defect in CL and PG remodeling. We investigated phospholipid metabolism in cultured skin fibroblasts of patients and show that the biosynthesis rate of PG and CL is normal but that the CL pool size is 75% reduced, indicating accelerated degradation. Moreover, the incorporation of linoleic acid, which is the characteristic acyl side chain found in mammalian CL, into both PG and CL is significantly reduced, whereas the incorporation of other fatty acids into these phospholipids is normal. We show that this defect was only observed in Barth syndrome patients' cells and not in cells obtained from patients with primary defects in the respiratory chain, demonstrating that the observed defect is not secondary to respiratory chain dysfunction. These results imply that the G4.5 gene product, which is mutated in Barth syndrome patients, is specifically involved in the remodeling of PG and CL and for the first time identify an essential factor in this important cellular process
AB - Cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) are the major polyglycerophospholipids observed in mammalian tissues. CL is exclusively found in the inner mitochondrial membrane and is required for optimal function of many of the respiratory and ATP-synthesizing enzymes. The role of CL in oxidative phosphorylation is, however, not fully understood and although reduced CL content leads to aberrant cell function, no human disorders with a primary defect in cardiolipin metabolism have been described. In this paper we present evidence that patients with the rare disorder X-linked cardioskeletal myopathy and neutropenia (Barth syndrome, MIM 302060) have a primary defect in CL and PG remodeling. We investigated phospholipid metabolism in cultured skin fibroblasts of patients and show that the biosynthesis rate of PG and CL is normal but that the CL pool size is 75% reduced, indicating accelerated degradation. Moreover, the incorporation of linoleic acid, which is the characteristic acyl side chain found in mammalian CL, into both PG and CL is significantly reduced, whereas the incorporation of other fatty acids into these phospholipids is normal. We show that this defect was only observed in Barth syndrome patients' cells and not in cells obtained from patients with primary defects in the respiratory chain, demonstrating that the observed defect is not secondary to respiratory chain dysfunction. These results imply that the G4.5 gene product, which is mutated in Barth syndrome patients, is specifically involved in the remodeling of PG and CL and for the first time identify an essential factor in this important cellular process
U2 - https://doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.2000.3952
DO - https://doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.2000.3952
JO - Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
JF - Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
Vreken P, Valianpour F, Nijtmans LGJ, Grivell LA, Plecko B, Wanders RJA et al. Defective remodeling of cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol in barth syndrome. Biochemical and biophysical research communications. 2000;279(2):378-382. https://doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.2000.3952


This array of clocks is hung from a wrought iron rod. The clocks are made of hand forged metal. The light brown undercoat has a heavily distressed dark brown wash with black speckling. Quartz movement. Cities featured: Sydney, New York, Moscow, London. All clocks are working and take AA batteries.


From a day at the aquarium to fantastic Louisiana food, you'll find something for everyone in Shreveport.
Head to the Mudbug Madness Festival in Shreveport for amazing music and all the crawfish you can eat!
In Shreveport, visit the Huddie Ledbetter - he was the talented bluesman more popularly known as "Leadbelly."
Sunset over downtown Shreveport, Louisiana.
Catch some throws at a family-friendly Mardi Gras parade in Shreveport.