text:
ENEMO Statement on Imprisonment of Aran Mammadli
The European Network of Election Monitoring Organizations (ENEMO) once again calls Azerbaijan Government for immediate release of Anar Mammadli of Election Monitoring and Democracy Studies Centre (EMDS). EMDS chairman Anar Mammadli was imprisoned by the Court of Serious Crimes for 5.5 years respectively following the Azerbaijan presidential elections of October, 2013 when critical reports were published on the electoral process by Anar Mammadli and his colleagues.
ENEMO believes that Anar Mammadli was conducting legitimate and peaceful work as part of the EMDS observation mission In accordance with the internationally recognized standards for domestic monitoring of elections placed in the DECLARATION OF GLOBAL PRINCIPLES FOR NON-PARTISAN ELECTION OBSERVATION AND MONITORING BY CITIZEN ORGANIZATIONS. The EMDS reports strongly criticized the government for the electoral process violations and frauds, which creates the strong perception that legal grounds for the Azerbaijan human rights defenders imprisonment were fabricated.
The actions which took place in Azerbaijan regarding the arrest of human rights activists represent a political oppression on civil society organizations and pose a serious danger to the country's democratic development. NGOs in Azerbaijan have been facing restrictions in their operation for many years now, but during the last few years authorities have adopted various legislative amendments to create bureaucratic obstacles for local civil society organizations and to weaken their activities. New legislative amendments have enacted barriers for access to foreign funding, established new penalties, and broadened the range of grounds for temporarily suspending the work of an NGO. ENEMO considers that the present legal procedures, instead of ensuring the rule of law aim at repressing civil society because of their work and critical views.
Several International Organizations have made statements declaring the arrest of human rights defenders as political and called upon the Azerbaijan authorities to release them. In a jointwritten declaration1 submitted at the January 2014 session of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), members of parliaments from Council of Europe member States have also called upon the authorities of Azerbaijan to release Anar Mammadli from pre-trial detention. Amnesty International considers Anar Mammadli to be a prisoner of conscience on account of the legitimate exercise of his rights to freedom of expression and association, and calls for his immediate and unconditional release2.
ENEMO calls upon the Azerbaijan authorities to drop all the charges brought against Anar Mammadli and to release him immediately. We ask European Union, Council of Europe and other relevant international organizations to strongly condemn the imprisonment of Azerbaijan human rights activists, exert maximum pressure on the government of Azerbaijan to cease oppression of civil society organizations and fulfill Azerbaijan's commitments with the European Convention on Human Rights.
We also call upon the authorities to ensure that human rights defenders and civil society members are able to carry out their legitimate activities without fear and harassment.
1 http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-DocDetails-EN.asp?fileid=20469&lang=EN&search=YXplcmJhaWphbnxzZXNzaW9ucGFydF9zdHJfZW46IjIwMTQgLSBGaXJzdCBwYXJ0LXNlc3Npb24i
2 https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur55/013/2013/en/


Okaaspain, tienda online de merceditas de piel en blanco con hebilla y flor de tul.
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text:
Biografia
Buckner nasce a Huntington Beach e, prima di trasferirsi in Italia, ha vissuto sempre in California a Villa Park. Laureando in politiche pubbliche e sviluppo, ha un fratello, Patrick, e due sorelle, Shannon e Katie.

Statistiche

Presenze e reti nei club
Statistiche aggiornate al 19 dicembre 2010.

Palmarès

Club

2006-2007, 2007-2008, 2008-2009

Individuale
Miglior giocatore del campionato NCAA: 1
2004

Miglior difensore del campionato NCAA: 2
2008, 2009

Miglior marcatore della High School di Villa Park: 1
2004

Filmografia parziale
 NCIS - Unità anticrimine (NCIS) - serie TV, episodio 16x08 (2018)
 Escape Plan 3 - L'ultima sfida (Escape Plan: The Extractors), regia di John Herzfeld (2019)

Note

Collegamenti esterni

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text:
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Grit/ Animals/ Poultry/ How to Raise Poultry on Pasture
Poultry/Animals
How to Raise Poultry on Pasture
Get started raising free-range poultry with this guide to foraging, mobile coops, predator protection, and more.
By Doug Ottinger
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by Jason Houston
There seems to be a widespread belief that poultry raised on pasture — call them open-range, free-range, or insert another buzzword — run around and meet all their protein and nutritional needs by eating only bugs and plant seeds. I often see this notion perpetuated in written text. Very little is said about the actual green plants and forage that the birds eat. In most cases, these plants and forage make up a surprisingly large part of the open-range poultry diet.
Within the first half of the 20th century, it was a given that open-range and pasturing would be a part of most poultry diets in farm settings. College and university textbooks on poultry management, from the 1920s through the mid-1950s, took this into account. Research on the nutritional aspects of pasturing poultry was conducted by many agriculture and land-grant colleges. Concentrated feeds, such as grains and prepared feed mixes, were, of course, the core of the diet. However, mixed pastures of grasses, broadleaf weeds, and legumes like clover were also considered an integral part of the poultry nutrition program. Because of this, many textbooks on poultry nutrition, of that era, had tables that listed the nutritional values of many pasture or forage plants. Clovers, various green grasses, alfalfa, dandelion, dock, amaranth, pigweed, and even that curse to the Southern states — kudzu — were all listed as nutritional and palatable options for poultry diets.
Years ago, poultry was partly raised on open range and green feed, as a way of preserving concentrated feeds like grain and mash mixes. Grain, whether you raised it or bought it, was of economic importance. If you had to buy extra grain, it meant spending more money. If you raised the grain, you had to decide whether you were going to sell it for a cash price, or feed it to the chickens and hope that it would boost production enough to make it worthwhile. Making the right decision in this area might mean the difference in whether your children had decent winter shoes and coats to wear the following season.
Today, with prepared feeds readily available, there is no promise that the simple act of putting poultry on range, or pasture, will save money or improve production. There are many reasons to make pasturing part of your poultry plan, though. Flock well-being and healthier end-products, including an increase in omega-3s, are two advantages. Several studies have found that meat from birds on open range tends to have more favorable fatty-acid composition than birds raised in enclosed systems. Eggs from chickens raised on green feeds often have deeper yellow or orange yolks indicating higher nutrient levels. Lastly, you actually might be able to save some feed costs.
Some current producers of pastured meat birds say they can save up to one-third on feed costs. An increase in the number of eggs laid by a modern laying flock on pasture is not likely, though. As much as we would like to make this happen, high-protein, nutritionally balanced feeds available today combined with modern laying strains make current commercial egg production numbers hard to beat.
Today, a good commercial laying hen can lay 300 or more eggs per year. In the 1920s, the average farm hen laid about 90 eggs per year. In a number of studies from that era, hens raised on a mix of nutritionally balanced pasture and grain products were able to produce as many as 180 eggs per year. This was partially due to the nutritional value received from the green plant material. A modern flock of commercial laying hens, producing only 180 eggs per bird, per year, would be unacceptable to most producers today. However, 180 eggs per bird was considered an astronomical production number 90 years ago.
About the forage
If you are raising, or going to raise, poultry on pasture, pay attention to the composition of the plants they are grazing on. Poultry, including chickens, turkeys, ducks, and, to a limited extent, geese, will readily consume animal material — insects, grubs, and worms — when available, but the fact is that young, digestible plant material makes up a significant part of the diet on open range. Repeated observations, as well as examinations of the crops, gizzards, and intestinal tracts of the birds, has shown what a vital role vegetation plays in free-range poultry diets.
Yet, simply putting poultry into an overgrown pasture or out into a stubble field will not provide them with adequate nutrition. Unlike ruminants and horses, poultry cannot utilize or process large amounts of plant fiber and cellulose. Young plant growth, before heavy structural fibers develop, is the best forage for poultry. Younger plant growth is higher in protein, minerals, and vitamins than older growth. Young, tender grasses can also contain a surprising amount of sugar, which can be converted into energy by the growing birds.
Pasture or range for poultry should be kept short. Optimal for gallinaceous birds like chickens and turkeys is 2 to 4 inches of new growth. That is also a very suitable length for ducks and geese. Geese can handle grass up to 8 inches in length, providing it is young grass with not too much fiber or roughage. A mix of grasses, clovers, alfalfa, and broadleaf plants is a very nutritious pasture mix for most species of domestic fowl.
The main goal should be to provide the birds with a mix of young forages that give them a broad, diverse spectrum of necessary, digestible nutrients. While the birds may get lots of nutrition from good forages, they should also have grains or grain-based balanced feeds available. Layers should also have a supply of oyster shell available. Even on pasture, poultry need a certain level of concentrated feed. Just like you would have a tough time existing for very long on nothing but salad and watery green vegetables, poultry are the same.
Placement and seasonal planning
Chickens and turkeys can be placed on green pasture at about 6 weeks of age. Geese and ducks can be started on pasture at about 5 to 6 weeks. Part of the determining factors, of course, will be weather and if the birds are suitably feathered to protect them from temperature variances. Young birds who are being naturally mothered can be placed sooner, provided there is a place for mama and the young offspring to keep dry and warm when needed.
If you live in a hot area, shade and adequate protection from the heat is just as important. Heat spells can be deadly to poultry on open range. Make sure that you provide enough shade and open-air circulation to allow cooling breezes to flow though the shaded area. Also important is a large supply of drinking water. It is best if the drinking water sources can be kept in the cool, shaded areas.
For many people, year-round pasturing of poultry is not possible. In many areas, pasturing is seasonal at best. Areas with cold and heavy snow are mostly limited to late spring, summer, and early fall pasturing. Some areas that have hot and dry summers may find pasturing impossible in the summer. In those climates, grasses and forage plants go dormant or die back in the dry heat of the summer. Irrigation becomes necessary for growth of green grass and other forages. A simple system of garden hoses and moveable sprinklers may be all you need to irrigate your poultry pastures. However, some people who live in these climates may be on a municipal water system. Often there are restrictions on the amount of water they may use in the summer, or the metered cost may be so great that it outweighs the benefits of raising poultry on pasture during these months. In areas with mild winters, winter may be the optimal time to place your birds on the range. If you want to pasture poultry in any area where it is necessary to make seasonal adjustments, simply prepare for them in whatever way you find necessary and operationally feasible. Take these adjustments into your overall plan as part of your road to success.
Shelters and fencing
There are several viable methods for movable pasture pens, and none of these are new. Shelter frames may be made of wood, metal, or PVC pipe and are covered in poultry netting or wire mesh. Shelters can vary in size, but are often built with dimensions of 8 by 8 feet, 8 by 10 feet, 10 by 12 feet, or any other measurement a poultry farmer finds suitable and easy to move. Sometimes they are lifted up an inch or two and moved to new forage, and others are sometimes designed with wheels for easy rolling. The chickens or other fowl are enclosed and stand directly on the bare pasture forage. They normally have a covered area for shade or shelter and have a waterer that is attached or near the outside of the frame that can be easily accessed and refilled.
Such portable pens, especially those on wheels, having some sort of shelter attached, are known to many people as "chicken tractors." Concentrated feed, such as mash or grain, can either be supplied on a free-feed basis, or may be fed only once or twice per day. Many growers let the birds feed on green forage all day, and then give them the grain or mash concentrates in the late afternoon, before dusk. Depending on how many chickens are placed in each pen, and the quality and volume of green forage, the pens may have to be moved daily, or may be left in place for two or three days.
Another method is to use "range houses," or portable coops, and let the chickens out every day. These were the most common range structures used 100 years ago, and are still in use today. Some modern farmers have found they can make effective use of converted travel trailers, horse trailers, or even old mobile homes that are no longer in use. The prices for many of these older units can be very affordable. Just make sure your local zoning restrictions will allow you to use one of these converted units.
Predators are a never-ending threat, no matter where you are. Predators can include coyotes, foxes, wolves, bobcats, skunks, raccoons, opossums, neighbors' dogs, or any other animal that will kill for food or sport. Even bears and mountain lions can be a danger, if you live in an area where they exist. As raptor populations resurge, hawks and eagles are once again becoming a predatory issue in many areas of North America. On the flip side, one grower in Florida said alligators were one of the predators that he had to constantly deal with.
However, one of the most common, and worst offenders people often deal with are neighborhood dogs. Domestic dogs probably do more damage to poultry than any other predator.
Range-farming poultry can be labor-intensive. Constantly watching for and being on-guard against predators is one of the added chores. Houses and pens must be sturdy enough to withstand attacks. Many growers string portable electric netting or thin electric wire on posts, around the exterior of the pasture, where the range pens are kept. Many years ago, pastures were fenced with "hog" or "pasture wire." If you choose to use this type of fencing, openings no larger than 2 by 4 inches are best, as larger openings may allow predators to squeeze through. Even so, many predators can, and will, climb fencing.
Maximize a resource
Chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese can all be raised in a pasture setting. Geese can survive exclusively on the green forage material after about 6 weeks of age. Concentrated feed is then fed to them prior to fattening in the fall. There are numerous methods used to house and fence poultry. One of the most important things, however, is that a poultry keeper who wants to utilize pasture be aware of the nutritional composition of the green feeds available. Utilized correctly, green forage is a very low-cost feed to the poultry producer. It is a valuable asset that far too many poultry keepers undervalue. Just like any other asset on your farm, take care of it and value it. Make use of it wisely, and it will return a nice reward to you.
Nutritious green plants
While green plants cannot constitute the sole diet for pastured poultry (geese are one exception), it is important that the vegetation they do consume have a high level of digestible nutrients. If it does not, there is little reason to make pasturing part of the diet. Common plants found in a pasture or open-growth area contain more nutritional value than most people realize. Let's take a quick look at some of these.
Amaranth or pigweed. This ubiquitous plant is everywhere. There are too many species to list here, but it is one of the most nutritious and palatable plants for a poultry pasture. If you have these in your poultry pasture, be glad. On a dry-weight basis, the leaves contain 13 percent protein, and a little over 1.5 percent calcium. Amaranth is also high in carbohydrates, starches, and dietary minerals. Amaranth is relished by most poultry species. The poultry will also eat the seeds that drop from the plant. The seeds from most species of amaranth meet or exceed the nutritional levels of most grains.
Young, green grass. According to Feeding Poultry, by G.F. Heuser, most grasses contain "significant amounts of carotene, vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, niacin, biotin, and choline. The mineral content is also favorable." Heuser goes on to state that some young grasses may contain up to 30 percent protein on a dry weight basis. Young grasses are high in overall carbohydrates and sugars, too.
Dandelions. Dandelion plants are nutritionally similar to young alfalfa plants. They have about the same protein level, and the plant is very high in total digestible nutrients.
Alfalfa. Leaves and young shoots palatable to poultry contain about 20 percent protein, or a little more, on a dry-weight basis. Alfalfa is also known to have lots of other nutrients.
Kudzu. Few people outside of the South will be dealing with this imported, rapidly growing legume that takes over anything in its way. Planted by the WPA during the Great Depression, it was originally used to stop soil erosion and provide nutrition for grazing animals. If you have this vining mass on your property, take heart in the fact that the young leaves are very high in protein, as well as calcium. If you cut it, the poultry will feed on the new leaves as it regrows. Besides being nutritious, it is highly palatable to poultry. The constant feeding on the new leaves, as well as the constant pecking at the new growth on the "crowns" at the soil surface, will by no means eradicate it, but will reportedly help control the regrowth.
Various clover species. Common species include red clover, white Dutch clover, and that much-hated weed, bur clover. Clover leaves contain 20 to 28 percent protein on a dry-weight basis. Calcium levels are about 1.5 percent. It is higher in phosphorus, potassium, and trace minerals than most grasses.
There are hundreds more we could list. These few examples show the nutritional value contained in some of the more common pasture plants. Additional web searches can help you identify nutritional levels of the plants found in your particular pasture areas. Young leaves and shoots contain the highest levels, and are the most palatable to poultry. A balanced mix can provide a surprising amount of nutrition for poultry.
Doug Ottinger writes from northwest Minnesota, in the 'Land of the Frozen Chosen.' He has 40-plus years' experience keeping and raising various kinds of poultry. He holds a bachelor's degree in general agriculture, with an emphasis in poultry genetics and breeding. He has experience in commercial as well as small-scale production.
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There's not a one of you who has ever dropped by here who's not aware of how plumb goofy I am about Pat Conroy. I've mentioned him here a time or two . . . (okay, a lot - I admit it).
Well, he's been in the news this week for a couple different reasons.
One - He discusses e-books. He "says he knows so little about e-books that he didn't realize his work could be downloaded until a fan showed him during a recent promotional tour."
Two - he "will announce the National Book Award finalists at an Oct. 13 event in Savannah, Ga. The announcement will be made at Flannery O'Connor's childhood home."
I'm the over-the-moon happy, lucky recipient of an Advance Reading Copy of Mr. Conroy's newest book which is scheduled to hit the shelves in November. MY READING LIFE is Mr. Conroy's most recent memoir.
"Bestselling author Pat Conroy acknowledges the books that have shaped him and celebrates the profound effect reading has had on his life.
In My Reading Life, Conroy revisits a life of passionate reading. He includes wonderful anecdotes from his school days, moving accounts of how reading pulled him through dark times, and even lists of books that particularly influenced him at various stages of his life, including grammar school, high school, and college. Readers will be enchanted with his ruminations on reading and books . . . "
"Great words, arranged with cunning and artistry, could change the perceived world for some readers. From the beginning I've searched out those writers unafraid to stir up the emotions, who entrust me with their darkest passions, their most indestructible yearnings, and their most soul-killing doubts. I trust the great novelists to teach me how to live, how to feel, how to love and hate. I trust them to show me the dangers I will encounter on the road as I stagger on my own troubled passage through a complicated life of books that try to teach me how to die."
This book reads with all the emotion we've come to expect from Mr. Conroy. It's filled with intensely personal stories that will fuel your love of the written word, make you laugh out loud, touch your heart and move you to tears.
FTC Full Disclosure - The publisher sent me the book.
Boy! This sounds wonderful! I know how much my reading has influenced my life. Looking forward to reading this!
Pat Conroy's cookbook is one of my all time favorite cookbooks and I have hundreds of cookbooks. That man can cook AND write.
When I think of Pat, I think of Cassandra King Conroy--one of my favorite authors. So--Pat must be an intelligent man--with a wife as good a writer as is she! Loved, loved, loved her The Sunday Wife!
Hi, Ladies! Thanks for stopping by.
I agree, Vicki - our reading does influence our lives, and sometimes to a larger degree than we realize until much later, I think.
Sam - I'm with you - that cookbook of Pat Conroy's is one of the best!!
Sylvia, I'm a fan of Cassandra King Conroy's also. Wouldn't you love to spend a little time with the two of them? wow.


This will be quick, but helpful for learners. I apologize that I cannot give walkthroughs, but almost every router will be configured using a different interface/process. I suggest using the below terms in your Routers manual.
Currently, WPA2 Personal is the standard for home networking. Although very difficult to break, it is not impossible. It simply requires the right tools, a supply of caffeine, and patience. The trick to encrypted passwords is length. Size definitely matters with Passwords. WEP is now easily broken with automated tools, but WEP encryption with a password of 50+ characters is much more difficult to break than WPA2 with a very short password.
Passwords, or "Key's" should be 15+ characters long at minimum.
The next more important feature in Wireless Security is the SSID. The SSID is the name of your network and the broadcast should always be disabled. This prevents 'passers by' from seeing a wireless network and requires additional work to be done in order to compromise the network.
Connecting to the Network can be difficult for the standard user, but just remember that SSID's are case sensitive and all devices allow you to manually connect to a 'hidden' network.
Most routers have the ability to filter access based on MAC address. Any device requesting an IP address on the network, whether they provide proper credentials or not, will be rejected if they are not on the approved MAC address list.
WPS was intended to provide an added layer of security with an 'easy connect' process, but ended up having a screen door protecting the entrance. This should be disabled.
You can add a layer of security by disabling your Wireless Router's authority to give DHCP addresses. You then define an address space that only you would know and set each device using the network to a static IP.
Most consumer devices use 192.168.0/1.x for their address space. Most IT people will change it to 10.x.x.x, but very few use the B class private range of 172.16.x.x - 172.31.x.x. If using a Static address setup, then it is highly recommended to use a non-standard address space.
If using DHCP, then it is recommended to change the number of available IP Addresses in your address space to the number of devices on your network.
For example, if I have 5 devices in my house, I will configure my Wireless Router to only give DHCP addresses from starting address 172.19.2.3 to ending address 172.19.2.7. If all my devices are connected, then I know there can be no additional devices allowed by the router on the network.
Unfortunately, consumer devices don't allow for more indepth functionality (e.g. WIPS), but being harder to rob than your neighbor, usually keeps you from getting robbed.
None of the above will completely block someone from getting on your network. In the field of security, there is no locked door, just doors that are harder to break into than others. The goal is to make it as difficult as possible.


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Santa Monica Planning Commission Hosts Third Public Hearing For Zoning Ordinance:
With the arrival of 2014, the Santa Monica Planning Commission will spend the entire month of January pouring over the Draft Zoning Ordinance Update, a document governing the many land uses and dedicated to implementing the City's General Plan.
Commissioners return to the dais next Wednesday, Jan. 15 to review the Draft Zoning Ordinance Update for a third time. The item was originally scheduled for Wednesday, Jan. 8, but that meeting was cancelled.
At the Jan. 15 meeting, planning commissioners will specifically be discussing residential neighbors, Ocean Park, and mixed-use and commercial districts.
According to City Hall, the overall purpose of the Zoning Ordinance is to not only implement the General Plan but also "protect and promote the public health, safety, peace, comfort, convenience, prosperity and general welfare by regulating the location and use of buildings, structures, and land for residential, commercial, industrial, recreational, and other specified uses."
Within the document, the Draft Zoning Ordinance outlines several specific objectives, such as providing a "precise guide for the physical development of the City" and to "protect and enhance the quality of the natural and built environment."
Protecting the quality of life of Santa Monica's residents, ensuring park and public open space, promoting viable commercial and industrial enterprises, providing diverse employment opportunities, and fostering "citizen participation in the development decision-making process," were also among the stated objectives within the planning document.
The Zoning Ordinance would be executed via four types of regulations: administrative, development standards, general terms and use classifications, and land use.
The Zoning Ordinance Update will not affect a few elements of Santa Monica's planning and zoning standards. For example, the neighborhood commercial areas on Main Street, Montana Avenue, and Ocean Park Boulevard will have the same restrictions on building height, floor area ratio, and the number of restaurants allowable per block.
With the exception of an area in Ocean Park, height and density limits as well as other development standards remain the same for all residential zoning districts.
In Ocean Park, one change is being made to limit the number of variance requests and instead promote new developments and remodeled structures are more designed to be more consistent with each other and the surrounding neighborhood.
The process to obtain a permit, as well as the major permit types available, will also remain unchanged in the updated Zoning Ordinance.
One key area covered by the Zoning Ordinance Update is neighborhood conservation. For example, a neighborhood conservation overlay district could be established, allowing "neighborhoods to define existing physical conditions and character, including building heights, setbacks, massing, open space, repetition of building and streetscape elements, and trees and landscaping."
The updated Zoning Ordinance would also prohibit "Tier 2" projects in R2 zones and require a development agreement (DA) for Tier 2 projects in R3 and R4 zones.
A Tier 2 project is one with a Floor Area Ration (FAR) of up to 2.25. Tier 1 projects are the least dense and Tier 3 has the greatest possible density. Just the same, an R2-zoned area includes low-density housing.
Also being modified in the Zoning Ordinance Update: thresholds for Development Review Permits. New developments or expansion projects larger than 10,000 square feet in floor area in all commercial, neighborhood, oceanfront, or residential districts (or 20,000 square feet in floor area in other districts) would require a discretionary and appealable hearing before the Planning Commission.
The same requirement would also apply to all projects exceeding Tier 1 limits.
Zoning designations would also be changed under the updated Zoning Ordinance. For example, the new designation of MU-BL (Mixed-Use Boulevard Low) would be inclusive of at least six current zones, including C-2, C-4, CM-3, CM-4, BCD, LMSD (outside of Bergamot), and M-1. GC, or General Commercial, would be the new designation for the commercial zone for Lincoln and Santa Monica Boulevards. NC would be the Neighborhood Commercial zone covering C-2, C-4 (Pico), and CM-2.
Updates to tiers, height and density requirements, and building footprints are also covered within the Draft Zoning Ordinance Update.
The Draft Zoning Ordinance Update also defines use classifications for auto dealers, food trucks, medical marijuana dispensaries, restaurant sizes, and tattoo/body modification parlors.
Other areas with potentially new definitions: parking rules for various zones depending upon proximity to mixed-used projects or transit; bike parking; community benefit requirements for Tier 2 projects; nonconforming structures and uses; transportation demand management requirements; the role of the Architectural Review Board (ARB) in the Development Review Permit process; and, potential amendments to the Land Use and Circulation Element (LUCE).
The Mirror will take a closer look at various aspects of the Draft Zoning Ordinance Update as the planning document moves through the public process and toward execution.
Mon, Jan 18, 9:00 AM - 11:00 AM Online Only at 9am on Jan. 18th - Visit: MLKjrWestside.org The Rev. Dr....


Tag Archive | "Heidi Reed"
Welcome Back! We are about to begin a new school year filled with hope and excitement at Cedar Springs Public Schools! Our CSPS Brand Promise of Purpose, Potential and Pride is with us as we step out of summer refueled and ready to meet the challenges of this year.
district; we are all an integral part of our schools being highly effective centers of learning.
Potential: We are grateful for our staff that is ready and prepared to pour into our students; by opening doors of wonder, understanding and information.
Pride: The hard work of students and staff brings pride and joy! We look forward throughout this upcoming year for the many ways we can celebrate together student success.
The entire Board of Education wishes everyone the best; as we welcome our students to their educational journey of 2018-2019.
A drive to recall three members of the Cedar Springs Board of Education came to a halt this week after a spokesperson for the recall team said they no longer felt it necessary to proceed.
Petitions to recall board president Heidi Reed, vice president Matt Shoffner, and treasurer Shannon Vanderhyde were filed this spring, in the aftermath of the resignation of Superintendent Laura VanDuyn.
The reasoning on the petitions for the recall had to do with public comment being limited at a board meeting. Reed apologized the day after the meeting, noting that she had erred in not letting some people speak who had not signed up ahead of time.
However, there was more behind the recall effort than the one incident. Many of those who had demanded that the former superintendent resign also felt that the board had not been listening to the public or staff over the last few years when they complained about the former superintendent, and wanted to see them recalled. However, since that time, board members have made efforts to be more transparent, and show that they are listening to their constituents. The recent hiring of Superintendent Scott Smith had the public involved at almost every level.
For more information on term lengths and what positions are up for election this fall, click here.
The Cedar Springs Board of Education recognized two of its board members at its regular meeting on Monday evening, May 14, for awards they received from the Michigan Association of School Boards.
Heidi Reed, President of the Board of Education, received Level 1 Certified Board Member Award Certification. Heidi had to take nine classes, all at the 100 level to receive this award.
Treasurer Shannon Vanderhyde received the Award of Distinction. Shannon has taken all 100 level classes, all classes at the 200 level and 6 at the 300 Level earning her the Award of Distinction.
Kent County Prosecutor Chris Becker issued his opinion this week on whether Courtland Township trustee Matt McConnon can also serve on the Cedar Springs Board of Education. In his opinion, the offices do not conflict with each other.
McConnon was appointed by the Cedar Springs Board of Education to fill a vacant seat in January. The Post alerted both Board President Heidi Reed and then Supt. Laura VanDuyn to the possibility of an incompatible office, since there was a similar occurrence in 2010. The Post waited until mid-February for an answer, then went to the Sheriff Department and asked them to have the current prosecutor review the case.
In the 2009-2010 case, Pamela Conley, who was on the BOE, was elected to the Cedar Springs City Council. Lawyers on both sides felt it was a conflict, and asked then Prosecutor William Forsyth to offer an opinion. He came back with the opinion that the offices were incompatible.
Forsyth said at the time, that the two entities had contracts and agreements, such as the city collecting the school taxes and then being reimbursed for them. He also noted that under the Revised School Code that the Superintendent could negotiate a reasonable expense for city services and that the board must then also vote to approve any agreement between the school and city.
In a nutshell, he felt those things—the collection of school taxes, needing to vote on it (he said not voting on it was a breach of duty) and the holding of elections for the school and reimbursement for it made the offices incompatible.
Becker saw it differently. He said that he saw no contracts between the school and Courtland Township. He said the only possible contractual relationship found was the Cedar Springs Schools Parks and Recreation. Both entities are members of the governing body, but they are partners and do not oppose each other.
Becker did not feel the collection of taxes and being reimbursed for them was incompatible because he could find no direct contract between the township and the school system. There is, however, a form and resolution that the school sends to the districts.
According to Dennis Bain, Director of Fiscal Services at Kent Intermediate School District, the school districts send a L4029 form to the townships and city, along with a board resolution, that tells the township how much they should levy in taxes on behalf of the school district. The township then collects the taxes, and directly pays the school district those taxes. However, when it comes to the township being paid for collecting the taxes, the KISD acts as an intermediary. The township bills KISD for their services of collecting the taxes, and the school pays KISD what is owed.
Baine did not know if it was done the same way in 2010 but he couldn't imagine that it wasn't. He also said he didn't know of any other district in the state that did it differently.
What the Post was unable to find out was whether Courtland Township trustees vote on whether to collect or disburse the taxes. We did not receive a call or email back from them by press time.
The Post looked back at the school elections in 2007 through 2010, and found that people were told to vote at their own township or city polling place, just as they are now, and Kent County listed all the candidates, so they may very well have been done exactly as they are now. The only difference is that since they are now held in November during a regular election, the school doesn't have to reimburse individual townships or the city for them.
See Prosecutor Chris Becker's opinion here: McConnon opinion.
See Prosecutor William Forsyth's opinion on the Conley case here: Conley letter.
Post Scripts NOTICE: The Cedar Springs Post welcomes letters of up to 350 words. The subject should be relevant to local readers, and the editor reserves the right to reject letters or edit for clarity, length, good taste, accuracy, and liability concerns. All submissions MUST be accompanied by full name, mailing address and daytime phone number. We use this information to verify the letter's authenticity. We do not print anonymous letters, or acknowledge letters we do not use. Writers are limited to one letter per month. Email to news@cedarspringspost.com, or send to Post Scripts, Cedar Springs Post, PO Box 370, Cedar Springs, MI 49319.
The recall effort for the board of education members Heidi Reed, Matt Shoffner, and Shannon Vanderhyde is officially underway. The specific language refers to what I and other members of the community believe was a violation of the open meetings act, but that is merely a symptom of the larger problem. This board has repeatedly ignored stakeholder voices. They are beginning to rush into selecting a new superintendent when at least 4, if not 7 seats will be up for election in November. I believe this to be a mistake. There are calls to put in place a highly qualified interim superintendent until we have a board that will be seated more than 6 months. The board openly silenced stake holders, can anyone trust that they will listen now? There will be petitions available at the Cedar Springs Burger King community room on Saturday May 5th 1-4 pm, Tuesday May 8th 6-9 pm and Thursday May 17 from 6-9 pm. A board who will not listen to voters cannot be allowed to continue to serve.
We attended the Cedar Springs School Board Meeting on March 26 and made several observations.
Our first observation came when the school board president Heidi Reed stated that the school board pays an outside consulting firm (from Ohio) for school policies. While it might be common practice to pay a consulting firm for crafting of school policies, is it the best practice? How much of the community's money was spent on this out-of-state consulting firm? We believe that our local school policies should be determined by those who live here, not in some other state. We have no problems with getting ideas and inspiration from any and all sources, but community members should determine our local policies. How about having a public forum with debate and discussion of what policies we would like to have in our local school district? We can see what other communities are doing, but this is our school district, serving our children, and our community. If our school board members are unwilling or unable to make policies that fit and form our local community, perhaps they should not be serving on the board.
We got the impression that Ms. Reed was attempting to absolve herself and the board from having any personal responsibility for unpopular policies.
Over the past several years, public comments and statements made by board members and the superintendent seem to reflect a view that spending public money is good. Instead of focusing on results or finding the best value for taxpayer dollars, the board and superintendent appeared to try to solve problems by spending money.
We were also shocked and offended by comments made by board president Reed and board trustee Tim Bauer. Ms. Reed made a comment that seemed to be a personal attack on those members of the community that spent their own money, time and resources on yard signs and t-shirts. She said that she wished that effort had gone to supporting the kids who are going to The Odyssey of the Mind competition. The audience reaction to her statement was shock, immediately followed by comments. At that time, another board member demanded that the audience "respect the board president." The audience should respect the position of board president, but the board president should respect members of the audience and community as well. While she's entitled to her own personal opinions, we feel that this comment was inappropriate.
We had serious concerns regarding Trustee Tim Bauer, but those are now moot since he announced his resignation.
The board approved paying an interim superintendent $600 per day plus mileage. We would like to see how that figure was reached and the rationale behind it. Is this the best value for our tax dollars?
As a final thought, perhaps we should consider adding another board member. This new member would be elected by and from the district's teachers to provide direct representation of those who teach our children. The new position could either be a full voting member, or an advisory member depending on statutory and regulatory requirements.
Matt McConnon was appointed on Tuesday, January 23, to fill a vacant seat on the Cedar Springs Board of Education. Courtesy photo.
The Cedar Springs Board of Education held a special meeting Tuesday evening, January 23, to fill the board seat vacated by Patricia Eary last week when she resigned. The board interviewed six candidates, and voted 6-0 to appoint Matt McConnon, of Courtland Township, to fill the seat until January. He was sworn in at the end of the meeting by School Resource Officer Deputy McCutcheon.
Several of the board members felt McConnon's 10 years of experience in policy making and budgeting on the Courtland Township board would be beneficial to the school board. It remains to be seen, however, whether they will get to use his expertise.
"After we appointed Matt McConnon to the BOE, it came to light that there could be an outside concern with the incompatible office law as Matt is a trustee on the Courtland Township Board," said Board President Heidi Reed.
"With the first look, the two positions (Township Trustee and BOE) appeared to only have a 'potential of incompatibility,' which meant the law did not apply. Matt's longstanding board service to Courtland Township is to be admired. We have been in contact with Matt and we will amicably resolve this situation after we have gathered the facts," she said.
The concern arose because at the end of the meeting, the Post found, after speaking with Mr. McConnon, that he was still serving on the Courtland Township board. He explained that Superintendent Dr. Laura VanDuyn had checked into it, and told him that there should be no conflict of interest since Courtland Township doesn't do much voting on school issues.
However, the Post remembered that there was a similar case eight years ago, involving our own school board and the Cedar Springs City Council, and that the Kent County Prosecutor had deemed the two offices incompatible.
In that case, Pamela Conley, who was a Board of Education trustee, ran for Cedar Springs City Council in 2009 and won a seat. Both lawyers for the city and the school eventually agreed that the offices would be in conflict, and decided to send it to then Kent County Prosecutor William Forsyth for a final opinion. He sent back his decision, explaining why the offices were incompatible. He also told Conley she needed to resign one of the offices by a certain date or he would file charges in Circuit Court. She decided to resign her BOE seat and still serves on the Cedar Springs City Council.
According to the opinion issued by Forsyth in January 2010, in which he cited the Public Offices Act, State Attorney General opinions and Supreme Court opinions, he noted that a person could serve on both boards if they do not negotiate or enter into contracts with one another, which the city and school do. "Of equal significance, an individual cannot avoid the incompatibility by abstaining from voting on resolutions…because abstention under such circumstances 'is itself a breach of duty.'" He specifically mentioned the city collecting the taxes for the school, and the city conducting school board elections, and the school reimbursing the city for them.
Courtland Township does the same.
The Post emailed Board of Education President Heidi Reed and Superintendent Van Duyn to inform them of the prior case. Reed told the Post they would check into it. She then later issued her statement cited earlier in this article.
The Post will update this story when we know more.
The Cedar Springs Board of Education held a special meeting on Tuesday, December 19, to interview applicants for two vacancies left by the resignations of Michelle Bayink and Ted Sabinas at the last regular board meeting Monday, December 11.
The board advertised for applications for the positions in last week's paper, and the deadline was Monday December 18. The advertisement did not say there would be a special board meeting on December 19, and the Post was not present because we were not notified that a special meeting had been scheduled for the interviews.
The board did video the meeting, although some of it was hard to hear due to quite a bit of background noise and some board members not speaking into the microphone.
The board interviewed 10 candidates for the position, and chose Tim Bauer and Traci Slager to fill the two open seats through the end of this year. Bauer is replacing Bayink, and Slager is replacing Sabinas.
The board liked the answers provided by both candidates, although Heidi Reed did express some concern that Slager had not been around the board. She did still vote yes, however.
Bauer and Slager can run as candidates in the fall if they would like to for one of four open positions. There will be two six-year positions open with Brooke Nichols and Patricia Eary's seats coming up for reelection; one four-year seat (for Ted Sabinas' seat); and one two-year seat for the one vacated by Michelle Bayink.
The two were sworn in at the end of the meeting. The board will hold their reorganizational meeting in January 15 at 6:45 p.m.


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Home » Events » Bitcoin London meet-up recap: Moving forward with the original Bitcoin
Bitcoin London meet-up recap: Moving forward with the original Bitcoin
Events 5 April 2019
Becky Liggero Fontana
The first Bitcoin London meet-up of 2019 took place in Finsbury Square on Tuesday evening, April 2nd, bringing together local professionals who wish to network and learn more about the technology outlined in the original Bitcoin whitepaper.
https://youtu.be/m0J7guoZrGs
Video can't be loaded because JavaScript is disabled: Bitcoin London meet-up recap: Moving forward with the original Bitcoin (https://youtu.be/m0J7guoZrGs)
Sponsored by CoinGeek.com, the event was entitled "Moving Forward with the Original Bitcoin" and featured five quick presentations, complimentary food and drinks, networking space and the presence of Bitcoin SV (BSV) leaders such as Dr. Craig Wright and Steve Shadders of nChain and Michael Hudson of Bitstocks.
Shadders, nChain's Lead Developer, hosted an audience Q & A, covering topics such as OP_RETURNs, BSV's unique ability to massively scale, and the recent mining of a record-breaking 128MB block and how this achievement benefits miners.
"What we're going to start to see, pretty much from now, is miners having their behavior influenced by the economic incentives of Bitcoin. We're 10 years in and Bitcoin is now starting to exhibit the properties that it was designed to exhibit. So its almost like a second birth of Bitcoin," Shadders told CoinGeek.com.
In addition to educating delegates on the latest in Bitcoin, events like Bitcoin London's casual meet-ups are important for nurturing the Bitcoin ecosystem and creating a sense of physical comradery in an otherwise digital setting.
"We just really want to be with people and network with people. At the CoinGeek Conference we met so many intelligent people, people that are building, people that are passionate. I just love being around people that are passionate about Bitcoin," shared Meet-up speaker $marquee Mark Allison, Enterprise Software Architect.
How to engage "regular people" in everyday Bitcoin use was another topic of discussion on the night, covered by Rafa Jiménez, Co-Founder of Handcash. Jiménez explained the philosophy behind HandCash wallet development and how they strive to create wallets that the "average Joe" can easily use.
"The biggest thing that we found when we arrived to the ecosystem was to improve the backups, improve the way that we can send money to other people and having local currency [displayed], what the people are using to having. These were our biggest hypotheses at the beginning of the project," Jiménez shared.
Bitcoin London's Darren Eggenschwiler served as the evening's moderator and also took an active role in the overall organization of the meet-up, a unique opportunity to match names to faces.
"Putting something in a physical location makes it kind of real, right? I have a lot of internet friends—a lot of people here have a lot of internet friends—that develops the community in one way, but we're developing the community at a location in person. Its different face to face, its better," said Eggenschwiler.
"I think its important that we develop small communities all over the world that foster BSV building and BSV friend-making. I'm here to make friends and business partners and we're going to build the future," he added.
For those who want to take part in the building of BSV's future, the next opportunity to make a difference is May 29-30 in Toronto at the CoinGeek Conference. The benefits of massive on-chain scaling for businesses, developers, miners, consumers and more will be covered and anyone interested in learning more about BSV and the Satoshi Vision is welcome.
New to Bitcoin? Check out CoinGeek's Bitcoin for Beginners section, the ultimate resource guide to learn more about Bitcoin—as originally envisioned by Satoshi Nakamoto—and blockchain.
Bitcoin London
Bitcoin London Meet-up
Events 26 January 2023
Craig Wright on privacy, Cicero and one enormous bar bill
On Day 1 of the first Bitcoin Masterclass, Dr. Craig Wright gets down to the Bitcoin business, talking about how to improve on security systems which today are typically restricted to 'all or nothing' sharing.
Digital Pilipinas 2023 launch lays out roadmap to the Philippines' critical industries
Digital Pilipinas' first event for the year, dubbed "Digital Pilipinas 2023 Launch," presented glimpses of their 2023 roadmap for 12 critical industries.
Join Dr. Craig Wright in person for his first Bitcoin Masterclass: Identity & Privacy
The themes of the first 10 Bitcoin workshops have been identified already by Dr. Craig Wright, with this week's masterclass putting the spotlight on identity and privacy.


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Les quatre éléments sont utilisés depuis l'Antiquité pour décrire la matière composant l'univers. C'est un concept développé dans le cadre de l'étude des sciences naturelles dans la philosophie antique. Le concept est également utilisé en astrologie et pour décrire les composantes du zodiaque.

Histoire et applications à des disciplines modernes

À l'origine il s'agissait d'une hypothèse de certains philosophes grecs présocratiques et notamment d'Empédocle au , selon laquelle tous les matériaux constituant le monde seraient composés de quatre éléments, dont chacun est représenté par un symbole différent dans la tradition alchimique :
 la Terre (symbole ) ;
 l'Eau (symbole ) ;
 l'Air (symbole ) ;
 le Feu (symbole ).

Chaque substance présente dans l'univers serait constituée d'un ou plusieurs de ces éléments, en plus ou moins grande quantité. Ce qui expliquerait le caractère plus ou moins volatil, chaud, froid, humide, ou sec (= les quatre qualités élémentaires) de chaque matière. La théorie repose sur des arguments philosophiques et spéculatifs.

Les philosophes présocratiques ont imaginé une essence première en toute chose. Thalès, le premier à chercher l'élément premier, choisissait l'eau ; Héraclite voyait dans le feu l'élément premier à l'origine de toute matière ; Anaximène, lui, envisageait l'air comme essence de toute chose ; enfin, Empédocle, au début du  avant notre ère, admit que les quatre éléments réunis composaient l'univers. Pour Démocrite, l'univers était composé d'atomes (en grec a-tomos, « qui ne peut être coupé »), c'est-à-dire de particules microscopiques insécables et éternelles, qui composeraient la matière comme des briques forment un mur et qui auraient la forme générale de l'objet (rond, pointu, concave...).

C'est à l'époque des croisades, au  en Terre Sainte, et de la reconquista en Espagne, que le savoir des Grecs et la théorie aristotélicienne des éléments a pénétré en Occident. Or, les écrits conservés étaient essentiellement ceux de l'enseignement d'Aristote. Celui de Démocrite ne s'est pas transmis, et aujourd'hui encore, nous ne connaissons les textes de Démocrite que de manière lacunaire, à travers ce que certains auteurs, en particulier Aristote, nous en disent. Les scolastiques du Moyen Âge reprendront ces spéculations sur la quaternité de la nature à leur compte et l'incluront dans leur vision chrétienne du monde.

Empédocle
Le texte fondateur se trouve chez Empédocle (vers 460 av. J.-C.) :

« Connais premièrement la quadruple racine
De toutes choses : Zeus aux feux lumineux,
Héra mère de vie, et puis Aidônéus,
Nestis enfin, aux pleurs dont les mortels s'abreuvent. ».

.

Empédocle ajoute aux quatre éléments matériels deux forces spirituelles. Diogène Laërce le dit à propos d'Empédocle :  (VIII, 76).

L'ordre ou la hiérarchie des éléments est également sujette à interprétation. D'après la première interprétation présentée ci-dessus, Empédocle nomme les éléments dans l'ordre suivant, sans expliquer pourquoi : Feu, Air, Terre et Eau. Aristote, se fondant sur l'idée que la chaleur s'élève et qu'il y a toujours de la terre sous l'eau, établit la série : Feu, Air, Eau et Terre.

La complétude de ce système est également discutable. Combien d'éléments y a-t-il ? Le jeune Aristote et l'auteur de l'Épinomis ajouteront un cinquième élément, qui est donc la quinte essence : l'Éther ; ce dernier élément, qui constitue le substrat des corps célestes, n'est pas soumis à la génération et à la corruption, aux changements de qualité ou de dimension, et il se déplace, non en ligne droite comme les autres, mais en cercle (Aristote, Du ciel, I, 2, 3), ce qui explique le mouvement circulaire des étoiles (mouvement en réalité dû à la rotation de la Terre).

Les solides de Platon

Platon, dans le Timée, s'inspirant peut-être du pythagorisme, pense que les quatre éléments sont faits de particules cubiques (Terre), d'icosaèdres (eau), d'octaèdres (air), de tétraèdres (feu) (Timée, 56), et la sphère du monde (le Tout) est un dodécaèdre (Timée, 55 e-56 a). Les éléments sont donc liés aux surfaces des solides, les quatre polyèdres réguliers alors connus : tétraèdre (Timée, 56 b), hexaèdre régulier (cube), octaèdre, icosaèdre ; le Tout est un dodécaèdre (Phédon, 110 b ; Timée, 55 c). Le Feu, l'Air et l'Eau sont faits de triangles équilatéraux (24, 48, 129 triangles élémentaires scalènes), la Terre de carrés (24 triangles élémentaires isocèles), le Tout de pentagones (12 pentagones irréductibles aux triangles). Dans son enseignement oral ésotérique, Platon veut  (prosphérein) entre dimensions (unité ou nombres ou lignes insécables, lignes ou longueurs, surfaces ou plans, volumes ou solides), figures (lignes insécables, lignes, triangle, pyramide) et nombres (1, 2, 3, 4 : les nombres de la Tétraktys), mais aussi les éléments. Ainsi, derrière l'analogie entre dimensions, figures, nombres, éléments, s'établissent les correspondances entre unité/lignes insécables/un/Feu, entre longueurs/lignes/deux/Air, etc.  (Aristote, Métaphysique, Livre Delta, 6, 1016 b).

Symbolique et qualités élémentaires

Le pythagoricien Alcméon aurait fondé (vers 500 av. J.-C.) la théorie des quatre qualités élémentaires : chaud, froid, sec et humide.

Le médecin sicilien Philistion, contemporain de Platon, répartit les quatre qualités entre les quatre éléments : le Feu est chaud, l'Air est froid, l'Eau est humide, la Terre est sèche.

L'apport le plus décisif à la théorie des quatre éléments fut celui d'Aristote qui y ajouta la notion de quatre qualités élémentales associées deux par deux et contraires. Il donna aussi un ordre naturel : en bas la terre, puis l'eau, puis l'air, enfin le feu (le Soleil), et l'éther pour les corps célestes.

L'interprétation symbolique des quatre éléments repose sur leur décomposition en quatre qualités élémentales, suivant deux axes d'analyse que sont le chaud et le froid d'une part (deux qualités actives) et le sec et l'humide d'autre part (deux qualités passives). (voir ici)
 Le chaud est d'une manière générale un principe d'énergie, d'activité et d'impulsion. Par opposition, le froid est un principe de passivité et de résistance.
 Le sec est un processus d'analyse, de séparation, d'individualisation, de contraction et de repli sur le détail ou sur soi. Il se déroule dans une atmosphère rigide et cassante, allant aux extrêmes. Par opposition, l'humide est un processus de synthèse, de liaison et de collectivisation, d'ouverture sur la globalité et le collectif. Il est conduit dans une atmosphère de détente et de souplesse.

La conjonction d'une qualité active et d'une qualité passive agissant sur une matière première indifférenciée génère l'un ou l'autre des éléments. Dans cette analyse, la terre hérite des qualités froides et sèches (ce sont les qualités de la cendre), le feu est sec et chaud, l'air est chaud et humide (qualités du souffle exhalé) et l'eau est froide et humide.

À côté de ces quatre qualités élémentales, il existe aussi des qualités secondaires et dérivées, toujours opposées deux à deux, comme le subtil et l'épais (c'est-à-dire la disposition sous forme de fragments de grande ou petite dimension), le lourd et le léger, l'amer et le doux, le fluide et le visqueux...

D'autre part, cette génération des éléments par une interaction de qualités élémentales implique une dynamique des éléments. La réalité n'est pas figée : les éléments qui ont une qualité élémentale en commun peuvent se transformer l'un dans l'autre. Le feu peut donc se transformer par la modification d'une de ses deux qualités soit en air, soit en terre ; la terre en feu ou en eau ; l'eau en terre ou en air ; et ce dernier en eau ou en feu.

Enfin, chaque élément se subdivise en variétés, selon les mesures de la participation et des mélanges. On distingue par exemple trois sortes de feu : la flamme brûlante, la lumière et les résidus incandescents de la flamme (braises).

Aristote met en correspondances les sens et les éléments. La vue, la couleur est liée au feu, , l'odorat s'exerce au moyen d'un médium qui est l'air ou même l'eau, , le toucher est lié à la terre. Aristote donne toujours la suite éther, feu, air, eau, terre, et c'est l'ordre qui prévaudra, l'éther (et non le feu) étant alors considéré comme la matière des astres et l'élément où ils séjournent.

Applications à la cosmologie de Platon

Dans la cosmologie géocentrique de Platon, l'univers est divisé selon les quatre éléments, terre, eau, air et feu. Chacun d'entre eux possède un lieu naturel, c'est-à-dire un endroit où il réside naturellement, sachant qu'il peut aussi se trouver parfois également à un endroit qui ne correspond pas à sa place naturelle. Les lieux naturels où l'on rencontre habituellement les éléments sont disposés en sphères concentriques. Au centre de l'univers se trouve la sphère de la terre, puis viennent celles de l'eau, de l'air et enfin du feu. Entre l'air et le feu, on trouve les sphères des sept planètes, soit, de la plus proche à la plus éloignée, la Lune, Mercure, Vénus, le Soleil, Mars, Jupiter, et Saturne (un ordre qui ne correspond que d'assez loin avec la réalité astronomique, telle qu'on la connaît actuellement) ; puis vient la sphère des étoiles fixes. Au-delà de la sphère du feu, se situe le primum mobile, c'est-à-dire le Premier Moteur, le moteur de l'univers, pour les théologiens du Moyen Âge et les scolastiques qui s'approprieront la pensée d'Aristote, ce sera Dieu.

Lorsque les éléments ne sont pas dans leur lieu naturel, ils tendent à le rejoindre. C'est ainsi que l'on peut expliquer les phénomènes que les Anciens appellent météorologiques (le sens de ce terme possède une plus grande extension que dans son acception moderne) : la pluie est de l'eau de la sphère du ciel qui cherche à redescendre vers son lieu naturel ; les comètes sont du feu de la sphère du ciel qui cherche à remonter vers son lieu naturel ; les météorites sont composées de terre qui cherche à redescendre vers son lieu naturel, etc.

Le cinquième élément

Durant l'Antiquité, un cinquième élément était considéré en plus des quatre éléments principaux. Ce cinquième élément était qualifié de quintessence, puis de façon plus moderne, il était ensuite qualifié d'éther. Il s'agirait d'une substance cristalline, associée au monde des cieux, relative à la perfection et à la stabilité voulue par Dieu. La quintessence, dans cette perspective théologique et philosophique, relie les différentes sphères du cosmos, il n'y a pas de vide. En effet, le concept de l'absence de matière était rejeté par les penseurs grecs tels qu'Aristote, pour qui .

Il existe également dans la tradition indienne puis ésotérique un cinquième élément, parfois appelé Akasha, qui signifie en sanskrit espace et peut être rattaché à l'Ākāsa-dhātu des éléments bouddhistes et à l'élément traditionnel japonais Kū (空), qui tous deux signifient espace. Voir l'article  pour plus de détails.

Dans la cosmologie chinoise des Wuxing, cinq éléments sont présentés : le bois, le feu, la terre, le métal et l'eau.

Application en biologie
De même que l'univers est divisé en quatre éléments, les êtres vivants sont classés en quatre règnes :
 minéral (les pierres sont considérées comme faisant partie des êtres vivants au Moyen Âge, sinon dans l'Antiquité) ;
 végétal ;
 animal ;
 humain.

Les animaux sont eux-mêmes répartis en quatre catégories selon leur appartenance à l'un ou l'autre des quatre éléments. Il existera dans la pensée religieuse du Moyen Âge l'idée que plus on monte vers le ciel, plus on se rapproche de Dieu, et que plus on descend, plus on se rapproche du diable et de l'enfer. On trouve au sommet de la pyramide le phénix, un oiseau fabuleux lié au feu, puis les oiseaux ordinaires, simples volatiles voyageant dans les airs, suivis des poissons nageant dans l'eau, pour terminer en bas de l'échelle par les quadrupèdes qui vivent sur l'élément terre. À l'intérieur d'une même catégorie animale, il existe également une hiérarchisation des êtres en fonction de l'élément dont ils se rapprochent le plus : les oiseaux incapables de voler et marchant sur le sol comme la poule sont moins bien considérés que le gibier d'eau comme le canard, proche de l'élément aquatique, lui-même moins noble que les oiseaux de plein ciel comme le passereau ou l'épervier.(Au Moyen Âge la fauconnerie, chasse noble par excellence était réservée à la noblesse).

De la même manière, les poissons de fond tel que le turbot sont inférieurs aux poissons de surface et d'eau vive tel que le saumon. Les végétaux sont également généralement associés à la terre, mais les épices au feu. Une telle répartition entre les divers éléments existe également pour les minéraux.

Application en médecine

Les médecins grecs comme Hippocrate (v. 460-v. 370 av. J.C.) et Claude Galien (131-201 ap. J.-C.) ont intégré la théorie des éléments, qu'Hippocrate a complétée par la théorie des humeurs, systématisée par Galien. Il s'agissait de la reprise d'une vieille conception grecque qui établissait une correspondance entre le microcosme et le macrocosme, le corps humain étant le reflet en miniature de l'univers. La physiologie humaine est commandée par les éléments dans leur transposition sous une forme organique, qu'on appelle les quatre humeurs. Chaque humeur est dominée par un couple de qualités : la bile jaune (colera en latin) est chaude et sèche comme le feu, la bile noire (colera nigra) est froide et sèche comme la terre, le flegme (flegma ou phlegma) est froid et humide comme l'eau, et le sang (sanguis), contenant un peu des autres humeurs, est chaud et humide comme l'air.

De même que le chaos règne dans l'univers lorsque les éléments sont en déséquilibre, le corps humain va tomber malade lorsque l'une ou l'autre des humeurs se trouve en excès par rapport aux autres. La santé et la maladie dépendent donc de l'équilibre des humeurs et de leur quantité. Chez l'homme sain, la prédominance d'une humeur se nomme complexion et détermine le tempérament. À chaque humeur prédominante correspond un tempérament : bilieux ou colérique pour la bile jaune, sanguin pour le sang, flegmatique pour le phlegme et mélancolique pour la bile noire. Si le déséquilibre s'aggrave, il entraîne des maladies (chaudes, froides, sèches ou humides), que l'on guérit par l'administration d'un remède qui rétablit l'équilibre des humeurs : une maladie froide et humide, par exemple, requiert un remède chaud et sec (traitement par les contraires), ou encore un excès de sang sera traité par la saignée, traitement dont on usera et abusera sans discernement jusqu'au début de l'époque moderne. Il existera aussi les tenants du traitement par les semblables dont on peut retrouver l'origine dans la médecine égyptienne et dont l'initiateur à l'époque moderne sera Paracelse.

Notre civilisation occidentale a été profondément marquée par la théorie hippocratique des humeurs. Il en reste de nombreux témoins dans le langage courant : . Lorsqu'on définit une personne comme  ou , lorsqu'on se sent , ou que l'on réagit avec  on fait, sans le savoir, de la médecine hippocratique.

Application en diététique

La maladie résultant du déséquilibre des humeurs peut s'éviter au moyen d'un programme d'équilibre entre complexion individuelle et monde extérieur. Cet équilibre passe avant tout par la diététique, discipline annexe de la médecine élaborée en particulier par Celse et Dioscoride au , et par Galien, en application de la théorie des humeurs d'Hippocrate. Pour les Grecs de l'Antiquité la digestion est une cuisson des aliments qui aboutit à la formation des humeurs. La composition en quatre éléments et quatre qualités s'applique en effet aux aliments, comme à toutes les autres matières de l'univers. Leur classification et leur répartition en ce qui correspond aux complexions et tempéraments a été réalisée à partir d'une observation de simple bon sens des caractéristiques des aliments : le poivre, la moutarde et les épices en général brûlent comme le feu (ils sont chauds et secs), la laitue et la pêche et certains fruits et légumes rafraîchissent comme l'eau (ils sont froids et humides). Accessoirement on classe aussi les aliments entre deux autres couples d'opposition le cuit et le cru, le doux et l'amer.

Le Moyen Âge a également hiérarchisé les aliments de la même manière que les êtres vivants, suivant qu'ils sont proches de la terre, de l'eau ou du ciel. L'exemple des oiseaux et des poissons a été exposé au paragraphe biologie; Il peut être transposé aux plantes, une betterave, plus proche de la terre, comme ce qu'on appelait alors les racines (tubercules, navets, carottes…) sera plus suspecte et moins bien considérée que la cerise qui est suspendue dans les airs…

Les qualités des aliments s'échelonnent en quatre degrés sur les deux axes principaux, celui du chaud et du froid et celui du sec et de l'humide. Cette complication de la théorie par l'ajout de degrés est l'œuvre de Galien qui a donné son architecture finale à la théorie des humeurs. Le miel, par exemple, est chaud au premier degré et sec au deuxième degré. Ces qualités influent sur la façon dont l'aliment se transforme dans le corps et sur la qualité et la consistance des humeurs qu'elles engendrent dans l'organisme. La chaleur de la digestion les transforment en lymphe qui, elle-même, se transforme en humeurs ou agit sur leur qualité et leur équilibre.

Pour rester en bonne santé, au fil des saisons il faut avoir une nourriture équilibrée. Pour cela, certains médecins recommandent à leurs patients de consommer des aliments qui correspondent à leur tempérament, mais d'autres médecins conseillent de manger des aliments qui sont contraires au tempérament. Par exemple, le tacuinum sanitatis (texte arabe du  écrit par Ibn Butlan, traduit en latin au ), le vin rouge corsé (chaud et sec au ), comme la viande de lièvre (chaude et sèche au ) sont recommandés aux personnes âgées, aux flegmatiques et aux mélancoliques, de nature froide. Par contre, le poisson frais (froid et humide au ), les prunes ou les poires (froides au  et humides au ) conviennent plutôt aux colériques et aux sanguins, ainsi qu'aux jeunes, de tempérament chaud.

La médecine hippocratique se méfie des fruits et des légumes crus : il est  recommandé de cuire les aliments. Il n'existe plus actuellement en Occident de tradition de médecine hippocratique. Mais il existe encore aujourd'hui en Inde des praticiens de médecine Yunâni qui se réclament de cet héritage.

La diététique hippocratique a dominé la médecine en Occident pendant plus de 2000 ans. Connaissance empirique, elle a été rejetée avec l'avènement de la chimie médicale avec la découverte des vitamines, des glucides ou des lipides, puis du cholestérol. Mais cette doctrine médicale savante, est ensuite tombée dans le domaine populaire. Elle survit dans certaines pratiques culinaires (manger du melon avec du jambon cru, en début de repas, des poires au vin en dessert, boire un digestif en fin de repas) ou dans certains conseils diététiques de nos grands-mères (ne pas boire en mangeant). On trouve également une fidélité aux principes hippocratiques chez certains théoriciens de l'alimentation saine et végétarienne.

Application en climatologie

Le cadre de vie, le lieu géographique et le climat sont également soumis au jeu des qualités. Les quatre points cardinaux correspondent aux éléments ainsi qu'aux complexions et aux tempéraments. Ainsi, l'Est est chaud et humide, le Sud chaud et sec, le Nord froid et sec, et l'Ouest froid et humide.

Ces considérations sur les points cardinaux ont donc suscité la construction d'une théorie explicative de la géographie et des climats. Vu d'Europe, le nord possède en effet un climat froid, et l'eau y gèle (le fait qu'elle soit solide lui ôte sa qualité humide et explique que le nord soit sec); les régions ouest sont essentiellement constituées des immensités océanes (donc humides), et les régions sud sont constituées en grande partie par le vaste désert africain du Sahara (donc sec). Quant à l'Est, c'est traditionnellement là que l'on situe le paradis terrestre, d'où prennent leur source quatre fleuves (le Nil, le Tigre, l'Euphrate et le Gange), et où règne une douce chaleur (humide à cause des fleuves). C'est une vision du monde centrée sur l'Europe, du fait de son origine grecque à laquelle s'est ajoutée au Moyen Âge le récit biblique du jardin d'éden. On la trouve développée notamment dans Les Météores de Paracelse.

Les préjugés issus de ces considérations archaïques ont eu des conséquences sur la vision de l'Occident sur les populations du monde, qu'on croyait soumises à un tempérament particulier en fonction de la situation géographique de leur habitat (toujours vue de l'Europe comme étant le centre du monde). Les peuples méridionaux ont donc une prédisposition particulière à la colère, les peuples septentrionaux à la mélancolie, les peuples orientaux sont plutôt sanguins et les occidentaux flegmatiques. À cela s'ajoutent des incidences du climat sur la condition physique : le froid fortifie et la chaleur ramollit ; les méridionaux sont donc paresseux et les septentrionaux travailleurs - il est à noter que les acquis de la biologie moderne sont en contradiction avec ces présupposés un peu hâtifs : le froid, en abaissant la température corporelle facilite l'endormissement alors que l'élévation de la température corporelle facilite l'éveil.

La structuration du temps

La théorie des quatre éléments, s'applique également au domaine de la structuration du temps, dans la mesure où chacune des quatre saisons des zones tempérées correspond à l'un des éléments classiques. Le printemps est chaud et humide comme l'air, l'été chaud et sec comme le feu, l'automne froid et sec comme la terre, l'hiver froid et humide comme l'eau.

Ainsi, l'hiver possède la même complexion (froid et humide) que le flegme (ou pituite), ce qui expliquerait les risques de rhumes survenant durant cette saison. Ces considérations interviennent notamment en diététique : il faut contrebalancer les qualités dominantes de la saison par des aliments aux qualités contraires afin de maintenir l'équilibre des humeurs dans le corps ; il était donc formellement déconseillé de manger, par exemple, un concombre cru (froid et humide) en hiver, ou d'abuser d'épices (chaudes et sèches) en été.

L'hiver, période où le flegmatique froid et humide domine, il est préférable de consommer des viandes en sauce, cuisinées avec des épices qui réchauffent (bœuf et porc, gibier); au printemps, période où le sanguin chaud et humide domine, il est conseillé de passer peu à peu du bouilli au rôti (volailles, agneau, chevreau), et de commencer à manger davantage de légumes verts; l'été, période où le colérique chaud et sec domine, c'est le moment de manger des viandes (agneau et volailles) et poissons grillés ou cuits au verjus, plus légers, et de préférer des aliments froids et humides comme les melons, les prunes ou les cerises; l'automne, période où le mélancolique (ou atrabilaire) sec et froid domine, il faut manger des aliments appétissants et acidulés pour chasser la mélancolie : chapons, pigeonneaux, cochons de lait et diminuer le vin et les fruits.

En outre, les complexions se modifient au cours des différents Âges de la vie. La vie humaine se décompose en quatre âges de trois périodes chacun, soit un total de douze périodes (autant que de mois) ou encore en trois âges (si l'on regroupe l'enfance et l'adolescence sous le terme d'un seul âge : la jeunesse). L'enfant a la complexion du printemps (chaud et humide), l'adolescent celle de l'été (chaud et sec), l'homme mûr celle de l'automne (froid et sec), et le vieillard celle de l'hiver (froid et humide). La femme, quant à elle, serait plus froide et humide que l'homme.

Néanmoins d'autres sources indiquent que la vieillesse est de qualité froid et sec. L'enfance chaude et humide; l'adolescence tempérée; la jeunesse chaude et sèche; l'âge de consistance modérée en chaleur et en froideur et pêchant en trop de sécheresse, et la vieillesse froide et sèche.

Bien entendu, tout est lié. On prendra garde, par exemple, à ce que l'on mange par rapport à son tempérament, à la saison, à son âge, à l'élément associé à l'animal ou au végétal ingéré ; En poussant ces théories à l'extrême les alchimistes et médecins, du Moyen Âge établiront leurs prescriptions en fonction des signes et conjonctions astrologiques ; etc. Les meilleurs exemples des connexions entre toutes ces disciplines, reliées entre elles par les qualités qu'elles ont en commun et les éléments qui les composent et les ordonnent, sont les schémas et les calendriers établis Moyen Âge.

Description holistique et analogie

Pour les philosophes grecs, cette théorie décrit la « nature élémentaire » du monde en général, dans toutes ses manifestations. Elle traite donc de la « nature » de la matière, comme la physique ou la chimie moderne, mais conduit également à une classification de la « nature » des plantes et des animaux, et une classification de la nature des caractères, maladies et sentiments élémentaires de l'homme.

L'idée qui sous-tend l'utilisation analogique des quatre éléments est que ces différentes manifestations objectives (matière, plante, animal, maladie…) sont structurées par une même réalité sous-jacente, commune aux différentes manifestations ; et que le déséquilibre qui apparaît dans un plan de manifestation peut être corrigé par analogie, à travers une action spécifique sur un autre plan. C'est cette même approche qui reste encore utilisée de nos jours dans de nombreux domaines de l'occultisme.

Cette approche holistique a par la suite dominé la médecine, dont la clef d'analyse a pendant des siècles été d'analyser les déséquilibres élémentaires et de les corriger par des prescriptions fondées sur l'analogie des substances. Pour l'approche médicale :
 Le Feu correspond à un tempérament violent, sanguin. Il est associé au courage et à l'amour passionné.
 L'Air correspond à un tempérament calme, pas très courageux, tranquille.
 L'Eau correspond à un tempérament variable, pouvant être colérique comme calme. Cet élément est opposé au Feu, mais ce sont les éléments les plus puissants.
 La Terre correspond à un tempérament fort, calme. Cet élément peut être fort, mais reste calme et contient sa puissance. Il a beaucoup d'idée noires, en général.

Suivant les auteurs, cette correspondance peut se mêler de symbolisme astrologique plus ou moins prononcé, dont l'exemple type est « l'homme zodiacal », correspondance entre les signes et la « nature occulte » des membres.

Correspondances aux quatre éléments

L'élément Air est associé à la couleur blanche bien plus que le bleu céruléen qui tend toutefois à s'immiscer, au valeur du blanc candide ou immaculé, à l'ordre sacré, à la prière, à la caste sacerdotale et supérieure des oratores, à la suprématie de l'esprit. On peut également lui associer la couleur violette, qui correspondrait alors à la spiritualité. L'Air est un élément calme, plus passif qu'impétueux, qui a tendance à éviter les conflits.

L'élément Feu est associé aux couleurs chaudes comme le rouge, l'orange ou encore, mais plus rarement, le jaune. Cet élément est aussi associé au sanguin, au sang du corps, aux rivalités de sang, au monde combattant des bellatores, des guerriers ou des chevaliers à l'épreuve du feu. Le Feu est un élément colérique, imprévisible, impétueux mais quand il est calme, c'est un élément agréable, qui symbolise la passion, l'amour.

L'élément Eau est associé à la couleur bleue avec parfois des nuances de vert . C'est un élément semblable au Feu par de nombreux aspects, car comme le Feu, l'Eau peut être colérique et irritable, mais agréable le reste du temps.

L'élément Terre est associé à la couleur vert, ou encore marron ou plus rarement au gris ainsi qu'à la fertilité, à la productivité, au monde premier des laboratores, des artisans et des paysans. L'élément Terre est assez fort moralement, mais a souvent des idées noires.

Les éléments en physique et chimie

Symbolique alchimique
La base de l'alchimie est la théorie élémentaire d'Aristote revisitée par les savants arabo-musulmans du Moyen Âge, qui explique, au moyen des quatre éléments et des quatre qualités, la composition de toute chose. Le but de l'alchimie est en effet de comprendre et de reproduire la composition des choses. Pour l'alchimie les quatre éléments ne représentent pas des composantes de la matière, puisque l'unicité de la matière est un des principes philosophiques de l'alchimie, mais plutôt des états de cette matière unique se rapprochant plus du concept physique d'état de la matière. Ces éléments ont dans l'alchimie un symbole associé : l'Eau ou État liquide, l'Air ou État gazeux , la Terre ou État solide , le Feu ou État plasma .

Mais la théorie des quatre éléments montrant ses insuffisances, pour répondre de l'infinie diversité de la matière, l'alchimie a introduit un cinquième élément, l'éther, ou quintessence. La grande originalité de l'alchimie est cependant d'avoir adjoint aux éléments et aux qualités une nouvelle catégorie : les principes. Ceux-ci, qui sont un apport de l'alchimie arabe (notamment par Geber, sont d'abord au nombre de deux : le Mercure (passif, froid, malléable, volatil), qui est un principe féminin, et le Soufre (actif, chaud, dur), qui est un principe masculin. Au , un troisième principe est ajouté, et ce définitivement à partir de Paracelse (1493-1541) : le Sel (ce qui permet dans un corps d'unir le soufre et le mercure, et d'assurer la cohésion du résultat), qui est un principe de vie.

Il ne faut toutefois pas systématiser une perception anachronique d'états de la matière, telle que celle proposée au cours de l'évolution mécaniste des sciences dès le , les éléments représentent encore en (al)chimie de l'époque moderne pléthore de qualités, propriétés, couleurs, perceptions sensorielles idéales, attitudes ou comportements génériques.

La physique moderne
La physique du , puis du , confirmera l'hypothèse atomiste, tout en faisant découvrir au  que des transmutations (fission nucléaire) existent bien dans la nature, ce qui était considéré comme impossible au vu des connaissances jusqu'au .

Bien que les théories physiques d'Empédocle, d'Aristote et des alchimistes se soient révélées erronées, leurs quatre éléments peuvent facilement être associés aux quatre états de la matière les plus courants : solide (terre), liquide (eau), gazeux (air) et plasmatique (feu, bien qu'il ne soit pas un plasma).

Ce rapprochement est sans rapport avec la conception de l'alchimie selon laquelle les éléments sont insensibles, et le Feu n'est pas la flamme de bougie, pas plus que l'Eau n'est ce qui sort du robinet. Comme le dit Jean d'Espagnet,  (La Philosophie naturelle restituée, aphorismes L et LII).

{{Panorama|Hubert Elsässer - Vier Elemente Brunnen in Gröbenzell.jpg|950|Hubert Elsässer, La fontaine des Quatre Éléments, à Gröbenzell}}

 Autres références aux éléments

 Cinq éléments asiatiques
Dans les cultures asiatiques, on considère en général cinq éléments :
 Godai (Japon) : , , ,  et  ;
 Wu xing (Chine) : Mù (木, bois), Huǒ (火, feu), Jīn (金, métal, parfois or), Shuǐ (水, eau), et Tǔ (土, terre) ;
 Mahābhūta ou dhātu (Bouddhisme) : Āpo-dhātu (eau), Tejo-dhātu (feu), Vāyo-dhātu (air), Paṭhavī-dhātu (terre), Ākāsa-dhātu (espace) et Viññāṇa-dhātu (esprit) ;
 Tattva (Hindouisme) : Āp (eau), Agni (feu), Vāta (air), Prithvi (terre) et Ākāśa (éther).

 Les génies habitant les éléments
Michel Psellos, grand savant byzantin du , énumère six catégories de démons dans un célèbre traité utilisé par Ronsard : Traité par dialogue de l'énergie ou opération des diables (trad. 1511). Il admet : esprits ignés, esprits aériens, esprits terrestres, esprits aquatiques, esprits souterrains, esprits ténébreux.

Honoré d'Autun, dans son Elucidarium du , admet comme esprits : anges, démons, âmes désincarnées. Il soutient que .

Paracelse compte sept races de créatures sans âme : les génies à forme humaine mais sans âme ni esprit (inanimata) des éléments, les géants et les nains, les nains sur la terre. Il croit aux génies des quatre éléments. La Terre, par génération spontanée, produit des nains qui gardent les trésors sous la montagne ; l'Eau produit les ondines ; le Feu, les salamandres ; l'Air, les elfes. Ensuite viennent les géants et les nains issus de l'air, mais qui vivent sur la terre.

Jean Wier, spécialiste de sorcellerie, range les démons dans son De praestigiis daemonorum ac incantationibus (1563) selon leur nature élémentaire (de feu, d'eau, d'air, de terre, souterrains) et selon leur habitat (des quatre points cardinaux, diurnes, nocturnes, sylvestres, montagnards, champêtres, domestiques).

L'abbé Nicolas-Pierre-Henri de Montfaucon de Villars, dans un superbe roman, Le comte de Gabalis ou Entretiens sur les sciences occultes'' (1670), met en correspondance démons et éléments, et il simplifie Psellus, poursuit Paracelse. Les sylphes sont d'air, les ondins d'eau, les gnomes de terre, les salamandres de feu.

Astrologie

Les astrologues qui s'inscrivent dans la pensée de Carl Gustav Jung associent les quatre éléments aux quatre types jungiens : le Feu à l'Intuition, l'Eau au Sentiment, l'Air à la Pensée et la Terre à la Sensation. Cependant, Jung, qui connaissait parfaitement la symbolique médiévale, n'a jamais prétendu pouvoir lier sa caractérologie aux quatre éléments. La correspondance plus couramment admise par les astrologues est : Feu/Motivation, Eau/Affect, Air/Cognition et Terre/Perception.

Tarot
Dans le tarot divinatoire, les couleurs des lames basses sont directement associées aux quatre éléments: les coupes représentent l'eau, l'épée (dague) représente l'air, le bâton (baguette) représente le feu, et les deniers (pentacles) représentent la terre. Ces quatre éléments peuvent être reconnus sur l'atout du bateleur (la baguette est dans sa main, le reste est sur la table). Cette correspondance découle directement des instruments du magicien (dague, baguette, coupe et pentagramme) censés maîtriser les éléments correspondants en magie cérémonielle.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
 .

Articles connexes
 Élémentaire
 Empédocle
 Éther, un cinquième parmi les quatre de l'Occident, qui aurait rempli le vide spatial
 Gaston Bachelard
 Médecine médiévale de l'Occident
 Occultisme
 Quatre qualités élémentaires
 Théorie des humeurs

Liens externes

 La première partie de l'article fait largement référence au texte suivant
 Eau, Air, Feu, Terre. Vie et mort des quatre éléments.

Théorie scientifique obsolète
Hermétisme
Astrologie
Symbolique
Alchimie
Concept philosophique