THIRTY to 70% of angiosperm species have polyploid events in their evolutionary history (Stebbins 1950; Masterson 1994), and hence polyploid events are extremely common in the evolutionary history of flowering plants. Polyploidy is not, however, limited to plants. Yeast, insects, reptiles, mammals, and fish also have polyploid events in their evolutionary histories (Lewis 1980; Postlethwaitet al. 1998; Seoighe and Wolfe 1998). Yet, despite the evolutionary importance of polyploidy, there have been few studies of its effect on genetic diversity at the DNA level.
Polyploids are often classified into allopolyploids, which result from interspecific hybridization, or autopolyploids, which form through intraspecific chromosomal duplications (Stebbins 1947). These modes of polyploid formation have different effects on the genome; allopolyploid results in twice the number of loci, whereas autopolyploid results in the same number of loci but twice the number of alleles segregating at each locus. However, both modes of formation are expected to result in polyploids having more genetic diversity than closely related diploids. Allopolyploids are expected to have greater genetic diversity because allopolyploids merge two independent evolutionary lineages (Clausenet al. 1945; Lewis 1980; Grant 1981).
In contrast, when autopolyploid species are formed they will have equal or less genetic diversity than the progenitor diploid species. However, because tetrasomic inheritance doubles the number of alleles segregating at each locus, autopolyploids have larger effective population sizes (Ne) than their diploid progenitors (all other things, like population size, being equal). Genetic drift is slowed with a larger Ne, and thus autopolyploids should maintain greater levels of neutral genetic variation than their diploid ancestors (Moodyet al. 1993). The effect of selection on nonneutral variation is also expected to differ between autotetraploids and related diploids. For example, in a diploid population a recessive allele with a frequency of 0.1 is exposed to selection in 1% of individuals; whereas, a recessive allele in an autotetraploid population must reach a frequency of 0.3 before it will be exposed to selection in 1% of individuals. This difference in the efficacy of selection means that recessive alleles will be maintained in populations for much longer periods of time in autopolyploids than diploids (Haldane 1930; Wright 1938; Hill 1971; Otto and Whitton 2000). However, partially dominant alleles may respond to selection faster, and thus be maintained for shorter periods of time in autopolyploids than diploids (Otto and Whitton 2000).
Previous empirical investigations on the molecular diversity of tetraploids have relied primarily on isozyme surveys. The results from these studies are generally consistent with theoretical expectations of higher genetic diversity in tetraploids than their diploid progenitors (Soltis and Soltis 1993). However, isozymes capture only a fraction of allelic polymorphisms present in populations, and thus allozyme data are of limited use for assessing the relative effects of drift and selection. DNA sequence data provide both a more detailed measure of genetic diversity and a means to compare the relative effects of drift and selection between a polyploid and its diploid relatives. For example, interspecific differences in the frequency distributions of polymorphisms or in the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous variation may reflect differences in the relative strength of selection within the two species (Sawyeret al. 1987; McDonald and Kreitman 1991; Akashi 1999). Similarly, slowed drift in an autopolyploid may be reflected by higher diversity at synonymous sites. In short, comparisons of DNA sequence diversity between a polyploid and closely related diploids should provide insight into the relative strengths of the evolutionary forces acting on the different species.
Recent studies on gene expression and genomic divergence have begun to shed light on differences in the evolution of allopolyploids and diploids (Songet al. 1995; Cronnet al. 1999; Galitskiet al. 1999; Small and Wendel 2000; Wendel 2000). In contrast, DNA sequence diversity in autotetraploids and closely related diploids has not been investigated. In this article we present data on DNA sequence diversity at four nuclear loci-adh1, glb1, c1, and waxy-in the tetraploid plant Zea perennis and its closest diploid relative Z. diploperennis. Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis are morphologically similar, primarily outcrossing species that are endemic to the Cerro de San Miquel, Sierra de Manantlan, in southwestern Jalisco, Mexico (Iltiset al. 1979; Benzet al. 1990). Both species are congeners of the domesticate Z. mays ssp. mays and are the only perennial species in the genus Zea.
Z. perennis is generally thought to be an autotetraploid that originated from a Z. diploperennis-like ancestor (Clausenet al. 1945). An autotetraploid origin is supported by morphological (Iltiset al. 1979), ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence (Buckler and Holtsford 1996), chromosomal knob (Kato and Lopez 1990), and chloroplast restriction fragment length polymorphism (Doebleyet al. 1987) similarities. Chromosome segregation patterns in Z. perennis, however, are equivocal with regard to origin. Randolph (1955) reported Z. perennis to form a prevalence of tetravalents at meiosis, as expected from an autotetraploid. However, Shaver (1962) found approximately equal frequencies of tetravalents and bivalents at meiosis. These data suggest that Z. perennis is either an autotetraploid that has partially diploidized or Z. perennis is actually an allotetraploid. If Z. perennis is an allotetraploid, the high numbers of tetravalents formed at meiosis may indicate that closely related species hybridized to form the polyploid or that the genetic contribution of the two progenitor species was not equal, perhaps due to more extensive introgression from one of the two progenitor species.
An allotetraploid origin is also suggested by an investigation of restriction sites that identified a chloroplast haplotype from the Piedra Ancha population of Z. perennis (accession per6 in this study) that is considerably different from chloroplast haplotypes isolated from Z. diploperennis or other Z. perennis individuals (Doebley 1989). This atypical chloroplast haplotype, although not found in any other Zea species, is more closely related to Z. mays than any other Zea species and thus seems to support the possibility of an allotetraploid origin of Z. perennis (Doebley 1989).
The main objective of this study is to investigate the effects of polyploidy on genetic diversity by comparing DNA sequence diversity in a presumed autotetraploid to its most closely related diploid relative. In addition, because there is some uncertainty as to the origin of Z. perennis, we ask whether genealogical data support an intraspecific or interspecific origin of this species. Sequence data for the four genes we studied are also available from all other diploid species within the genus Zea, providing opportunities both to estimate the relatedness of Z. perennis alleles to those of other possible progenitors and to evaluate phylogenetic relationships among Zea species.
Sampling DNA sequences: We PCR amplified the following sections of DNA: a 1400-bp portion of adh1 (alcohol dehydrogenase-1), a 1200-bp portion of glb1 (globulin-1, a nonessential seed storage protein), a 750-bp portion of c1 (a bHLH transcriptional regulator of enzymatic genes in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway), and a 1400-bp portion of waxy (granule bound starch synthase; Mason-Gameret al. 1998). adh1 and glb1 are located within 12 cM of one another on chromosome 1, and c1 and waxy are located within 30 cM of one another on chromosome 9. waxy was amplified using PCR with 35 cycles of 1 min at 94°, 2 min at 62°, and 2 min at 72° (forward primer, 5′ tgcgagctagacaacatcatgcgcc 3′; reverse primer, 5′ agggcgcggccacgttctcc 3′); and c1 was amplified using PCR with 35 cycles of 1 min at 94°, 2 min at 60°, and 2 min at 72° (forward primer, 5′ cactggggatccttagttactggcatg 3′; reverse primer, 5′ cataggtaccagcgtgctgttccagtagt 3′). Details of the PCR amplification conditions and primers for adh1 and glb1 are reported in Eyre-Walker et al. (1998; adh1) and Hilton and Gaut (1998; glb1). In most cases, sequences were amplified from a single individual from each of eight accessions of Z. diploperennis and six accessions of Z. perennis (Table 1). However, we were unable to obtain full-length sequences for adh1 from Z. diploperennis accession 2 or glb1 from Z. perennis accession 2. DNA was extracted from leaves using QIAGEN (Chatsworth, CA) DNeasy DNA extraction kits.
We sampled multiple alleles at each locus from all Z. perennis and several Z. diploperennis individuals. For each of the diploids we performed a single PCR reaction. PCR products were cloned into pGEM-T vectors (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA) and plasmid DNA was isolated from three clones using QIAGEN minipreps. Each of these clones was partially sequenced, using one of the amplification primers. Nonidentical clones from a single individual were then sequenced in their entirety using the PCR primers as well as internal primers (except for c1 for which only the two PCR primers were used), Perkin Elmer (Norwalk, CT) Big-Dye sequencing chemistry, and an ABI 377 automated sequencer.
Because we were unsure of the origin of Z. perennis and we wanted to ensure sufficient sample to detect evidence for a possible allotetraploid origin, we sampled Z. perennis much more extensively than Z. diploperennis. Our primary motivation for this extensive sampling was that if loci within Z. perennis were disomic (i.e., the loci were duplicated), we wanted to be certain that we sampled alleles from both loci. For each Z. perennis individual we performed two PCR reactions. The products from each of these reactions were cloned and a total of 12 clones were chosen for each Z. perennis individual, six colonies from each of the two original PCR reactions. Each of these 12 clones was partially sequenced using one end primer to identify alleles that differed within individuals. Nonidentical clones from a single individual were sequenced in their entirety as described above. This sampling scheme resulted in full sequences of multiple alleles from each individual.
More than half of the alleles identified after the initial data collection contained one or more unique single base pair changes (or "singletons") relative to the remainder of the sequences. Because singletons in individual cloned products can represent either true sequence variation or polymerase error, we reamplified all DNAs containing singletons to determine which singletons were true variants and which were the results of PCR error. We checked singletons in Z. diploperennis by reamplifying and resequencing the appropriate allele from each individual. The task was more burdensome in Z. perennis because we did not know the number of different alleles present within each tetraploid individual. It was therefore not always possible to determine if a clone obtained upon reamplification represented the allele without the singleton (thus indicating that the initial singleton was due to PCR error) or an allele that was not sampled previously. Because of this uncertainty, we employed an extensive sampling strategy to confirm the presence of singletons. For each tetraploid DNA from which at least one allele contained a singleton, we performed two additional PCR reactions, cloned the products from these reactions, and isolated and partially sequenced 6 isolates from each reaction (a total of 12 isolates from each tetraploid DNA). Assuming that each tetraploid plant contained four distinct alleles, and that there was no amplification bias in the PCR reactions, sampling 12 isolates results in a >95% probability of resampling the allele that initially contained the singleton. Approximately one-half of the singletons in the initial data set were confirmed by this strategy, while the other half were assumed to have resulted from polymerase error and excluded from the data set. Our estimated rate of polymerase error was ∼1 in 1200 bp, which is similar to previously reported polymerase error for Zea DNAs (Eyre-Walkeret al. 1998).
Corrected sequences were aligned manually along with previously published sequences from other Zea species. Sequences have been submitted to GenBank (Table 1).
Sequence analyses: For each of the four loci, genealogies were constructed using the neighbor-joining method (Saitou and Nei 1987) on the basis of Kimura's two-parameter genetic distance, using a sequence from Tripsacum dactyloides as an outgroup. Data were resampled 1000 times for bootstrap analyses. When constructing genealogies, we included sequences from other members of the genus Zea. Genealogies were constructed with PAUP* version 4.0b (Swofford 1990). The data included sequences from adh1 (GenBank nos. L08587-L0591, AF044289-AF044307, AF045548, and AF293887-AF293894; Eyre-Walkeret al. 1998), c1 (GenBank nos. AF292540-AF292553; Hansonet al. 1996; L. Zhang, A. Peek, D. Dunams and B. S. Gaut, unpublished results), glb1 (GenBank nos. U28017, X59084, and AF064212-AF064233; Hilton and Gaut 1998), and waxy (GenBank nos. AF292500-AF292539; L. Zhang, A. Peek, D. Dunams and B. S. Gaut, unpublished results).
Estimates of genetic diversity, π (Tajima 1983) and θ (Watterson 1975), were calculated separately on the basis of silent (synonymous and intron sites) and nonsynonymous sites. The recombination rate at each locus C (= 4Nc) was estimated using the method of Hudson (1987). Evidence for nonneutral evolution was investigated using the tests of Hudson et al. (HKA; 1987), Tajima (1989), McDonald and Kreitman (MK; 1991), and Fu and Li (1993). HKA tests were performed with pairs of genes, resulting in six HKA tests for both Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis. For all HKA and MK tests, T. dactyloides sequences were used as the reference species. Ratios of the number of synonymous to nonsynonymous segregating sites and the frequency of singleton and nonsingleton segregating sites in Z. diploperennis and Z. perennis were compared using 2 × 2 contingency tests (Sawyeret al. 1987; Akashi 1999). Sites that were polymorphic in one species were included in the analyses, regardless if that site was fixed or polymorphic in the second species. Polymorphism metrics and tests of selection were calculated with DnaSP version 3.0 (Rozas and Rozas 1999). All nucleotide sites (synonymous, nonsynonymous, and intron sites) were used for phylogenetic reconstruction and indels were excluded from all analyses.
Patterns of DNA sequence diversity within and among species: Estimates of DNA sequence diversity, θ and π, made separately on silent sites and nonsynonymous sites provided no clear evidence for more genetic diversity in tetraploid Z. perennis than diploid Z. diploperennis (Table 2). Similarly, estimates of C, the number of recombination events per gene (Hudsonet al. 1987), were also not consistently different across genes between species.
To determine whether the selective histories differed between the two species and among genes, we applied four tests of neutrality to the sequence data. These tests—Tajima's D (Table 2, all P > 0.2), Fu and Li's D (Table 2, all P > 0.10), Fu and Li's F (all P > 0.10, data not shown), and HKA (all P > 0.3, data not shown)— revealed no evidence of deviation from the neutral model. MK tests also were nonsignificant for c1, glb1, and waxy. In contrast, MK tests of adh1 data indicated significant departure from neutral evolution in Z. perennis (P < 0.05). However, this result is not significant after Bonferroni correction for multiple tests, and it seems unlikely that adh1 is under strong selection, given that HKA tests, intraspecific tests of selection, and a previous study of adh1 in Zea (Eyre-Walkeret al. 1998) have failed to reject neutral evolution for this gene.
A primary motivation for this study was to compare the distribution and pattern of polymorphism between a tetraploid and closely related diploid species. Interspecific differences in the frequency distributions of nonsynonymous to synonymous polymorphisms and rare to common polymorphisms can reflect differences in the relative strengths of selection and drift operating within each species (Sawyeret al. 1987; Akashi 1999). We therefore compared the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous polymorphic sites with Z. perennis vs. Z. diploperennis. The ratio did not differ significantly between the two species for any of the loci (Fisher's exact test, all P > 0.20) or when data from all genes were analyzed together (Fisher's exact test, P > 0.5; Table 3).
We also compared the distribution of singleton vs. nonsingleton polymorphisms at synonymous, nonsynonymous, and all sites. For all genes and at all classes of sites the ratio of singleton to nonsingleton polymorphisms was lower in Z. perennis than Z. diploperennis. For three of the four genes these differences were not significant (G-test, all comparisons P > 0.10; Table 3), whereas at glb1 the distribution of singleton to nonsingleton polymorphisms at all sites, including introns, differed significantly between the two species (P < 0.01). Likewise, a contingency test comparing the distribution of singleton to nonsingleton polymorphic sites over all genes was significant (P < 0.01), although the significance of this comparison was largely due to the glb1 data. Removing the glb1 data resulted in a difference that was only marginally significant (P = 0.062). Overall, the tetraploid appears to have a lower relative frequency of singletons, although the significance of this result is due largely to one of the four genes, glb1.
Genealogical analysis: Several aspects of the genealogies (Figures 1, 2, 3, 4) support an autotetraploid origin of Z. perennis from Z. diploperennis. First, with one exception we found no well-supported clades (i.e., bootstrap support >50%) that contained alleles from either Z. perennis or Z. diploperennis and any other Zea species. Second, several well-supported clades contained alleles isolated from both Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis. Third, the majority of clades that contained Z. perennis alleles also contained Z. diploperennis alleles or were sister to clades containing Z. diploperennis alleles. The only strong evidence for an autotetraploid origin, however, comes from the c1 locus; all c1 alleles isolated from these two species formed a single monophyletic clade.
The genealogies are not, however, entirely consistent with an autotetraploid origin. The strongest evidence against an autotetraploid origin comes from the adh1 locus where one clade of Z. perennis alleles (per7a, per4b, per1a, and per2b) is sister to a clade of Z. mays ssp. mays alleles (Figure 1). However, the node joining these two clades and other internal nodes within the adh1 genealogy are poorly supported, and thus any inferences regarding the genealogical placement of these alleles should be viewed with caution. It is also possible that these adh1 alleles are the result of introgression of Z. mays ssp. alleles into Z. perennis. Nevertheless, these alleles could be interpreted as evidence of an allotetraploid origin for Z. perennis.
In addition to the genealogical data, the ratio of shared polymorphisms and fixed differences between Z. perennis and three of the diploid species of the genus Zea (Z. diploperennis, Z. luxurians, and Z. mays ssp. parviglumis; Table 4) is not entirely consistent with an autotetraploid origin. If Z. perennis were an autotetraploid we expect the ratio of shared polymorphisms to fixed differences to be much higher between Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis than between Z. perennis and any of the other species. The ratio of shared polymorphisms to fixed differences between Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis is, in fact, higher than between other species pairs but is not significantly higher than the ratio between Z. perennis and Z. mays ssp. parviglumis.
Genetic diversity: The primary purpose of this study was to compare genetic diversity between a tetraploid, Z. perennis, and a closely related diploid Z. diploperennis. In theory, allotetraploids should have higher genetic diversity than diploids because they are formed through hybridization of two divergent genomes. Likewise, autopolypoidy can slow the effects of both drift and selection on genetic diversity, potentially resulting in both greater diversity and different patterns of molecular diversity in autotetraploids than diploids (Haldane 1930; Wright 1938; Hill 1971; Moodyet al. 1993). Contrary to these expectations, we detected little evidence for differential patterns of drift and selection in tetraploid Z. perennis relative to its closest diploid relative Z. diploperennis.
There are at least two possible explanations for the absence of substantial differences in the pattern and level of genetic diversity between the tetraploid and the diploid. One possibility is that Z. perennis is an autotetraploid that originated too recently to allow for the accumulation of mutations that differentiate the two species. We estimated the time of Z. diploperennis-Z. perennis divergence using a method of Nei (1987, p. 277), which is based on the average number of nucleotide substitutions within and between populations, and estimated substitution rates of 5 × 10-9-30 × 10-9 substitutions per site per year (Wolfeet al. 1987; Gaut and Clegg 1991). The estimated divergence times based on the high and low substitution rates, respectively, were 63,500-381,000 years (adh1), 194,700-1,168,000 years (glb1), 41,800-251,000 years (c1), and 24,000-142,000 years (waxy). Thus the preponderance of evidence supports divergence within the past few hundred thousand years.
A recent divergence between these species is also supported by the large number of polymorphisms that are shared between Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis and several strongly supported clades that are composed predominantly of Z. perennis or Z. diploperennis alleles but also contain alleles from the other species. Interestingly, the glb1 gene, which shows no evidence of lineage sorting, is also the only gene with a ratio of common to rare polymorphisms that is significantly higher in Z. perennis than Z. diploperennis. This, together with higher ratios of common to rare polymorphisms in all four genes, as would be expected if drift were slowed in the tetraploid (Moodyet al. 1993), could be indicative of increasing diversity in Z. perennis.
A second possible explanation for finding approximately equal amounts of genetic diversity in the tetraploid and diploid is that demographic forces associated with polyploid formation offset the forces that lead to greater diversity. Theoretical arguments for greater genetic diversity in autotetraploids are based on the assumption that increasing the number of chromosomes per individual increases effective population size. This implicitly assumes that the tetraploid and diploid species have had approximately equal population sizes. However, autotetraploid formation may involve a diversity-reducing population bottleneck (Stebbins 1980). Nevertheless, our data provide no evidence for a severe bottleneck in the formation of Z. perennis. If Z. perennis has experienced a severe bottleneck, then the Tajima's D's should be both negative and lower than Tajima's D's calculated from Z. diploperennis; but this was not the case (Table 2). It is possible that Z. perennis has had multiple origins and this is the reason for finding little evidence for a bottleneck. Distinguishing multiple origins from gene flow and segregation of ancient polymorphisms is not possible from our data; however, the wide distribution of Z. perennis alleles within the genealogies suggests that multiple origin events are a possibility. The primary point of this discussion is that the demographic forces associated with tetraploid formation may offset the evolutionary forces contributing to greater genetic diversity in tetraploids.
If Z. perennis is in fact an autotetraploid, then our finding of approximately equal DNA sequence diversity in Z. perennis and its closest diploid relative appears inconsistent with the general finding that autotetraploids have a higher number of allozyme alleles than their diploid progenitors (reviewed in Soltis and Soltis 1993). However, allozyme studies that find greater genetic diversity in autotetraploids than diploids may be biased by unequal sampling. Soltis and Soltis (1993) reviewed data from six studies comparing autotetraploids to their diploid progenitors and found a greater number of allelic types in the tetraploid than the diploid species in five of six of these comparisons. However, at least five of these studies sampled considerably more alleles from the tetraploid (1.5 to nearly 4 times more alleles were sampled from the tetraploids; sampling data from the sixth study were not available). Because greater sampling effort is likely to result in the detection of a greater number of allelic types, the results from these allozyme studies must be interpreted with caution. In contrast, estimates of θ and π correct for sample size and thus these measures of diversity should be robust to deviations in sampling intensity.
Because genetic diversity has been measured for other diploid species of Zea, we can compare sequence diversity among several other members of the genus (Table 5). At the four loci we studied, both Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis harbor lower levels of genetic diversity than Z. mays ssp. parviglumis and in general have lower diversity than the domesticate Z. mays ssp. mays. In contrast, Z. perennis has higher diversity than Z. luxurians, whereas Z. diploperennis and Z. luxurians have approximately equal amounts of diversity. The exception to these general patterns is the c1 locus. At c1, Z. mays ssp. mays has lowest diversity and Z. perennis has lower diversity than either Z. luxurians or Z. diploperennis. c1 has previously been hypothesized to evolve in response to selection during domestication, which could explain the low level of diversity in Z. mays ssp. mays. However, it is not clear why Z. perennis should also have relatively low diversity at this locus, especially since we found no evidence of selection having acted on this locus in this taxon. Altogether, these sequence data are in broad agreement with earlier isozyme studies of Zea species. Both sequence and isozyme data show that among all Zea species, Z. mays ssp. parviglumis has the greatest amount of genetic diversity and Z. luxurians has the least amount. However, sequence and isozyme data do not agree with regard to the relative levels of diversity within Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis. The sequence data revealed generally higher diversity in Z. perennis than Z. diploperennis or Z. luxurians, whereas isozyme data revealed higher diversity in Z. diploperennis than in Z. perennis or Z. luxurians (Doebleyet al. 1984).
Origin of Z. perennis and phylogenetic relationships among Zea species: Genealogical data may be useful for inferring the evolutionary origin of tetraploid species (Okaneet al. 1996; Smallet al. 1998; Barrieret al. 1999; Small and Wendel 2000; Wendel 2000). Alleles sampled from an allopolyploid are expected to form two clades, one of which is either interspersed with or sister to clades formed by alleles from each of the parental taxa. In contrast, alleles sampled from an autopolyploid are expected to group phylogenetically with alleles from the species from which the polyploid formed. If the autopolyploid evolved recently, the alleles from the polyploid should be interspersed with alleles from the diploid progenitor; whereas, alleles from older autopolyploids should form clades that are monophyletic sister clades to the diploid progenitors.
Although the genealogical relationships among the sequences we sampled are not well enough resolved to provide conclusive evidence, our data largely support an autopolyploid origin of Z. perennis from a Z. diploperennis-like ancestor. This support comes from four observations. First, with one exception there were no well-supported clades that contained alleles from Z. perennis and any other Zea species. Second, several well-supported clades contained alleles isolated from both Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis. Third, the majority of clades that contained Z. perennis alleles also contained Z. diploperennis alleles or were sister to clades containing Z. diploperennis alleles. The strongest evidence for an autotetraploid origin, however, comes from the c1 locus; all c1 alleles isolated from these two species formed a single monophyletic clade. These genealogical inferences are consistent with the preponderance of evidence from morphological, isoenzyme, and meiotic pairing data that also support an intraspecific origin of Z. perennis (Clausenet al. 1945; Shaver 1962; Kato and Lopez 1990).
Two aspects of the data, however, appear to conflict with an autotetraploid origin but are consistent with Z. perennis forming through interspecific hybridization between ancestors of Z. diploperennis and Z mays ssp. parviglumis or a now-extinct Zea species (Doebley 1989). First, one clade of Z. perennis adh1 sequences clusters with Z. mays ssp. mays sequences, although the branches connecting these clades have weak phylogenetic support. The second apparent conflict with an autotetraploid origin is that the ratio of fixed to shared polymorphisms between Z. perennis to Z. mays ssp. parviglumis is approximately equal to the ratio between Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis (Table 4). However, this too is mitigated by the high ratio of fixed to shared polymorphisms between Z. diploperennis and Z. mays ssp. parviglumis, suggesting that the high ratio of shared polymorphisms may be due to lineage sorting and not reflective of an interspecific origin. Although evidence for an interspecific origin is certainly no stronger than evidence for an autopolyploid origin, we cannot exclude the possibility that Z. perennis was formed through interspecific hybridization. If Z. perennis was formed through interspecific hybridization it may be most similar to Z. diploperennis today because of a high rate of Z. diploperennis introgression, or because Z. diploperennis genes were preferentially maintained as the Z. perennis genome evolved.
The genus Zea has been separated into two sections, section Luxuriantes, composed of Z. luxurians, Z. diploperennis, and Z. perennis; and section Zea, composed of Z. mays ssp. mays, Z. mays ssp. mexicana, Z. mays ssp. Parviglumis, and Z. mays ssp. huehuetenagensis (Doebley 1990). This division is supported by chloroplast restriction site polymorphism data (Doebleyet al. 1987) and weakly supported by morphological (Doebley 1983) and isoenzyme data (Doebleyet al. 1984). In contrast, none of the four loci we studied formed a monophyletic group that included Z. perennis, Z. diploperennis, and Z. luxurians. Moreover, the distribution of shared polymorphisms and fixed differences between Z. perennis, Z. diploperennis, and Z. luxurians suggests that both Z. diploperennis and Z. perennis are more distantly related to Z. luxurians than to Z. mays ssp. parviglumis (Table 4). As such, our data do not support the section Luxuriantes as a natural grouping, but this conclusion is subject to the caveat that Z. mays ssp. parviglumis is known to segregate ancient alleles, thus complicating phylogenetic conclusions (Gaut and Clegg 1993). However, previous molecular sequence data, including ITS data (Buckler and Holtsford 1996), limited restriction site data from the IGS (ribosomal intergeneric spacer) and 5SDNA (Zimmeret al. 1988), and Magellan retrotransposon sequence (Purugganan and Wessler 1994) also do not support section Luxuriantes as a natural grouping.
Our data also provide some evidence that the phylogenetic relationships among the genus Zea may be complicated by introgression between taxa. In particular, a glb1 allele from Z. diploperennis (dip1a, Figure 3) was very similar to and formed a well-supported clade with two Z. mays ssp. mays alleles. In contrast, all other Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis glb1 alleles formed well-supported clades that contained no alleles from other Zea species. Previous investigations of nuclear genes in the genus Zea also provide evidence of possible introgression between Z. mays ssp. mays and Z. diploperennis. Isozyme surveys of Zea found a Z. diploperennis individual with two alleles that were otherwise unknown in Z. diploperennis but common in Z. mays ssp. mays (Doebleyet al. 1984). In addition, several Z. mays ssp. mays-like ITS sequences were isolated from Z. diploperennis and Z. perennis individuals (Buckler and Holtsford 1996). Introgression between Z. mays ssp. mays and Z. diploperennis may not be surprising given that hybrids between these species are reported to be viable and fertile (Paspupuleti and Galinat 1982; Benzet al. 1990). Moreover, farmers in the Sierra de Manantlan region of Mexico, where Z. perennis and Z. diploperennis grow, reportedly hybridize Z. diploperennis and Z. mays ssp. mays in an attempt to improve productivity and impart pest resistance to traditional maize races (Benzet al. 1990). These hybrids are often left to grow in the maize field for 3-5 years. Because populations of Z. diploperennis often surround maize fields in this area, the hybrids may provide a bridge for introgression of Z. mays ssp. mays alleles into the Z. diploperennis gene pool.
This work was improved by discussions with J. D. Bever. We also thank E. S. Buckler, R. L. Small, L. Zhang, and two anonymous reviewers for comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by National Science Foundation grant 98-15855 to B.S.G. P.T. was supported in part by National Research Initiative Competitive Grants Program/U.S. Department of Agriculture Award 99-35301-8076.
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, 1998 Investigation of the bottleneck leading to the domestication of maize. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 4441–4446.
, 1999 Ploidy regulation of gene expression. Science 285: 251–253.
, 1991 Molecular evolution of alcohol dehydrogenase 1 in members of the grass family. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88: 2060–2064.
, 1981 Plant Speciation, Ed. 2. Columbia University Press, New York.
, 1930 Theoretical genetics of autopolyploids. J. Genet. 22: 359–372.
, 1996 Evolution of anthocyanin biosynthesis in maize kernels: the role of regulatory and enzymatic loci. Genetics 143: 1395–1407.
, 1997 Principles of Population Genetics. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
, 1971 Selection in autotetraploids. Theor. Appl. Genet. 41: 181–186.
, 1998 Speciation and domestication in maize and its wild relative: evidence from the Globultin-1 gene. Genetics 150: 863–872.
, 1979 Zea diploperennis (Gramineae): a new teosinte from Mexico. Science 203: 186–188.
, 1990 Chromosome knobs of the perennial teosintes. Maydica 35: 125–141.
, 1980 Polyploidy in species populations, pp. 103–144 in Polyploidy, edited by Lewis W. H.. Plenum Press, New York.
, 1998 Granule-bound starch synthase: structure, function, and phylogenetic utility. Mol. Biol. Evol. 15: 1658–1673.
, 1994 Stomatal size in fossil plants: evidence for polyploidy in majority of angiosperms. Science 264: 421–423.
, 1991 Adaptive protein evolution at the Adh1 locus in Drosophila. Nature 351: 652–654.
, 1993 Genetic variation and random drift in autotetraploid populations. Genetics 134: 649–657.
, 1996 The origins of Arabidopsis suecica (Brassicaceae) as indicated by nuclear rDNA sequences. Syst. Bot. 21: 559–566.
, 2000 Polyploid incidence and evolution. Annu. Rev. Genet. 34: 401–437.
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, 1998 Vertebrate genome evolution and the zebrafish gene map. Nat. Genet. 18: 345–359.
, 1994 Molecular evolution of magellan, a maize Ty3/gypsy like retrotransposon. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 11674–11678.
, 1955 History and origin of corn. II. Cytogenetic aspects of the origin and history of corn: a monograph, pp. 26–61 in Corn and Corn Improvement, edited by Sprague G. F.. Academic Press, New York.
, 1998 Extent of genomic rearrangement after genome duplication in yeast. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 4447–4452.
, 1962 A study of meiosis in perennial teosinte, in tetraploid maize and in their tetraploid hybrid. Caryologia 15: 43–57.
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text:
International Cricket
Australia bowlers deny Johannesburg Test-boycott allegations
by Wisden Staff March 31, 2019 - 7:18am 2 minute read
Cricket Australia has issued a statement on behalf of the bowlers who participated in the Test series in South Africa last year, denying allegations that they had threatened to pull out from the fourth Test if David Warner was allowed to play, following the ball-tampering scandal.
Warner, along with captain Steve Smith, was issued a 12-month suspension by Cricket Australia for his involvement in the infamous incident, which took place during the Newlands Test. Cameron Bancroft, who carried out the act, using sandpaper on the ball and later slipping it down his pants, was given a nine-month suspension.
On Friday, March 29, reports doing the rounds on Fairfax Media outlets claimed that the bowlers – Mitchell Starc, Josh Hazlewood, Pat Cummins and Nathan Lyon – had threatened to pull out from the fourth Test if Warner was allowed to play. But they've strongly condemned the allegations.
Australia can win this year's @cricketworldcup with David Warner and Steve Smith in their side, according to Shane Warne. https://t.co/0o3RcaELNP
— Wisden (@WisdenCricket) March 6, 2019
"We are extremely disappointed in an article which was first published across Fairfax platforms on March 29, 2019," read the statement. "The article claims we intended to withdraw from the fourth Test during last year's tour of South Africa had David Warner been free to play.
"This claim is disappointing on a number of fronts but most importantly because it is false. False claims circulated in the media, such as these, which question our relationship with David are inflammatory and misleading."
Related Story: Smith, Warner can win us the Ashes – Tim Paine
The controversy has erupted at a time when Australia seem to finally be breaking free from the period of turmoil by stringing together victories in ODIs – they've now won seven on the trot, including three against India and four in the ongoing series against Pakistan.
Tim Paine sets sights on Ashes dream
"I see us going to the Ashes and them (Warner and Smith) having a huge part in us winning the series"https://t.co/DV0gbL75SU
— Wisden (@WisdenCricket) February 4, 2019
They look to be shaping up well ahead of the 2019 World Cup, which gets underway in England on May 30, and the Ashes, which follows shortly thereafter.
"As a team we are all focused on moving forward together," the statement said, "and helping the Australian Men's team prepare for the World Cup and the Ashes."
ball tampering scandal
josh hazlewood
mitchell starc
nathan lyon
If you enjoyed this story, please share with your fellow cricket fans and team-mates
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'I didn't think I'd ever be playing cricket for Dublin' – Morgan
Eoin Morgan was revealed as the icon player for the Dublin Chiefs at the Euro T20 Slam players' draft
Yas Rana / July 19, 2019
Ellyse Perry goes to another Ashes ton on rain-dominated day
Wisden Staff / July 19, 2019
"In all this, players and staff are bearing the brunt of the standoff and they might be forced to go for months or forever without their salaries and match fees"
Morgan, Babar and Amir to play for Dublin side
ICC Hall of Fame adds Sachin, Donald & Fitzpatrick
Sangakkara's titans: Alastair Cook
McDonald set to coach in The Hundred
Kiwi-born Stokes nominated for NZ award
View latest stories

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Figure you might find a bargain in the end of year car sales or simply want to get your new car serviced? Here is some sound advice from Palmerston Auto Repair Centre in Palmerston.
Purchasing a new car is one of the most comprehensive investments people often make, so you need to be sure to ensure its proper upkeep. Caring for your new car goes beyond detailing the interior and keeping it sparkling with a loving weekly wash, however.
You cannot be told you must return the car to the dealership where you originally got it for service or repairs. Provided the work is performed to the manfufacturers specifications by an acceptably qualified person and uses decent quality parts and fluids, the warranty stands. You have the right to choose who services your car.
With Repco Authorised Service you can tick all the boxes. Every Palmerston Auto Repair Centre mechanic is fully qualified and Auto-Tech trained, giving them access to Australia's leading provider of automotive technical information and training. This means Palmerston Auto Repair Centre mechanics are kept fully up to date with the latest in automotive service techniques and are able to service your new car without voiding the warranty.
Repco branded parts & products are manufactured to stringent Repco quality standards, and are covered by the Repco exclusive Repco Nationwide Warranty, giving you added protection. Palmerston Auto Repair Centre will also only ever use fluids and lubricants that meet the specifications of the new car manufacturer.
Make sure you are aware of the differences between manufacturer, statutory and extended warranties to ensure you make the right choices when it comes to servicing your new car. You are automatically covered by a statutory warranty, also known as a Consumer Guarantee, under Australian Consumer Law (ACL) and this statutory protection can never be replaced by manufacturer or express warranties (which are offered by the car maker and car dealer respectively).
So watch out for new car dealers who try to bundle "express" or "extended" warranties, often for free, when closing the deal. Much of the time these 'add-on' warranties may include quite specific restrictions or provisions, and often can seem very confusing. Many times these arrangements provide barely any additional benefits in excess of the consumer's basic statutory rights and can tie the unwary buyer into a long term agreement with a specific new car dealership.
Such arrangements are very unlikely to highlight the potential negative aspects involved with taking a new car back to the dealer for service or repair. This includes how far you will need to go to get your car serviced or extra waiting times due to fewer available service locations or mechanics.
Can Palmerston Auto Repair Centre service my new car without voiding the warranty?
What steps will Palmerston Auto Repair Centre take to protect my warranty?
quality Repco parts and labour. and is supported at over 400 Repco Authorised Service Dealers Australia wide.
Can Palmerston Auto Repair Centre stamp my logbook ?
Palmerston Auto Repair Centre can and WILL stamp your log book to verify the work has been conducted by fully qualified staff according to manufacturer's specifications, using appropriate quality parts, fluids & lubricants.
Will having my car serviced with Palmerston Auto Repair Centre help maintain the value?
It goes without saying that a vehicle which has been well taken care of will maintain its value better than a poorly maintained one. Proof of a regular, properly adhered to service schedule will add further supporting evidence the car is in good condition. In addition to maintaining your warranty with correct service procedures, Palmerston Auto Repair Centre will stamp your log book, which can prove invaluable should you ever decide to sell the car.
Motor vehicle dealers sometimes offer their own extended (or express) warranties on vehicles. These extra warranties often begin after the manufacturer's warranty and may stipulate that the vehicle must be serviced by the actual dealer offering the warranty. They are generally within their right to impose this condition, but the buyer should beware, such warranties are not always what they seem. Palmerston Auto Repair Centre will be happy to advise you on the conditions and relative value before you commit to any service plan.


This is the time for monsoons in India. Stagnant water gives rise to more mosquitoes and thus more mosquito-borne diseases like Dengue virus.
Half a million patients are hospitalized every year with dengue virus globally. So, the awareness about the Dengue fever will be helpful for its prevention.
Dengue fever is mainly found in tropical and sub tropical areas in the world and it can be caused by any one of the four viruses that are spread by mosquitoes. It is transmitted by the bite of Aedes mosquito infected with a dengue virus. When the infected mosquito bites, the virus enters into the person's blood stream.
The symptoms usually show up 4 to 5 days after getting an infection and it can last up to 10 days.
It is better to be safe than sorry. Here are a few tips that might help.
Dengue is not contagious but the infected mosquitoes can spread the disease quickly.
Why are moms always tired?


Interested in leasing a new Ford TRANSIT CONNECT?
Listed below are derivatives of the current Ford TRANSIT CONNECT 230 L2 range. Use the filters to refine your search, or give us a call and we'll help you find exactly what you need - at the best price. Simple.
There are a total of 5 vans in this model range. 0 vans are currently hidden because they don't match your criteria.


The organization Diveheart believes in the therapeutic value of scuba diving for people with physical disabilities. Since 2002, they have offered the thrill of weightlessness to people across the U.S. and in Mexico, Israel, Australia, China and the Caribbean. Diveheart works with people with autism, reduced mobility and reduced vision or hearing. An underwater experience can open up physical and psychological possibilities for participants. Joining us to discuss the program is Diveheart's executive director, Tinamarie Hernandez.


Alaska Statutes: AS 13.12.607. Nonexoneration.
previous: Section 606. Nonademption of Specific Devises; Unpaid Proceeds of Sale, Condemnation, or Insurance; Sale By Conservator or Agent.
next: Section 608. Exercise of Power of Appointment.
A specific devise passes subject to any mortgage interest existing at the date of death, without right of exoneration, regardless of a general directive in the will to pay debts.


The Charlie Bell Matte Black Alarm Clock is a contemporary twin bell alarm with a modern graphic dial. Designed in Great Britain, Newgate Clocks specialize in the recreation of stylish mid-century modern clocks and classic retro alarm clocks. Matte Black case with glass lens. Moving hammer with real bell alarm. Dimensions: 5.5" x 3.75" x 2.25" (14 x 9.5 x 5.7cm). Requires 1 AA battery (not included).


text:
Q: Trying to figure out why a sub is causing 27 entries into a mysql database So I have a subroutine in my software that generates a temporary invoice. I really only need the temporary invoice to then add line items to it and publish the invoice for payment. All works well expect the snip of code causes a number of temporary invoices to be generated. I say a number because one time it will be 27 then the next time will be 26.. 25.. 20... and so on.. I don' see anything on here that would loop the sub to cause this. Typically all db calls are done from a separate file and called via a sub but for reference Ive added it into the sub. ** I have removed parts of the code at a time to see if it was causing it, found no issues. I have also tried adding a temp invoice via the sub call from another page without issue. My issue is in this code somewhere!

A: Instead of all those selects, do just one??
$sql = "SELECT fname, lname, ...
    FROM customer
    WHERE customer_id = '$customer_id'";

The result is an array of fname, lname, etc.

A: I ending up figuring out the issue with some help from a user over at reddit. Since Im using mod rewrite apparently items were being called under the link causing the main program to run X extra times and create the random junk entrees. Needless to say it had nothing to do with the script at all!

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Independent News for International Students
Sex education around the world: how were you taught?
Sex education around the world. Source: Shutterstock.com
By Isabelle Bilton | November 9, 2017 | @izzybilton
Learning about the birds and the bees is undeniably an incredibly daunting yet important task. It is also one which no country's education system seems to have totally mastered.
With such variation even between individual schools, it is no wonder sex education differs vastly from country to country. Sex and relationships are a huge part of many people's lives; in fact none of us would be here without it. Its absence in the curriculum, therefore, can have detrimental effects.
Every country has its flaws with sex education, yet some have more dangerous consequences than others. Here's how sex education looks around the world.
Belgians are a rather relaxed bunch, like many of their European neighbours. While this is seen as very reasonable by some, others find the Belgian approach to sex education rather disturbing.
Recently, the Belgian site Alles Over Seks (All About Sex), set up by sexual health organisation Sensoa, was criticised for "teaching seven-year-olds explicit sex positions".
The site was originally intended for 15-year-olds but is now being recommended to those as young as seven. The Belgian media claimed the "Youth Guide", an advisory pamphlet supported by the Flemish government and distributed in primary schools, endorsed the website.
Belgian sex education website for seven-year-olds is slammed for teaching advanced sex techniques https://t.co/A3Yc0w4ieS
— Daily Mail Online (@MailOnline) October 23, 2017
Chinese sex education is often very reductive or even completely absent. With the number of abortions and contractions of sexually transmitted diseases (STIs) rising at an alarming rate, something clearly needs to change.
Sex education is not compulsory in China which leads to great gaps in children's knowledge as they enter adulthood. Allegedly, a Chinese couple laid next to each other in bed for three years trying to get pregnant.
Many Chinese universities have installed vending machines selling home testing kits for HIV to students. Additionally, some schools have been battling the taboo by using sex education textbooks. While designed to tackle the problem, the books sparked uproar from parents and were quickly removed from schools.
Sex education in China isn't good. But the easy access to cheap DIY HIV tests is one area where China excels. https://t.co/5Z7EfKDgTi
— Carl Benjaminsen (@CarlBenjaminsen) October 2, 2017
Much like China, in India sex education is not compulsory in schools. The statistics are shocking: a disturbing 53 percent of children between the ages of five and 12 have been subjected to sexual abuse. India has the fastest growing population in the world and one of the highest rates of HIV infection. According to The Times of India, more than 50 percent of girls in rural India are unaware of menstruation or what it even means.
The culture around sex promotes silence and shame which confuses young people. Often they are unable to recognise abuse.
However, The Guardian has suggested India has the best sex education programme in the world.
The YP foundation designed and implemented a progressive curriculum for sex education. The programme teaches gender equality, sexual diversity and consent among other subjects. It incorporates role play, art and games to engage 12 to 20-year-olds across the 14 classes it runs.
While India may run a successful programme, it needs to be implemented in all schools to have a positive effect on its young audience.
In Indonesia, sex education is considered an "extra-curricular" activity.
Worryingly, often parents do not have a comprehensive understanding of the topic so it is down to the government to ensure teachers are well-informed and supplying this knowledge. Many young couples are forced to wed due to accidental pregnancies.
Indonesians are usually warned of the dangers of having sex, but not taught why it can be dangerous or how to do it safely.
I #supportsexed because trial-and-error is no way to learn about one of the most intimate aspects of our lives.
— Kate Kenfield (@katekenfield) May 4, 2015
However, things are looking up. In April, five Indonesian civil society organisations pushed for comprehensive sex education through a large conference.
The conference reasoned with Government to support a revised programme for Indonesian youth. The wheels are in motion to bring about change to Indonesia's sex education.
The Women, Family and Community Development Ministry in Malaysia has called for better sex education. Currently, sex education is integrated into subjects such as Moral and Islamic studies, science and biology. The basis of the sex education revolves around abstinence.
It also focuses on the biological aspect of sex, ignoring many other crucial facets like consent, emotional wellbeing and contraception. Children, especially those who attend religious schools, are not prepared for the real world.
The Malaysian Council for Child Welfare has decided something needs to change. It proposed a proper channel be launched, detailing reproductive health for children and young people.
The Dutch are famously liberal. The general ethos in The Netherlands is that sexuality is a natural part of human life and should be taught as such.
It is compulsory for all children aged four and older to receive age-appropriate sex education. Often, this education emphasises building respect for both their own bodies and sexuality, as well as their peers'. One of their first lessons is on consent.
Everything is covered, from contraception to relationships, STIs to pleasure. As a result of their extensive programme the country's teenage pregnancy rate is very low.
Belgium & holland have got sex education spot on maybe if the UK would take this on we would have less under age pregnancies #sexinclass
— Neil Jones (@Mr_NJones) August 12, 2015
Sexuality is one of seven 'key areas' in the Health and Physical Education curriculum. It is compulsory for both primary and secondary schools to teach up until Year 10. Sex and relationships have been taught in schools since 1999 and also cross over into NZ's Relationship Education.
The New Zealand Herald reported: "The Education Review Office assessed the quality of sexuality education programmes in Years 7 to 13 in 100 primary and secondary schools and found many were adopting a 'one size fits all' approach."
However, in April Government Health Officials announced plans to improve sex education programmes in NZ. With the recent inauguration of new Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, even more plans could soon be in motion for NZ's youth.
Religion and morals often play a large part in a country's sex education programme. Uganda is no different.
Recently, the Ministry of Health declined the proposal to distribute contraceptives to those aged 15 and over in Uganda on moral grounds. The proposal also suggested sex education was extended to 10-year-olds. It was a bid to lower teenage pregnancy rates in the country.
The Ministry claimed, however, the proposal would encourage promiscuity and abortions.
Over a quarter of young girls aged 15 to 19 in Uganda are currently pregnant or have given birth. On average, women have five children, yet a mere 24 percent of women use a modern form of contraception.
#Uganda condemns sex education for 10-year-olds as 'morally wrong' https://t.co/6FtRhtXQ8r
— amyfallon (@amyfallon) October 21, 2017
It may come as no shock that the British are rather reserved in how they talk about sex. While sex education is now compulsory in all schools, the guidelines are relatively thin.
Sex education is incorporated into the curriculum through Personal, Social, Health and Economics Education (PSHE), yet this varies vastly between schools.
In March 2017, the UK government announced all children aged four and above would be given relationship education. Additionally, all children in secondary school education would be taught age-appropriate material about sex and sexual and emotional relationships.
In an even more extreme situation than the UK, US schools' programmes vary widely from school to school and state to state.
According to Guttmacher Institute, just under half of US states include HIV education in their programmes. Guidance is given to schools in most states, but school districts ultimately call the shots.
Planned Parenthood reported "overall, in 2011–2013, 43 percent of adolescent females and 57 percent of adolescent males did not receive information about birth control before they had sex for the first time".
Source: GIPHY.
Liked this? Then you'll love…
Time for better sex education in Malaysia – ministry
No more birth control coverage at this US uni
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Topics covered: contraception India indonesia Malaysia New Zealand NZ Relationships sex Sex education The Netherlands
Want a job after uni? Here's what you should know before enroling
Leading European Law Schools
The Education University of Hong Kong – the regional leader in teacher education
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How do I get a refund / money back?
CloudMe Forum » Frequently Asked Questions » How do I get a refund / money back?
Topic: How do I get a refund / money back?
Since a user can try the service for free before a purchase, we have decided that all purchases are non-refundable.


Nothing matters more than attendee satisfaction. As you gear up for your next meeting, make sure your organization is doing everything possible to please your audience. Here are five ways you might be turning off your attendees.
1) Sending too many emails.
As you try to raise awareness about your registration deadlines, it can be tempting to turn to email for all the answers. It's a cost-effective and convenient route to popping up in every prospective attendee's inbox. However, too many emails will put your name into the dreaded SPAM category. Instead of scheduling a calendar full of promotional email blasts, make sure that your communication strategy includes a mix of Facebook posts, tweets, LinkedIn discussions and direct mailings. Then, before you hit send on your next email, ask yourself a key question: would I be interested in reading this? If it's not newsworthy, it's not worth sending.
Do the names in this year's program look very similar to last year's schedule? While they might be experts, your attendees are looking for fresh insights and new perspectives. Work with your education department to make sure that the slate of keynote speakers and panelists includes a big number of never-before-seen-at-your-conference names.
3) Creating a cumbersome registration process.
Think about how simple it is to check out at your favorite online retailer. Attendees want the same experience when they're entering in credit card information to pay for registration fees. Believe it or not, some conventions still have systems that require faxing in forms for certain registrations. Others encounter serious glitches that lead to headlines in major news outlets. If you're searching for the right registration software, check out this handy directory from The Meeting Pool.
From the early morning breakfast to the daily session schedule to the late-night cocktail party, a day at a meeting can be exhausting. Multiple by that by three or four at a typical conference, and you'll see some very tired attendees. As you outline the schedule for your next conference, think about ways to give your audience bigger breaks — not just 15-minute coffee bars between sessions. Can you offer yoga classes at the venue? Is there a space to create a more informal networking area where attendees who don't want to sit in a ballroom can go and have conversations?
5) Sending surveys that require forever to finish.
Everyone loves to know that someone's listening to their feedback, but very few attendees want to spend an hour sending their thoughts on your program. Unfortunately, many organizations struggle to send concise surveys that can deliver real, actionable feedback. If you've been facing challenges with your survey creation, check out this article to find your solutions.


text:
Q: Is geek squad a good place to work straight out of high school? I'm getting ready to graduate (YES!) and take my A+ exam. I want to get a job before going to college and thought about geek squad. I want to be a programmer but I'm also a good troubleshooter as I do a co-op with my school right now. I have heard that it pays pretty good and was wondering how it would look on a resume.

A: One of my first jobs in support was working for CompUSA as a bench tech. I can say that it will give you a healthy respect for other retail employees and ensure that you will never want to work retail again.
As for a resume, make sure you pay attention to the metrics that they use and how you preform in them. When you want to put this experience on a resume, you will want to put how well you preformed not just what you did.
Example:

*

*Achieved 94% on Customer Satisfaction Index for Four consecutive months.

This kind of accomplishment will show a potential employer several important things. First that you understand that doing a job well has much more impact than just doing the job at minimum levels. Second it will show that you understand these kind of metrics are put in place for reasons, even if they are never explained to people being measured. Third it shows that you can set a goal and work to achieve it. If you do put this kind of Accomplishment on your resume you should be ready to talk about how you did it during the interview.
Also remember that every customer in the store is a potential employer. I got out of CompUSA because I went out for an on site warranty repair. The company getting the repair was so impressed with me (their words, not mine) that they called me up asked me to come in for an interview.

A: All appropriate experience is good; it shows a passion for the industry and commitment to your career. Good luck!

A: Geek Squad wouldn't do too much for me on a resume.  They don't actually do much fixing, that I can tell -- mostly pushing costly services on people who don't know that they don't need it.  You might want to see if you can get a job at the college help desk.  Assuming that you end up going soon, they might hire you over the summer.  My son -- ChemE major -- has been working at the help desk at his school since before his freshman year.  I was able to get him an interview, but frankly they love to hire engineers.  I know that I would look a lot more favorably on an IT job that wasn't really part of a retail sales organization.

A: I'd do that before college, and it will look good on the resume, but once you are in college I'd look for work placements through the college for work during the holidays with an employer who will take you on at the end of your course in your preferred field.  I wish I'd done this at the time!
(P.S.  I'm in the UK, things may work differently wherever you are, which I sense is the US).

A: If the end-result is to someday apply for a programmer position (as you mentioned as wanting to become), the geek squad position will be irrelevant unless you end-up NOT doing retail.  I'm not a programmer, but my feeling is interviewers are not going fill a programmer position based on the applicant's elite customer support skills.
Having said that, a job is a job!.. if it's a tech job, then even better!  Have fun, work hard, study, take the money and move on to better things that will look better on a resume based on the kind of job you're applying for.
Good luck!

A: You'd be better off getting a sales job where you can make better money and learn how to talk to people.
You'll get a marginal level of technical experience working in a retail repair shop. If its anything like CompUSA used to be back in the 90's, the techs spent more time on the phone with vendors waiting for warranty parts than anything else.
Working a retail sales job is one of the best jobs you can have as a college kid if you take it seriously. Being able to engage in a reasonably intelligent conversation with 100 people a day with no idea about what people will ask, need or want while selling stuff is a valuable experience.

A: any tech job that pays well will be very useful. like the other answers state all experience counts. but on the other hand just the fact that you are on this site means that you are better than a tech support job. use it as a very small stepping stone only would be my advise. hope that helps


text:
Q: Disable nestloops into the Postgresql JDBC connection I'd like to disable nested loops for a specific JDBC connection string (batch java application), using the PostgreSQL community driver
Is it possible to do so?
I tried this way, in vain:
jdbc:postgresql://xxx.yyy.zzz:5432/mydb?options=enable_nestloop=off

A: You can use the options connection parameter, as explained here:

*

*options = String

  Specify 'options' connection initialization parameter.
The value of this property may contain spaces or other special characters, and it should be properly encoded if provided in the connection URL. Spaces are considered to separate command-line arguments, unless escaped with a backslash (\); \\ represents a literal backslash.

So that should look like
options=-c%20enable_nestloop%3Doff

But I share the horse's concern that this may be a bad idea, and you should rather tune your queries.


A Blog for administering technology….
Kijush on Hello Tech Geeks!!!
Raju Timalsina on Hello Tech Geeks!!!
Though I have googled the topic multiple times, I keep forgetting the exact time everytime I go for DNS Flushing in my MAC.
OS X keeps a local cache of resolved DNS queries for a time defined by the DNS server, but sometimes it may be necessary to reset the cache immediately and re-query a DNS server. For example, you might do this after an entry on the server is changed or a new entry is added.


text:
Селце () е село в община Крушево, Северна Македония.

География
Селце е малко село в северната част на община Крушево. Разположено е в Пелагония, в източните поли на Бушева планина, най-близките села наоколо са Норово на юг, Белушино на север и Борино на севроизток.

История

За селото се знае, че не е от най-старите в района основано е по време на Османското владичество от три или четири семейства от дебърското село Селце.

В XIX век Селце е чисто българско село в Прилепска кааза на Османската империя. Църквата "Свети Илия" е от XIX век. В "Етнография на вилаетите Адрианопол, Монастир и Салоника", издадена в Константинопол в 1878 година и отразяваща статистиката на мъжкото население от 1873 година Селце далечно (Seltze-Daletchno) е посочено като село с 42 домакинства и 180 жители българи. Според статистиката на Васил Кънчов ("Македония. Етнография и статистика") от 1900 г. Селце Друго има 360 жители, всички българи християни. Според Никола Киров ("Крушово и борбите му за свобода") към 1901 година Селце има 70 български къщи.

Селото се включва в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание, където става известно със своите черешови топчета.

Цялото население на селото е под върховенството на Българската екзархия. По данни на секретаря на екзархията Димитър Мишев ("La Macédoine et sa Population Chrétienne") в 1905 година в Долно Селце има 400 българи екзархисти и работи българско училище.

На етническата си карта на Северозападна Македония в 1929 година Афанасий Селишчев отбелязва Селце като българско село.

Според преброяването от 2002 година селото има 22 жители, всички македонци.

Личности

 Родени в Селце
  Аризанко Божков Трайчевски, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Атанаско Христов Бадевски, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Боге Николов Зенговски, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Веле Петков Ивановски, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Велко Марков (1870 – 1902), български революционер
  Кръсто Трайков Соколевски, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Мице и Злате Прусковски, брятя, участници в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Никола Павлев Стеблевски, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Павле Найдов, български учител и участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Петко Толев, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Петър Кунтев (1857 – 1923), опълченец, участник в Кресненското въстание, български революционер
  Стеан Талев Веляновски, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Стойче Летник (1869 - 1909), български революционер, деец на ВМОРО
  Трайче Корун, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание
  Христо Илиев, участник в Илинденско-Преображенското въстание

Външни препратки
 "Петър Стоянов Кунтев", публикувано във в. "Независима Македония", брой 30, София, 1923 година
 "Каревци (Личен архив)", София, 1959 година

Бележки

Села в община Крушево

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


A child needs your presence more than your presents.
All of time and existence has led up to you being here on this day. See the beauty, feel the wonder, and resolve to make good and meaningful use of it all.
Realize the great value of the moment you're in, taking care not to rush through it. Give to it your intention, guided by true purpose.
Live now as though you've been denied the chance up until this moment. Approach even the smallest experience with fresh, new enthusiasm.
Face the world with confidence and a genuine desire to make a difference. Live in awe of the great possibilities, with a commitment to bring the best of them to life.
This is your life, here and now. This is your life, your opportunity to deepen its meaning, and add to its richness.
Draw energy and inspiration from all you encounter. Embrace the magnificence, and find great satisfaction in making even more.


I love the morning sun!
Here is Jackson at half past eight this morning. He is on the top tier of his cat tree and get the sun through the window plus the heat rising up from the fire.
My brother and sister in law came yesterday and we went to the Three Horseshoes for lunch. I had confit of duck, Anne had sea bass, Peter had fillet of cod and John had goujons of monkfish. I did not have a pudding but Anne had toffee pecan roulade and the men had apple pie with cream and ice cream. Peter and Anne are going to Viet Nam in March. It is a cultural holiday…something to do with tunnels the Viet Kong build during the war? Not my cup of tea…give me the beach and a Margarita!
John is shooting tomorrow and I am going to the hairdresser and then doing some shopping. Then back to struggling with my new site….I feel it will never be ready! On Tuesday, Kevin and Joanne are taking us to Smith's for dinner….a good opportunity for me to mention the a vast amount of Rowan yarn is arriving the next day!
Now I must get on – a chinese meal to cook!


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Delaware Call
Kenny Cash Nears $500K in 2020 Election
Jordan Howell · September 29, 2020
In Delaware, elections are so small that a few thousand dollars—or a few dozen voters—can tip the scale between victory and defeat. Campaign donations in the millions of dollars are unheard of, which is downright adorable compared to the nearby city of Philadelphia, where PAC spending alone topped $10 million in the 2015 mayoral election.
For this election cycle, the Delaware Department of Elections' campaign finance reporting database shows just 20 individual contributions of more than $20,000, nearly half of which are loans by candidates to their own campaigns. There are just a handful of contributions topping $40,000—and the family behind a chain of locally-owned Shoprite grocery stores has made three of them.
The Kenny family has spent $495,000 in state elections since 2019, fueling speculation that Chris Kenny, heir to the family's business empire, is catering to state Republicans in anticipation of running for public office. According to campaign finance documents filed with the Department of Elections, these large-dollar contributions are being made exclusively to Republican-aligned political action committees (PACs), which then distribute the cash to state and local candidates up and down the ballot.
This all has some political insiders wondering: If the Kenny family is willing to spend $500,000 during an election where their name isn't even on the ballot, how much will they spend when it is?
TANGLED WEB OF POLITICAL FINANCING
Although only one contribution is directly attributable to Chris Kenny himself—a $100,000 donation to the Responsible Delaware PAC on July 14, 2020—two other contributions can be linked to the Kenny family. On August 19, 2019, Delaware Supermarkets (the umbrella corporation that operates the Kenny Family Shoprites) contributed $45,000 to the K3C PAC, which formed just weeks earlier to support Kent County Republicans. Exactly one year later, on August 19, 2020, the political advocacy group A Better Delaware, over which Kenny presides, contributed $250,000 to A Better Delaware PAC.
So, where is all this cash going?
As was previously reported by The Delaware Call, Chris Kenny's $100,000 contribution to the Responsible Delaware PAC, which lists Republican state senator Colin Bonini as treasurer, is footing the bill for political consulting services. These services include surveys, polling, and field operations—by an Oklahoma-based firm founded by Republican strategist Lance Cargill, who served as speaker of the Oklahoma state House of Representatives until 2008. Responsible Delaware PAC enters the 2020 general election with $88,177 cash on hand.
Campaign finance reports filed on August 17, 2020 by Responsible Delaware PAC show a $100,000 donation from Shoprite CEO Chris Kenny.
Since receiving the $45,000 contribution from Delaware Supermarkets in 2019, K3C PAC has distributed cash to every member of the state Republican caucus as well as to a slate of candidates challenging Democratic-held seats. K3C PAC enters the 2020 general election with $57,043 cash on hand.
The largest contribution—$250,000 from A Better Delaware to A Better Delaware PAC—came almost entirely from the deep pockets of the Kenny family. Although A Better Delaware was launched as a kind of political partnership between Chris Kenny and Ben DuPont, who are both listed as "Co-Chairman" on the website, the organization is funded almost entirely by Kenny cash.
Campaign finance reports filed on September 9, 2020 by A Better Delaware PAC show a $250,000 donation from Kenny's political advocacy group A Better Delaware.
According to tax documents filed with the IRS, in the first six months of 2020, A Better Delaware reported more than $500,000 in contributions from the Kenny family, including $100,000 from patriarch Bernard Kenny, $50,000 from Chris Kenny, and $387,747 from Delaware Supermarkets. Until the next round of campaign finance reporting documents is posted, the organization appears to have $287,747 cash on hand.
A Better Delaware PAC, meanwhile, has transferred more than $100,000 to a third-party advertiser with a similar name, A Better Delaware PAC-IE, which has made 12 payments totaling $51,867 to Spectrum Marketing Co. in Manchester, New Hampshire, and three payments totaling $35,750 to Go Big Media in Alexandria, Virginia. The PAC enters the general election with $189,593 cash on hand.
In other words, in a state where Republicans struggle to compete with the fundraising and campaign operations of the Democratic Party, their next best hope may be piles of cash from a very wealthy family.
POLITICAL BATTLE LOOMS
When asked about Kenny's spending in the 2020 election and beyond, his advocacy group, A Better Delaware, did not respond to multiple requests for comment. However, in previous email correspondence regarding his $100,000 contribution to Colin Bonini's Responsible Delaware PAC, Kenny responded through a spokesperson:
"The direction politicians in Dover are taking concerns me. Their attitudes toward small business, regulations, and taxes and spending have led us down a path that has made the state worse for small business owners and Delawareans alike. As a business owner and a Delawarean, I decided to do something because it is important for people to participate in the political process and create change."
In that same email correspondence, when asked about a potential run for elected office, Kenny responded, "For the foreseeable future, I'm more than busy enough raising a family and running my family business, so my engagement will be through A Better Delaware and not as a candidate."
Despite Kenny's reluctance to confirm or deny his political aspirations, the family's political spending is raising eyebrows among some Democratic strategists.
"Chris Kenny and his cohorts at A Better Delaware are playing the long game, investing heavily in a number of races, but also in a number of platforms to try to sow disinformation and really drive home a conservative agenda of austerity that I don't think is going to be popular with Delawareans," says Jesse Chadderdon, executive director of the Delaware Democratic Party. "While we might not be able to match them dollar-for-dollar, what we can do is out-organize them, out-resource them in terms of volunteers, and run stronger, more bona fide grassroots campaigns."
In contrast to the Delaware Democratic Party, where fundraising is largely driven by individual campaigns, Chadderdon claims the state GOP has come to rely on the Kenny family and a few other wealthy donors to do all the heavy lifting.
"Wealthy donors are going to dump millions of dollars into Republican campaigns and then hold them hostage when it comes to tax austerity and all sorts of other policies that are bad for Delaware," says Chadderdon. "These people want to lower wages and hold working families down. They're terrified of the idea that we want to expand family leave. They're terrified that we might at some point talk about revenue raisers for investing in public education. These guys want to protect their wealth at all costs, and they're going to spend millions to protect their billions."


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Home » 'False hope': family violence program could be putting women at greater risk, critics say
'False hope': family violence program could be putting women at greater risk, critics say
November 27, 2021world
posted on Nov. 27, 2021 at 9:00 pm
Vulnerable women attempting to escape domestic violence are being offered "false hope" by a government program that potentially could be putting them at greater risk, frontline service workers say.
The two-year $145m escaping violence payment trial was billed as a one-off payment of up to $5,000 to "help women establish a life free of violence". It was announced as part of the government's "landmark $1.1bn women's safety package" in the May budget.
In reality, the program offers eligible people up to $1500 in cash, with the remainder paid in vouchers or direct payments to schools or rental bond agencies. In the month the trial has been running, frontline services are already pleading for clarity over who is eligible and how the payment works.
Sally Stevenson, the general manager of the Illawarra Women's Health Centre, said the "extremely onerous and time consuming program" risked leaving survivors worse off.
"If anything, this program offers false hope that practical support is available, but in reality it does nothing to truly support women to escape violence," Stevenson said.
"In some circumstances it may in fact put women and children in danger. If women are under the misapprehension they will be provided adequate support and leave on this basis, and the expected support is not provided, they may well be worse off, or indeed in greater danger – because as we know, leaving is the one of the most dangerous times in a violent relationship, especially when there is little or no support."
More than 120 providers wrote to the women's safety minister, Anne Ruston, earlier this month to raise serious concerns. They asked for changes to the "inappropriate" eligibility requirements, which include limiting the payments to those who have already left their home, and those who have experienced violence from an intimate partner in the past 12 weeks.
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Temporary visa holders are excluded and those applying need to show evidence of their experience from either police or a service provider as part of the eight-page application.
UnitingCare/Wesley was chosen as the facilitator of the program after a "closed competitive process". Stevenson said more consultation was needed with those on the frontline to make the program workable.
"We know how to support women escaping violence: we know what they need – they need fast, flexible and liquid support," she said.
"As such, the number of barriers within this program mean it's extremely difficult to access any support. Certainly not enough to make escape a viable option."
Ruston defended the program, but left the door open to changes saying the government was "absolutely committed to getting it right".
"We have openly and constructively engaged with the sector since the program was established last month to make sure the right information is out on the ground as well as considering feedback to inform the rollout," she said.
"We will also conduct an independent evaluation of the program to make sure the settings meet the needs of women and anyone else escaping violent relationships."
Ruston said she had heard positive stories of women who had been helped by the trial.
"We are hearing that people who have never accessed government support or other support services are reaching out to UnitingCare Network," she said.
"While this is sobering, it is also positive to know that the program is reaching a cohort of victim-survivors who have not previously found appropriate support and is giving them the confidence to work toward a life free of violence."
Labor senator Jenny McAllister said the government needed to listen to those at the coalface, given the seriousness of the issue at hand.
"This program shows the fingerprints of a government that doesn't understand the experiences of victim-survivors and is more concerned about rushing out a media release than getting it right," she said.
The escaping violence payment trial was part of a flurry of announcements made in the wake of claims the Morrison government was not doing enough to ensure women's safety after allegations of rape and sexual assault were raised within parliament.
Announcements included increased funding for frontline legal centres and domestic and family violence support work, but months after it was promised, frontline workers were still waiting for the funds, with the government forced to "clarify" some of the headline figures it released.
newscabal November 27, 2021
Brit doctor, 31, killed by stray bullet fired 'recklessly' by neighbour as he lay in his bed
French tourist Benjamin Briere goes on trial in Iran for espionage
KitKat bars with Hindu gods on the wrappers are withdrawn after sparking fury in India
Teachers sacked for being gay warn religious discrimination bill will empower similar dismissals


I69.923 is a billable ICD code used to specify a diagnosis of fluency disorder following unspecified cerebrovascular disease. A 'billable code' is detailed enough to be used to specify a medical diagnosis.
The ICD-10-CM Alphabetical Index links the below-listed medical terms to the ICD code I69.923. Click on any term below to browse the alphabetical index.
This is the official approximate match mapping between ICD9 and ICD10, as provided by the General Equivalency mapping crosswalk. This means that while there is no exact mapping between this ICD10 code I69.923 and a single ICD9 code, 438.14 is an approximate match for comparison and conversion purposes.


You know how a person can go on vacation and it's so much that you get home and think "I need a vacation from my vacation." That's exactly what I went through over the holidays. The husband and the kids and I headed out over to Vancouver Island for Christmas. We were there 11 or so days and we visited with a very large number of people – more than 30. It felt like 100. These people who we love so much and who are so important to us are spread over three towns and we wanted to see everyone and participate in every dinner and occasion we were invited to, so we did. We saw aunts and uncles and cousins and grandparents and great grandparents and at the end of it all I was done. I was so exhausted from all the running around, back and forth. All the hellos and good byes, all the chatter and hugs. Done.
We came home, picked up our pets, unpacked, and dove straight into the school routine and then….I went on vacation again! I went on a vacation for me! Over the weekend, myself and my best girlfriends went into the mountains to Radium. We brought snacks and drinks and craft supplies. We crocheted and went on winter snowy walks and just enjoyed a slow pace with no obligations. It was heaven. I mean. Look. I watched the sunset over the mountains. I didn't have to cut anyone's meat. I didn't have to drive anyone anywhere. I just sat there and watched the sun go down, on the balcony from my suite at Bighorn Meadows.
I have to say, Bighorn Meadows is the answer – it was so gorgeous and SO spacious! They have suites and single rooms too. My suite was pretty much a full sized apartment with two bedrooms and two bathrooms, a full kitchen and living area with a large dining table too. If you wanted to share a suite with another family then this is the way to go – so budget friendly!
When you make the trip and choose Bighorn Meadows ask for the "Blogger Special" and you'll get a 20% discount when you book two or more nights from now until June 23rd 2016. Be sure to ask for the side that overlooks the mountains. I spent a good amount of time just staring out the window. Sigh. It was lovely.
After all that staring, I was hungry so we did venture out to Invermere just 10 minutes away. We had lunch more than once at the Blue Dog cafe which was amazing and fresh. My favourite thing there was the falafel pita – it had an amazing lime sauce that just made it sing. So good. We poked around in some shops and watched the bighorn sheep wander the streets. There were so many, everywhere. We actually saw quite a bit of wildlife on this trip. I saw a wolf on the highway just outside of Radium, a fox in between Invermere and Radium, many sheep and some deer too.
Back at the resort we went for a little walk in the snow and came upon a large herd of sheep. They are so used to people that we were able to get pretty close to snap photos. They really didn't have many cares as they pawed at the snow looking for grass to eat. Birds sat on their heads even and they just didn't care. Oh to be a bighorn sheep in Radium!
The Columbia Valley is a wonderful option for vacationing close to home. There is so much to do from snowshoeing, cross country skiing, soaking in the hot springs, shopping or just staring out at the mountains like I did. Split the costs between two groups and share a large suite at Bighorn Meadows to keep things extremely reasonable. It's only a 3 hour drive from Calgary. Be sure you have the proper winter snow tires for a trip like that (it's law in BC for that highway) and take it slow over the winter months. Still, the drive is breathtaking in the winter. I couldn't believe my eyes, it was all so beautiful. Go. Get your vacation too.
Beautiful pics. I definitely like quiet vacations because I don't seem to get enough.
Love Radium, it's such a great place to escape to. They used to have this awesome wine bar, maybe they still do, but Blue Dog is also tops. Really appreciate that you're offering a blogger special.
It was pretty great. I was so shocked at how many people in our group had never been before!!!!


Just 10 minutes of daily meditation can help prevent your mind from wandering.
Just 10 minutes of daily meditation can help prevent your mind from wandering and is particularly effective if you tend to have repetitive, anxious thoughts, say researchers.
The team from the University of Waterloo found that developing an awareness of the present moment reduced incidents of repetitive, off-task thinking — a hallmark of anxiety.
"Our results indicate that mindfulness training may have protective effects on mind wandering for anxious individuals," said Mengran Xu, researcher and PhD candidate at Waterloo.
The team also found that meditation practice appears to help anxious people to shift their attention from their own internal worries to the present-moment external world, which enables better focus on a task at hand.
As part of the study, 82 participants who experienced anxiety were asked to perform a task on a computer while experiencing interruptions to gauge their ability to stay focused on the task.
Researchers then put the participants into two groups at random, with the control group given an audio story to listen to and the other group asked to engage in a short meditation exercise prior to being reassessed.
"Mind wandering accounts for nearly half of any person's daily stream of consciousness," said Xu.
"For people with anxiety, repetitive off-task thoughts can negatively affect their ability to learn, to complete tasks, or even function safely," Xu added.
The study, co-authored by Waterloo psychology professors Christine Purdon and Daniel Smilek and Harvard University's Paul Seli, was published in the journal Consciousness and Cognition.


At Opinion Health, we do not believe in standard approaches to research problems. We aim to spend time with our clients to explore in detail their research objectives and the outcomes they are looking for from each research project. We then use our years of experience to select the optimal approach or approaches to the project at hand.
On some occasions, the objectives call only for a single phase qualitative or quantitative project. In other cases, a multi-stage approach is called for which can be qualitative followed by quantitative or vice versa or a combination of primary/ad-hoc research and exploration of secondary data sources. We would sometimes recommend a social media monitoring element of the research programme to add another dimension to the findings or to help our clients to understand better the other findings. Part of the research programme can sometimes be conducted by online methods while others have to be conducted by telephone or face to face.
Whatever the situation we will recommend and implement the best approach.


You are here: Home / Investing / How Valuable Are Diamonds?
A lot of women still believe that the best engagement present is the diamond ring that her fiancé places on her left hand ring finger as a symbol of her belonging to him and their commitment to one another. Although there are many women who want to be different, they tell their boyfriends that they would prefer other precious stones, the engagement ring will still have diamonds in it, even if it is not the biggest rock in the setting.
The diamond engagement ring began as a marketing technique used by De Beers in the early 1900's when they realized that their diamond sales were dropping rapidly. The belief that your fiancés ability to provide for you and your future family is directly linked to the size of the diamond engagement ring he presents to you is a hoax which was originally part of the marketing campaign used by De Beers.
Diamonds lose their value by more than 50% the minute your fiancé walks out of the jeweler with the ring in the little velvet box! The diamond has no intrinsic value, in fact a diamond depreciates in value between 100 and 200 percent as the mark up on a diamond is within these ranges, and this is the reason why jewelers do not buy back diamonds.
It is true that your diamond engagement ring is a beautiful piece of jewelry and has lots of sentimental value; neither of these facts will get you a higher price when you want to sell the ring. Knowing that your boyfriend or fiancé truly loves you and wants to spend those hard earned dollars on a huge diamond is enough for most women, so convince your boyfriend that you would rather spend the money on a memorable honeymoon and settle for an engagement ring that you truly love instead of the huge diamond.


Edmund W. Dyer was born about 1813 in Pendleton County, (West) Virginia, to Zebulon Dyer and Rebecca Wagoner Dyer. Edmund Dyer became clerk of the county court. He moved his family to Cedar Falls, Iowa, in the 1850s and became a farmer. By 1870, he was a book keeper in Dubuque, Iowa. Dyer and his wife Susan J. Snodgrass Dyer (b. ca. 1815) had four sons.