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Stories Tours
Kolonia
A vibrant micro-community of Polish, Ukrainian, Slavic, and many other immigrants in Whitney Pier
By Lisa Pasolli with research support from the Beaton Institute, Cape Breton University
Drawn to the opportunities at the Sydney Steel Plant in the early 20th century, many immigrants settled in the small neighbourhood of Kolonia. Over several decades, they proudly maintained their cultural traditions and heritage.
On the northern boundary of Sydney, adjacent to the steel plant property, is Whitney Pier, a community that has traditionally been home to plant workers. Whitney Pier is known for being a remarkably diverse community, the product of an early-20th century influx of immigrants from around the world who were attracted to the area by the well-paying jobs of industrial Cape Breton. One of the ethnic enclaves within Whitney Pier is Kolonia, a small but tightly-knit neighbourhood of immigrant families. Polish and Ukrainian immigrants constituted the majority of Kolonia, which also included families of other Slavic and non-Slavic nationalities.
In 1899, wealthy industrialist H.M. Whitney established the Dominion Iron and Steel Company and began construction of the steel plant at Sydney. Workers soon began to flock to the area and the population of Sydney and the surrounding communities exploded. Between 1899 and 1913, according to one estimate, Sydney's population grew from 3,200 to 22,000.
The thousands of people who arrived in the Sydney area to work in the steel plant and coal mines arrived from around the world. Between 1899 and 1930, Whitney Pier became home to the largest concentration of ethnocultural groups in the Maritimes. One observer from 1903 commented of Whitney Pier that "[b]esides the Canadian-born inhabitants, there are numbers of Americans, many English, Scotch, and Irish, quite a number of French, scattered representatives of Germany, Norway, and Sweden, a strong Italian Colony, a number of Hungarians...[and] not a few Jews…." Newfoundlanders, African-Americans, Chinese immigrants, Poles and Ukrainians, and many others also made up this extraordinarily diverse community.
Kolonia traces its roots to four Polish families who settled on Ferris Street. This street came to mark the southern boundary of the original square block of the vibrant neighbourhood, which was bounded by Bryan Street to the north, Roberts Street to the east, and the steel plant property to the west. Some of the original homes were built from dismantled parts of the Breton Hotel. Kolonia soon grew beyond this square block, and developed into a close-knit community in which immigrants proudly protected their language, identity, and cultural traditions. Many of the house designs and decorations, along with the small gardens and pastures, reflected the rural ways of life that the immigrants had known. At its height, Kolonia was home to as many as 300 residents.
The Polish Church, St. Mary's, was nearby to Kolonia and was an especially important community hub, as was the nearby Polish Hall (run by the St. Michael's Polish Benefit Society, established 1909) on Wesley Street. Polish and Ukrainian music, dancing, and food were an important part of the community - indeed, all the residents of Whitney Pier flocked to churches and halls in Kolonia for perogie and cabbage roll dinners. The residents of Kolonia also looked out for each other: working in the steel plant and coal mines was hard and dangerous work, so community members also set up a mutual benefit society to support families in distress.
The old Polish Hall was torn down and, in 1949, a new hall -- called Polish Village -- was erected. It continues to be run by the St. Michael's Benefit Society, and is located on the corner of Jameson Road and Victoria Street.
The closing of the steel plant in 2000 contributed to the decline of the neighbourhood. Many lifelong residents of Kolonia still live there, however, and in recent years there has been revitalization in the form of cultural events and more. At the bottom of Bryan Street, for example, visitors can enjoy the Kolonia Immigrant Heritage Parkette. In 2015 it was designated, along with Whitney Pier as a whole, as having national historical significance.
Two men in Kolonia ~ Source: Photograph courtesy of Joe Dziubek and Bernice Ratushny ~ Date: [unknown]
A view of Kolonia ~ Source: Photograph courtesy of Joe Dziubek and Bernice Ratushny ~ Date: [unknown]
Children from Kolonia, Ferris Street. ~ Source: Photograph courtesy of Joe Dziubek and Bernice Ratushny. ~ Date: 1934
Birthday party for Frances Kokoska at 23 Ferris Street ~ Source: Photograph courtesy of Joe Dziubek and Bernice Ratushny ~ Date: 1947
St. Mary's Polish Church: The Sydney Steel Plant is pictured in the background. ~ Source: Cape Breton University Beaton Institute Archives Reference code 85-206-15906 ~ Creator: Dr. Elizabeth Beaton ~ Date: 1982
St. Mary's Polish Church: This is postcard of St. Mary's Polish Church from about 1918. A portrait of Rev. Camillus Grzybala is in the top-right corner. ~ Source: Cape Breton University Beaton Institute Archives Reference code 82-953-7653 ~ Date: [ca. 1918]
Polish Wedding: A family gathers to celebrate a Polish wedding. ~ Source: Cape Breton University Beaton Institute Archives Reference code 79-1096-4076 ~ Date: [ca. 1920]
Celebrating at the Polish Hall: Pictured here is a banquet held in the Polish Hall to celebrate returned Veterans of WWII ~ Source: Cape Breton University Beaton Institute Archives Reference code 29.2 ~ Creator: Abbass Studios Ltd. ~ Date: [ca. 1940]
Polish Float : A group of Polish girls atop a float in the parade to mark Sydney's 150th Anniversary. The float features a 'Polish queen' and her 15 attendants. ~ Source: Cape Breton University Beaton Institute Archives Reference code 82-955-7655 ~ Date: 1935
Skip Interactive Map
Lisa Pasolli, "Kolonia," Historic Nova Scotia, accessed January 17, 2022, https://historicnovascotia.ca/items/show/22.
Cape Breton Regional Municipality
Joe Black, "Company Houses in 'Kolonia,'" Cape Breton's Magazine 57 (1991): 29-34. Nova Scotia Archives, "Industrial Cape Breton, 1890-1920," https://archives.novascotia.ca/genealogy/industrial-cape-breton
Published on Mar 8, 2018. Last updated on Jun 4, 2020.
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Змагання зі сноубордингу в дисципліні хафпайп серед жінок на зимових Олімпійських іграх 2006 року відбулись 13 лютого 2006 року в селі Бардонеккія (провінція Турин, Італія).

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Сноубординг на зимових Олімпійських іграх 2006

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Writing about the history of computing is challenging because of the complexity of any one computer, the speed with which computer technology has evolved, and the many different types of computers that have been built. Further, since computing reaches into so many different industries (such as telephony, automotives, or cameras) and has spawned a huge industry for the making of hardware and software for computers, it is difficult to know where such a history should stop.
This article is organized in sequential order, to present the major events in the development of general-purpose computing devices, including the basic evolution of their hardware components and software concepts. The article is organized by decade. Technologies appear, not in the decade in which they were first imagined or in which experimental versions became available, but in the decade in which they became widely accepted.
1 Early devices (ancient times)
2 Mechanical computing (Renaissance to 1900)
3 Prerequisites to the first electronic computers (early 1900's)
4 1940s: The first electronic computers
5 1950s: Hardware and the first compiler
6 1960s: Batch operating systems
7 1970s: Networks, better software, and smaller hardware
7.1 DARPA and the early networks
7.2 Time-sharing operating systems: the birth of UNIX and C
7.3 Mini-computers: hardware gets smaller
7.4 Computer programming languages
8 1980s: Networks and personal computers, oh my!
8.1 personal computers
8.2 The internet
8.4 electronic mail
8.5 newsgroups
8.6 TCP applications (FTP, gopher, telnet, WAIS, Archie / Veronica, etc)
9 1990s: WWW, and several software revolutions
9.1 Dial-up internet access for the masses
9.2 The World Wide Web
9.3 Object-oriented programming goes wild
9.4 Open-source software shakes things up
9.5 XML, the universal translator
9.6 MP3: Honey, I shrunk the music
10 after 2000
11 Famous people in history of computing
12 Famous concepts in history of computing
Early devices (ancient times)
Long before the arrival of mechanical computing, ancient civilizations devised various methods to calculate and keep track of numbers.
Salamis Tablet (300 B.C.)
A very early counting device, the Salamis Tablet[1], was used by the Babylonians to track numbers in their society.
Abacus (300 B.C.)
The abacus, a mechanical aid to performing arithmetic, dates back many centuries and is still in use in various forms.
Mechanical computing (Renaissance to 1900)
The human longing for mechanical help in performing complex computations existed for a long time before technology was advanced enough to realize a practical solution. These are some of the attempts to create computing machines before technology was sufficiently advance to make that very feasible.
Codex Madrid (Da Vinci)
On 13 February 1967, the "Codex Madrid", written by Leonardo Da Vinci, was discovered in the National Library of Spain by Dr. Roberto Guatelli[2]. Inside the Codex Madrid was a drawing for an elaborate mechanical computational device. Guatelli noticed that a similar construct appeared in Da Vinci's "Codex Atlanticus". A prototype of this machine was created in 1968, and was observed that it exhibited traits that of a ratio machine. One revolution of the first shaft(10^1) invoked ten revolutions of the second(10^2), repeating until the last shaft which rotated at a rate of ten to the power of 13. Whether this was a true computational device was under some debate. Previously been displayed at IBM, the exhibit was removed due to a nonconsensus, and is presumed to be in one of IBM's storage facilities.
Pascaline (1642)
An early mechanical computational device is the Pascaline, created by Blaise Pascal circa 1642.[3] The Pascaline performed simple addition and subtraction. The concept of the Pascaline came about from the carrying of places by gear rotation. Functionally, the machine worked by increasing values on a single cog, which ranged from values 0 to 9. Upon the next rotation, a series of cogs would rotate the next gear over one iteration to read 1 while the first cog would reset back to 0.[4]
Charles Babbage (early 1800's)
It would take Charles Babbage, born on December 26, 1791 and inducted as a Fellow of the Royal Society to develop the first real successful automatic calculating machine[5]. In 1821, Babbage developed the Difference Engine No. 1, which was a functional machine designed to compile mathematical tables based on polynomial calculation.[6]. The difference engine's physical algorithm was based on a mathematical technique known as the Method of Differences, which Babbage contributed work on. Unfortunately only a fragment of the machine would ever come to fruition due to various financial disputes and accusations of fund mismanagement from the British Government. More importantly, the machine was never fully developed due to Babbage's realization of a more advanced machine called the Analytical Engine. Like the Pascaline, both the Difference and Analytical Engines relied on series of cogs and gears to compute values.
Functionally, the Analytical Engine was capable of various algorithmic operations that were broken down into basic algebraic operations. Two cards would be used to program the system: the first would detail what operations were required to be performed, and the second would contain the values to be operated on. In this sense, the Analytical Machine was much like a computer, having an input (the algorithm as described on a card), a processor (the machine), an output (the result), and memory (using a storage method--the cards themselves). Babbage's associate Ada Lovelace was arguably the first computer programmer, designing algorithms for the Analytical Engine.
Hollerith and punched cards (1884)
Herman Hollerith was born on February 29, 1860 in New York. In 1875 Hollerith attended the City College of New York, he graduated from the Columbia School of Mines in 1879 with an engineering degree.[7] After graduating, Hollerith took up work with the United States Census Bureau, and was appointed Chief Special Agent. Hollerith's contribution to computing was inspired by his work at the USCB, especially from Dr. John Shaw Billings who suggested that there should be a way to process the large amount of census data by some mechanical means. In 1884, Hollerith worked to develop a way to tabulate census information through the use of punch cards. Eventually, he recognized that cards could be used as storage medium for census data. His experiments lead to a process by where a pin would go through a hole in the card to complete an electrical circuit. His system by which cards could be read and tabulated on a mechanical counter through a circuit completion was called the Hollerith Electric Tabulating System. By 1890, the machines were improved so that a simple keyboard could be used to tabulate data instead of entry by hand.
Prerequisites to the first electronic computers (early 1900's)
The discovery of electricity, along with the invention of electronic switches in the early 1900's, including the solenoid and the switching vacuum tube, were necessary pre-requisites to the invention of electronic computers.
Computational theory
Much work on the theory of computation was done in the 1930s. Alan Turing and Alonzo Church both came up with new techniques to solve the halting problem, inventing the Turing Machine and lambda calculus respectively.
Switching algebra
Boolean algebra, invented by George Boole in the 1850's, is an algebraic system consisting of only two values, and it was destined to become the basis for describing digital logic circuits used to build electronic computers. The realization that Boolean algebra could be used to describe logic circuits was a major conceptual breakthrough first documented by Claude Shannon in his 1937 MIT master's thesis[8]. Shannon's thesis created a stir in the world of electronics when it began circulating in 1938[9], though Shannon was better known in later years for founding the field of information theory. Boolean algebra subsequently became known as "switching algebra" by computer designers.
1940s: The first electronic computers
Prior to World War II, the word computer generally meant a person who computes. But in the early 1940's (during World War II), the first electronic computers were developed to perform numerical calculations far faster than humans could. With the notable exception of the Zuse Z3, which was developed in Germany in relative isolation, the first electronic computers were mainly the result of secret military projects funded by the British and U. S. governments[10][11].
Zuse Z3 (1941)
German engineer Konrad Zuse built the Z1 computer between 1936 and 1938. German patent applications provide evidence of Zuse's development of a mechanical memory device in 1936, used in the Z1.[12]. Zuse built the Z2 sometime between 1936 and 1939, and the Z3 from 1939 to 1941[13]. The German government was not supportive of Zuse's work, and evidence of the Z3's existence was discovered by Allied forces only after the end of World War II. All photographs of the Zuse Z3 were destroyed by allied raids during the war[14]. Zuse's constructions incorporated advanced concepts, including the implementation of the binary numeral system. Having survived the war, Zuse built another computer in Switzerland, and later was the first designer to propose pipelining the computations of a computer processor. In 1949, Zuse formed Zuse KG, where he worked until 1966. Zuse's Z3 is now recognized as probably having been the first general-purpose electro-mechanical computer.
Atanasoff pre-computer (1942)
Between 1937 and 1942, Dr. John V. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry, of Iowa State University, worked on a prototype electronic computer that introduced key design ideas but which never completely realized as a general purpose computing device. Some of Atanasoff's ideas may have been communicated to John Mauchly, who later assisted in the development of the ENIAC.
Colossus (1943)
Britain's Colossus project produced a series of about ten electronic computers used by British code breakers to read encrypted German messages during World War II. The first Colossus prototype was initially completed by engineer Tommy Flowers in 1943 at the Post Office Research Station, Dollis Hill, with input from mathematician Max Newman and a few others. It used the binary numeral system for calculations, utilizing vacuum tubes and very fast optical punch tape readers. By 1944, the project moved to Bletchley Park and lasted until the end of the war. Shortly after, in 1946, Winston Churchill gave official orders to have the machines destroyed
Harvard Mark I (1944)
For decades after World War II, it was widely believed that the IBM Automated Sequence Controlled Calculator(ASCC) (completed in 1944 and later called the Mark I) was the first electromechanical general-purpose computer[15]. The idea for the Harvard Mark I automatic digital calculator was conceived by Howard H. Aiken, then a graduate student from Harvard University with a Ph. D. in theoretical physics. The machine was a hybrid of mechanical and electronic technology, performing calculations through a series of small gears, electro-mechanical counter wheels, and switches. Input occurred via punched cards, paper tape or through manually set switches to indicate the values to be processed. The output was generated by an electric typewriter or punched into additional cards. The successor to the Mark I, the Mark II, would still used relays, but also featured an electrical memory and a system of 'constant' values that were referenced during run-time.[16]
ENIAC (1946)
At the University of Pennsylvania, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert proposed the Electrical Numerical Integrator And Computer to the U.S. Army Ordnance Department's Ballistics Research Laboratory in 1943, and then served as its main designers until construction was finished in 1946. It was a military project justified by a need to compute ballistic trajectories, and was one of the earliest general-purpose, programmable electronic computers[17]. ENIAC's computations used the decimal numeral system, instead of the binary numeral system used by most subsequent digital computers. The ENIAC was not able to store its own program in memory; it had to be programmed by setting switches on function tables and by changing the wiring. Considerable human effort was required to reprogram it.
UNIVAC and EDVAC (late 1940's)
The designers of ENIAC jointly formed the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation in 1946, which was bought by Remington Rand in 1950. In 1951, this company delivered the first U. S. commercial computer, called the UNIVAC, to the United States Census Bureau. The UNIVAC was a stored-program computer, like its non-commercial sister the EDVAC. The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was funded by the U.S. Army Ballistics Research Laboratory and was built at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. EDVAC was build by the University of Pennsylvania's ENIAC designers Eckert and Mauchly, and by John von Neumann and some others. The EDVAC was the first computer to implement the stored-program concept. The idea was first published in von Neumann's 1945 report First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC[18]. Although its design predates the UNIVAC, the EDVAC did not become fully operational until 1952. Competing fiercely with IBM, the company eventually built 46 of the earliest commercial computer systems.
1950s: Hardware and the first compiler
In the decades after World War II, computers grew rapidly in usefulness while decreasing in size and cost, spawning a huge and complex industry to create hardware and software for them. But in the 1950's, they were still huge and expensive and available only to a few people.
Need a paragraph here with pointers to existing or future articles about specific project, products, companies or technologies.
First compiler
1960s: Batch operating systems
The 1960s brought an era of commercial corporate use of computers for the first time. Groups of people used punched cards or paper tape to write programs, and then a computer operator would take the pile of stacked cards that build up and submit them as individual jobs to a large computer.
Batch operating systems
Multicians.org has a huge amount of info waiting to be mined on Multics
1970s: Networks, better software, and smaller hardware
DARPA and the early networks
Some of the critical key concepts included the concepts of packet switching from Paul Baran and Leonard Kleinrock, and of interconnected heterogeneous networks, first called catenets, by Louis Pouzin and Vinton Cerf, with J.R. Licklider providing project direction and government support. These concepts led, by the 1980's, to the Internet.
Time-sharing operating systems: the birth of UNIX and C
Mini-computers: hardware gets smaller
During the 1970s, a variety of new programming languages emerged - the C programming language being the one which is still widely used in system programming. In addition, a variety of higher level languages emerged: Charles Moore's Forth, the logic programming language Prolog, and the beginning of the competitive process to develop Ada was started, which would later become the language used for military and aviation programming. The Lisp dialect, Scheme was also created, which would later become the language used in Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, the introductory programming course for MIT undergraduates.
Many programming languages also became more standardized, with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) publishing specifications for COBOL, FORTRAN 77 and MUMPS.
1980s: Networks and personal computers, oh my!
The "big three" (Apple, Commodore and Tandy-Radio Shack) duke it out with the IBM compatible PC and Microsoft MS-DOS
Need a paragraph here with pointers to existing or future articles about specific project, products, companies or technologies. (Note: HTTP / the Web is specifically excluded from this decade, because the WWW came later)
TCP applications (FTP, gopher, telnet, WAIS, Archie / Veronica, etc)
1990s: WWW, and several software revolutions
Dial-up internet access for the masses
Many small companies, and some large ones such as CompuServe, sell dial-up internet access accounts to the public. Suddenly, anyone could get online and have email, although email systems were not always compatible with each other. Combined with the availability of home (personal) computers, internet usage grew astronomically.
The World Wide Web
In 1992, Tim Berners-Lee published the HTTP protocol and the HTML language, and the first web browser (Mosaic) became available. These led to what is now called the World Wide Web (or just WWW).
Object-oriented programming goes wild
Experimental computer programming languages based on object-oriented concepts were developed decades earlier, but in 1992, James Gosling and his team at Sun Microsystems began developing its Java platform which soon took the programming world by storm. Java provided an alternative to C++ for many, and is now widely used for programming on both the server and the client, as well as being taught as the first language for many students on computer science programs. Java is now a mainstay for enterprise computing. Java, like many languages before and since, uses a virtual machine architecture - the programmer writes in the Java programming language, which compiles to bytecode, which itself runs on a virtual machine that abstracts away the underlying platform. The idea is that it supposedly makes it simpler to write cross-platform applications, although in practice, this is rarely as easy as the early Java hype made it sound. Java's popularity spread widely, with Java variants appearing on mobile phones (JavaME), the enterprise server (JavaEE) and on web pages (the brief phenomena of Java applets) - to the point where some people started criticising Java's dominance[19][20][21].
There are also a wide variety of new programming languages appearing during the 1990s, often aimed at absolute beginners. Microsoft created Visual Basic which worked both on it's own and as part of the Office applications. 'Scripting' languages also became extremely popular: the Macintosh platform had AppleScript introduced, which has a "natural language" syntax designed for non-programmers (and which many programmers find cumbersome[22]). Python was a significant development, providing a simple scripting language that anyone could start using, but which had advanced object-oriented features. Ruby became popular later, offering some of the same benefits.
Open-source software shakes things up
After a decade of failed attempts to make the popular Unix operating system run on low-cost Wintel hardware, Linus Torvalds released the Linux operating system. Seeds planted in the 1980's by Richard Stallman's Open Software Foundation finally took root, and the open source software movement really took off, having a disruptive (and arguably positive) effect on the entire software economy.
XML, the universal translator
Another step on the road to operating system (platform) independence, this text-based standard for self-describing data had a huge impact. As major programming languages such as Java and C# developed XML parsers, these languages could finally exchange information with each other, and much more.
MP3: Honey, I shrunk the music
This compression algorithm led to digital music players and file sharing and much more. (need more here!)
See also: Convergence of communications
Need a paragraph here with pointers to existing or future articles about specific project, products, companies or technologies.\
Wireless local area network [r]: The assumption, in networking technologies, about the characteristics of the user space they support, and, as importantly, the user spaces they should ignore [e]
Cellular telephony [r]: A set of techniques that let many low-powered portable telephones connect to the fixed network, often exchanging data and images as well as voice [e]
Satellite communications [r]: Telecommunications that makes use of a high-altitude relay(s), usually artificial satellites in Earth orbits but potentially a relay in the atmosphere [e]
Google, Maps, Mashups, Amazon, Yahoo
Mashup [r]: An integrated application created by combining data and services of multiple applications. On the web, "mashup" typically refers to the combining of geographical location information with a service such as Google maps or Microsoft Virtual Earth. [e]
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Global Navigation Satellite System [r]: A system which allows small electronic devices to determine their location (Longitude, Latitude, and Altitude) as well as time with an accuracy of up to a few centimetres using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. [e]
Need a paragraph here with pointers to existing or future articles about specific project, products, companies or technologies. MySpace, Facebook, LinkedIn. Also, Digg, Del.icio.us, StumbleUpon, etc.
Telephony on the internet (VOIP)
Voice over Internet Protocol [r]: A family of standards that permits carrying voice telephony over Internet Protocol networks that handle both voice and data, instead of dedicated telephony networks. [e]
Virtualization: one computer, many operating systems
Famous people in history of computing
For now, see this list of people who made conceptual breakthroughs in computer science.
Famous concepts in history of computing
For now, see this list of seminal concepts in computer science.
↑ The Abacus:A Brief History. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
↑ Kaplan, Erez. 1996. The Controversial Replica of Leonardo da Vinci's Adding Machine. Retrieved on 2007-04-30.
↑ Abernethy, Ken and Allen, Tom. 2004. Early Calculating and Computing Machines: From the Abacus to Babbage. Furman University. Retrieved on 2007-04-30.
↑ A simplified example of the functionality of the Pascaline. La Machine de Pascal:la pascaline (French: The Machine of Pascal: The Pascaline (literal)). Retrieved on 2007-05-04.
↑ Lemelson-MIT Program, Inventor of the Week Archive. MIT. (February 2003). Retrieved on 2007-05-14.
↑ Dunne, Paul E.. History of Computation. Retrieved on 2007-05-14.
↑ O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. (July 1999). Hollerith Biography. School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St. Andrews, Scotland. Retrieved on 2007-05-14.
↑ ``A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, MIT master's thesis published in T.A.I.E.E. Vol. 57 (1938), pp. 713-723. Transactions American Institute of Electrical Engineers (1938). Retrieved on 2007-05-12.
↑ "Claude Shannon" from Professor Ray C. Dougherty's course notes (V61.0003) Communication: Men, Minds, and Machines (Fall, 1996). Microsoft Corporation (1996). Retrieved on 2007-05-12.
↑ Colossus: The World's First Electronic Computer. Pico Technology (date_not_specified). Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
↑ The ENIAC Museum Online. University of Pennsylvania School or Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS) (date_unspecified). Retrieved on 2007-04-23.
↑ (German) Zuse, Konrad: Verfahren zur selbsttätigen Durchführung von Rechnungen mit Hilfe von Rechenmaschinen. Patentanmeldung Z 23 139 / GMD Nr. 005/021 / Jahr 1936. Konrad Zuse: Bibliography.. Retrieved on 2007-05-16.
↑ Zuse, Horst. The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse. Wimborne Publishing LTD and Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc. Retrieved on 2007-05-16.
↑ (1987) "Portraits in Silicon" by Robert Slater, ch. 5, p. 43. The MIT Press.
↑ IBM Archives:IBM's ASCC (a.k.a. The Harvard Mark I). IBM. Retrieved on 2007-05-15.
↑ Lemelson-MIT Program, Inventor of the Week Archive. MIT. (October 2002). Retrieved on 2007-05-15.
↑ "The Eniac Museum Online", University of Pennsylvania School of Engineering Arts and Sciences. University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved on 2007-05-12.
↑ "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC" (PDF format) by John von Neumann, Contract No.W-670-ORD-4926, between the United States Army Ordnance Department and the University of Pennsylvania. Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, June 30, 1945. The report is also available in Stern, Nancy (1981). From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers. Digital Press.
↑ Paul Graham, Java's Cover
↑ Paul Graham, Great Hackers
↑ Paul Graham, The Python Paradox
↑ Vincent Gable, (NS)AppleScript Sucks, IMLocation Development Blog
Retrieved from "http://en.citizendium.org/wiki?title=History_of_computing&oldid=100838552"
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BACKGROUND: Noxious stimulus–induced analgesia (NSIA) is a type of conditioned pain modulation in rats that has been used to assess endogenous pain control systems. The descending noradrenergic system is involved in NSIA, and nerve injury induces plastic changes of descending noradrenergic neurons. Thus, we hypothesized that nerve injury would affect NSIA strength and that amitriptyline and pregabalin, which often are used for treating neuropathic pain, might further modulate NSIA through effects on the descending noradrenergic system.
METHODS: We examined the change in NSIA over time after right L5 spinal nerve ligation (SNL) in rats by measuring the contralateral hind paw withdrawal threshold after left forepaw capsaicin injection. In addition, we examined NSIA after 5 daily intraperitoneal injection of amitriptyline or pregabalin. Microdialysis studies were performed to measure noradrenaline levels after left forepaw capsaicin injection in the left spinal dorsal horn in noninjured rats, SNL rats, and SNL rats that had received 5 daily intraperitoneal injections of amitriptyline or pregabalin.
RESULTS: NSIA was dramatically attenuated 5 and 6 weeks after SNL (P < 0.001). The noradrenaline level in the lumbar spinal cord was significantly increased in noninjured rats receiving forepaw injection of capsaicin compared with vehicle injection (P < 0.001), but not in rats 6 weeks after SNL surgery. Five daily intraperitoneal injections of amitriptyline (10 mg/kg/d) or pregabalin (10 mg/kg/d) at 5 weeks after SNL gradually increased the ipsilateral hindpaw withdrawal threshold (P < 0.001). At 6 weeks after SNL, amitriptyline, but not pregabalin, reversed the attenuation of NSIA by SNL (P < 0.001) and increased the spinal noradrenaline level after forepaw injection of capsaicin (P = 0.005).
CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that endogenous analgesia in neuropathic pain states is strongly decreased from a certain time after nerve injury and that amitriptyline reverses the attenuation of endogenous analgesia through effects on the descending noradrenergic system.
From the Department of Anesthesiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma, Japan.
Accepted for publication January 28, 2016.
Funding: The study was supported by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Scientific and Technology of Japan (grant no. 25861356 to Dr. Matsuoka and grant no. 26670678 to Dr. Obata).
Address correspondence to Hideaki Obata, MD, PhD, Department of Anesthesiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371–8511, Japan. Address e-mail to hobata@gunma-u.ac.jp.
Recent studies have demonstrated that the descending noradrenergic system is involved in NSIA; capsaicin injection into the forepaw was shown to increase the noradrenaline level in the lumbar spinal cord,5,8 and NSIA was blocked partially by intrathecal injection of an α2-adrenergic antagonist and by ablation of the descending noradrenergic innervation of the spinal cord.5 The brain-spinal descending noradrenergic system suppresses nociceptive signals from primary afferent neurons to the spinal dorsal horn, and the inhibitory system also plays an important role in neuropathic pain states.9 Previous studies also demonstrated that the tone of the descending noradrenergic system changes over time after nerve injury.10–12 Therefore, we hypothesized that NSIA is modulated by the plasticity of descending noradrenergic systems after nerve injury. Thus, the first purpose of this study was to examine the change of NSIA over time in a rat model of neuropathic pain induced by spinal nerve ligation (SNL).
Antidepressants, such as tricyclic antidepressants and pregabalin, are used as first-line drugs for treatment of neuropathic pain,13 and previous studies demonstrated that the noradrenergic system is strongly involved in the analgesic effect of gabapentinoids14–16 and amitriptyline17 after peripheral nerve injury. Therefore, we hypothesized that amitriptyline and pregabalin also would modulate the effect of NSIA in SNL rats, and the second purpose of this study was to examine the change in NSIA and noradrenaline release in the spinal cord after 5 daily intraperitoneal injections of amitriptyline or pregabalin in rats with SNL.
Anatomical relationships and the time course of the experiments are diagrammed in Figure 1.
This experiment was approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine (Maebashi, Japan). Male Sprague-Dawley rats (250 g; SLC, Shizuoka, Japan) were used in all experiments. Animals were housed under a 12-hour light-dark cycle, with food and water provided ad libitum.
We used the L5 SNL model as an experimental model of neuropathic pain as described by Kim and Chung.18 In brief, the animals were anesthetized with inhaled isoflurane in oxygen, and the right L5 spinal nerve was tightly ligated with 6-0 silk and cut just distal to the ligature.
Withdrawal thresholds were measured by testing of the withdrawal response to a noxious pressure stimulus (Randall-Selitto test) using an analgesimeter (37215; Ugo Basile, Comerio, Italy), as previously described.19 A cutoff of 250 g was used to prevent potential tissue injury. All animals were trained for 3 days with the device before baseline values were recorded. Experiments with normal and SNL rats were performed separately. The experimenter was unaware of the drug and dose.
NSIA was elicited by subcutaneous injection of capsaicin (250 μg in a volume of 50 μL) administered to the left forepaw during brief general anesthesia induced by isoflurane (2%) inhalation. The degree of analgesia in the left hind paw was assessed by withdrawal thresholds as described previously. At each time point, withdrawal thresholds were assessed twice on the plantar aspect of left hind paw, and the results were averaged. NSIA was assessed in normal rats and SNL rats. SNL rats were evaluated at 1, 4, 5, and 6 weeks after SNL surgery. Capsaicin was initially dissolved in Tween 80 (50%) and ethanol (50%) to a concentration of 50 μg/μL and then diluted with saline to a concentration of 5 μg/μL; the subcutaneous capsaicin injection volume was 50 μL (250 μg) in all experiments.
Rats received 5 daily intraperitoneal injections of amitriptyline (10 mg/kg/d) or pregabalin (10 mg/kg/d) from 5 weeks (35 days) after SNL surgery. The bilateral paw withdrawal threshold was measured every day 30 minutes before drug injection to evaluate the chronic effects of the drugs. At 6 weeks (42 days) after SNL surgery, NSIA was assessed as described previously. Amitriptyline and pregabalin were dissolved in saline and intraperitoneally injected at 10 mg/kg for 5 consecutive days from 5 weeks after SNL surgery. In the control group, saline (1 mL) was injected rather than amitriptyline or pregabalin under the same schedule. Amitriptyline was purchased from LKT Laboratories, Inc (St. Paul, MN), and pregabalin was donated by Pfizer Inc (Groton, CT).
Microdialysis studies were performed to measure noradrenaline levels after left forepaw capsaicin injection in the left spinal dorsal horn as described previously.20 Anesthesia was induced using 5% isoflurane and maintained with 1.5% isoflurane in 100% oxygen through a nose cone. The left femoral vein was cannulated for saline infusion (1 mL/h), rectal temperature was maintained at 37 to 38°C, and the Th12 to L1 level of the spinal cord was exposed. The microdialysis probe (outer diameter = 0.22 mm, inner diameter = 0.20 mm, length = 1 mm; A-I-8-01; Eicom Co., Kyoto, Japan) was inserted from just lateral to the dorsal root and advanced at a 20° angle to a depth of 1 mm and perfused with Ringer's solution at a constant flow rate (1 μL/min).
After 120 minutes of constant perfusion, consecutive samples were collected to determine the basal noradrenaline concentrations in the dialysate. Capsaicin (250 μg) or vehicle (50 μL) was injected subcutaneously to the left forepaw, and 15-minute perfusate fractions were collected into an autoinjector (EAS-20; Eicom Co.). Samples (15 μL) were automatically injected and analyzed for noradrenaline concentration using high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection by an HTEC-500 analyzing system (Eicom Co.). The sample was separated on the column (2.0 mm × 200 mm, EICOMPAC CAX; Eicom Co.) using a mobile phase consisting of 0.1 M ammonium acetate buffer (pH 6.0) and methanol (7:3 v/v) containing 0.05 M sodium sulfonate and 50 mg/l EDTA-2Na.
We performed a power analysis for our primary outcome (mechanical withdrawal threshold in NSIA) to determine the appropriate sample size, with the assumptions of mean difference in withdrawal threshold of 50 g and SD in each group of 30 g according to a previous study.5 We found that 6 rats in each group would result in detection of significant differences, with 80% power at a significant level of α = 0.05. The effects of the capsaicin injection or the drug treatments on withdrawal thresholds in the behavioral studies and on the spinal cord noradrenaline level in the microdialysis studies were analyzed using 2-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Student t test with Bonferroni correction. The residuals of each of the 8 ANOVA models followed normal distributions (for all 8 models: P > 0.207 by Shapiro-Wilk test) and maintained equality of variance (for all 8 models: P > 0.082 by Levene test). The data were presented as the mean ± SD. P value <0.01 was considered statistically significant. The statistical analysis was conducted using SigmaPlot 12 (Systat Software Inc, San Jose, CA).
Subcutaneous injection of capsaicin into the left forepaw resulted in an increased withdrawal threshold to mechanical pressure in the ipsilateral hind paw in noninjured rats, with a peak effect at 30 minutes after capsaicin injection and an effect duration of approximately 75 minutes (Figure 2). Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant difference between vehicle and capsaicin injection (F 1,30 = 252.8; P < 0.001).
Compared with noninjured rats, withdrawal thresholds to mechanical pressure in the left hind paw of SNL rats subcutaneously injected with capsaicin in the ipsilateral forepaw were significantly decreased at 1, 4, 5, and 6 weeks after right SNL (Figure 3; F 4, 84 = 64.772; P < 0.001 by 2-way repeated-measures ANOVA). NSIA at 5 and 6 weeks after SNL was significantly decreased compared with that at other time points (P < 0.001 by Student t test with Bonferroni correction).
The concentration of noradrenaline measured by microdialysis was increased significantly in noninjured rats subcutaneously injected with capsaicin compared with those injected with vehicle (F 2, 60 = 12.302; P = 0.002 by 2-way repeated-measures ANOVA); however, the concentration of noradrenaline was not increased by subcutaneous injection of capsaicin in rats 6 weeks after SNL surgery (Figure 4).
To determine the effect of chronic treatment with amitriptyline or pregabalin on NSIA after SNL, the effects of 5 daily intraperitoneal injections of both drugs on hyperalgesia induced by SNL were evaluated. Withdrawal thresholds significantly decreased compared with the preoperative level in the ipsilateral hind paw (right) 5 weeks after SNL surgery. The amitriptyline (10 mg/kg/d) and pregabalin (10 mg/kg/d) injections, but not injection of saline, produced antihyperalgesic effects in the ipsilateral paw from day 1 (amitriptyline) or day 2 (pregabalin) after the daily injections were initiated (Figure 5, A and B, P < 0.001 by Student t test with Bonferroni correction after 2-way repeated-measures ANOVA).
After 5 daily injections of amitriptyline or pregabalin, the withdrawal threshold in the contralateral hind paw (left) was measured after subcutaneous injection of capsaicin in the forepaw at 6 weeks after SNL surgery. Compared with the pregabalin- and saline-treated groups, amitriptyline significantly elevated the withdrawal threshold of the left hind paw (Figure 6; F 2,60 = 73.366; P < 0.001 by 2-way repeated-measures ANOVA). Thus, 5 daily injections of amitriptyline reversed the attenuation of NSIA by SNL.
The concentration of noradrenalin after forepaw capsaicin injection in the spinal cord was significantly increased by 5 daily injections of amitriptyline compared with the saline-treated group (Figure 7, F 2, 60 = 9.468; P = 0.005 by 2-way repeated-measures ANOVA). In contrast, the concentration of noradrenaline after forepaw capsaicin injection in the spinal cord did not increase after 5 daily injections of pregabalin compared with the saline-treated group.
In the present study, the strength of NSIA in rats dramatically decreased from 5 weeks after SNL surgery, and this decrease occurred concurrently with a decrease in spinal noradrenaline release. Although it is not clear that the doses of drugs that we used are clinically relevant, 5 daily injections of amitriptyline and pregabalin (10 mg/kg/d) from 5 weeks after SNL effectively decreased hyperalgesia after SNL. The decrease in NSIA and noradrenaline levels, however, was reversed only by amitriptyline and not by pregabalin.
A previous study demonstrated plastic changes in descending noradrenergic neurons after nerve injury, where the density of the descending noradrenergic fibers and noradrenaline content in the ipsilateral lumbar spinal cord were increased 10 days after SNL in rats.10 Another report indicated a loss of noradrenergic fibers in the ipsilateral lumbar spinal cord 19 to 21 days after tibial nerve transection in rats.11 Although the animal models were different, these results suggest that the tone of the descending noradrenergic system dynamically changes over time after nerve injury.
In the present study, we therefore examined the changes in NSIA and noradrenaline release in the spinal cord after forepaw capsaicin injection in rats with SNL. We demonstrated that NSIA was strongly decreased in rats at 5 and 6 weeks compared with 4 weeks after SNL. In addition, spinal noradrenaline levels in response to forepaw capsaicin injection were not increased in rats at 6 weeks after SNL compared with normal rats. These results suggest that the attenuation of NSIA resulted at least partly from plastic changes in descending noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus (LC).
Amitriptyline and pregabalin have been shown to be effective analgesics in patients with neuropathic pain,13 and both drugs may activate or enhance the descending noradrenergic inhibitory system.15,17 We suspected that the effect of these drugs against neuropathic pain might at least partly be mediated through enhanced NSIA. In the present study, 5 daily injections of amitriptyline (10 mg/kg/d) and pregabalin (10 mg/kg/d) initiated 5 weeks after SNL increased the withdrawal threshold in the ipsilateral hindpaw, indicating that both drugs were effective for SNL-induced hyperalgesia. At 6 weeks after SNL, however, the effects of the 2 drugs on NSIA were different, as amitriptyline but not pregabalin reversed the attenuation of NSIA by SNL surgery. Microdialysis studies also demonstrated that 5 daily injections of amitriptyline, but not pregabalin, increased the noradrenaline level in the spinal cord after forepaw capsaicin injection. These results suggest that amitriptyline, but not pregabalin, reversed the dysfunction of the descending noradrenergic inhibitory system after SNL.
Amitriptyline may act not only as a 5-hydroxytryptamine and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor but also as a blocker of voltage-gated sodium channels and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors.29 Specifically with regard to noradrenaline, a microdialysis study showed that amitriptyline strongly increased the noradrenaline level in the spinal cord.17 Pregabalin has been shown to modulate the release of several neurotransmitters by selectively binding to the α2δ subunit of voltage-dependent calcium channels to reduce the influx of Ca2+ ions.30,31 Pregabalin and another α2δ ligand, gabapentin, are thought to activate noradrenergic neurons by reducing presynaptic GABAergic activity in the LC, thereby increasing noradrenaline release, which subsequently inhibits pain transmission via spinal α2-adrenoreceptors.15 Gabapentin has also been shown to increase the noradrenaline level in the rat spinal cord after systemic injection, as measured by microdialysis.16 Given that both amitriptyline and pregabalin activate descending noradrenergic system, the reason for the discrepancy between amitriptyline and pregabalin with regard to NSIA in the present study is not clear.
One possible mechanism for the effect of amitriptyline in the present study is the modulation of noradrenergic regulation of the LC; amitriptyline is a strong noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor17 and may thus increase the noradrenaline level in the LC, whose activation is mediated by α1, β2, and β3 adrenergic receptors.32 In contrast, activation of the LC is inhibited by α2A adrenergic receptors,33,34 and thus inhibition or blockade of α2A adrenergic receptors would be expected to increase synaptic levels of noradrenaline. A recent study demonstrated that tricyclic antidepressants including amitriptyline downregulate α2A adrenergic receptors35; therefore, in the present study, the 5 daily injections of amitriptyline might have activated the LC through decreased α2A adrenergic signaling.
Another possible mechanism is the induction of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the LC by amitriptyline. A previous study demonstrated that nerve injury increases the basal extracellular glutamate concentration in the LC,8 which may reduce noxious stimulation-evoked glutamate release, thereby diminishing α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl- 4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor–mediated LC activation, which is important for induction of NSIA. Another study demonstrated that amitriptyline increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in astrocyte cultures.36 Brain-derived neurotrophic factor triggers AMPA receptor GluA1 phosphorylation and regulates trafficking of the AMPA receptor.37 Therefore, amitriptyline may enhance glutamatergic neurotransmission by increasing AMPA receptor levels at the membrane surface in neurons of the LC. In the present study, we did not investigate the function of the LC in response to capsaicin injection; further studies are needed to investigate the differences among drugs in the context of their effect on NSIA.
In summary, NSIA was strongly decreased, and spinal noradrenaline levels were not increased after forepaw injection of capsaicin in rats at 6 weeks after SNL. Five daily injections of amitriptyline reversed the attenuation of NSIA after SNL surgery and increased the noradrenaline level in the spinal cord in response to forepaw capsaicin injection. It is therefore possible that amitriptyline reverses the attenuation of endogenous analgesia in chronic pain states.
Contribution: This author helped conduct the study, collect data, analyze the data, and prepare the manuscript.
Name: Takashi Suto, MD, PhD.
Contribution: This author helped collect the data and prepare the manuscript.
Name: Shigeru Saito, MD, PhD.
Contribution: This author helped design the study and prepare the manuscript.
Name: Hideaki Obata, MD, PhD.
Contribution: This author helped design and conduct the study, analyze the data, and prepare the manuscript.
This manuscript was handled by: Jianren Mao, MD, PhD.
We thank Dr. Devang Thakor (PhD) for English editing.
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A brief history of the political life of augustus caesar
His father, also Gaius Octavius, came from a respectable but undistinguished family of the equestrian order and was governor of Macedonia. Shortly after Octavius's birth, his father gave him the surname of Thurinus, possibly to commemorate the Macedonian victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves. He spent his early years in his grandfather's house near Veletrae modern Velletri. He spent most of his remaining childhood in the house of his stepfather, Lucius Marcius Philippus. He put on the toga virilis at fifteen, and was elected to the College of Pontiffs.
Caesar requested that Octavius join his staff for his campaign in Africa, but his mother protested that he was too young. The following year 46 B. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked.
After coming ashore with a handful of companions, he made it across hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably. Caesar and Octavius returned home in the same carriage, and Caesar secretly changed his will. When Caesar's will was read it revealed that, having no legitimate children, he had adopted his great-nephew as his son a brief history of the political life of augustus caesar main heir.
By virtue of his adoption, Octavius assumed the name Gaius Julius Caesar. Roman tradition dictated that he also append the surname Octavianus Octavian to indicate his biological family; however, no evidence exists that he ever used that name. Mark Antony later charged that he had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors, though Lives of the Twelve Caesars scribe, Suetonius, describes Antony's accusation as political slander.
Crossing over to Italia, he bolstered his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar. Only eighteen years old, he was consistently underestimated by his rivals for power. The three formed junta called the Second Triumvirate, an explicit grant of special powers lasting five years and supported by law, unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate of Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus.
His only evident advantage in life is that his grandmother is Julia, sister of Julius Caesar;
Antony occupied himself with military campaigns in the East and a romantic affair with Cleopatra; Octavian built a network of allies in Rome, consolidated his power, and spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because of his preoccupation with Egyptian affairs and traditions;
The example of Julius Caesar's end makes Octavian cautious in pursuit of supreme power;
The two victors separate to secure control of the empire.
Going beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins, the triumvirs were probably motivated by a need to raise money to pay their troops. After two battles at Philippi in Macedoniathe Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide 42 B. After the battle, a new arrangement was made between the members of the Second Triumvirate: Lepidus, now clearly marked as an unequal partner, settled for the province of Africa. Antony later left Cleopatra to make a strategic marriage with Octavian's sister, Octavia Minor, in 40 B.
During their marriage Octavia gave birth to two daughters, both named Antonia. Antony occupied himself with military campaigns in the East and a romantic affair with Cleopatra; Octavian built a network of allies in Rome, consolidated his power, and spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because of his preoccupation with Egyptian affairs and traditions. The situation grew more and more tense, and finally, in 32 B.
It was quickly decided. In the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greeceafter Antony's men began deserting, the fleets met in a great battle in which many ships burned and thousands on both sides lost their lives.
Augustus Biography
Octavian defeated his rivals, who then fled to Egypt. He pursued them, and following another defeat, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra also committed suicide after her upcoming role in Octavian's Triumph was "carefully explained to her," and Caesarion was "butchered without compunction.
The creation of the Principate Did you know? Augustus Caesar ended a century of civil wars and gave Rome an era of peace, prosperity, and imperial greatness, known as the Pax Romana, "Roman peace" Augustus as a magistrate.
Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near-lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars amongst the Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city and provinces.
Disbanding his personal forces, Octavian held elections and took up the position of consul; as such, though he had given up his personal armies, he was now legally in command of the legions of Rome.
The term Augustan Age will come to represent the idea of cultural excellence, just as the name of Augustus's close friend Maecenas - enthusiastic supporter of both Virgil and Horace - is now synonymous with artistic patronage.
But among the supporters of Caesar he has a natural opponent - Mark Antony , the dictator's trusted lieutenant, who did more than anyone to calm the situation after the Ides of March. A victory for the young and inexperienced Octavian gives him the prestige to negotiate on equal terms with Antony.
Mark Antony later charged that he had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors, though Lives of the Twelve Caesars scribe, Suetonius, describes Antony's accusation as political slander. These actions were highly abnormal from the Roman Senate, but this was not the same body of patricians that had murdered Caesar.
On August 19, 14 B. With maius imperium, Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph as he was ostensibly the head of every Roman army.
Going beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins, the triumvirs were probably motivated by a need to raise money to pay their troops.
The first settlement In 27 B. Reportedly, the suggestion of Octavian's stepping down as consul led to rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between the Senate and Octavian's supporters, known as the First Settlement. Octavian was given proconsular authority over the Western half and Syria. The provinces combined contained almost 70 percent of the Roman legions. The Senate also gave him the titles Augustus and Princeps.
Augustus was a title of religious rather than political authority. In the mindset of contemporary religious beliefs, it would have cleverly symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status.
But it signals the end of any pretence of alliance between the two rivals for power;
Additionally, Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius, or "imperium over all the proconsuls," which translated to the right to interfere in any province and override the decisions of any governor;
Octavian returned to Rome in triumph.
Additionally, after the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, the change in name would also serve to separate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian. Princeps translates to "first-citizen" or "first-leader. For example, Pompey had held the title. In addition, and perhaps the most dangerous innovation, the Roman Senate granted Augustus the right to wear the Civic Crown of laurel and oak. This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a Roman Triumph, with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat, "Remember, thou art mortal," to the triumphant general.
The fact that not only was Augustus awarded this crown but awarded the right to actually wear it upon his head is perhaps the clearest indication of the creation of a monarchy. However, it must be noted that none of these titles, or the Civic Crown, granted Octavian any additional powers or authority. For all intents and purposes the new Augustus was simply a highly-honored Roman citizen, holding the consulship. These actions were highly abnormal from the Roman Senate, but this was not the same body of patricians that had murdered Caesar.
Both Antony and Octavian had purged the Senate of suspect elements and planted it with their loyal partisans. How free a hand the Senate had in these transactions, and what back room deals were made, remain unknown.
The second settlement In 23 B. Augustus was granted the power of a tribune tribunicia potestasthough not the title, which allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor. These included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate.
No Tribune of Rome had held these a brief history of the political life of augustus caesar previously, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the Tribune and the Censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his tribunician authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is still a matter of debate.
In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself: All armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the Praefects, were now under the sole authority of Augustus.
Additionally, Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius, or "imperium over all the proconsuls," which translated to the right to interfere in any province and override the decisions of any governor. With a brief history of the political life of augustus caesar imperium, Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph as he was ostensibly the head of every Roman army. Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class.
When, in 22 B. In 22, 21, and 20 B. Finally, in 19 B. This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was actually a consul, the importance was that he appeared as one before the people.
With these powers in mind, it must be understood that all forms of permanent and legal power within Rome officially lay with the Senate and the people; Augustus was given extraordinary powers, but only as a pronconsul and magistrate under the authority of the Senate. Augustus never presented himself as a king or autocrat, once again only allowing himself to be addressed by the title princeps. After the death of Lepidus in 13 B. Later Roman Emperors would generally be limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus, though often, in order to display humility, newly appointed Emperors would often decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus.
Augustus Caesar
Just as often, as their reign progressed, Emperors would appropriate all of the titles, regardless of whether they had actually been granted by the Senate.
The Civic Crown, consular insignia, and later the purple robes of a Triumphant general toga picta became the imperial insignia well into the Byzantine eraand were even adopted by many Germanic tribes invading the former Western empire as insignia of their right to rule.
Death and Succession Augustus' control of power throughout the Empire was so absolute that it allowed him to name his successor, a custom that had been abandoned and derided in Rome since the foundation of the Republic. At first, indications pointed toward his sister's son, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, who had been married to Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder. However, Marcellus died of food poisoning in 23 B. Reports of later historians that this poisoning, and other later deaths, were caused by Augustus' wife, Livia Drusilla, are inconclusive at best.
After the death of Marcellus, Augustus married his daughter to his right hand man, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Augustus' intent to make the first two children his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children.
Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage, Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus and Tiberius Claudius, after they had conquered a large portion of Germany.
The fact that not only was Augustus awarded this crown but awarded the right to actually wear it upon his head is perhaps the clearest indication of the creation of a monarchy. The three men, who called themselves the Second Triumvirate a group of three officials or government leaders in ancient Rome , defeated their opponents in 42 B.
In many languages, caesar became the word for "emperor," as in German Kaiser , in Dutch keizer , and in Russian Tsar.
Unlike Caesar, one of Rome's military heroes, Augustus was sickly as a young boy. Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the thirteenth century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco.
The first settlement In 27 B. However, Marcellus died of food poisoning in 23 B.
The following year 46 B.
After Agrippa died in 12 B. Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter went into retirement. After the early deaths of both Gaius and Lucius in 4 and 2 C. On August 19, 14 B. Postumus Agrippa and Tiberius had been named co-heirs. However, Postumus had been banished, and was put to death around the same time. The one who ordered his death is unknown, but the way was clear for Tiberius to assume the same powers that his stepfather had.
Augustus' famous last words to his friends were, "Since well I've played my part, all clap your hands, and from the stage dismiss me with applause"—a common Greek ending to comedies, referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. He died kissing his wife Livia, uttering these last words: In many languages, caesar became the word for "emperor," as in German Kaiserin Dutch keizerand in Russian Tsar. The cult of the Divine Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in the fourth century.
Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first, and in some ways the greatest, of the emperors. Augustus' mausoleum originally contained bronze pillars inscribed with a record of his life, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, which had also been disseminated throughout the empire during his lifetime. Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the empire's life span and initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta.
Finally, in 19 B;
Lepidus, now clearly marked as an unequal partner, settled for the province of Africa;
Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near-lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot;
During the years after his victorious return to Rome he seems to sidle, sometimes almost reluctantly, into the role which he will fill with such skill - that of emperor.
He was handsome, intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar or Mark Antony. Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring.
Commentary on sonnet bright star by john keats essay
A biography of the life and times of iraqi leader saddam hussein
Thesis statement for research paper on human trafficking
Controlling one mans fate in shakespeares play macbeth
A look at the growing problem of doping in the sports world
A discussion of the rights that women had in ancient egypt
A discussion on te fourth crusade to constantinople
The importance of promissory estoppel in law
The contribution of junk foods to the growing rate of overweight teenagers in america
The influence of violent video games on youth behaviors
Essay about the differences between american and british english
An overview of the history for a case of key marketing principles
The consequence of joining the war in iraq
Selected piece of a conversation with janet sternburg and alan ziegler
Social factors that are contribute to violence in america


text:
Colonoscopy Prep
Gastroenterology Procedures
Why choose SAGA
Dr. Belinda Ramirez
Belinda Ramirez, M.D. knew that she wanted to be a doctor as early as high school. Aside from her love of the natural sciences, she had very close relationships with her grandmothers who suffered from various ailments. The topic of conversation with her elder relatives fueled her curiosity and forged her path in medicine. She recalls "I still remember one of my grandmothers talking about her chronic abdominal discomfort…I know now that I could have helped her if she was still living today."
The spirit and faith of her grandmothers led her to pursue her Medical Doctorate at the University of Texas at Houston. She continued her education with an internship and residency in Internal Medicine at the University of Kentucky School of Medicine.
Dr. Ramirez then accepted a Fellowship in Gastroenterology at the University of Florida College of Medicine. Here, she chose to focus on gastroenterology over other opportunities because of the unique balance the sub-specialty offered. She recounts those early days, "As a medical resident, I had the opportunity to do flexible sigmoidoscopies. It was a nice balance seeing my patients in the clinic, and then evaluating their symptoms further through the use of endoscopic procedures."
Today, Dr. Ramirez continues to take pleasure in her work as a gastroenterologist. When asked what she loves most about practicing medicine, she says, "Taking care of some of the nicest people one could ever meet. I often have the privilege of seeing multiple members of the same family. Right now, I can think of one mother who keeps surprising me in the office—by bringing in yet another one of her daughters!"
Dr. Ramirez feels fortunate to be part of an evolving field of medicine. For example, new treatment options are now available for patients struggling with illnesses such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, including a class of drugs referred to as biologics. In general, these drugs are used to control the immune system, as well as help to achieve and maintain remission of the disease. As a result, chronic steroid use is avoided. Hospitalizations and long-term complications are also reduced and the need for surgery is often eliminated as well. Research, however, is ongoing as there is still so much more to learn about these drugs and other newer agents.
In addition to gastroenterology, Dr. Ramirez has many other passions. When Dr. Ramirez can find some free time in her busy schedule, she squeezes in an outdoor jog or high-intensity interval training—activities she also encourages for her patients.
Practicing medicine since 1994
Languages spoken: English and Spanish
Downtown Clinic
520 E Euclid Ave.
Medical Center Clinic
2833 Babcock Rd.
San Antonio Gastroenterology Endoscopy Center – Medical Center
Downtown Endoscopy Center
Doctor of Medicine, University of Texas Medical School, Houston, Texas
Residency in Internal Medicine, The University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky
Fellowship, Gastroenterology The University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida
Member, American Gastroenterology Association
Member, American College of Gastroenterology
I care for some of the nicest people one could ever meet. I often have the privilege of seeing multiple members of the same family.
Dr. Belinda Ramirez — SAGA Physician
San Antonio's Digestive Health Leader
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Please Select A PhysicianFirst AvailableDr. Ernesto Guerra, Jr.Dr. Richard L. OteroDr. Steven R. RamosDr. Joseph E. Johnson, IVDr. Belinda RamirezDr. Eddie FloresDr. Michael S. LindnerDr. Jeff BullockDr. Antonio SernaDr. Kevin J. FranklinDr. Shailesh KadakiaDr. John J. Alvarez
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text:
Q: How to simplify this matrix equation? I am working through a proof and have got stuck at a certain point.  Where I have reached is the following:
$$
q(\mathbf{x}) = \frac{|\mathbf{\Sigma}|^2}{(\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{x}_0)'\mathbf{\Sigma}'\mathbf{\Sigma}(\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{x}_0)+|\mathbf{\Sigma}|^2}
$$
in which $\mathbf{x}$, $\mathbf{x}_0$ are $m \times 1$ vectors, $\mathbf{\Sigma}$ is $m \times m$ matrix and $|\mathbf{\Sigma}|$ is the determinant of $\mathbf{\Sigma}$, which is in fact the Jacobian matrix of a system of $m$ functions $\mathbf{f}(\mathbf{x}) = [f_i(\mathbf{x}),...,f_m(\mathbf{x})]'$, $f_i(\mathbf{x}):\mathbb{R}^m \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$.
Related work strongly suggests that the above reduces to
$$
q(\mathbf{x}) = \frac{1}{(\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{x}_0)'(\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{x}_0) + 1}.
$$
Can anyone provide the remaining step(s)?  Or alternatively advise if this is not possible.
EDIT: On reflection, it would be adequate to demonstrate (if it is possible to do so) that
$$
||q(\mathbf{x})||_2 = \frac{1}{(\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{x}_0)'(\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{x}_0) + 1}.
$$.

A: The best simplification i can see is rewriting the equation as
$$ q(x) = \frac{1}{1+\big\|\frac{Σ}{|Σ|}(x-x_0)\big\|_2^2} $$
This is generally equal to $\frac{1}{1+\|x-x_0\|_2^2}$ if and only if $Σ$ is orthogonal. Apart from that you can write it as a geometric series or derivative of arctan, if $|\det(Σ)|>ρ(Σ)$.
$$ q(x)
= \frac{1}{1+\big\|\frac{Σ}{|Σ|}(x-x_0)\big\|_2^2}
= \sum_{k=0}^{\infty} (-1)^k \Big\|\frac{Σ}{|Σ|}(x-x_0)\Big\|_2^{2k}
= \frac{\arctan(\big\|\frac{Σ}{|Σ|}(x-x_0)\big\|)}{\big\|\frac{Σ}{|Σ|}(x-x_0)\big\|}
$$

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


–Are, in many cases, quite intelligent.
–Are individual beings whose lives have intrinsic value.
–Have, in some cases, individual personalities.
This is heady stuff, especially for fish lovers like myself, who fancy catching them and/or eating them. When we look at a fish fillet in a supermarket display case, side-by side-with chicken thighs, we know that chickens, despite the horrendous conditions they are raised in, could be rescued from those cages and live normal lives catching grasshoppers and laying eggs. I know this because I once hand-raised two chicks, Cheep and Chong, to adulthood. Cheep, the rooster, allowed me to carry him around as I would a kitten, even when he was fully grown. But fish? Can you imagine doing such things with a fish? Well, let me introduce Oscar.
An Oscar, Astronatus occelatus, a cichlid that's a popular aquarium fish.
In 1974, when I still lived in Richmond with former wife Luci, I bought a 40-gallon aquarium and stocked it with fish recommended by the folks at a pet store, including a baby Oscar about 3/4 of an inch long. Within two months, Oscar was the only fish left in the tank–he had eaten the rest of them. Intrigued, I kept him and fed him goldfish (I know now from Balcombe's book they are toxic to Oscars), and he grew to about five inches long and looked like the Oscar above, except that he was black and white. Then we decided to move to Albuquerque and I took him with us. I found a large styrofoam cooler, filled it with aquarium water, rigged a battery-powered aerator, and placed his new home of the front seat of a large rental truck for the 2,000-mile drive to Albuquerque. He and I exchanged stares for much of the way–he was always lying on his left side at the bottom of the cooler. Since it was November, I made sure to keep the temperature high in the truck and in the motel rooms we slept in. He made the trip fine, and I set him up in our new living room in the same 40-gallon tank. Oscar developed into a pet as friendly as a dog or cat. He recognized me when I came in the room, wiggling around and performing an elaborate dance. He would rise to the surface to be caressed on the top of his head. He gently took goldfish from my fingers and sucked them into his mini-maw. Oscar had a personality as distinct as any other animal I'd had, and in fact, had more personality and affection than guinea pigs, rabbits, and gerbils I had raised as a kid. Oscar died when our furnace failed one night due to a power outage, and the temperature in his tank dropped too low for a fish native to the Amazon basin. But I'll never forget my favorite fish.
So you can see why I was predisposed to like and appreciate Balcombe's excellent book that brings fishes into their their proper and well-deserved perspective.


Super versatile fly hook with fascinating curved shank Caddis pupa & Larva,Floating Nymph, Emerger, Soft hackle, Parachute, Keel Nymph, 2X Short, 1X-3X Variable fine, Curved shank, Barbless, Black. The eye is slightly up-turuned on this model.The shank, on the otherhand, curves gradually down towards the rear, which makes the hook ideally well-balanced.It rides in the water in the way as a straighteyed hook does. This is an excellent choice for caddis pupa imitations, floating nymphs, emergers, soft hackle flies, parachute dries, CDC dries, shrimp flies and many other patterns.


text:
Q: Inverse square law - brightness and distance I am working on a lab report wherein I am given a bunch of readouts from an experiment that measures the brightness (lux) of light at set distances (cm).  When I apply the inverse square law,
$$\frac{I_1}{I_2}=\frac{d_2^2}{d_1^2},$$
the answer comes out way off of the expected distance.
Example:
$$\sqrt{\frac{163.1\text{ lux}·(35\text{ cm})^2}{23\text{ lux}}}=93.20\text{ cm}$$
I would be expecting 10!  Am I doing something wrong here?

A: As $I_2 > I_1$ if $d_1 > d_2$, I think you just got your lux'es upside-down (inversed). What you wanted was $$35\sqrt{\frac{23}{163.1}}=13.14 $$ Is that close enough to $10$ for you?


This spacious, light and airy lodge-style home, in the North end of Sunriver, is a wonderful destination for any occasion. This two story home has a lovely open kitchen, living and dining room area with high vaulted ceilings and a gorgeous round river rock fireplace. With plenty of room for the whole family you will love the beautiful lodge pole beds in each of the rooms. A good sized deck off the back of the home has a BBQ and hot tub, and as an added bonus the home has bikes and a ping-pong table in the garage. This is a wonderful home that is sure to suit all your needs. **Spring/Fall 4 for 2 Special!!


text:
Q: Why does Visual Studio generate these additional files? In the output directory where Visual Studio places the compiled executable, there are three additional files of the types *.exp, *.lib, .pdb. I do not need those files and I would like to prevent the compiler from creating them.
This is how my build output directory looks like. I only need the *.exe file.

What are these additional files for? How can I disable that they are generated? If they are needed for the build process, is there a way to automatically remove them after the executable is created?
I am using Visual Studio 2012. If you need additional details, please comment.

A: EXP and LIB files But I don't want that .lib or .exp file for my COM library! . You could probably set the location of these files in the "Intermediate Output" setting and not have them in your release folder

A: I'm assuming you are looking to have only the dll and exe files in your final release directory and the *.exp, *.lib, .pdb files left in your intermediate directory as to not clutter the directory you are working in.
Visual Studio 2017
Open properties (Right click on the project in the solution explorer):
change settings as shown:
Import Library will define where the .lib and .exp files are created.

Generate Program Database File defines where the .pdb file is created.

Debug information format -- None will prevent pdb file from being created.  Select this option for Release builds.

A: There some functions inside declared with as __declspec(dllexport).
It means that they are exported and linker thinks that there is a need to link with this dynamic library (no matter it is exe or dll - in general the structure is the same) and creates *.lib and *.exp file


When we talk about food in America, it's often to celebrate our abundant agriculture or explore a cuisine. When we talk about hunger, we often turn our eyes abroad to developing nations. But there is a quiet, persistent problem with hunger here at home — and last fallNational Geographic sent me to explore it.
For the magazine's "Feeding a Hungry Planet" series, I visited three parts of the United States — rural Iowa, suburban Houston and New York City's Bronx borough. Building on the field work of photographers Amy Toensing, Kitra Cahana and Stephanie Sinclair, I met with food bank directors and elementary school principals; shared meals with families who forage for vegetables in the woods and families who subsist on food bank mac and cheese; and talked to experts from around the country.
Once on the road, some of the most basic ideas I had heard about Americans and food were turned on their head.
Myth: America has an obesity problem, not a hunger problem.
Myth: People who don't have enough food don't work.
This might have been true in the mid-20th century with a booming economy and record-high wages, but the story today is very different. More than half of households who are food insecure — the government term describing hunger — have an adult working full-time, and another 16 percent have someone working part-time, according to a 2013 report from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Altogether, 75 percent of food insecure households have a worker in the home.
Myth: The hungry live in inner cities and Appalachia.
Hunger — like poverty — is now a suburban problem. During the recession, hunger is grew faster in the suburbs than cities, with suburban enrollment in SNAP — food stamps — more than doubling during the recession, according to the Brookings Institution.
Myth: Only the destitute are hungry.
Myth: The U.S. is the richest country, so we have less hunger.
Today, there are about 49 million Americans who say they run out of food at least once a year. That's about 16 percent of us, which means one in six — putting the U.S. at the rock bottom of the pack when it comes to our economic peers, according to a New York Timesanalysis. In many European countries, the ratio of hungry to fed is one in 20.


text:
SC to hear plea of Army men challenging prosecution in AFSPA areas
Assam RiflesJammu and KashmirManipurSupreme Court
NEW DELHI: The Supreme Court on Monday said that it will hear on September 4, a plea by over 300 Army personnel challenging registration of FIRs against them for operations in Manipur and Jammu and Kashmir where the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) is in force.
The petition came up for hearing before a bench comprising justices Madan B Lokur, S Abdul Nazeer and Deepak Gupta and the court said the matter has to be heard by the bench which had passed an order in this regard last year.
"It has to go before the same bench," justice Lokur said.
Justice Lokur said that he, along with justice U U Lalit, had passed the order last year and the matter has to go before the same bench.
The court had on July 14 last year constituted the SIT and ordered lodging of FIRs and probe into as many as 1,528 cases of alleged extra-judicial killings in Manipur.
Meanwhile, the bench said that two separate petitions related to Manipur fake encounter cases will be heard on September 4.
The main petition said Army personnel were being "persecuted" and proceeded against for performing duties in such disturbed areas.
The filing of the plea by serving Army officers assumed significance as the CBI's SIT has recently filed charge sheets in two separate encounter cases in Manipur against armed forces in which murder charges have been slapped.
The SIT was constituted by the apex court while hearing a matter related to alleged fake encounters by the Army, the Assam Rifles and the state police in Manipur.


text:
News / Bath reigns again
This year's winner of the £1,000 3DReid Student Prize is Bath School of Architecture graduate Michael Lewis for his reinvention of Porto's industrial heritage and the creation of a School of Construction on the site of a dilapidated tile factory. Competing against 7 other entries, including a team of 8 from the Bartlett's Unit 17, Lewis won for the 'maturity of thinking and attention to detail of his beautifully illustrated and modelled scheme' according to head judge Mark Taylor, Chief Executive of 3DReid.
In total 29 schools nominated students in this year's event.
Andreas Papallas from University of Cambridge won the online Public Vote with over 580 'Likes' on 3DReid's Facebook page with an airport facility within the UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus, the site of the winning entry in 2013, by a team also from Bath University.
Taylor was joined by a host of judges including 3DReid staff and clients Barry Weekes, Head of Technical Design for Heathrow, who also sponsored this year's prize; David Porter, President of the Architectural Association and Chris Fletcher, Head of Development Delivery for Grainger.
Barry Weekes added: "This is the first year I have been involved with this fantastic event. The quality of work and thinking that is emerging from our schools of architecture is simply excellent and gives me great confidence for the future of British design. We see this as the perfect opportunity to support students of design and help give them that first step towards a successful career. Well done to Michael and to all the finalists for their efforts."
Chris Fletcher from Grainger said
"I thought it was genuinely fantastic, I was blown away by the submissions and the quality generally. I thought the whole day was a really special experience and very rare you get that chance to comment on such a high quality set of projects. It is clear the group of people I met today are going to go a long way. I suspect we will see a lot of these people again and I hope so because there is a huge amount of talent and I think the prize should be commended for encouraging that to come into the fore."
The other shortlisted students were:
Matthew Kernan of Queen's University, Belfast
Bruce Doran of Mackintosh School of Architecture ,Glasgow
Kristian James of Manchester School of Architecture
Jack Scaffardi of The University of Newcastle upon Tyne
Charlotte Eley of The University of Sheffield
Henry Svendsen, Marta Dabrowska, Vasilis Marcou Ilchuk, Ashley Hinchcliffe, Carl Inder, Oscar Plastow, Yun Wan and Yiu Yeung Kwan – Unit 17, The Bartlett
Our judges were (left to right):
David Porter, President of the Architectural Association;
Mark Taylor; David Stanford; Tom Robinson and Richard Fairhead (not pictured) of 3DReid
Chris Fletcher, Head of Development Delivery, Grainger
Barry Weekes, Head of Design, Heathrow


text:
Q: Is the noun "points" used as an adjective in "a points victory"? I read this recently in The Economist:

At the end of the summit, the French and European officials had
claimed a points victory over the Germans by getting them to agree
more firmly to a target date of January 1st next year to entrust the
European Central Bank (ECB) with the ultimate authority to supervise
the euro zone's 6,000-odd banks.

"Points" is a plural, and I suppose it doesn't function as a noun in this sentence since it's following the article "a", so is it an adjective adorning "victory"?

A: When a noun is used this way it is called an attributive noun or noun adjunct.
One big difference between attributive nouns and adjectives is that while an adjective is predicative, i.e., a big dog is big and is a dog, a points victory is not points, but rather it is a victory when using points as the determining factor.

A: As I've mentioned in a comment to another post, it's probably fairer to say that "adjective" ~ "noun" form ends of a spectrum rather than mutually exclusive categories.
However, on balance, reasons for saying that "points" is more "noun like" in this case would include:

*

*the fact that "points" is marked as plural, whereas e.g. the plural is not possible in "a yellow/*yellows victory"

*the prosodic difference between "a points victory" vs e.g. "a clear victory"

*the ungrammaticality of "*the victory was points" vs the grammaticality of "the victory was clear"

*the ungrammaticality or oddness of "*the score, points victory" vs the grammaticality of "the clear, resounding victory"

*combined with the observation that canonically "adjective-like" words go before canonically "noun-like" words, the observation that "a clear points victory" is grammatical, whereas "*a points clear victory" is not.

None of these obesrvations on its own would be a "smoking gun", but combined, they suggest that "points" is towards the "nouny" end of the spectrum in this case.

A: Richard Nordquist, at About Education, supports the belief that there are unresolved difficulties in deciding on whether some usages should be considered examples of 'adjectives' or 'attributive nouns':

•  "Webster's New International Dictionary . . . does not call every
  noun capable of attributive use an adjective but some like cash, land,
  mind etc. are labelled 'n(oun) often attrib(utive).' However, the
  distinction between words that are 'n often attrib' and words that are
  'adj' is not precise, as the editors themselves claim . . ..
Moreover, even one author may provide different explanations for
  similar cases. Gove (1964:165), for example, considers the word zero
  in zero modification an adjective in the light of its attributive
  and predicative uses, despite the fact that it neither inflects for
  degree nor admits adverbial modification. However, surprisingly
  enough, for macaroni salad, apparently similar to the zero
  modification example, he argues that there appears to be a 'strong
  feeling' against macaroni as an adjective." (Isabel Balteiro, The
  Directionality of Conversion in English: A Dia-synchronic Study. Peter
  Lang AG, 2007)

I'd throw in a plastic spoon and a tantalum rod.
A deeper discussion, including the debate about whether 'gradience' should be accepted as a necessary concept when seeking to allocate POSs to words in given sentences, is given in Pastor Gómez' Nominal Modifiers in Noun Phrase Structure: Evidence from Contemporary English.. I think the views of Denison he quotes are particularly important:

Denison (2001) recognises that diachronically there is a movement of
  some modifying nouns into the class of adjectives, and that there is
  thus intersective gradience from noun into adjective by some nouns in
  modifying position, such as fun and key. In the case of fun, for
  example, it is used as a modifier in attributive and predicative
  position (eg a fun home; that new game is fun [to play]). Denison
  even cites an example with a superlative ending, funnest, pointing
  out that this is 'a sign of full morphological adjectivehood'....
Denison argues that there is no simple switch from the noun into the
  adjective category, but rather a series of transitions from one
  category into the other.'

[Of course, the pure noun fun still exists happily.]

A: No, the noun is not used as an adjective. It's used as a noun. Sequences of nouns can act as a single noun, like "chemistry lab" or "car door".