text:
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series - …ars.nc4fb.org/NEETS/module 23.pdf · NAVY...
of 164 /164
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. NONRESIDENT TRAINING COURSE SEPTEMBER 1998 Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series Module 23—Magnetic Recording NAVEDTRA 14195
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series - …ars.nc4fb.org/NEETS/module 23.pdf · NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training
voliem
Text of Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series - …ars.nc4fb.org/NEETS/module 23.pdf · NAVY...
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
NONRESIDENTTRAININGCOURSE
Navy Electricity andElectronics Training Series
Module 23Magnetic Recording
NAVEDTRA 14195
Although the words he, him, andhis are used sparingly in this course toenhance communication, they are notintended to be gender driven or to affront ordiscriminate against anyone.
By enrolling in this self-study course, you have demonstrated a desire to improve yourself and the Navy.Remember, however, this self-study course is only one part of the total Navy training program. Practicalexperience, schools, selected reading, and your desire to succeed are also necessary to successfully roundout a fully meaningful training program.
COURSE OVERVIEW: To introduce the student to the subject of Magnetic Recording who needs sucha background in accomplishing daily work and/or in preparing for further study.
THE COURSE: This self-study course is organized into subject matter areas, each containing learningobjectives to help you determine what you should learn along with text and illustrations to help youunderstand the information. The subject matter reflects day-to-day requirements and experiences ofpersonnel in the rating or skill area. It also reflects guidance provided by Enlisted Community Managers(ECMs) and other senior personnel, technical references, instructions, etc., and either the occupational ornaval standards, which are listed in the Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower Personnel Classificationsand Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068.
THE QUESTIONS: The questions that appear in this course are designed to help you understand thematerial in the text.
VALUE: In completing this course, you will improve your military and professional knowledge.Importantly, it can also help you study for the Navy-wide advancement in rate examination. If you arestudying and discover a reference in the text to another publication for further information, look it up.
1998 Edition Prepared byCTMC(SS) Milton Charles Georgo
Published byNAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTAND TECHNOLOGY CENTER
NAVSUP Logistics Tracking Number0504-LP-026-8460
Sailors Creed
I am a United States Sailor.
I will support and defend theConstitution of the United States ofAmerica and I will obey the ordersof those appointed over me.
I represent the fighting spirit of theNavy and those who have gonebefore me to defend freedom anddemocracy around the world.
I proudly serve my countrys Navycombat team with honor, courageand commitment.
I am committed to excellence andthe fair treatment of all.
CHAPTER PAGE
1. Introduction to Magnetic Recording......................................................................... 1-1
2. Magnetic Tape .......................................................................................................... 2-1
3. Magnetic Tape Recorder Heads ............................................................................... 3-1
4. Magnetic Tape Recorder Transports ........................................................................ 4-1
5. Magnetic Tape Recorder Record and Reproduce Electronics .................................. 5-1
6. Magnetic Tape Recorder Specifications................................................................... 6-1
7. Digital Magnetic Tape Recording ............................................................................ 7-1
8. Magnetic Disk Recording......................................................................................... 8-1
I. Glossary.................................................................................................................. AI-1
II. References .............................................................................................................. AII-1
INDEX ...................................................................................................................... INDEX-1
The figures listed below and included in this edition of NEETS, Module 23, Magnetic Recording, were provided by Datatape, Inc. Permission to use these illustrations is gratefully acknowledged.
SOURCE FIGURE
Datatape, Inc. 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 5-3, 6-3, 6-4 A&B, 7-1, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6
NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAININGSERIES
The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS) was developed for use by personnel inmany electrical- and electronic-related Navy ratings. Written by, and with the advice of, seniortechnicians in these ratings, this series provides beginners with fundamental electrical and electronicconcepts through self-study. The presentation of this series is not oriented to any specific rating structure,but is divided into modules containing related information organized into traditional paths of instruction.
The series is designed to give small amounts of information that can be easily digested before advancingfurther into the more complex material. For a student just becoming acquainted with electricity orelectronics, it is highly recommended that the modules be studied in their suggested sequence. Whilethere is a listing of NEETS by module title, the following brief descriptions give a quick overview of howthe individual modules flow together.
Module 1, Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Direct Current, introduces the course with a short historyof electricity and electronics and proceeds into the characteristics of matter, energy, and direct current(dc). It also describes some of the general safety precautions and first-aid procedures that should becommon knowledge for a person working in the field of electricity. Related safety hints are locatedthroughout the rest of the series, as well.
Module 2, Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers, is an introduction to alternating current(ac) and transformers, including basic ac theory and fundamentals of electromagnetism, inductance,capacitance, impedance, and transformers.
Module 3, Introduction to Circuit Protection, Control, and Measurement, encompasses circuit breakers,fuses, and current limiters used in circuit protection, as well as the theory and use of meters as electricalmeasuring devices.
Module 4, Introduction to Electrical Conductors, Wiring Techniques, and Schematic Reading, presentsconductor usage, insulation used as wire covering, splicing, termination of wiring, soldering, and readingelectrical wiring diagrams.
Module 5, Introduction to Generators and Motors, is an introduction to generators and motors, andcovers the uses of ac and dc generators and motors in the conversion of electrical and mechanicalenergies.
Module 6, Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies, ties the first five modulestogether in an introduction to vacuum tubes and vacuum-tube power supplies.
Module 7, Introduction to Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies, is similar to module 6, but it is inreference to solid-state devices.
Module 8, Introduction to Amplifiers, covers amplifiers.
Module 9, Introduction to Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping Circuits, discusses wave generation andwave-shaping circuits.
Module 10, Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas, presents thecharacteristics of wave propagation, transmission lines, and antennas.
Module 11, Microwave Principles, explains microwave oscillators, amplifiers, and waveguides.
Module 12, Modulation Principles, discusses the principles of modulation.
Module 13, Introduction to Number Systems and Logic Circuits, presents the fundamental concepts ofnumber systems, Boolean algebra, and logic circuits, all of which pertain to digital computers.
Module 14, Introduction to Microelectronics, covers microelectronics technology and miniature andmicrominiature circuit repair.
Module 15, Principles of Synchros, Servos, and Gyros, provides the basic principles, operations,functions, and applications of synchro, servo, and gyro mechanisms.
Module 16, Introduction to Test Equipment, is an introduction to some of the more commonly used testequipments and their applications.
Module 17, Radio-Frequency Communications Principles, presents the fundamentals of a radio-frequency communications system.
Module 18, Radar Principles, covers the fundamentals of a radar system.
Module 19, The Technician's Handbook, is a handy reference of commonly used general information,such as electrical and electronic formulas, color coding, and naval supply system data.
Module 20, Master Glossary, is the glossary of terms for the series.
Module 21, Test Methods and Practices, describes basic test methods and practices.
Module 22, Introduction to Digital Computers, is an introduction to digital computers.
Module 23, Magnetic Recording, is an introduction to the use and maintenance of magnetic recorders andthe concepts of recording on magnetic tape and disks.
Module 24, Introduction to Fiber Optics, is an introduction to fiber optics.
Embedded questions are inserted throughout each module, except for modules 19 and 20, which arereference books. If you have any difficulty in answering any of the questions, restudy the applicablesection.
Although an attempt has been made to use simple language, various technical words and phrases havenecessarily been included. Specific terms are defined in Module 20, Master Glossary.
Considerable emphasis has been placed on illustrations to provide a maximum amount of information. Insome instances, a knowledge of basic algebra may be required.
Assignments are provided for each module, with the exceptions of Module 19, The Technician'sHandbook; and Module 20, Master Glossary. Course descriptions and ordering information are inNAVEDTRA 12061, Catalog of Nonresident Training Courses.
Throughout the text of this course and while using technical manuals associated with the equipment youwill be working on, you will find the below notations at the end of some paragraphs. The notations areused to emphasize that safety hazards exist and care must be taken or observed.
AN OPERATING PROCEDURE, PRACTICE, OR CONDITION, ETC., WHICH MAYRESULT IN INJURY OR DEATH IF NOT CAREFULLY OBSERVED ORFOLLOWED.
AN OPERATING PROCEDURE, PRACTICE, OR CONDITION, ETC., WHICH MAYRESULT IN DAMAGE TO EQUIPMENT IF NOT CAREFULLY OBSERVED ORFOLLOWED.
An operating procedure, practice, or condition, etc., which is essential to emphasize.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR TAKING THE COURSE
The text pages that you are to study are listed atthe beginning of each assignment. Study thesepages carefully before attempting to answer thequestions. Pay close attention to tables andillustrations and read the learning objectives.The learning objectives state what you should beable to do after studying the material. Answeringthe questions correctly helps you accomplish theobjectives.
SELECTING YOUR ANSWERS
Read each question carefully, then select theBEST answer. You may refer freely to the text.The answers must be the result of your ownwork and decisions. You are prohibited fromreferring to or copying the answers of others andfrom giving answers to anyone else taking thecourse.
SUBMITTING YOUR ASSIGNMENTS
To have your assignments graded, you must beenrolled in the course with the NonresidentTraining Course Administration Branch at theNaval Education and Training ProfessionalDevelopment and Technology Center(NETPDTC). Following enrollment, there aretwo ways of having your assignments graded:(1) use the Internet to submit your assignmentsas you complete them, or (2) send all theassignments at one time by mail to NETPDTC.
Grading on the Internet: Advantages toInternet grading are:
you may submit your answers as soon asyou complete an assignment, and
you get your results faster; usually by thenext working day (approximately 24 hours).
In addition to receiving grade results for eachassignment, you will receive course completionconfirmation once you have completed all the
assignments. To submit your assignmentanswers via the Internet, go to:
https://courses.cnet.navy.mil
Grading by Mail: When you submit answersheets by mail, send all of your assignments atone time. Do NOT submit individual answersheets for grading. Mail all of your assignmentsin an envelope, which you either provideyourself or obtain from your nearest EducationalServices Officer (ESO). Submit answer sheetsto:
COMMANDING OFFICERNETPDTC N3316490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROADPENSACOLA FL 32559-5000
Answer Sheets: All courses include onescannable answer sheet for each assignment.These answer sheets are preprinted with yourSSN, name, assignment number, and coursenumber. Explanations for completing the answersheets are on the answer sheet.
Do not use answer sheet reproductions: Useonly the original answer sheets that weprovidereproductions will not work with ourscanning equipment and cannot be processed.
Follow the instructions for marking youranswers on the answer sheet. Be sure that blocks1, 2, and 3 are filled in correctly. Thisinformation is necessary for your course to beproperly processed and for you to receive creditfor your work.
COMPLETION TIME
Courses must be completed within 12 monthsfrom the date of enrollment. This includes timerequired to resubmit failed assignments.
PASS/FAIL ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES
If your overall course score is 3.2 or higher, youwill pass the course and will not be required toresubmit assignments. Once your assignmentshave been graded you will receive coursecompletion confirmation.
If you receive less than a 3.2 on any assignmentand your overall course score is below 3.2, youwill be given the opportunity to resubmit failedassignments. You may resubmit failedassignments only once. Internet students willreceive notification when they have failed anassignment--they may then resubmit failedassignments on the web site. Internet studentsmay view and print results for failedassignments from the web site. Students whosubmit by mail will receive a failing result letterand a new answer sheet for resubmission of eachfailed assignment.
COMPLETION CONFIRMATION
After successfully completing this course, youwill receive a letter of completion.
Errata are used to correct minor errors or deleteobsolete information in a course. Errata mayalso be used to provide instructions to thestudent. If a course has an errata, it will beincluded as the first page(s) after the front cover.Errata for all courses can be accessed andviewed/downloaded at:
https://www.advancement.cnet.navy.mil
STUDENT FEEDBACK QUESTIONS
We value your suggestions, questions, andcriticisms on our courses. If you would like tocommunicate with us regarding this course, weencourage you, if possible, to use e-mail. If youwrite or fax, please use a copy of the StudentComment form that follows this page.
For subject matter questions:
E-mail: [email protected]: Comm: (850) 452-1001, ext. 1728
DSN: 922-1001, ext. 1728FAX: (850) 452-1370(Do not fax answer sheets.)
Address: COMMANDING OFFICERNETPDTC N3156490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROADPENSACOLA FL 32509-5237
For enrollment, shipping, grading, orcompletion letter questions
E-mail: fleetser[email protected]: Toll Free: 877-264-8583
Comm: (850) 452-1511/1181/1859DSN: 922-1511/1181/1859FAX: (850) 452-1370(Do not fax answer sheets.)
NAVAL RESERVE RETIREMENT CREDIT
If you are a member of the Naval Reserve, youwill receive retirement points if you areauthorized to receive them under currentdirectives governing retirement of NavalReserve personnel. For Naval Reserveretirement, this course is evaluated at 2 points.(Refer to Administrative Procedures for NavalReservists on Inactive Duty, BUPERSINST1001.39, for more information about retirementpoints.)
THIS PAGE LEFT BLANK INTENTIONALLY.
Course Title:NEETS Module 23Magnetic Recording
NAVEDTRA: 14195 Date:
We need some information about you:
Rate/Rank and Name: SSN: Command/Unit
Street Address: City: State/FPO: Zip
Your comments, suggestions, etc.:
Privacy Act Statement: Under authority of Title 5, USC 301, information regarding your military status isrequested in processing your comments and in preparing a reply. This information will not be divulged withoutwritten authorization to anyone other than those within DOD for official use in determining performance.
NETPDTC 1550/41 (Rev 4-00)
INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC RECORDING
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. They serve as a preview of theinformation you are expected to learn in the chapter. The comprehension check questions placed withinthe text are based on the objectives. By successfully completing those questions and the associatedNRTC, you show that you have met the objectives and have learned the information. The learningobjectives for this chapter are listed below.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Describe the history and purpose of magnetic recording.
2. State the prerequisites for magnetic recording.
3. Describe a magnetic recording head, how its constructed, and how it operates.
Have you ever wondered how a whole album of your favorite music got onto one of those littlecassette tapes? Or, what about computer floppy disks; have you ever wondered how they can hold 180 ormore pages of typed text? The answer to both of these questions is magnetic recording.
Magnetic recording devices seldom get much attention until they fail to work. But without magneticrecording, recording your favorite television show on a video cassette recorder would be impossible,portable tape players wouldnt exist, and you wouldnt be able to get money from an automated bank tellermachine at two oclock in the morning.
Now what about the Navy? Could it operate without magnetic recording? The answer is definitelyno. Without it:
Computer programs and data would have to be stored on either paper cards or on rolls of papertape. Both of these methods need a lot of storage space, and they take much longer to load intoand out of the computer.
There wouldnt be any movies to show or music to play on the ships entertainment system whenthe ship is at sea and is out of range for television and radio reception.
Intelligence-collection missions would be impossible since you couldnt store the collectedsignals for later analysis.
As you can see, magnetic recording plays a very important part both in our Navy life and in ourcivilian life.
HISTORY OF MAGNETIC RECORDERS
In 1888, Oberlin Smith originated the idea of using permanent magnetic impressions to recordsounds. Then in 1900, Vladeniar Poulsen brought Mr. Smiths dream to reality. At the Paris Exposition,he demonstrated a Telegraphone. It was a device that recorded sounds onto a steel wire. Althougheveryone thought it was a great idea, they didnt think it would succeed since you had to use an earphoneto hear what was recorded. It wasnt until 1925, when electronic amplifiers were developed, that magneticrecording started to receive the attention it deserved.
The best magnetic recording is the one that produces an output signal identical to the input signal. Itdidnt take long to realize that the magnetism generated during the recording process didnt vary directlyto the current which caused it. This is because theres a step in the magnetism curve where it crosses thezero point and changes polarity. This step causes the output signal to be distorted when compared with theinput signal. Figure 1-1 shows this step.
Figure 1-1.Magnetic recording without bias voltage.
In 1907, Mr. Poulsen discovered a solution to this problem. He discovered dc bias. He found that if afixed dc voltage were added to the input signal, it moved the input signal away from the step in themagnetism curve. This prevented the input signal from crossing the zero-point of the magnetism curve.The result is an output signal exactly like the input signal. Figure 1-2 shows this process.
Figure 1-2.Magnetic recording with dc bias voltage.
Unfortunately, dc bias had its problems. Since only a small portion of the magnetism curve wasstraight enough to use, the output signal was weak compared with the natural hiss of the unmagnetizedtape passing the playback head. This is commonly called poor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Well explainSNR in more detail later.
From the beginning, the U.S. Naval Research Laboratories (NRL) saw great potential in magneticrecording. They were especially interested in using it to transmit telegraph signals at high speed. Afterelectronic amplifiers were invented around 1925, W.L. Carlson and G.W. Carpenter at the NRL made thenext important magnetic recording discovery. They found that adding an ac bias voltage to the inputsignal instead of a fixed dc bias voltage would
reproduce a stronger output signal
greatly improve the signal-to-noise ratio
greatly reduce the natural tape hiss that was so common with dc bias
To make ac bias work, they used an ac frequency for the bias voltage that was well above what couldbe heard, and a level that placed the original input signal away from both steps in the magnetism curve.This resulted in two undistorted output signals that could be combined into one strong output. See figure1-3.
Figure 1-3.Magnetic recording with ac bias voltage.
Until 1935, all magnetic recording was on steel wire. Then, at the 1935 German Annual RadioExposition in Berlin, Fritz Pfleumer demonstrated his Magnetophone. It used a cellulose acetate tapecoated with soft iron powder. The Magnetophone and its "paper" tapes were used until 1947 when the 3MCompany introduced the first plastic-based magnetic tape.
In 1956, IBM introduced the next major contribution to magnetic recordingthe hard disk drive.The disk was a 24-inch solid metal platter and stored 4.4 megabytes of information. Later, in 1963, IBMreduced the platter size and introduced a 14-inch hard disk drive.
Until 1966, all hard disk drives were "fixed" drives. Their platters couldn't be removed. Then in1966, IBM introduced the first removable-pack hard disk drive. It also used a 14-inch solid metal platter.
In 1971, magnetic tape became popular again when the 3M Company introduced the first 1/4-inchmagnetic tape cartridge and tape drive. In that same year, IBM invented the 8-inch floppy disk and diskdrive. It used a flexible 8-inch platter of the same material as magnetic tape. Its main goal was to replacepunched cards as a program-loading device.
The next contribution to magnetic recording literally started the personal computer (PC) revolution.In 1980, a little-known company named Seagate Technology invented the 5-1/4-inch floppy disk drive.Without it, PCs as we know them today would not exist.
From then on, it was all downhill. Magnetic tape became more sophisticated. Floppy disks and diskdrives became smaller, while their capacities grew bigger. And hard disk capacities just went through theroof. All of the major hurdles affecting magnetic recording had been successfully cleared, and it was justa matter of refining both its methods and materials.
Q-1. Why did the early inventors of magnetic recording find it necessary to add a fixed dc bias to theinput signal?
Q-2. How does dc bias added to the input signal correct the distortion in the output signal?
Q-3. Why does adding dc vice ac bias voltage to the input signal result in a poor signal-to-noise ratio(SNR)?
Q-4. What are three advantages of adding an ac bias voltage to the input signal instead of adding afixed dc bias voltage?
Q-5. Why does using ac vice dc bias voltage result in a stronger output signal?
PREREQUISITES FOR MAGNETIC RECORDING
To perform magnetic recording, you need three things:
1. An input signal you wish to record.
2. A recording medium. (This is a recording surface that will hold the signal you wish to record.)
3. A magnetic head to convert the input signal into a magnetic field so it can be recorded.
If any one of these are missing, magnetic recording cannot take place.
Input Signal
An input signal can come from a microphone, a radio receiver, or any other source thats capable ofproducing a recordable signal. Some input signals can be recorded immediately, but some must beprocessed first. This processing is needed when an input signal is weak, or is out of the frequencyresponse range of the recorder.
Recording Medium
A recording medium is any material that has the ability to become magnetized, in varying amounts,in small sections along its entire length. Some examples of this are magnetic tape and magnetic disks.These are thoroughly discussed in chapter 2 of this module.
Magnetic Heads
Magnetic heads are the heart of the magnetic recording process. They are the transducers thatconvert the electrical variations of your input signal into the magnetic variations that are stored on arecording medium. Without them, magnetic recording isnt possible.
Magnetic heads actually do three different things. They transfer, or record, the signal informationonto the recording medium. They recover, or reproduce, the signal information from the recordingmedium. And they remove, or erase, the signal information from the recording medium.
MAGNETIC HEAD CONSTRUCTION.A magnetic head is a magnetic core wrapped with acoil of very thin wire (see figure 1-4). The core material is usually shaped like the letter C, and is madefrom either iron or ceramic-ferrite material. The number of turns of wire placed on the core depends onthe purpose of that specific head. The gap in the core is called a head gap. It's here that magneticrecording actually takes place. We'll go into more detail of magnetic head construction in chapter 3.
Figure 1-4.Magnetic field distribution around the head gap.
MAGNETIC HEAD OPERATION.Whether you're recording on magnetic tapes or disks, allmagnetic heads operate the same way. When an electric current passes through the coil of a magnetichead, magnetic field lines associated with the electric current follow paths through the core material.When the magnetic fields get to the head gap, some of them spread outside the core to form a fringingfield. When a recording medium is passed through this fringing field, it is magnetized in relation to theelectric current. This is called magnetic recording. Figure 1-4 illustrates this process.
Q-6. What three things are required to perform magnetic recording?
Q-7. What is the meaning of the term recording medium as it pertains to magnetic recording?
Q-8. What are the three functions of the magnetic heads on a magnetic recording device?
This chapter briefly covered the historical development of magnetic recording principles anddevices. The following is a summary of important points in the chapter.
The BEST MAGNETIC RECORDING is one that produces an output signal that is identical to theinput signal. However, a step in the magnetic curve causes the output signal to be distorted.
In 1907, DC BIAS was added to the input signal to remove the distortion in the output signal. Butthe dc bias caused a weak output signal with a poor SNR. Around 1925, the NRL used AC BIAS toreproduce a stronger output signal and greatly improve the SNR.
To perform magnetic recording, you need (1) an INPUT SIGNAL, (2) a RECORDING MEDIUM,and (3) a MAGNETIC HEAD.
A RECORDING MEDIUM is any material that can become magnetized in varying amounts (suchas magnetic tape and disks).
MAGNETIC HEADS are used to (1) record the signal onto the recording medium, (2) reproducethe signal from the recording medium, and (3) erase the signal from the recording medium.
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS Q1. THROUGH Q8.
A-1. Because a step in the magnetism curve where it crosses the zero point and changes polarity causesthe output signal to be distorted. See figure 1-1.
A-2. The dc bias moves the input signal away from the step in the magnetism curve. This prevents theinput signal from crossing the zero-point of the magnetism curve. See figure 1-2.
A-3. With dc bias, the SNR is poor because only a small portion of the magnetism curve is straightenough to use, thus the output signal is weak compared with the natural tape hiss.
A-4.
a. Reproduces a stronger output signal.
b. Greatly improves the SNR.
c. Greatly reduces the natural tape hiss.
A-5. Because an ac bias voltage of the proper frequency and level places the input signal away fromboth steps in the magnetism curve. The result is two undistorted output signals that are combinedinto one strong output.
a. An input signal.
b. A recording medium.
c. A magnetic head.
A-7. A recording medium is any material that has the ability to become magnetized, in varying amounts,in small sections along its entire length.
a. Record the signal onto the recording medium.
b. Reproduce the signal from the recording medium.
c. Erase the signal from the recording medium.
After completing this chapter, youll be able to do the following:
1. Describe the physical properties of magnetic tape in terms of:
a. The Three Basic Materials Used To Make Magnetic Tape.
2. The function of the magnetic tapes base material, oxide coating, and binder glue.
3. Describe the two types of magnetic recording tape.
4. Describe the following types of tape errors and their effects on magnetic tape recording: signaldropout, noise, skew, and level.
5. Describe the following causes of magnetic tape failure: normal wear, accidental damage,environmental damage, and winding errors.
6. Describe the purpose and makeup of tape reels and tape cartridges.
7. Describe the two methods for erasing magnetic tape, the characteristics of automatic and manualtape degaussers, and the procedures for degaussing magnetic tape.
8. Describe the proper procedures for handling, storing, and packaging magnetic tape, tape reels,and tape cartridges.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC TAPE
The three basic materials used to make magnetic tape are (1) the base material, (2) the coating ofmagnetic oxide particles, and (3) the glue to bind the oxide particles onto the base material. See figure2-1.
Figure 2-1.Magnetic tape construction.
The base material for magnetic tape is made of either plastic or metal. Plastic tape is used more thanmetal tape because its very flexible, it resists mildew and fungus, and its very stable at high temperaturesand humidity.
OXIDE COATING
Oxide particles that can be magnetized are coated onto the base material. The most commonmagnetic particles used are either gamma ferric oxide or chromium dioxide. Its very important that thesemagnetic particles are uniform in size. If theyre not, the tapes surface will be abrasive and will reduce thelife of the recorders magnetic heads.
An ideal magnetic particle is needle-shaped. Its actual size depends on the frequency of the signal tobe recorded. Generally, long particles are used to record long wavelength signals (low-frequency signals),and short particles are used to record short wavelength signals (high-frequency signals).
The glue used to bond the oxide particles to the base material is usually an organic resin. It must bestrong enough to hold the oxide particles to the base material, yet be flexible enough not to peel or crack.
TYPES OF MAGNETIC RECORDING TAPE
There are two basic types of magnetic recording tape in common use: analog and digital. Analogmagnetic tape is used to record, store, and reproduce audio and instrumentation type signals. Thesesignals are usually in a frequency band from very-low frequency (VLF) to 2.5 MHz. Digital magnetictape is used to record, store, and reproduce computer programs and data. Its base material thickness isabout 50 percent thicker than analog magnetic tape. This allows the digital tape to withstand the morestrenuous starts and stops associated with digital magnetic recorder search, read, and write functions.
Digital magnetic tape is also held to much stricter quality control standards. Its important not tohave any blemishes or coating flaws on the tapes surface. Because, if you lost one digital data bit, yourcomputer program or data would be bad. In contrast, losing one microsecond of an analog signal is notnearly as critical.
Q-1. Magnetic tape is made of what three basic materials?
Q-2. Why is plastic magnetic tape used more than metal tape?
Q-3. Which of the two types of magnetic tape is used to record audio and instrumentation type signalsin the VLF to 2.5MHz frequency range?
Q-4. What type of magnetic tape is used to record computer programs and data, and what are theadditional thickness and quality standards for this type of tape?
TAPE ERRORS AND THEIR EFFECTS
Four types of tape errors that will degrade the performance of a magnetic recording system are signaldropout, noise, skew, and level (signal amplitude changes).
DROPOUT ERRORS
Signal dropout is the most common and the most serious type of tape error. Its a temporary, sharpdrop (50% or more) in signal strength caused by either contaminates on the magnetic tape or by missingoxide coating on part of the tape.
During recording and playback, the oxide particles on the tape can flake off and stick to therecorders guides, rollers, and heads. After collecting for awhile, the oxide deposits (now oxide lumps)break loose and stick to the magnetic tape. As the tape with the lumps passes over the head, the lumps getbetween the tape and the head and lift the tape away from the head. This causes the signal dropouts.Although oxide lumps cause most signal dropouts, remember that any contaminate (such as dust, lint oroil) that gets between the tape and the head can cause signal dropouts.
NOISE ERRORS
Noise errors are unwanted signals that appear when no signal should appear. Theyre usually causedby a cut or a scratch on the magnetic tape. Its the lack of oxide particles at the cut or the scratch thatcauses the noise error.
SKEW ERRORS
Skew errors only occur on multi-track magnetic tape recorders. The term skew describes the timedifferences that occur between individual tracks of a single magnetic head when the multi-track tape isntproperly aligned with the magnetic head.
There are two types of skew errors: fixed and dynamic. Fixed skew happens when properly alignedmagnetic tape passes an improperly aligned magnetic head. Dynamic skew happens when misaligned tapepasses a properly aligned head. This type of skew is usually caused by one or more of the following:
A misaligned or worn-out tape transport system.
A stretched or warped magnetic tape.
A magnetic tape that is improperly wound on a reel.
LEVEL ERRORS
Magnetic tape is manufactured to have a specified output signal level (plus or minus some degree oferror). Level errors happen when the actual output signal level either drops or rises to a level outside theexpected range. For example, if a magnetic tape is rated for 10 volts ( +/10%), any output signal levelbelow 9 volts or above 11 volts is a level error. Level errors are caused by an uneven oxide coating on themagnetic tape. This can come from either the original manufacturing process or from normal wear andtear.
Some causes of level errors are permanent and cannot be removed by any means. For example, acrease in the tape, a hole in the oxide, or a damaged edge. Other causes of level errors are removable andmay be cleaned off the tape. For example, oxide flakes or clumps, metallic particles, or dirt areremovable.
Q-5. What are four types of tape errors that can degrade a magnetic recording systems performance?
Q-6. What are signal dropouts, and what are two tape defects that can cause signal dropouts?
Q-7. What is the most common and most serious type of signal dropout?
Q-8. You see a build-up of dust and lint on the take-up reel of a tape recorder. This can cause which ofthe four types of tape errors?
Q-9. What type of tape error causes noise to appear on the tape when no signal should appear? Whatcauses this type of tape error?
Q-10. The multi-track tape recorder in your computer system has a fixed skew error. What does thismean and what is the probable cause?
Q-11. Some tapes you are using may have level errors. What does this mean and what is the cause?
CAUSES OF MAGNETIC TAPE FAILURE
Tape failure happens when a magnetic tapes performance degrades to a point where its no longerusable. The exact point where failure occurs will vary, depending on the type of tape and how it is used.
There are four main causes for tape failure:
1. Normal wear (natural causes)
2. Accidental damage
3. Environmental damage
4. Winding errors
NORMAL WEAR
Normal wear occurs because the tape must come in contact with fixed surfaces, such as a recordersmagnetic heads, rollers, and guides. Over time, this repeated contact with the fixed surfaces causesexcessive dropout errors and makes the tape unusable.
ACCIDENTAL DAMAGE
Accidental tape damage that causes tape failure is any damage that wouldnt normally occur underideal operating and handling conditions. It can be caused by either a human operator or the tape recorderitself. Accidental tape damage caused by human operators can range from accidentally dropping a reel ofmagnetic tape to improperly threading a magnetic tape recorder. Accidental tape damage caused byrecording equipment can occur if the recorder is poorly designed or if the tape transport mechanism isadjusted improperly.
The negative effect of environmental extremes on tape can also cause tape failure. Magnetic tape isvery flexible and can be used in a wide range of environmental conditions. Its designed for use in atemperature range of about 2 to 130 degrees Fahrenheit (20 to 55 degrees Celsius), and in a relativehumidity range of about 10 to 95%. Of course, these numbers are the extreme. Ideally, magnetic tapeshould be used and stored at a temperature of about 60 to 80 F (room temperature), and in a relativehumidity of about 40 to 60%.
Large changes from the ideal relative humidity cause tape to expand or contract and thus affect theuniformity of a tape's oxide coating. High relative humidity causes the tape to stretch and increases thetape's friction. The increased friction causes increased head wear, head clog by oxide particles, andhead-to-tape sticking. Low relative humidity encourages oxide shedding and increases static build-up ontape surfaces, causing the tape to collect airborne contaminants.
The effects of exceeding the ideal temperature and humidity ranges described above can cause thefollowing environmental damage to magnetic tape: tape deformation, oxide shedding, head-to-tapesticking, layer-to-layer sticking, dirt build-up, and excessive tape and head wear.
Tape Deformation
Magnetic tapes are wound onto tape reels with tension applied. This tension causes great layer-to-layer pressure within the reel pack. Changes in temperature and humidity can cause the backing materialto expand or contract, creating even more pressure. All of this pressure causes the tape to becomedeformed or warped.
Oxide Shedding
At temperatures above 130 F, a tape's oxide coating tends to become soft. At temperatures below2 F, the oxide coating tends to be brittle. In both cases, the oxide coating will shed, flake off, orotherwise become separated from the base material. These free pieces of oxide will then stick to parts ofthe tape transport, to the magnetic heads, or back onto the tape and cause dropout or level errors.
Head-to-Tape Sticking
At higher temperatures, the tape binder glue can soften to the point where it will stick to therecorder's magnetic head. This head-to-tape sticking causes jerky tape motion.
Layer-to-Layer Adhesion
When reels of magnetic tape are stored at higher temperatures, the tape's binder glue may melt andcause the layers of tape to stick to one another. In very severe cases, layer-to-layer adhesion can separatethe oxide coating from the base material and completely destroy a tape.
Dirt Build-up
Dirt build-up happens when the relative humidity level is less than 10%. The low humidity causesstatic electricity that attracts dirt and dust which builds up on the magnetic tape and other parts of themagnetic tape recorder.
Excessive Tape and Head Wear
When the relative humidity is more than 95%, the high humidity causes increased friction as the tapepasses over the heads. This, in turn, causes excessive tape and head wear.
Q-12. What is tape failure?
Q-13. What are four main causes of tape failure?
Q-14. How does normal wear cause tape failure?
Q-15. Accidental damage to magnetic tape is normally caused by the tape recorder itself or by humanoperators of the recorder. What are three frequent causes of such accidental damage?
Q-16. Environmental damage to magnetic tape can occur when the tape is stored in an area thatexceeds what ideal temperature and humidity ranges?
Q-17. What six types of environmental damage can occur to tapes in storage when the idealtemperature and humidity ranges are exceeded?
Q-18. After using a tape that was stored in an area where temperatures exceeded 130 F you noticepieces of oxide sticking to the recorder's tape-transport mechanism, to its magnetic heads, andonto the tape. What is the probable cause of these symptoms?
Q-19. Your activity stores its magnetic tape in an area where the temperature is 100 F. What two typesof environmental damage could occur that would make these tapes unusable?
Q-20. When the relative humidity is below 10%, what happens to magnetic tape and parts of a taperecorder that could cause environmental damage?
Q-21. How does relative humidity over 95% cause excessive tape and head wear?
WINDING ERRORS
Winding errors are another cause of tape failure. They happen when improper winding practicescreate an excessive or uneven force as the tape is being wound onto a tape reel. The form taken by thetape after it is wound onto the reel is called the tape pack. Winding errors can cause a deformed tape packthat will prevent good head-to-tape contact.
In most cases, a deformed tape pack can be fixed simply by rewinding it onto another reel at theproper tension and at the right temperature and humidity. The four most common types of tape packdeformation are:
1. Cinching
2. Pack-slip
3. Spoking
4. Windowing
Cinching happens when a tape reel is stopped too quickly. The sudden stop causes the outer layers ofmagnetic tape to continue to spin after the inner layers have stopped. This causes any loosely wound tapewithin the pack to unwind and pile up. Figure 2-2 shows an example of a cinched tape pack (note thecomplete foldover of one tape strand).
Figure 2-2.Example of cinched tape pack.
Pack Slip
Pack slip happens when the tape is loosely wound on the reel and is exposed to excessive vibrationor too much heat. This causes the tape to shift (side-to-side), causing steps in the tape pack. When a tapereel with pack slip is used, the magnetic tape will unwind unevenly and rub against the sides of the tapereel or the recorders tape guides. This can damage the magnetic tape and cause oxide shedding. Figure2-3 shows an example of pack slip.
Figure 2-3.Example of pack slip.
Spoking
Spoking happens when magnetic tape is wound onto the tape reel with the tension increasing towardthe end of the winding. The higher tension on the outside of the tape pack causes the inner pack to buckleand deform. Spoking is also caused by the uneven pressures created when a tape is wound on a reel thathas a distorted hub, or when the tape is wound over a small particle that is deposited on the hub. Figure2-4 shows a spoked tape pack.
Figure 2-4.Example of spoked tape pack.
Windowing
Windows are voids or see-through air gaps in the tape winding. They happen when magnetic tape isloosely wound onto a tape reel, and especially when the loosely wound reel is later exposed to extremeheat or humidity. Figure 2-5 shows a windowed tape pack.
Figure 2-5.Example of windowed tape pack.
Q-22. Tape winding errors can cause a deformed tape pack. What are four common types of tape packdeformation?
Q-23. After rewinding a tape onto its supply reel, you examine the tape pack and notice pile-ups of taperesembling the example in figure 2-2. What causes this condition?
Q-24. You notice steps in the tape pack such as those in figure 2-3. What causes this and how does itdamage the magnetic tape?
Q-25. A tape pack is buckled and deformed as shown in figure 2-4. What are three possible causes forthis condition?
Q-26. A tape pack has gaps in the tape winding as shown in figure 2-5. What causes this condition?
TAPE REELS AND TAPE CARTRIDGES
There are two types of magnetic tape carriers: tape reels and tape cartridges. Both types can be usedfor either analog or digital recording. Tape cartridges are normally used only for digital recording.
TAPE REELS
Tape reels are used on magnetic recorders that use a manually loaded tape supply reel and a separatetake-up reel. A reels purpose is to protect the magnetic tape from damage and contamination. It can bemade of plastic, metal, or glass. A reel has two parts, the hub and the flanges.
A tape reel is designed to hold magnetic tape on its hub without letting the magnetic tape touch thesides of the flanges. Contrary to popular belief, the flanges are not designed to guide the magnetic tapeonto the tape reel.
Tape cartridges hold a spool of magnetic tape in the same way as tape reels, except that the inside ofthe cartridge contains both the supply reel and the take-up reel. Unlike tape reels which must be manuallyloaded into a recorder, when you insert a tape cartridge into a recorder, its automatically loaded and readyto use. Figure 2-6 shows two typical tape cartridges.
Figure 2-6.Typical tape cartridges.
Q-27. When winding a tape onto a plastic or metal reel, should the tape ever touch the reels flanges?
TAPE ERASING AND DEGAUSSING
One advantage of magnetic tape is that you can erase what youve previously recorded, and recordon the same tape again and again. The erasing is done by demagnetizing the magnetic tape. Youdemagnetize a magnetic tape by exposing it to a gradually decreasing ac (alternating current) magneticfield. There are two ways to do this: (1) with an erase head thats mounted on the magnetic recorder, or(2) with a separate tape degausser.
ERASE HEADS
A magnetic recorders erase head erases magnetic tape by saturating it with an ac signal thats higherin frequency than the frequency range of the recorder itself. This method of erasing a tape works well insome cases, but its not the best way because:
Its slow; the tape must be run through the recorder to be erased.
If the erase head is not completely demagnetized, it may not do a complete erasure.
Some recorders do not have erase heads installed.
MAGNETIC TAPE DEGAUSSERS
By far, the best way to erase a magnetic tape is to use a separate magnetic tape degausser. There aretwo types of degaussers: automatic and manual.
Automatic Tape Degausser
Automatic degaussers erase magnetic tape by automatically moving the whole tape reel or cartridgeslowly and steadily in and out of an intense ac magnetic field. This type of degausser erases a tape verywell. Some automatic degaussers are made specifically for tape reels, and some are made for both tapereels and tape cartridges. Figure 2-7 shows a typical automatic degausser.
Figure 2-7.Automatic tape degausser.
Manual Tape Degausser
Both manual and automatic tape degaussers use the same electronic principles for erasing magnetictape. However, the manual version is much more portable. Its small, hand-held, and much less expensive.Figure 2-8 shows a typical manual degausser.
Figure 2-8.Manual tape degausser.
To erase tapes with a manual degausser:
1. Place the tape reel or cartridge to be erased on a flat surface.
2. Hold the degausser very close to the magnetic tape and turn it on.
3. Slowly rotate the degausser in circles around the tape reel or cartridge for a few seconds.
4. Then slowly move it away until youre about 12 to 14 inches away from the tape reel or tapecartridge.
5. Turn off the degausser.
Q-28. What are two disadvantages of using a recorders erase head to erase data recorded on amagnetic tape?
Q-29. What method for erasing magnetic tape is much more effective and reliable than using arecorders erase head?
HANDLING, STORING, AND PACKAGING MAGNETIC TAPE
Todays magnetic tape coatings can store recorded signals for years. The data recorded is apermanent record that wont fade or weaken with age. And, itll remain unchanged until its altered byanother magnetic field or until the tape coating deteriorates.
When magnetic tape recordings are ruined, the cause is usually poor handling, improper storage, orshipping damage. If you want your tape recordings to last a long time, you need to know how to properlyhandle, store, and ship magnetic tape.
HANDLING MAGNETIC TAPE
A magnetic tape reel or cartridge should always be in one of two places, either mounted on a taperecorder or in its storage container. When you handle magnetic tape, follow these rules:
DO use extreme care when handling magnetic tape. Careless handling can damage magnetic tape,tape reels, and tape cartridges. Always hold a tape reel by the hub, NEVER by the flanges, andNEVER handle or touch the working tape surface.
DO NOT let the magnetic tape trail on the floor. Even though the end of the tape may not havedata stored on it, it can pick up dirt and dust that ends up on the recorder.
DO clean your hands before handling magnetic tape. You can contaminate magnetic tape withdirt and oils from dirty hands.
DO mount tape reels and cartridges properly. Improperly seated tape reels can cause unnecessarywear and tear on the magnetic tape.
DO replace any warped take-up reels, as they can damage magnetic tape.
DO keep the magnetic recorder and its take-up reel clean. Magnetic tape can pick up dirt and dustfrom the recorder itself.
DO NOT use the top of a magnetic recorder as a work area. This can expose the magnetic tape todirt, excessive heat, and stray magnetic fields.
DO NOT allow eating, drinking, or smoking in areas where magnetic tape or devices are exposed.
STORING MAGNETIC TAPE
Most magnetic tape reels and cartridges spend a lot of time in storage. Its very important that youprotect the stored tape from physical damage and the damaging effects of contamination and temperatureand humidity extremes. If you dont, damage to the tape pack such as oxide shedding, layer-to-layersticking, and tape deformation can happen. To protect magnetic tape from damage during storage, followthese rules:
DO make sure that magnetic tape is wound properly on the reel hub and at the proper tension.
DO always store tape reels vertically. DO NOT lay them on their side.
DO maintain a proper environment. Keep the storage area clean, and at a 60 to 80F degreetemperature and a 40 to 60% relative humidity.
DO NOT store magnetic tapes near any equipment that generates stray magnetic fields.
DO handle all tape reels and cartridges as gently as possible.
DO NOT eat, drink, or smoke in a magnetic tape storage area.
PACKAGING MAGNETIC TAPE FOR SHIPPING
There may be times when you are asked to package magnetic tape reels or tape cartridges forshipment. If you want the tape to arrive in good condition, you must pack it properly to protect it fromdamage. The packaging you use must protect the tape reels or cartridges from impact, vibration, andtemperature and humidity changes. Here are some simple rules to follow:
DO always package tape reels so that theyre supported by their hub. This prevents any pressureon the reels flanges that might flex the flanges against the tape pack. Figure 2-9 shows a shippingbox that supports the tape reel by the hub.
Figure 2-9.Reel box that supports reel by the hub.
DO always use reel bands where available. Reel bands are for placement around the outside edgesof the reel flanges to help prevent the flanges from flexing and damaging the tape.
DO always ship magnetic reels in a container designed so its normal positioning is with the reelsin a vertical position. This will prevent the tape pack from shifting and damaging the edges of themagnetic tape.
DO always package tape cartridges in their shipping cases. Tape cartridges are more durable thantape reels, but they still need to be protected during shipment.
Q-30. When magnetic tapes are ruined, what three factors are normally the cause?
Q-31. What is the correct way to hold a magnetic tape reel?
Q-32. The take-up reel on your recorder is warped. What should you do to/with the reel?
Q-33. If magnetic tape is stored in areas with temperature and humidity extremes, what are three typesof tape damage that may occur?
Q-34. List four rules you should follow when storing magnetic tape to protect it from damage.
Q-35. When packaging tape reels or cartridges for shipping, what are four rules you should follow toprotect the tape reels from impact and vibration?
Now that youve finished chapter 2, you should be able to (1) describe the physical properties ofmagnetic tape, (2) recognize the four most common magnetic tape errors, (3) recognize the four causes oftape failure, (4) describe the two methods for erasing magnetic tape, and (5) use the proper procedures forhandling, storing, and packaging magnetic tape, tape reels, and tape cartridges. The following is asummary of the important points in this chapter.
The three BASIC MATERIALS used to make magnetic tape are the (1) base material, (2) the oxideparticles, and (3) the binder glue.
ANALOG and DIGITAL are the two basic types of magnetic tape in common use.
BLEMISHES OR COATING FLAWS ON DIGITAL TAPE can easily ruin the data or thecomputer program stored on the tape.
SIGNAL DROPOUT, NOISE, SKEW, AND LEVEL are four types of tape errors. Dropout errorsare the most common.
OXIDE LUMPS accumulated on the tape cause most dropout errors. Other causes are dust or linton the tape, or missing oxide coating on part of the tape.
MAGNETIC TAPE FAILURE has four main causes: (1) normal wear, (2) accidental damage,(3) environmental damage, and (4) winding errors.
IDEAL TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY RANGES for using and storing magnetic tape are60 to 80 F and 40 to 60% relative humidity.
ENVIRONMENTAL TAPE DAMAGE caused by excessive temperature or humidity includes thefollowing: (1) tape deformation, (2) oxide shedding, (3) head-to-tape sticking, (4) layer-to-layer sticking,(5) dirt buildup, and (6) excessive tape and head wear.
WINDING ERRORS can cause tape pack deformation. The four most common types are:(1) cinching, (2) pack slip, (3) spoking, and (4) windowing.
The TWO PARTS OF A TAPE REEL are the hub and the flanges. The tape should be wound onthe hub. No part of the tape should be touching the flange sides.
ERASE HEADS AND TAPE DEGAUSSERS are two methods for erasing tape. Degaussers arethe fastest and the most reliable.
Rules for HANDLING MAGNETIC TAPE are (1) always hold the reel by the hub, not the flanges,(2) never touch the working tape surface, (3) replace warped or damaged reels, and (4) mount reels andcartridges properly.
Rules for STORING MAGNETIC TAPE are (1) wind tape properly on the reel hub, (2) store tapesvertically, (3) keep storage area clean and at proper temperature and humidity levels, and (4) store tapesaway from equipment that generates stray magnetic fields.
Rules for PACKAGING TAPE FOR SHIPPING are (1) support reels by their hubs, (2) use reelbands, (3) pack reels in containers vertically, and (4) keep tape cartridges in their shipping cases.
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS Q1. THROUGH Q35.
a. Base material.
b. Coating of magnetic oxide particles.
c. Glue that bonds the particles to the base.
A-2. Plastic tape is used more than metal because its more flexible, resists mildew and fungus, andis very stable at high temperatures and humidity.
A-3. Analog magnetic tape.
A-4. Digital magnetic tape is for computer programs and data. Its base material is about 50%thicker. The tapes surface must not have blemishes or coating flaws because losing even onedigital data bit could ruin the recorded computer program or data.
A-5. Signal dropout, noise, skew, and level. Dropout is the most common.
A-6. Dropouts are temporary, sharp drops (50% or more) in signal strength. Theyre caused bycontaminates that lift the tape away from the magnetic head, or when magnetic oxide coating ismissing on part of the tape.
A-7. Oxide particles that get onto the magnetic tape.
A-8. Signal dropout errors and level errors. The dust and lint on the reel will eventually get onto thetape where it can get between the tape and the recorders heads.
A-9. Noise error is usually caused by a cut or a scratch on the magnetic tape.
A-10. Skew means there are time differences between the individual tracks of a multi-track recordersmagnetic head. It happens when the tape isnt properly aligned with the head. Fixed skewhappens when the tape passes over an improperly aligned magnetic head.
A-11. The actual output signal level of the tape exceeds the manufacturers specified range for theoutput signal level (+ / 10%). Its caused by an uneven oxide coating on the tape due to worntape or defective manufacture.
A-12. Tapes performance degrades to a point where its no longer usable.
A-13. Normal wear, accidental damage, environmental damage, and winding errors.
A-14. Repeated contact with a recorders fixed surfaces such as magnetic heads, tape rollers, and tapeguides.
A-15.
a. Improperly adjusted tape transport mechanism.
b. Dropping a reel of tape.
c. Improperly threading tape.
A-16. Ideally, use and store tape at 60 to 80 F and at 40 to 60% relative humidity.
A-17. Tape deformation, oxide shedding, head-to-tape sticking, layer-to-layer sticking, dirt build-up,and excessive tape and head wear.
A-18. Oxide shedding. At temperatures above 130 F, oxide coating becomes soft and sheds.
A-19. Head-to-tape sticking and layer-to-layer adhesion.
A-20. Dirt build-up caused by static electricity.
A-21. High humidity causes increased friction as the tape passes over the heads.
A-22. Cinching, pack slip, spoking, and windowing.
A-23. The tape is stopped too quickly when winding or rewinding.
A-24. Pack slip. It's caused by loosely wound tape on a reel that is exposed to excessive vibration orheat. The vibration or heat causes the tape to shift, causing steps in the tape pack. The uneventape will then rub against the reel's sides and the recorder's tape guides.
a. Reel has a distorted hub,
b. tape wound over small particle deposited on hub, and
c. tape wound on reel with tension increasing toward end of winding.
A-26. Tape is loosely wound on reel.
A-27. No. The reel is designed to hold the tape on its hub without letting the tape touch the sides of theflanges.
A-28. Using an erase head is slow, and it may not completely erase the tape.
A-29. Using a magnetic tape degausser.
A-30. Poor handling, improper storage, or shipping damage.
A-31. Always hold reel by the hub, never by the flanges. Never touch the working tape surface.
A-32. Always replace a warped reel.
A-33. Oxide shedding, layer-to-layer sticking, and tape deformation.
a. Make sure the tape is wound properly on the reel hub,
b. store tapes vertically,
c. keep storage area at right temperature and humidity,
d. store away from equipment that generates stray magnetic fields.
a. Package reels so theyre supported by their hub,
b. use reel bands,
c. package reels in vertical position,
d. package tape cartridges in their shipping cases.
MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDER HEADS
After completing this chapter, you'll be able to do the following:
1. Describe the construction, function, and placement of magnetic tape recorder record, reproduce, and erase heads.
2. Describe the preventive maintenance requirements for magnetic tape recorder heads.
Magnetic tape recorder heads are the heart of magnetic tape recording, because it's the magnetic heads (as we'll call them in this chapter) that actually:
1. Record signal or data information onto magnetic tape
2. Reproduce (play back) signal or data information from magnetic tape
3. Erase any signal or data off of magnetic tape
To do these things, a magnetic tape recorder can have up to three different heads installed: one head for recording, one for reproducing, and one for erasing. Some magnetic tape recorders will use the same head for both recording and reproducing. Figure 3-1 shows a typical multitrack magnetic head.
Figure 3-1.Typical multitrack magnetic tape recorder head.
MAGNETIC HEAD CONSTRUCTION
Magnetic head construction is basically the same for all magnetic heads. They're all made up of a magnetic core wrapped with a coil of very thin wire. But, there's where the similarity ends. From here on, each magnetic head is built to perform a specific job. Will the head be used on a single track recorder? Will it be used on a multitrack recorder? Will it be a record head or a reproduce head? Or, will it be an erase head? What frequency will it be recording and/or reproducing? The answers to these questions will determine the final construction of a magnetic head.
Figure 3-2 shows the construction of a typical multitrack magnetic head. Magnetic cores are wound with very thin wire, cemented together, and placed inside a half-bracket. A tip piece is then placed on top of the ferrite core, and the two half-brackets are assembled together. It's during this final assembly process that the headgap and the resulting frequency response of the magnetic head are determined. After some final contouring to give the magnetic head its curved face, it's ready for use.
Figure 3-2.Multitrack tape recorder head construction.
Record and Reproduce Heads
Record and reproduce heads convert and transfer electrical signals onto and off of magnetic tape. The maximum frequency these heads can transfer depends on the size of the headgap and the speed of the magnetic tape (we'll discuss speed in the next chapter). Most record and reproduce heads are in one of these three general bandwidth categories:
1. Narrowband100 Hz to 100 kHz
2. Intermediate band100 Hz to 500 kHz
3. Wideband400 Hz to 2 mHz
The only physical difference between a record head and a reproduce head is in the number of turns of wire on the core. A reproduce head will have more turns than a record head. This is because reproduce heads must be able to recover low-level signals from magnetic tape. The extra turns of wire allow the reproduce head to output the highest level possible and at a good signal-to-noise level.
Record heads are always placed before reproduce heads on magnetic tape recorders. This allows you to monitor signals that you're recording. Figure 3-3 shows the placement of record and reproduce heads. Figure 3-4 shows some of the typical track arrangements used.
Figure 3-3.Placement of magnetic tape recorder heads.
Figure 3-4.Magnetic head track placement.
Erase heads transfer a signal to the magnetic tape that causes the magnetic particles to assume a neutralized or erased state. To do this, a high current signal that is 3 to 5 times higher in frequency than the maximum frequency response of the record and reproduce heads is used. In some audio recorders, a simple direct current (dc) voltage is used.
Erase heads are always placed before the record and the reproduce heads on tape recorders. This allows you to erase the magnetic tape before it's recorded on. Figure 3-3 shows the placement of erase heads.
Q-1. Magnetic tape recorders can have up to three different heads installed. What are the three functions performed by a recorder's heads?
Q-2. The way a magnetic head will be used determines how it is constructed. Name three factors that determine the final construction of a magnetic head.
Q-3. What two specifications determine the maximum frequency that a recorder's record and reproduce heads will be able to transfer?
Q-4. Most record and reproduce heads are in one of what three bandwidth categories?
Q-5. Why are record heads always placed before reproduce heads on recorders?
Q-6. A recorder's erase head is always placed in what sequence on the record/reproduce track?
MAGNETIC HEAD MAINTENANCE
It's very important to regularly maintain magnetic heads. If you do, you'll greatly reduce the chance of getting a poor recording or playback. Regular preventive maintenance will also increase the life of the magnetic heads. There are two things you must do to properly maintain magnetic heads: (1) keep them clean, and (2) keep them demagnetized.
Cleaning Magnetic Heads
Through use, magnetic heads pick up dirt, dust, lint, and oxide particles from the magnetic tape. These particles collect on the magnetic head and, if left unchecked, could cause signal dropout errors that degrade the quality of recording and playback. To keep magnetic heads clean, regularly clean them with a cotton-tipped applicator soaked in either isopropyl alcohol or in a magnetic head cleaner recommended by the recorder's manufacturer. A good rule of thumb is to clean the heads each time you change a tape reel or cartridge.
Demagnetizing Magnetic Heads
Magnetic heads can become magnetized from many sources. It could happen
during ac power losses,
during testing or alignment,
because of stray magnetic fields,
from normal use.
No matter the cause, magnetized magnetic heads degrade the quality of the magnetic recording or playback.
To demagnetize magnetic heads, you'll use a hand-held degausser. It could be like the one shown in figure 3-5, or like the manual degausser shown in the previous chapter. No matter how they look, they all generate an ac magnetic field that demagnetizes the metal parts of a magnetic head.
Figure 3-5.Hand-held head degausser.
The procedure for demagnetizing a magnetic head is similar to the procedure for degaussing a magnetic tape. Here are the basic steps:
1. Remove the tape (reel or cartridge) from the magnetic recorder.
2. Holding the degausser an arm's length away from the magnetic head, energize the degausser.
3. Slowly bring the degausser closer and closer to the magnetic head. Don't touch the head with the degausser.
4. Move the degausser back and forth across the head for 15 to 30 seconds. Figure 3-6 shows how this looks.
5. Slowly move the degausser away from the magnetic head. When the degausser is an arm's length away, de-energize it.
Figure 3-6.Demagnetizing magnetic heads with a degausser.
That's all there is to it. It's hard to determine exactly how often magnetic heads should be de-magnetized. Manufacturer's recommendations vary from every 8 to 25 hours of operation. To be safe, check the equipment's technical manual.
Q-7. What two preventive maintenance actions must you do regularly to increase magnetic head life and to ensure good tape recording and playback?
Q-8. How should you clean your recorder's magnetic heads?
Q-9. What are four sources that can cause magnetic heads to become magnetized?
Q-10. What type of equipment should you use to demagnetize your recorder's magnetic heads?
Q-11. How often should you demagnetize a recorder's magnetic heads?
Now that you've finished chapter 3, you should be able to (1) describe the construction of magnetic tape recorder heads; (2) describe the purpose and placement of record, reproduce, and erase heads; and (3) describe the preventive maintenance requirements for tape recorder heads. The following is a summary of important points in this chapter:
Magnetic tape recorders have up to THREE MAGNETIC HEADS to perform the erase, record, or reproduce function.
Three factors that determine the CONSTRUCTION OF A MAGNETIC HEAD are the (1) type of head, (2) frequencies it will record, reproduce, or erase, and (3) use on a single or multitrack recorder.
Most tape recorder heads are designed for ONE OF THREE BANDWIDTHS: (1) narrowband, (2) intermediate band, or (3) wideband.
A recorder's magnetic heads are in the following SEQUENCE on its record/reproduce track: (1) erase, (2) record, and (3) reproduce.
Two important PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE requirements for magnetic heads are cleaning and demagnetizing.
ANSWER TO QUESTIONS Q1. THROUGH Q11.
A-1. Record, reproduce, and erase.
a. Type of head (record, reproduce, or erase).
b. Frequencies it will record or reproduce.
c. Whether it will be used on a single or multitrack recorder.
a. Size of the headgap.
b. Speed of the magnetic tape.
a. Narrowband100 Hz to 100 kHz.
b. Intermediate band100 Hz to 500 kHz.
c. Wideband400 Hz to 2 mHz.
A-5. Allow you to monitor the signals you're recording.
A-6. First, before the record and reproduce heads.
a. Keep the heads clean.
b. Keep the heads demagnetized.
A-8. With a cotton-tipped applicator soaked in either isopropyl alcohol or a head cleaner recommended by the recorder's manufacturer.
a. During ac power losses.
b. During testing.
c. Because of stray magnetic fields.
d. From normal use.
A-10. A hand-held degausser like the manual degaussers used for degaussing magnetic tape.
A-11. Every 8 to 25 hours depending on the manufacturer's recommendations.
MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDER TRANSPORTS
1. Describe the function and components of a basic magnetic tape transport system.
2. Describe the operating characteristics and parts of the three most common tape reeling systems.
3. Describe the physical characteristics of the two basic tape reeling configurations, co-planar and co-axial.
4. Describe the characteristics of open-loop drive and closed-loop drive tape transport configurations and the three most common closed-loop designs.
5. Describe the capstan speed control function of a tape transport system and the relationship of the six basic parts of a typical capstan speed control unit.
6. Explain why, and describe how, magnetic tape transports must be cleaned and degaussed.
Magnetic tape recorder transports are precisely built assemblies that move the magnetic tape across the magnetic heads and hold and protect the tape. Figure 4-1 shows a basic tape transport assembly. Tape transports have four basic parts:
Figure 4-1.Basic tape transport assembly.
1. A tape reeling system that, with the aid of tape guides, physically moves the tape across the magnetic heads.
2. A tape speed control system that monitors and controls the movement of the magnetic tape.
3. An electronic subsystem that activates the reeling device to move the magnetic tape.
4. A basic enclosure that holds and protects the reels or cartridges of magnetic tape.
This chapter describes these basic parts, tells how they work, and shows diagrams of the more common ones.
TAPE REELING SYSTEMS
A basic magnetic recorder tape reeling system (figure 4-1) has one supply reel and one take-up reel. Its job is to move the magnetic tape from one reel to the other. When this happens, four things occur:
1. The supply reel feeds out magnetic tape at a constant tension.
2. The tape passes the magnetic heads in a straight line.
3. The take-up reel accepts the magnetic tape at a constant tension.
4. Both the supply and take-up reels start and stop smoothly while maintaining the proper tape tension.
These four things must happen, or the magnetic tape could be damaged. Three of the most commonly used tape reeling systems are (1) take-up control, (2) two-motor reeling, and (3) tape buffering.
TAKE-UP CONTROL REELING SYSTEMS
This system uses a motorized take-up reel which pulls the magnetic tape off of a free-spooling supply reel. It maintains tape tension by using mechanical drag on the supply reel. As you might guess, this method has its disadvantages. It only works in one direction, and the tape tension doesn't remain constant throughout the reel. As the supply reel gives out tape, the tape tension varies. Uneven tape tension can cause stretched tape, poorly wound tape reels, and tape damage during starts and stops.
TWO-MOTOR REELING SYSTEMS
To overcome the problems of take-up control reeling systems, designers added a motor to the supply reel. By using two motors, the magnetic tape direction can be forward or reverse.
Two-motor reeling configurations usually use dc (direct current) motors, instead of ac (alternating current) motors, because dc motors run smoother and are easier to control. To help control tape tension, a small hold-back voltage is added to the motor for the supply reel.
Unfortunately, two-motor reeling systems do not properly control tape tension during starts and stops. Something called tape buffering must be added.
TAPE BUFFERING REELING SYSTEMS
Controlling a recorder's tape tension during starts and stops is a big problem. Tape buffering overcomes this problem by regulating the tape reel speed and by protecting against changes in tape tension.
Every manufacturer of high-quality, high performance magnetic tape recorders uses some sort of tape buffering. It's especially important in magnetic recorders that operate at many different speeds, where precise tape tension must be maintained.
Figure 4-2 shows the relationship between the tape reeling system and the tape buffering system. As you can see, the speed at which a tape reel will give up or take up magnetic tape is controlled by its respective speed control servo. Feedback from the supply and take-up buffers tells the servo to speed up or slow down.
Figure 4-2.Tape buffering arrangement.
There are two basic types of reeling system buffers: (1) spring-tension, and (2) vacuum-column.
1. Spring-tension buffering systems use an electro-mechanical device to sense changes in tape tension. These changes are feedback that the speed control servo needs to adjust the speed of the tape reels. Figures 4-3 and 4-4 show two of the more common arrangements for spring-tension buffers.
Figure 4-3.Mechanical arm spring-tension tape buffering.
2. Vacuum-column buffering systems operate like the spring-tension systems. They also regulate the speed control servos that control tape reel speed. But, as shown in figure 4-5, the vacuum-column buffer system uses a vacuum chamber instead of a spring to hold a length of magnetic tape as slack during tape recorder starts and stops. An electronic sensor in the vacuum chamber helps to control how much tape is in the buffer.
Figure 4-5.Vacuum-column tape buffering system.
TAPE GUIDES
Another job of a tape reeling system is to make sure the magnetic tape is protected from damage during operation. To do this, tape reeling systems use tape guides. Tape guides come in two designs, fixed and rotary. Both of these are shown in figure 4-6. Each type of tape guide has its drawbacks. Fixed tape guides produce a lot more friction, and rotary tape guides are more likely to cause errors because of their moving parts.
Figure 4-6.Typical fixed and rotary tape guides.
Tape guides are strategically placed in a tape reeling system to make sure the magnetic tape is kept straight with respect to the supply and take-up reels and the magnetic heads. Some magnetic recorders use only fixed tape guides, some use rotary tape guides, and some use a combination of the two.
TAPE REELING CONFIGURATIONS
There are two basic tape reeling configurations: (1) co-planar, and (2) co-axial. Both of these describe the physical relationship between the supply reel and the take-up reel. The co-planar, which is used more often than the co-axial, has the supply reel and the take-up reel side by side. Figure 4-7 shows this configuration.
Figure 4-7.Co-planar tape reeling configuration.
The co-axial configuration is used when physical space is limited. It places the supply and take-up reels on top of each other. Figure 4-8 shows this configuration.
Figure 4-8.Co-axial tape reeling configuration.
Q-1. What are the four basic parts of a magnetic tape recorder's tape transport system?
Q-2. What are the three most commonly used tape reeling systems?
Q-3. What are two disadvantages of the take-up control reeling system?
Q-4. What are two advantages of a two-motor reeling system over a take-up control reeling system?
Q-5. What type of reeling system best controls a tape recorder's tape tension during starts and stops?
Q-6. What are the two basic types of tape buffering reeling systems?
Q-7. How do the tape guides on a tape reeling system protect the tape from damage during operation?
TAPE TRANSPORT CONFIGURATIONS
There are two types of tape transport configurations: (1) open-loop capstan drive, and (2) closed-loop capstan drive. The following paragraphs describe each of these.
OPEN-LOOP CAPSTAN DRIVE
This is probably the simplest tape transport configuration. Figure 4-9 shows how the magnetic tape is pulled off of the supply reel, taken across the magnetic heads, and wound onto the take-up reel. The tape is pulled by sandwiching it between a single capstan and a pinch roller. As the capstan turns, the friction between it and the pinch roller pulls the tape across the magnetic heads. The magnetic tape is held against the magnetic heads by using tape guides.
Figure 4-9.Open-loop capstan drive tape transport.
The open-loop drive transport configuration has two major drawbacks:
1. It can only work in one direction. It can pull the tape, but it can't push it across the magnetic heads.
2. Tape tension and head-to-tape contact can vary. If the capstan motor hesitates or speeds up, the tape tension will vary.
CLOSED-LOOP CAPSTAN DRIVE
Closed-loop capstan drive tape transports were designed to overcome the drawbacks of the open-loop drive design. They use more than one capstan and/or pinch roller to clamp the magnetic tape in the area around the magnetic heads. This keeps tape tension constant and improves the quality of the recording or the playback. Figure 4-10 shows the basic arrangement of the closed-loop capstan drive.
Figure 4-10.Closed loop capstan drive tape transport.
The three most common closed-loop capstan drive designs are (1) differential velocity capstans, (2) dual-motors dual capstans, and (3) peripheral drive capstans.
Differential Velocity Capstans
Figure 4-11 shows a differential velocity capstan. In this design, the take-up capstan is made a little larger than the supply capstan. This causes the take-up capstan to pull the tape away from the heads slightly faster than the supply capstan feeds the tape to the heads. The result is a constant tape tension in the area around the magnetic heads.
Figure 4-11.Differential velocity capstan drive.
Both capstans are turned by a single motor which is coupled to the capstan pulleys by a belt. This arrangement is very efficient in one direction, but, unfortunately, differential velocity capstans don't work in reverse. If you reversed the tape direction, a negative tension would occur, and the tape would bunch up in the area around the magnetic heads.
Dual-Motors Dual Capstans
Figure 4-12 shows a dual-motor dual capstan drive. In this design, each capstan is driven by its own motor. Tape tension is maintained by slowing down one of the motors. When reverse tape motion is needed, the opposite motor is slowed down.
Figure 4-12.Dual-motors dual capstans drive system.
Peripheral Drive Capstans
In this design, the magnetic tape is moved by a capstan placed directly against the tape reel or tape pack. Figure 4-13 shows two different peripheral drive capstan arrangements.
The first arrangement, figure 4-13A, shows a single capstan design. In this method, two tightly wound tape reels, without flanges, are pushed against the capstan. As the capstan turns, it forces the tape reels to turn in the appropriate direction. Magnetic tape tension is maintained by using either spring loading or servo control.
Figure 4-13A.Peripheral drive capstans.
The second arrangement, figure 4-13B, uses two capstans. In this method, the two tightly wound tape reels, without flanges, are pressed directly against the capstans. Tension in the magnetic head area is maintained by controlling the speed of the individual capstans.
Figure 4-13B.Peripheral drive capstans.
CAPSTAN SPEED CONTROL
Capstan speed control is an important part of the magnetic tape transport system. It makes sure the capstan is turning (1) at the right speed and (2) at a constant speed. This is important because errors in speed control can cause poor recordings and playbacks.
Capstans are turned either by a motor only, or by a motor, belt, and pulley arrangement. In either case, it's the motor that the capstan speed control function acts upon to do its job. A capstan speed control function typically consists of six basic parts. Figure 4-14 shows these six parts and how they're related. Each of the parts is described below.
Figure 4-14.Six parts of the capstan speed control function.
PRECISION FREQUENCY SOURCE
This part of the capstan speed control provides a reference frequency that the speed select network and the comparison network use to drive the capstan motor. The precision frequency source is usually a very-high-frequency crystal with an accuracy of at least .001 percent.
SPEED SELECT NETWORK
This network selects the desired operating tape speed. It takes the reference frequency from the precision frequency source and (depending on the desired operating tape speed) generates another specific reference signal that the comparison network uses to control the speed of the capstan. Table 4-1 is a list of the speed control reference signal frequencies for the various operating tape speeds.
Table 4-1.Typical speed control reference signal frequencies
Operating Tape Speed (inches per second)
Speed Control Frequency (kilohertz)
15/16 1.5625 1 7/8 3.125 3 3/4 6.25 7 1/2 12.5
CAPSTAN SPEED MONITOR
This circuit monitors the true capstan motor speed. It sends the true speed to the comparison network circuit. Most capstan speed monitor circuits are made using a photo-optical tachometer that's directly attached to the shaft of the capstan motor. Figure 4-15 shows this.
Figure 4-15.Capstan speed monitor using a photo-optical tachometer.
COMPARISON NETWORK
This network takes the input signals from the speed select network and the capstan speed monitor, compares the two signals, and decides if the capstan is at the right speed. If not, it tells the speed correction circuit.
Sometimes, a third input signal, which comes from the magnetic tape itself, is supplied to the comparison network. It's called a servo control from tape signal. Tape recordings made on a specific recorder are sometimes shipped off for further analysis and played back on a different recorder. To help compensate for speed errors in the tape transport systems of the two recorders, the precision reference frequency of the originating recorder is recorded onto a track of the magnetic tape. During playback, this reference signal is also fed to the recorder's comparison network and is used to correct speed errors.
SPEED CORRECTION CIRCUIT
This circuit takes speed correction signals from the comparison network and tells the capstan motor drive circuit to either speed up or slow down the capstan motor.
CAPSTAN MOTOR DRIVE CIRCUIT
This circuit takes the speed-up or slow-down signals from the speed correction circuit and actually speeds up or slows down the capstan motor.
MAGNETIC TAPE TRANSPORT MAINTENANCE
If you want good recordings and playbacks, you must keep magnetic tape transports clean and demagnetized. The following paragraphs describe preventive maintenance procedures for magnetic tape transport systems.
MAGNETIC TAPE TRANSPORT CLEANING
You can clean most magnetic tape transports with isopropyl alcohol, cotton swabs, and lint-free cloths. (Caution: Cotton swabs are not lint free, so use them only in places you can't get to with the lint-free cloths.) Figure 4-16 shows a technician cleaning a capstan. Here are some other points to remember:
Figure 4-16.Cleaning the capstan on a magnetic tape transport system.
DO always remove the magnetic tape from the transport before cleaning it.
DO apply the cleaner onto the lint free cloth or cotton swab; DON'T apply it directly onto the tape transport.
DO pay extra attention to the flanged parts of tape guides. It's here that oxide particles collect the most.
DON'T use the same lint-free cloth or cotton swab to clean many parts of the tape transport. Switch cloths and swabs often. If you don't, you may transfer dirt and oxide particles from one part of the tape transport to another.
MAGNETIC TAPE TR
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series introduction... · Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series ... Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesindex-of.co.uk/Tutorials-2/12_-_Modulation_Principles.pdf · Amplitude Modulation ... NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriestscm.com/NEETS-v07-SolidState.pdfThe Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS) was developed for use by personnel in
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series › pdf › NAVEDTRA › NEETS-Module-14... · TRAINING COURSE Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series Module 14—Introduction
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series - Davidson Physics
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesnavybmr.com/study material/NAVEDTRA 14173.pdf · Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series ... The Navy Electricity and Electronics
Navy electricity and electronics training series
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesjoespiper.com/Site/Elec/Module 01.pdf · NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesschems.com/NEETS/US Navy NEETS - Module 02-Introduction...NONRESIDENT TRAINING COURSE Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series · PDF fileNAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series ... NAVEDTRA 12061,
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS) was developed for use
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesnavybmr.com/study material/14173A.pdf · E Useful Formulas for D.C. Circuits ... The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesschems.com/NEETS/US Navy NEETS - Module 13-Introduction... · 2005-01-12 · The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS)
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesdiyaudioprojects.com/Solid/12AU7-IRF510-LM317-Headamp/US...iv NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesnavybmr.com/study material2/NAVEDTRA 14191.pdf · Navy Electricity and Electronics Training ... The Navy Electricity and Electronics
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series Principles NAVEDTRA 14183… · iv NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series 14178 NONRESIDENT TRAINING COURSE Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series Module 6—Introduction to Electronic Emission,
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesnavybmr.com/study material/14187A.pdf · The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series ... AN OPERATING PROCEDURE, PRACTICE,
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesschems.com/NEETS/US Navy NEETS - Module 15-Principles of...COURSE SEPTEMBER 1998 Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series Module
Navy Basic Electricity and Electronics
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series · UNCLASSIFIED . NONRESIDENT . TRAINING . COURSE . September 2011. Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series . Module 5-Generators
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training · PDF fileNavy Electricity and Electronics Training Series ... The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series ... • Keep loose tools,
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series2-AC.pdf · NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series ... Module 8, …
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series - maritime · PDF fileNavy Electricity and Electronics Training Series ... The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series - · PDF fileNAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series ... General, NAVSEA
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesnavybmr.com/study material2/NAVEDTRA 14183.pdf · Module 11—Microwave Principles ... NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series1-Intro.pdf · iv NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS) was
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Seriesnavybmr.com/study material/neets 10/NEETS MOD 10 14182.pdfNAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series · Electronics Training Series Module 12—Modulation ... each containing learning ... The Navy Electricity and Electronics Training
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series - …ars.nc4fb.org/NEETS/module 11.pdf · iv NAVY ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS TRAINING SERIES The Navy Electricity and Electronics


New Clients receive 10% off their first trip or round-trip to any airport.
Los Angeles Executive Limousine has been running the business for over a decade. We are dedicated to giving A-grade LA car service & limo service to satisfy our customers. Our fleet of vehicles includes Lincoln Town Cars,SUV Limos, Stretch Limos, Hummer Limos, Passenger Tour Bus and Party Limo Buses. We make sure that each ride is memorable and you ride like a Rockstar in our limousine.
Los Angeles Executive Limousine has an A+ rating with the BBB with no complaints ever!
We don't charge travel time to pick up in Woodland Hills.
There is no travel time charge to pick up for limousine service in Woodland Hills. We do flat rates for all airport limousine transportation.
Affordable Limousine Airport Transportation for Woodland Hills.
Limousine Airport Transportation is affordable to all major and minor airports including LAX, Ontario International Airport, Orange County Airport, John Wayne Airport and Long Beach Airport.
Los Angeles Executive Limousine is also a member of the NLA (National Limousine Association) & the GCLA (Greater California Limousine Association).
Limo Service for All Occasions.
Call us right away if you need a luxury ground transportation for any of your occasion from your wedding or prom or graduation to a night out in town. We are available 24-7 at your service.
Los Angeles Executive Limousine is a member of the NLA (National Limousine Association) and the GCLA (Greater California Limousine Association).
Los Angeles Executive Limousine has an A+ rating with the BBB with no complaints ever.
All of our chauffeurs are drug tested!


Here you will find fine collectable artworks with dragons, tigers, dogs and other animals including; comical paintings inspired by cultures from around the world and 80's pop culture.
This beautifully vibrant artwork is available in museum quality fine art giclee canvas prints and fine art paper giclee art prints, each one made especially for you and autographed by the artist. Each of your beautiful artworks also comes with a Certificate of Authenticity.
Above: Framed 11x14 fine art giclee prints that fit standard frames.
Above: Jake hand embellishing a fine art canvas giclee print.
Enjoy free standard shipping available for you in the continental United States, International shipping is also available.
Make your artwork even more special by personalizing it. If you would like for Jake to personalize your artwork please enter your request in the notes field while checking out.


You don't feel this moment like I do?
You don't see the colors inside your brain when the music is playing?
You don't hear patterns of colors as they hit your retina and cling to your memory?
Your body doesn't become warm when certain sentences dance in cadence?
You don't wander through ancient paths looking for your ghost?
You don't concentrate all your focus on never being the person you once were?
You haven't read through stories of past lives looking for your own future?
You don't understand why I don't understand the point of this meeting?
Your chest doesn't swell when gray blankets the sky matching your senses?
Maybe I'll permit myself to love the grace given to me.


text:
Onitis corydon är en skalbaggsart som beskrevs av Jean Baptiste Boisduval 1835. Onitis corydon ingår i släktet Onitis och familjen bladhorningar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Bladhorningar
corydon

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Many fusing operations require that the fuser determine which side of dichroic or iridescent glass is coated. This is easy for opaque glasses, but can be difficult for transparent (especially clear) glasses.
The most straightforward way to determine which side has the coating requires the use of a pencil or similar object. Just hold the pencil at a slight angle so that the tip is lightly touching the surface of the glass. Observe carefully to see if the reflection of the pencil tip in the glass is directly touching or if there's a space between the actual tip and its reflection. If there's a space, the coating (dichroic or irid) is on the opposite side; no space means the coating is on the top surface next to the pencil.


text:
Adafruit Feather
ESP32-S2
STEMMA QT
Homerockchip
Tag: rockchip
ProductsTop Stories
PinePhone Pro Explorer Edition Linux-based Smartphone At $399
PinePhone Pro Explorer Edition was initially announced on October 15, 2021, featuring the low-power and high-performance Rockchip RK3399S system-on-chip. As we all know, Rockchip has been releasing powerful SoCs in the market for embedded electronic hardware devices, but this chip is...
SBC-SiP-SoC-CoM
Geniatech K3-3568 Development Board for Smart Display Devices
Six months since the release of the Geniatech DB10 AI development board for smart automation applications, the manufacturer has come up with an RK3568-based K3 intelligent development board with high performance and stability. More than a year after the launch of RK3568, it is...
Radxa ROCK5 Model B With Embedded Rockchip RK3588 System-on-Chip
Radxa announced a new Arm Desktop standard single board computer, ROCK 5 Model B based on the Rockchip RK3588 low-power and high-performance processor for edge computing. Radxa became one of the first manufacturers to embed an RK3588 system-on-chip showing the capabilities for digital...
Kobol, the company behind Helios64 NAS system calls it quit and shut it's doors
Recent news reaching us is that Helios4 and Helios64 manufacturer, Kobol, has decided to call it quits promising to only give its support to its customers when available. The three-man company behind the popular open-spec network-attached storage (NAS) devices made this announcement...
Radxa ROCK 3A SBC Provides Support for the AIoT Market with its Quad-core RK3568
Single-board computers (SBCs) are becoming more popular as the industry develops and new technologies emerge, such as the Internet of Things (IoT). Therefore, the use of computers and smart technologies in electronics has maximized the growth potential of the global SBC market....
Pine64 Unveils Quartz64 model A SBC for Developers and Linux Users Along with SOQuartz Module
Recently, we have seen the launch of the Firefly ROC-RK3566-PC mini-computer built around the Rockchip RK3566 chip. To continue the emergence of RK3566-powered development boards, the Quartz64, a single-board computer (SBC) has been released by Pine64. With the integrated powerful...
SBC-SiP-SoC-CoMTop Stories
Rock Pi 4 Plus SBC Features Rockchip OP1 Processor and eMMC Storage with Twister OS Armbian
Radxa launched the Rock Pi 4 Plus series of single-board computers with the Rockchip OP1 Processor, as an alternative to the Raspberry Pi. The new Rock Pi 4 Plus has been upgraded to a Rockchip OP1 processor, a powerful hexa-core ARM-based RK3399 SoC. Hence, it should be 11% faster than...
Firefly's Station P2 mini PC features RK3568, dual GbE, PoE+, WiFi 6 and up to 8GB RAM
Sometime in November last year, we wrote about two fanless mini PCs that were introduced by T-chip Technology's Firefly: the Station P1 and M1 geek computers, powered by the Rockchip RK3399 hexa-core and RK3328 quad-core processors respectively. We are back now to talk about a...

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Developers create new electric vehicle
"This is the future," said Daniel Kim.
He is the inventor of a little pod-shaped vehicle and the founder of Lit Motors.
"The name 'Lit' comes in the past tense, it talks about the paradigm shift from the combustion engine to the electric motor," said Kim.
There is one electric motor that pushes the vehicle forward and the four others that keep it standing still. The Lit Motors C-1 only has two wheels, but thanks to a pair of powerful gyroscopes, it stands up as if it had four.
When asked if it feels like a car, control engineer Kevin Lomeli said, "It will feel when you're sitting in it like a car, but it'll drive like a motorcycle."
Lit gave us one video of their prototype driving on a San Francisco street and coming to a stop, standing up. And in another video, they show how hard it is to knock over, by pulling on it with a Land Rover.
Kim: You'd need a baby elephant to knock it over.
Bloom: How angry would the baby elephant have to be?
Kim: It would have to be a pretty angry baby elephant.
Despite its small size, the vehicle actually has about as much room in the driver's seat as a Honda Civic. And there's room in the back for a suitcase or a passenger, if you're willing to get cozy.
"For a lot of single people that live in the city, this could end up being their only vehicle. For a lot of families, this would end up being a secondary vehicle," said Ryan James, the chief marketing officer.
And it's not just for around town, but for commuting. Lit's designers claim these batteries will carry the C-1 200 miles on a six-hour charge -- that's double the range of a Nissan Leaf. And since it's technically a motorcycle, it can go between lanes or in the carpool lane to dodge traffic.
They expect it to cost about $24,000 when it launches in two years. Kim promises a test drive like none other.
"It's really fun actually to defy gravity," said Kim.
CA officials ID new COVID-19 variant linked to several outbreaks


text:
Q: sequence List of disjunction with tuples I use sequenceU to turn inside type out while working with disjunctions in scalaz.
for e.g.
val res = List[\/[Errs,MyType]]
doing
res.sequenceU will give \/[Errs,List[MyType]]
Now if I have a val res2 = List[(\/[Errs,MyType], DefModel)] - List containing tuples of disjunctions; what's the right way to convert
res2 to \/[Errs,List[ (Mype,DefModel)]

A: As noted in the comments, the most straightforward way to write this is probably just with a traverse and map:
def sequence(xs: List[(\/[Errs, MyType], DefModel)]): \/[Errs, List[(MyType, DefModel)]] =
  xs.traverseU { case (m, d) => m.map((_, d)) }

It's worth noting, though, that tuples are themselves traversable, so the following is equivalent:
def sequence(xs: List[(\/[Errs, MyType], DefModel)]): \/[Errs, List[(MyType, DefModel)]] =
  xs.traverseU(_.swap.sequenceU.map(_.swap))

Note that this would be even simpler if the disjunction were on the right side of the tuple. If you're willing to make that change, you can also more conveniently take advantage of the fact that Traverse instances compose:
def sequence(xs: List[(DefModel, \/[Errs, MyType])]): \/[Errs, List[(DefModel, MyType)]] =
  Traverse[List].compose[(DefModel, ?)].sequenceU(xs)

I'm using kind-projector here but you could also write out the type lambda.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange