Psychology has many individual theories describing isolated phenomena but no core theory of behaviour to guide our research, no analogue to the theories of relativity or evolution. This is beginning to cost the discipline. Recently Bem (2011) published a series of experiments purporting to demonstrate evidence of precognition. Bem took several standard psychological experiments and reversed the temporal ordering of the elements. Analyses showed a series of statistically significant effects that suggested that events in the near future were affecting earlier performance. For example, he showed participants a list of words then tested their free recall. After this test, he trained the participants on a subset of the words, and showed that there was improved recall of those words, even though the training had come last. Because he followed the rules of experimental design and had statistically significant results, the Journal of Personality & Social Psychology was unable to find a reason to reject the paper. The editors only noted that "the reported findings conflict with our own beliefs about causality and that we find them extremely puzzling" (Judd & Gawronski 2011: 406, emphasis ours). Note that the cited conflict was with their beliefs about causality, and not, for example, the laws of physics and what they have to say about time travel. This should have been an opportunity for Bem to discuss problems with the standard methods and analyses that produced these physically impossible results (the approach taken in a companion paper by Wagenmakers, Wetzels, Borsboom & van der Maas 2011). Instead, his discussion was framed in terms of a loose reading of quantum physics and an appeal to psychologists to keep an open mind. The paper simply described what had happened, without any real attempt to explain how it had happened. A failure to replicate Bem's key effects has recently been published (Ritchie, Wiseman & French 2012), but this paper was also entirely empirical and descriptive in nature, with no reference to any underlying theory of how the world works.
Psychology needs a core theory in order to mature as a science. Theory serves a dual role in science. It allows the scientist to identify when a result is likely to be anomaly (e.g. faster-than-light neutrinos), and, more critically, it provides a guide to discovery to structure the search for explanations of novel phenomena (e.g. the bacterial flagellum). The Bem experiments demonstrate how, without a theory, psychology is unable to deal rigorously with anomalous results. This paper will discuss how an example psychological theory (James J. Gibson's ecological approach to visual perception; Gibson 1966; 1979) has been able to guide discovery and explanation of new phenomena, specifically how people learn to produce a novel coordinated rhythmic movement. It has been able to do this because it is a theory of both the objects of perception and the ecological information that supports that perception. The theory can therefore be used to propose specific mechanisms to explain a given behaviour, rather than simply providing some terms to describe that behaviour. We will suggest that the successes of this approach in the area of perceptually guided action stands as a clear model of what a truly theory-driven psychology could achieve.
Psychology is an empiricist discipline; it has no core theory and so it leans heavily on it's empirical results to prove that it's doing something interesting. This, I think, is why replication has been held up as the saviour of psychology; our training makes us think that saving the phenomena will save the science. But that's not really how it works.
I agree with you to a large degree on two claims: 1) replication (alone) will not save psychology, and 2) we need better theory. Having said that, I think that while there has been an emphasis recently on replication (for very good reason), both replication and better theory are critical, and they are complements that balance one another out, rather than one trumping the other or vice versa.
A good theory is great, but theories as the saying goes, are never right, some are just useful (or less wrong). When the neutrinos traveled faster than light, it was critical to have a good theory there to make sense of the situation -- we must have made a mistake somewhere. But when astronomic measurements disproved the heliocentric universe that's the same reaction scientists had then too.
Replication is essential because when you have a result that's anomalous given your theoretical expectations, it's really important to know whether it's something that happens consistently or not. If it does, then you can't just ignore it and sweep it under the rug.
When you live in a world where replication happens only occasionally, then the very data upon which theory is built is questionable, and theorists have their own degrees of freedom to exploit, which is just as problematic as researcher degrees of freedom.
It's fine to say that we need better theory and then replication will follow, but that's just a nice thing to say, it's not a plan of action. Given the current academic context, it seems to me that replication is an important place to start, even if it doesn't, by itself, solve our problems.
I'm far less troubled by the ESP research than you seem to be. It was an anomalous result, found (it can reasonably be assumed) in good faith. It was published (and maybe it shouldn't have been given the credibility it was, but that seems like a different argument; certainly it shouldn't have been suppressed). Then the rest of the academic community kicked into gear and tried to replicate it, unsuccessfully, and poked holes in Bem's methodology.
That's science working pretty well, I'd say. What would have been worse would have been to dismiss the findings outright because they didn't fit our theory. No harm done with ESP, but the outcome is a lot worse when a similarly anomalous, but true set of data come along.
I imagine we're pretty much on the same page most of the way here -- it's a mistake to let the emphasis be too strongly on replication or theory, particularly when it's to the exclusion of the other. I'm just not sure that the idea that replication will solve everything isn't a bit of a straw man. It's necessary, but certainly not sufficient. Still, more attention to better theory is a good idea -- it just can't save psychology by itself any more than replication can.
However, in my next point, I'd go further than Nussbaum in saying the whole discussion of Bem's experiments is blatantly unfair. For instance, reconcile this sentence, "The Bem experiments demonstrate how, without a theory, psychology is unable to deal rigorously with anomalous results," with this sentence from the preceding paragraph: "This should have been an opportunity for Bem to discuss problems with the standard methods and analyses that produced these physically impossible results (the approach taken in a companion paper by Wagenmakers [and colleagues])." Since you acknowledge that JPSP chose to publish a companion piece by psychologists that did in fact directly "deal rigorously with anomalous results," it makes no sense to claim "psychology is unable to" do so. It's nonsense, and it's unfair to all of those psychologists who did deal with this rigorously in a variety of ways, and it's unfair the rest of us who could in an even wider variety of ways if we didn't already consider it a proverbial dead horse.
"Physically impossible results" is also nonsense if taken literally. As in quantum physics, no results are physically impossible until proven so thoroughly in all conceivable scenarios, and even then we would still have to worry about what we did to change the system by observing it. Sufficiently thorough disproof of a phenomenon's general possibility is probably one of the most "physically impossible results" I can think of, so people should probably avoid claiming impossibility almost as carefully as the better empiricists among us avoid claiming proof. Even when we accept a null hypothesis, we shouldn't claim to have proven something doesn't or can't happen, only that it didn't happen (...consistently enough to produce results we think it should have produced). Even when using Bayesian inference to reject Bem's statistically significant results, we base this decision on the insufficiency of Bem's effect size to support his unparsimonious-hence-improbable explanatory theory. We judge its parsimony by comparison with the prior assumptions we accept collectively, and we thus conclude it is improbable, but we are better skeptics for not assuming it is impossible.
I agree not enough psychologists study and synthesize sufficiently, but it's a popular complaint too (I don't know, but I have a feeling its cumulative popularity throughout psychological literature would easily outweigh the recent replication uproar), and we're working on it.
In light of your blog's repeated (central?) claim that psychology "doesn't have a theory," it seems you're busy grinding an axe for psychology-as-is, and that you're using an unrealistic, inflated opinion of physics as a reference point to justify your condemnation. I could be reading too much into things though; I admit I have a chip on my own shoulder. I'm sick of people pretending it's fair to compare physics (or other classic "hard sciences") with psychology (or other social sciences) in terms of how much theorists agree with one another, or in terms of how well we can explain / predict / etc. the behavior of inanimate objects (or even animals) vs. humans. It wouldn't be such a bad thing if these comparisons were made fairly, but usually the specific comparison is between a relatively simple, directly observable physical phenomenon, and a complex or latent psychological phenomenon that depends on many more underlying processes. If the people with whom these comparisons are so popular were more aware of physical research on complex / latent / multi-determined phenomena, I think they'd see that even physicists also disagree with one another quite a bit, and rely on loose-fitting statistics quite a bit, and fail to predict quite a lot. I'm sure this would've been the case with Adams and colleagues' seemingly superluminal neutrinos too, if they hadn't found that faulty cable. As in the news article on this you originally linked, "[A] senior lecturer in particle astrophysics…said: 'Neutrino experimental results are not historically all that reliable, so the words 'don't hold your breath' do spring to mind when you hear very counter-intuitive results like this.'" As in that article, even physicists know they need replication, not just theory.
That being said, one obvious contrast exists between physics and psychology: physics has a much longer history of rigorous empiricism. Even today, psychology is not a purely empiricist discipline, as many humanistic and old-school Freudian / Jungian psychologists would attest. The pure empiricists among us would probably say those theories are on their way out, and that's what focusing on theory gets you if it comes at cost to new and replicative research. I'd say both approaches have their place, and the humanistic and psychodynamic theories will still have some utility at least as long as it takes us to replace them completely for all the purposes they serve. They do work for some things (e.g., counseling and describing certain defense mechanisms, respectively), and they don't for others, so judging by these as representatives of theory-focused psychology, do "we know that focusing on theory works?" No. It's not hard to find critics of ecological psychology either. Nonetheless, I trust your theory-focused work deserves consideration on its own merits apart from its epistemological class (and so do atheoretical experiments), I hope it gets big enough to find you your share of attention from the ubiquitous haters, and I sincerely hope you trounce them all, but good luck convincing them that you have.
As for physics, consider the modern state of the historical equivalents to Freud's theoretical approach. When physics was as young as psychology, Newton practiced alchemy and Copernicus had us orbiting the center of the universe, unless you want to go back as far as Aristotle…and I don't think you do. Now we have 24 times as many elements, no idea where the center of the universe is, and about as much respect for traditional alchemy as we do for astrology…which is still more than zero, all quacks considered! Getting our scientific ducks in line has always been a slow process, generally approaching but never achieving completion in any science. Hence if you set your standard for theoretical consensus too high, any science will fail, and psychology as a whole only really performs poorly in this when we fail to adjust the standard for its relative youth.
"Psychologists hate ruling things out...because they have no particular reason to rule anything out. But this has a huge cost: psychology becomes a mere collection of empirical results, with nothing tying them together. Results from the different disciplines can't inform each other, because they aren't testing the same things."
Respectively, these three sentences are unfair and false, unappreciative and false, and false and false. The first sentence again implies a false contrast with other sciences; hints at an underlying, unresolved, personal disagreement with or misunderstanding of skeptical empiricism; and ignores the whole point of null hypothesis significance testing. The second sentence dismisses the value of "mere" empirical research, which, when rigorously scientific and potentially valid, is often considerable even when conducted in isolation from theory, and is sometimes most valuable when theory can't tie it together at first (imagine if we hadn't found the problems with superluminal neutrinos or Bem's studies!); the second sentence also ignores all the theories that do tie together a great deal of empirical results (e.g., any halfway decent review paper/journal/text/book), however short they may fall from achieving a Grand Unified Theory of psychology (physics lacks a GUT too BTW).
The third sentence just suggests ignorance or an unfair dismissal of any good counterexample from the modern interactions of historically distinct disciplines, and an underlying personal disagreement with or misunderstanding of the means by which psychologists operationalize latent constructs.
I'll only offer the one counterexample with which I'm intimately familiar: the slowly mending rift between social psychology and personality psychology. Plenty of theoretical cross-fertilizing, experimental paradigm-replicating, and measure-sharing has been going on there for over twenty years now. Sure, there could be more mutual informing going on, but the emphasis is on COULD, because some has been ongoing for decades. Practically every personality psychologist has some appreciation for the psychological power of the environment over people's personalities, but personality psychologists have also published powerful theoretical accounts of the mountains of empirical evidence that speak to the consistency of personalities across situations. If you want the next best thing to proof of that, I suppose I can offer another counterexample: studies of twins raised apart. There again you have different disciplines informing one another, merging as behavioral genetics, and providing evidence that whether we measure at the level of the gene or the level of the latent personality trait, it seems we are in some part testing the same things.
There is another important, general problem in science (not just psychology), and I think you might agree: we expect all our scientists to do all the work themselves, including experimentation, theorization, AND teaching. This might be ideal, but it's too idealistic. Not every scientist has all three talents, nor does one need all three to contribute meaningfully, even laudably. I recently argued this in a conversation about colleague's opinion article in the local newspaper, in which he proposed that scientists deserve more fame. The problem raised at the time was that exceptional, popular physicists like Stephen Hawking and Neil deGrasse Tyson catch flak from their researcher colleagues for spending too much time on public outreach, and not enough on original research. Even if they aren't the most revolutionary original researchers (emphasis on "if," not stating an opinion here), Dr. Hawking has certainly delivered exceptional, fame-worthy theory, and Dr. Tyson has certainly earned his fame as a public advocate for his science. (And for science in general!) By the same reasoning, we should not thumb our noses at excellent original researchers, even if they leave it to someone else to explain what they discover first or demonstrate best.
Truly valid theory is the purview of the literary reviewer. Yes, we should all try to review enough to write an introduction and theorize enough to write a discussion, but no, we don't all need to focus on this. Personally, I'd argue that any psychological theory worth taking at face value should have at least one meta-analysis or another kind of big, serious literature review to back it up. Every theory that falls short of that standard should probably be regarded as a work in progress, analogous to the release of beta versions of software: potentially unstable, not to be trusted as bug-free, and in a state that users should expect will be revised, and remain wary of until it has been. That doesn't make beta software useless, and you wouldn't expect every individual who writes code for the beta version to also co-manage the beta testing.
Career specialization is okay (not to mention the thus-far irreversible trend of modernization), as long as every job still gets done. I agree the reviewers and Grand Unifying Theorists among us are having trouble keeping up with the original researchers, but let's not hold back the asymmetrically talented researchers among us just so the theory can catch up, and let's not expect too much from the discussion of every article that gives us some interesting results. Scientific discovery is a creative, opportunistic, and serendipitous process, so we simply can't expect it to always follow a proper theoretical introduction. Sometimes we just have to write our intros after we have our results (imagine Alexander Fleming's predicament when he had no better term for penicillin than "mould juice"). We should not force scientific pioneers to accept the same fetters that scientific synthesizers need to keep our more thoroughly vetted theory grounded. Instead, we should better appreciate the distinction between these jobs, not demand that everyone do both, and not portray the work of one as the work of the other, especially not as a straw man to burn as an effigy of any whole science.
Hi, I am commenting here because Twitter can sometimes be a little too brief. Having read the entire post (which I had not before, and for which many thanks) I can say that I agree with you that we need better theories, but I am unsure how psychology will go about achieving them.I am with Nussbaum on very many points. Most theories in our playground are re-descriptions. You urge that we should create "strong, clearly formulated theories" to test. OK, how about "boy wants to kill father to make love to mother". It is certainly strong, and clearly formulated. However, I feel it lacks something. Even Freud felt so, and stuck in a hydraulic system pumping between different hypothetical reservoirs, id, ego and so on. Despite that, it remains unsatisfactory. Our problem is that we don't have good mechanisms. Perhaps only biology will provide those. I am tired of psychologists drawing boxes with arrows. In the meantime, we will have to wing it, trying our best to make sensible suggestions which we can then test, while being aware we are just skimming the surface.
Now I will go back to my long postponed post on the theory of complexity.
"It's fine to say that we need better theory and then replication will follow, but that's just a nice thing to say, it's not a plan of action. Given the current academic context, it seems to me that replication is an important place to start, even if it doesn't, by itself, solve our problems."
Also: I wonder if researchers already think they are contributing to theory building, and - testing. Take the social priming stuff: I gather the people engaged in that kind of research think they are contributing to theory building- and testing. If this is correct, then maybe one needs more specific guidelines/ statements concerning what better theory building, and - testing implies?
I also find the Bem findings very interesting. At what point does one say that certain findings are simply a waste of everybody's time, money, and effort? I certainly hope that Bem is going to spend the next few decades looking for boundary conditions, and providing more theoretical viewpoints. What's the difference between Bem's findings and, let's say, social priming findings?
I'm not so pessimistic about psychology lacking theory. Especially the field of mathematical psychology has provided many useful models and theories. For example, how about the diffusion model for information accumulation in speeded decision making (popular nowadays in neuroscience), models of reinforcement learning (originating from Thorndike's law of effect), Tversky & Kahneman's work on preferential choice, Busemeyer & Townsend's decision field theory, and other detailed and empirically testable models of perception, memory, attention etc. It is true that in some areas of psychology there is not sufficient theory. But if you want psychological theory, any issue of the Journal of Mathematical Psychology will give you plenty of it.
"But if you want psychological theory, any issue of the Journal of Mathematical Psychology will give you plenty of it."
Not really, as most of "it" isn't psychological theory at all in as much as a theory is to leave you feeling you now understand something that the mere empirical findings did not. And *that*, I suggest, is the problem: what amounts to a "theory" in psychology? If it is to be in contradistinction to a "mere" (?) empirical regularity, then what is it? Most of the explanations in experimental psychology amount to little more than accounting for one empirical phenomenon in terms of another: "oh, that is just priming, or negative priming, or Stroop, or etc.", but one never gets any real feeling of closure. Instead, one is left with, "Yes, but how does *that* work?"
Andrew's point, I think, is that ``replication'' per se does not help with *that* issue. We need more: not more data, but more theories: real theories, not the logical positivist f(x) statements in most mathematical psychology "theorizing", but real explanations that leave us feeling that we have learned something, but also which provide for a broad explanation for the extant data, importantly including the non-replications.
BTW, my point is not anti math psych (hardly, as I am often accused of that sin myself), just that "it" rarely rises to any form of a real explanation for most.
This almost reminds me of classic conceptions of rationalism in economic behavior such as being able to make psychological models of choice behavior in a Prisoner's dilemma game. Can a mathematical model predict the 'weight of' personal relationship between the actor and player 2, the 'amount of' jealousy of a competitor's gain and so on.


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Press Release23 June 2020Siemens AGMumbai
Siemens launches new digital learning offering, 'Sitrain access'
Siemens is expanding its Sitrain Digital Industry Academy offer to include the new digital learning offer 'Sitrain access'.
The digital learning platform for online training supports learners at any time and in any location. Various courses are delivered via web-based training, tutorial videos, blended learning and practical exercises.
When combined with the methodical use of multimedia, tests and interaction with other participates and Sitrain experts, it ensures an optimum learning outcome.
Siemens Limited announced that it is expanding its Sitrain Digital Industry Academy portfolio to include new digital learning offering – 'Sitrain access'. SITRAIN access is the digital learning platform for industry. It facilitates digital, innovative learning and professional education in all sectors. It is online, flexible, continuous, and personalized. The knowledge offerings are curated by Siemens experts, arranged in modular form, and can be accessed to suit the requirements of the industry.
Bhaskar Mandal, Head of Digital Industries, Siemens Limited, said, "In a world that is witnessing fast-paced change, the most important skill is agility aided by technology. With 'Sitrain access', corporates can give their employees the necessary edge enabling them to take advantage of opportunities created by Industry 4.0. Online and digital content would be needed for reskilling at all levels, giving a boost to the mindset and culture of continuous learning."
The new offering provides state-of-the-art access to digital training for individual study apart from the added convenience of online booking. It is aimed at corporates and their employees, technical institutions and their students to support needs to upskill and stay up-to-date with ever-growing qualification requirements. In addition to web-based training and video tutorials, for example, users can contact other learners or the Sitrain experts directly. A significant advantage of this offer, alongside the numerous courses on a wide range of topics, is that learners can take part at any time and in any location. This innovative training solution can be used to build and extend knowledge and is designed to complement face-to-face training events.
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Siemens Limited focuses on the areas of power generation and distribution, intelligent infrastructure for buildings and distributed energy systems, and automation and digitalization in the process and manufacturing industries. It is also a leading supplier of smart mobility solutions for rail and road transport and infrastructure solutions for Smart Cities. Siemens Limited, in which Siemens AG holds 75% of the capital, is the flagship listed company of Siemens AG in India. As of September 30, 2019, Siemens Limited had Revenue of INR 13,323 crore and 9,437 employees. Further information is available on the Internet at www.siemens.co.in.
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JOHN 5 performs live in Toronto, Ontario. Photo By: Jay Broderick
2022 was a year of great change for my photography career. In February, I created my first blog with the intention of highlighting some of our unsung heroes in the music industry. Specifically, I looked to focus on our local Durham Region music scene.
I started shooting at some local venues like Ajax's The Edge Lounge, and Oshawa's Atria which host some great events. Little did I know the doors this would open for me, and things took off pretty much immediately. I was soon approached by Digital Beat Magazine to shoot and write for them. I was completely honoured and accepted the challenge. I took the opportunity for growth, as it allowed me to shoot some bigger shows in Toronto.
The following is a list of my 5 favourite shows from 2022.
5. GWAR (shot for Digital Beat Magazine)
GWAR performs live at The Phoenix Concert Theatre. Photo By: Jay Broderick
On November 2, GWAR rolled into Toronto's Phoenix Concert Theatre. I had seen this band on video, and was warned to keep my camera safe, but nothing could have possibly prepared me for the bloodbath that ensued. It was a literal blood bath for the whole show, as blood sprayed the audience, song after song. At the end of the set, the fans, walls and ceiling all dripped blood and slime. The energy in the building after the show was unmatched as everybody was chatting, and laughing and smiling at what had just happened. Indeed, crazy shit!!
4. ART OF SHOCK w/ Sacred Reich and Sepultura
ART OF SHOCK performing live at The Opera House in Toronto, Canada. Photo By: Jay Broderick
This show was my first real assignment, shot for this very blog at jaybroderick.com. As part of Sepultura's Quadra Tour, I had reached out to opening act, Los Angeles California's ART OF SHOCK with a request to photograph and cover their set. I was completely thrilled to receive a response back with an acceptance of my offer.
While I had shot other local shows before this one, I really had no idea what I was doing, where I was supposed to go, or what was to be expected. But it was all part of the learning process. After the band's set, I was able to chat with them back stage for a bit and the guys were super cool. They were very thankful for me covering their show. The feelings were completely mutual as I was more than gracious for the opportunity they provided me. As a result, I feel forever indebted to this band, and will always hold this show as one of the greatest moments in my photography career.
Aside from the opportunity, the show itself was fantastic. I mean, Sacred Reich AND Sepultura? No words can explain my gratitude.
3. The Metal Tour of the Year (shot for Digital Beat Magazine)
In May, I shot my first show for Digital Beat Magazine, and it was a big one, in both the venue (Toronto's summer venue of choice Budweiser Stage), and the acts that were touring. The Metal Tour of the Year featured dual headliner's Megadeth and Lamb of God, along with supporting acts Trivium and In Flames.
How could I have ever imagined I'd be standing in the photo pit of one of my favourite bands in Megadeth, photographing them while they performed? It was a completely surreal feeling for me.
These "firsts" in my Live Music Photography career will never be forgotten, but not only because it has allowed me to live out my photography dreams, but the performances were simply fantastic.
2. Airbourne (shot for Digital Beat Magazine)
Joel O'Keeffe of Airbourne performs live at The Opera House. Photo By: Jay Broderick
Now we get into some mind blowing shows that were more than a personal photography milestone. On September 20, I headed downtown Toronto to The Opera House. Again, for Digital Beat Magazine, the assignment this night was to shoot Australian rockers Airbourne.
WOW! Without a doubt, this was one of the most energetic shows I have ever seen... like EVER! Not just talking about 2022 here. I liken it to the energy given off from the band's fellow countryman Angus Young, but this was on a whole new level. Lead singer and guitarist Joel O'Keeffe simply did not stop during the whole set. It was completely insane. I was exhausted just watching him.
Another great thing about the job I do is that it allows me to see shows that I likely would never get around to seeing in my personal life. When I see band's like Airbourne, it makes me wonder why. Why have I never seen these guys? Definitely, will go down as one of the greatest concerts I have ever seen. If they are ever in a city near you, do yourselves a favour and go check them out. You will NOT be disappointed!
HONORABLE MENTION: The Black Crowes (for Digital Beat Magazine)
The Black Crowes perform live at Budweiser Stage in Toronto, Canada. Photo By: Jay Broderick
Before I get into my #1 show of the year, I do have an honorable mention, that didn't quite make it into the Top 5, but is definitely worthy of a quick blurb. On July 6, I hit another show at Budweiser Stage. This time, it was The Black Crowes who were celebrating 30 years of their debut album Shake Your Money Maker. I have always loved the blues rock of these guys, so to get an opportunity to photograph them in concert was simply another honor for myself. I was also extremely humbled to have been contacted by one of their backup vocalists Mackenzie Adams who had loved one of the photos taken of her that night. In fact, she advised that the photo was her favourite photo ever taken of her, and I'm completely honored that she uses it as her Instagram profile pic, at east as of this publishing. Simply no words!
1. JOHN 5 (shot for Digital Beat Magazine)
JOHN 5 performs live at The Phoenix Concert Theatre. Photo By: Jay Broderick
My favourite experience from 2022 came on June 9 when I headed to Toronto's Phoenix Concert Theatre for Digital Beat Magazine. The headlining act on this night was (ex?) Rob Zombie guitarist JOHN 5, as he toured in support of his solo album release for 2021's Sinner.
It is well known that I'm a lover of all things horror. It's likely that this is one of the fascinations I have with the most recent addition to the Motley Crue lineup. I have seen JOHN 5 with Marilyn Manson and Rob Zombie, but with his set design, costumes, and theatrics, I was like a kid at a horror convention. What was unfolding before my happy eyes was something I had never quite experienced so up close and personal at such an intimate venue. And it's definitely nothing I had ever experienced while I had my DSLR in hand. And with that, the lighting at this show was hands down the best I had experienced all year from these smaller concert halls.
Aside from the eye candy, the most important thing that was happening at this show was the music. This guy is a friggin' shredder!! JUST WOW!!! While my eyes were joyfully darting around the stage, my ears were gleefully soaking in the sounds of the guitarists fingering, plucking, bowing and crunching of his 6 string. How many thrills can the senses take in all at once? I'm not certain I would have been able to take any more.
2022 was a great year for music. Do you have a favourite show from this past year? Share your experiences with us in the comments below.
46 Years of Dirty Deeds


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mostrapalazzofarnese » World, Country » Skeeter Davis - What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied)
Skeeter Davis - What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) mp3 album
Skeeter_Davis Country 1967 US
Performer: Skeeter Davis
Title: What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied)
Genre: World, Country
Formats: WAV VOX FLAC MP3 RA DXD MOD
I guess my loving just ain't good enough for you Cause every time I turn my head You look at someone new Your kind don't like walking, babe You won't end easy ride What does it take to keep a man like you satisfied? You've got a plan in mind To make things come your way I wonder if it's worth the price you have to pay Cause life gets cold and lonely When your self respect has died What does it take to keep a man like you satisfied? You think you need more love than any other man Someday you'll taste your cup of life And find it filled with sand And then you'l.
Skeeter Davis discography. Skeeter Davis discography. A trade ad for Skeeter Davis' single "What Am I Gonna Do Without You", October 1964. After a series of minor country hits, her 1967 singles "Fuel to the Flame" (co-written by Dolly Parton) and "What Does It Take (To Keep a Man Like You Satisfied)" both became major hits. The latter peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and an album of the same reached number seventeen on the Top Country Albums list. In 1968, Davis released a cover album of Flatt and Scruggs music entitled I Love Flatt and Scruggs which reached the top-forty on the country albums chart.
Skeeter Davis singles chronology. Fuel to the Flame" (1967). What Does It Take (To Keep a Man Like You Satisfied)" (1967). Set Him Free" (1967). The song was released as a single officially in June of 1967. What Does It Take (To Keep a Man Like You Satisfied)" reached a peak of number five on the Billboard Magazine Hot Country Singles chart later that year. The single became Davis' first top-ten country hit in three years since 1964's "Gonna Get Along Without You Now" reached number eight. Additionally, "What Does It Take" was Davis' first entry onto the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 since 1965, reaching a peak of twenty-one
In 1967, Davis was back in the top 10 with "What Does It Take (To Keep a Man Like You Satisfied)". Davis only achieved two other major country hits the rest of the decade, "Fuel to the Flame" (written by Dolly Parton, to whom Davis paid tribute with an album called Skeeter Sings Dolly in 1972), and "There's a Fool Born Every Minute". She received her fourth Grammy nomination for 1967's "What Does It Take.
Album · 1967 · 12 Songs. What I Go Thru (To Keep Holding On To You). 11. You Taught Me Everything That I Know. 12. What Does It Take (To Keep a Man Like You Satisfied).
Skeeter Davis - Something Comes Over Me 02:43. Skeeter Davis - It's A Crazy World 02:16. Skeeter Davis - What I Go Thru (To Keep Holding On To You) 02:33. Skeeter Davis - You Taught Me Everything That I Know 02:42. Skeeter Davis - What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) 02:36. Skeeter Davis: RCA Country Legend - Skeeter Davis.
Mary Frances "Skeeter" Davis (December 30, 1931 – September 19, 2004) was a country music singer and a member of the Grand Ole Opry radio show for more than 40 years. She was best known for her hit song "The End of the World" (1963), one of the most popular American records of the 1960's. One of the first women to achieve major stardom in the country music field as a solo vocalist, she was an acknowledged influence on Tammy Wynette and Dolly Parton. Mary Frances Penick was born on December 30, 1931 in the small Appalachian town of Dry Ridge, Kentucky.
Request an album send to friend. What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) (1967). Skeeter Davis - What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied). Discography: Skeeter Davis. Rock A Bye Boogie (Original Mix) (2019).
Skeeter Davis - My Sweet Loving Man You don't have to be as strong as a mountainAnd you don't have to hold the world in your handAll. I guess my lovin just aint good enough for you 'Cause every time I turn my head, you look at someone new Your kind dont like walking, babe, you want an easy ride What does it take, to keep a man like you satisfied? Youve got a plan in mind, to make things come your way I wonder if its worth the price, youre gonna have to pay 'Cause life gets cold and lonely when your self respect has died What does it take, to keep a man like you satisfied?
A1 I.O.U. (A Broken Heart) 2:23
A2 I'm Looking (For A World) 2:29
A3 I Can't See Me Without You 2:22
A4 Sad Sad World 2:01
A5 He Doesn't Love Me Anymore 2:05
A6 Fuel To The Flame 2:38
B1 Something Comes Over Me 2:38
B2 It's A Crazy World 2:15
B3 Set Him Free 2:30
B4 What I Go Thru (To Keep Holding On To You) 2:30
B5 You Taught Me Everything That I Know 2:40
B6 What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) 2:33
LPM 3876, LPM-3876 Skeeter Davis What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) (LP, Album, Mono) RCA Victor, RCA Victor LPM 3876, LPM-3876 US 1967
LM-2231 Skeeter Davis What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) (LP, Album, Unofficial, Red) Liming Record LM-2231 Taiwan 1968
none Skeeter Davis What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) (12xFile, FLAC, Album, RM, 24b) RCA, Legacy none 2017
LSP 3876 Skeeter Davis What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) (LP) RCA LSP 3876 Germany 1967
LM-2231 Skeeter Davis What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) (LP, Unofficial) Liming Record LM-2231 Taiwan 1968
Related to Skeeter Davis - What Does It Take (To Keep A Man Like You Satisfied) albums:
Skeeter Davis - The End Of The World download mp3
Skeeter Davis And Teddy Nelson - You Were Made For Me download mp3
Skeeter Davis - Gonna Get Along Without You Now / Now You're Gone download mp3
Victor Calderone - Are You Satisfied download mp3
Skeeter Davis - The End Of The World – Country Hits 1958-1972 download mp3
Skeeter Davis - Homebreaker download mp3
Skeeter Davis - Sings Buddy Holly download mp3
Skeeter Davis - One More Time download mp3
Skeeter Davis - Mary Frances download mp3
Skeeter Davis - Blueberry Hill And Other Favorites download mp3


First Britons – Black with Blue Eyes!
Analysis of DNA from the bones of the first Briton whose remains were found in a cave in Cheddar and date from 10,000 years ago show that the man was black skinned with blue eyes.
That means that it is the white skinned humans who came in later who were all immigrants! So much for all those racists.
Who knows? Could have been a virus?


How Can You Lisk Mine – Ethereum: One Coin. One World. One People.
Since one of the oldest forms of earning money is in cash financing, it is a fact that you can do this with cryptocurrency. Most of the giving sites now focus on Bitcoin, Some of these sites you might be required fill in a captcha after a particular time period and are rewarded with a small amount of coins for visiting them. It is possible to see the www.cryptofunds.co site to find some lists of of these sites to tap into the money of your choice. Unlike forex, stocks and options, etc., altcoin markets have quite different dynamics. New ones are constantly popping up which means they do not have lots of market data and historical view for you to backtest against. Most altcoins have rather poor liquidity as well and it is hard to think of a reasonable investment strategy. Cryptocurrency is freeing individuals to transact cash and do business on their terms. Each user can send and receive payments in a similar way, but they also get involved in more complicated smart contracts. Multiple signatures enable a transaction to be supported by the network, but where a particular number of a defined group of folks consent to sign the deal, blockchain technology makes this possible. This permits innovative dispute arbitration services to be developed in the future. These services could enable a third party to approve or reject a transaction in the event of disagreement between the other parties without checking their cash. Unlike cash and other payment systems, the blockchain consistently leaves public proof a transaction occurred. This can be possibly used in a appeal against businesses with deceptive practices. This mining activity validates and records the transactions across the entire network. So if you're trying to do something illegal, it isn't a good idea because everything is recorded in the public register for the remainder of the world to see forever. Bitcoin is the principal cryptocurrency of the web: a digital money standard by which all other coins are compared to. Cryptocurrencies are distributed, global, and decentralized. Unlike conventional fiat currencies, there's no governments, banks, or another regulatory agencies. As such, it's more immune to outrageous inflation and tainted banks. The benefits of using cryptocurrencies as your method of transacting cash online outweigh the protection and privacy hazards. Security and privacy can readily be achieved by simply being bright, and following some basic guidelines. You wouldn't set your whole bank ledger online for the word to see, but my nature, your cryptocurrency ledger is publicized. This can be fixed by removing any identity of possession from the wallets and therefore keeping you anonymous. Just a fraction of bitcoins issued so far are available on the exchange markets. Bitcoin markets are competitive, meaning the price a bitcoin will rise or fall depending on supply and demand. Many people hoard them for long term savings and investment. This limits the number of bitcoins that are truly circulating in the exchanges. Moreover, new bitcoins will continue to be issued for decades to come. Therefore, even the most diligent buyer couldn't purchase all present bitcoins. This situation isn't to suggest that markets will not be exposed to price manipulation, yet there is certainly no need for big sums of cash to transfer market prices up or down. The merest occasions on the planet market can affect the price of Bitcoin, This can make Bitcoin and any other cryptocurrency volatile. When searching on the web forHow Can You Lisk Mine, there are many things to think of.
Click here to visit our home page and learn more about How Can You Lisk Mine. Here is the coolest thing about cryptocurrencies; they usually do not physically exist anywhere, not even on a hard drive. When you examine a specific address for a wallet containing a cryptocurrency, there is absolutely no digital information held in it, like in precisely the same manner that the bank could hold dollars in a bank account. It truly is simply a representation of value, but there is absolutely no actual palpable type of that value. Cryptocurrency wallets may not be confiscated or immobilized or audited by the banks and the law. They don't have spending limits and withdrawal constraints imposed on them. No one but the owner of the crypto wallet can decide how their riches will be managed. The wonder of the cryptocurrencies is that fraud was proved an impossibility: due to the dynamics of the method where it's transacted. All deals over a crypto-currency blockchain are permanent. As soon as you're paid, you get paid. This is not something shortterm wherever your customers could dispute or need a refunds, or employ illegal sleight of palm. Used, many traders would be wise to make use of a transaction processor, because of the permanent dynamics of crypto-currency deals, you have to be sure that stability is tough. With any kind of crypto-currency whether it be a bitcoin, ether, litecoin, or any of the numerous other altcoins, thieves and hackers could potentially gain access to your individual secrets and so grab your money. Unfortunately, you most likely can never get it back. It is very important for you yourself to undertake some great safe and sound practices when working with any cryptocurrency. Doing this will guard you from most of these damaging events. In case of a fully functioning cryptocurrency, it might also be exchanged as being a product. Proponents of cryptocurrencies announce that type of virtual money is not manipulated with a key banking system and is not thus subject to the whims of its inflation. Because there are a restricted amount of items, this cash's worth is based on market forces, enabling entrepreneurs to industry over cryptocurrency trades. Mining cryptocurrencies is how new coins are placed into circulation. Because there's no government control and crypto coins are digital, they cannot be printed or minted to make more. The mining process is what creates more of the coin. It may be useful to think of the mining as joining a lottery group, the pros and cons are the same. Mining crypto coins means you'll really get to keep the full rewards of your efforts, but this reduces your likelihood of being successful. Instead, joining a pool means that, overall, members will have a greater possibility of solving a block, but the benefit will be divided between all members of the pool, according to the number of "shares" won.
If you are considering going it alone, it is worth noting that the applications configuration for solo mining can be more complex than with a swimming pool, and beginners would be likely better take the latter path. This alternative also creates a steady stream of earnings, even if each payment is modest compared to fully block the benefit. Cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, LiteCoin, Ether, YOCoin, and many others have now been designed as a non-fiat currency. In other words, its backers claim that there is "actual" value, even through there is absolutely no physical representation of that value. The value increases due to computing power, that is, is the lone way to create new coins distributed by allocating CPU power via computer programs called miners. Miners create a block after a time frame that's worth an ever diminishing amount of currency or some kind of reward in order to ensure the deficit. Each coin consists of many smaller units. For Bitcoin, each unit is called a satoshi. The blockchain is where the public record of all trades lives.
The fact that there is little evidence of any growth in the use of virtual money as a currency may be the reason there are minimal attempts to regulate it. The reason for this could be simply that the market is too little for cryptocurrencies to warrant any regulatory attempt. It really is also possible the regulators just don't understand the technology and its implications, anticipating any developments to act. If you are in search of How Can You Lisk Mine, look no further than BITCOIN.
The physical Internet backbone that carries information between different nodes of the network is currently the work of a number of companies called Internet service providers (ISPs), including companies offering long-distance pipelines, occasionally at the international level, regional local pipe, which finally connects in homes and businesses. The physical connection to the Internet can only happen through one of these ISPs, players like amount 3, Cogent, and IBM AT&T. Each ISP runs its own network. Internet service providers Exchange IXPs, owned or private businesses, and occasionally by Authorities, make for each of these networks to be interconnected or to move messages across the network. Many ISPs have arrangements with suppliers of physical Internet backbone providers to offer Internet service over their networks for "last mile"-consumers and businesses who desire to get Internet connectivity. Internet protocols, followed by everyone in the network makes it possible for the data to flow without interruption, in the correct place at the perfect time.
While none of these organizations "owns" the Internet collectively these businesses determine how it works, and established rules and standards that everyone remains. Contracts and legal framework that underlies all that is happening to ascertain how things work and what happens if something bad happens. To get a domain name, for instance, one needs consent from a Registrar, which has a contract with ICANN. To connect to the Internet, your ISP must be physical contracts with providers of Internet backbone services, and suppliers have contracts with IXPs from the Internet backbone to connect to and with her. Concern over security problems? A working group is formed to focus on the issue and the solution developed and deployed is in the interest of all parties. If the Internet is down, you might have someone to phone to get it fixed. If the problem is from your ISP, they in turn have contracts in place and service level agreements, which govern the manner in which these issues are resolved.
The benefit of cryptocurrency is that it uses blockchain technology. The network of nodes the make up the blockchain is not regulated by any centered business. No one can tell the miners to update, speed up, slow down, stop or do anything. And that is something that as a committed supporter badge of honour, and is identical to the way the Internet works. But as you understand now, public Internet governance, normalities and rules that govern how it works present inherent difficulties to an individual. Blockchain technology has none of that. Many individuals would rather use a currency deflation, particularly individuals who desire to save. Despite the criticism and disbelief, a cryptocurrency coin may be better suited for some applications than others. Monetary privacy, for example, is excellent for political activists, but more debatable as it pertains to political campaign financing. We need a steady cryptocurrency for use in commerce; if you're living pay check to pay check, it'd happen as part of your wealth, with the rest reserved for other currencies. Ethereum is an incredible cryptocurrency platform, yet, if growth is too fast, there may be some issues. If the platform is adopted fast, Ethereum requests could improve drastically, and at a rate that surpasses the rate with which the miners can create new coins. Under such a scenario, the whole stage of Ethereum could become destabilized because of the raising costs of running distributed applications. In turn, this could dampen interest Ethereum stage and ether. Uncertainty of demand for ether can result in an adverse change in the economic parameters of an Ethereum based company which could lead to company being unable to continue to operate or to discontinue operation. For most users of cryptocurrencies it's not necessary to understand how the procedure works in and of itself, but it is fundamentally crucial that you understand that there's a procedure for mining to create virtual money. Unlike currencies as we know them today where Authorities and banks can simply choose to print unlimited numbers (I am not saying they're doing thus, just one point), cryptocurrencies to be operated by users using a mining application, which solves the advanced algorithms to release blocks of currencies that can enter into circulation.


Rethinking loyalty isn't exclusive these days to retail brands.
Major League Baseball teams also want to enhance their relationships with fans and elevate engagement levels.
Fans with the Amazin' Mets Pass, which auto-renews every month, can also upgrade to seated tickets on weekdays.
Last August we talked to Chris Giles, Chief Operating Officer for the Oakland A's, about the team's decision to eliminate traditional season tickets starting this year.
Team officials launched a new membership program called A's Access. A's Access includes elements of a premium loyalty program in that it offers attractive benefits for fans that are practical and elevates engagement.
As a member, you can come to any game that you'd like. While your membership may include 10 games where you have a reserved seat, it also includes 71 games that have general admission to the ball park.
The program is like a gym membership model. Just like you might have 10 personal training sessions, you could have 10 games with reserved seats.
Giles believes that baseball is at a crossroads as far as what fans are looking for in their experience.
Traditional fans look for consistency and ownership and the neighborhood of people that sits around them for the same games as close to home plate as possible.
Earlier this month The A's reported that A's Access had drawn a team record 7,000 new customers, and renewals for existing plans were running at 95 percent.
Robbie Kellman Baxter, a customer loyalty expert who created the popular business term, "Membership Economy," talked to Clarus Commerce last year about the trajectory of the subscription loyalty model.
The A's and Mets aren't the only MLB teams that have rethought customer loyalty.
Two years ago, the St. Louis Cardinals launched a monthly pass that allows fans to attend as many games per month at Busch Stadium as they want for a monthly fee of $29.99.
The tickets are delivered digitally on game days and can be used for standing room areas at Busch Stadium. The subscription can be renewed automatically each month.
Also, in 2017, the Minnesota Twins began allowing fans to enter Target Field on a pass for the spring months. For $99, fans can have access to 30 games over April and May—excluding Opening Day—through a pass that is downloaded via the mobile app. Up to eight passes can be obtained per game, and the passes will allow for Ballpark Access, which the Twins formerly designated as standing room only.
What's more, in 2017 the New York Yankees launched the Pinstripe Pass, which allows fans to enter Yankee Stadium for as little as $15. The Pinstripe Pass includes one free drink—fans 21 and over can redeem it for a 12-ounce domestic beer—and grants fans access to standing room areas at Yankee Stadium. That includes Masterpass Batter's Eye Deck, Frank's RedHot Terrace and Toyota Terrace, Budweiser Party Decks or AT&T Sports Lounge, the areas that have been added to the ballpark as part of its recent renovations.
The Houston Astros offer the Astros Ballpark Pass, which allows fans to enter every game in April—except for Opening Day—for $59. Fans will be able to select up to eight passes for any of the games, which will be uploaded to the Ballpark app. A text message will be sent to provide the location of the seat, with one of the eligible locations being the Torchy Taco's Party Deck, which is a part of the new centerfield area at Minute Maid Park.
What these MLB teams have done is listen to their fans, much like retailers listen to their customers.
He said that going to 81 games a year is a massive commitment for someone who wants to buy a season ticket, and many fans are seeking more practical alternatives and the A's believe they achieved that with A's Access.
It seems likely that, not only other MLB teams will follow this pattern of rethinking loyalty, but other professional sports teams in general.
Don't you want to listen to your fans and give them the best possible experience on their terms?


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Brochures/Leaflets
Find DoP
For MSDS & COSSH Sheet enquiries please contact MSDS-UK@soudal.com .
Fix All demonstration video
Fix All: mission accomplished (helicopter movie)
Soudal acquires South-Korean sealant producer Dong Yang
Soudal acquires the South-Korean sealant producer Dong Yang Silicone Co. Ltd. The company has a turnover of 30 million euro and a product portfolio similar to that of Soudal. This acquisition is a further step in the geographical expansion of Soudal and strengthens its position in the Asian markets.
Dong Yang Silicone was established in 2003 and develops and manufactures silicone sealants, MS sealants and acrylic sealants. The company employs 52 people and focuses on the construction sector, industrial markets and the glazing industry. In these sectors, Dong Yang has achieved a leading position in its Korean home market.
Dong Yang's current management will stay in charge and the entire company staff will remain in place. For the coming years there are plans to expand both production capacity and employment.
Read more in the press release.


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Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology has been accredited with 'A+' grade by National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), UGC.
The Institute offers academic programmes at the undergraduate level leading to BE/BTech degree, at the postgraduate level leading to MA, MBA, MCA, MSc, ME/MTech degrees and at the doctoral level, PhD degrees. The salient features of the programmes are semester-wise credit system, letter grades, continuous evaluation of the students' performance, course-wise promotion and Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) which provides flexibility to allow the students to select courses and move at an optimum pace suited to their ability, capacity and interest.
BE/BTech Programmes
Admission to BE/BTech programs shall be conducted through two modes. Applicants are required to fill application form one time only and on the basis of single application form, they can seek admission through any mode, subject to fulfilment of eligibility criteria.
Mode – 1: (Based on JEE Main – 2022 score) for 50% of seats
has passed 10+2 or equivalent examination with at least 60% marks (55% for SC/ST candidates) in aggregate of three subjects, namely, Physics, Mathematics and any one subject out of Chemistry, Biology, Biotechnology and Technical Vocational subject*
ii. has appeared in JEE (Main)-2022.
Mode – 2: (Based on 10+2 marks in PCM) for 50% of seats
has passed 10+2 or equivalent examination with at least 70% marks (65% for SC/ST candidates) in aggregate of three subjects, namely, Physics, Mathematics and any one subject out of Chemistry, Biology, Biotechnology and Technical Vocational subject
PUNJAB STATE SEATS
50% of the seats are reserved for candidates who have passed qualifying examination from School/College/Institute located in the state of Punjab. The candidates having Punjab Residency certificate but have passed 10+2 examination from any location outside Punjab shall also be considered under Punjab quota. Such candidates will have to submit an affidavit at the time of document checking that they have not availed state quota in any other State/UT. Candidates seeking admission under this category are required to submit a certificate as per format (Annexure-XV) along with the application form.
OUTSIDE PUNJAB STATE SEATS
50% of the seats are reserved for candidates who have passed qualifying examination from School/College/Institute located outside the state of Punjab.
SEATS FOR SPORTS PERSONS FROM PUNJAB
2% seats are reserved for outstanding sports persons possessing sports gradation certificates A, B or C issued by the Director of Sports, Punjab. Candidates in the following sports disciplines will only be considered for admission for these seats:
Weight Lifting, Power Lifting & Best Physique
BTech (Biotechnology) and BTech (Biomedical Engineering)
In addition to the eligibility mentioned above in
admission to BTech (Biotechnology) and BTech (Biomedical Engineering) programme shall be conducted through following two modes as well.
Mode – 1: (Based on NEET – 2022 score) for 50% of the available seats*
has passed 10+2 or equivalent examination with at least 60% marks (55% for SC/ST candidates) in aggregate of three subjects, namely, Physics, Chemistry and, Biology.
ii. has appeared in NEET - 2022.
Mode – 2: (Based on 10+2 marks in PCB) for 50% of the available seats
has passed 10+2 examination in 2020, 2021 or appearing in 2022.
Apply Here More Details
Applications Received till Application Fee (Rs)
15-Jun-22 1500
After June 15, 2022 2000
To be eligible for a particular round of counselling, a candidate must have applied three days prior to that particular counselling round e.g. For a counselling round on June 30th, 2022, candidates who will be applying till June 26th, 2022 shall be considered
Last date for FN/NRI candidates to apply for all programs: August 31, 2022
BE/BTECH COUNSELLING SCHEDULE
BE/BTech counselling schedule will be announced on the website once the JEE Main2022/10+2 results are declared.


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Heat Pipe Cooling of Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) Systems
Home | Heat Pipe Cooling of Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) Systems
W. G. Anderson, P. M. Dussinger, D. B. Sarraf, and S. Tamanna
Advanced Cooling Technologies, Inc., Lancaster, PA 17601 Bill.Anderson@1-ACT.com
Concentrating photovoltaic systems (CPV) utilize low cost optical elements such as Fresnel lens or mini-reflecting mirrors to concentrate the solar intensity to 200 to 1000 suns. The concentrated solar energy is delivered to the solar cell at up to 20 to 100 W/cm2. A portion of the energy is converted to electricity, while the portion that is not converted to electricity must be dissipated as waste heat. Solar cell cooling must be an integral part of the CPV design, since lower cell temperatures result in higher conversion efficiencies. Heat pipes can be used to passively remove the high heat flux waste heat at the CPV cell level, and reject the heat to ambient through natural convection. This paper discusses a cooling design that uses a copper/water heat pipe with aluminum fins to cool a CPV cell by natural convection. With a cell level waste heat flux of 40 W/cm2, the heat pipe heat sink rejected the heat to the environment by natural convection, with a total cell-to-ambient temperature rise of only 40°C.
Conventional photovoltaic (PV) systems operate at one sun illumination intensity and the entire surface of the PV system is covered with solar cells. Solar cells are made of semiconductors, typically silicon. The silicon material is expensive and this leads to inherently high costs. As an alternative, concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) systems utilize low cost optical elements like Fresnel lens or mini-reflecting mirrors to concentrate the suns intensity to 200 to 1000 suns. Recently developed, high efficiency, multi-junction cells are placed at the focal point of the reflector and the result is a photovoltaic system that uses 200 to 1000 times less silicon semiconductor material. Square meters of silicon are replaced with square meters of low cost lenses or reflectors. Moreover, the multi-junction solar cells are significantly more efficient than conventional silicon solar cells.
The concentrated solar energy is delivered to the solar cell at 20 to 75 W/cm2. The energy that is not converted to electricity must be dissipated to prevent cell overheating and to maximize efficiency. Therefore, solar cell cooling is an integral part of the CPV design. First, the solar cell efficiency is a function of cell operating temperature and lower temperatures result in higher efficiencies. Second, the solar cell must be kept below the melting point of the solder that is used to manufacture the multi-junction cells to prevent immediate cell failure. And third, the reliability of the solar cell is a function of the number of thermal cycles and the magnitude of the thermal excursion. Some experts claim that reliability or life expectancy is doubled for every ten-degree reduction in thermal excursion.
Heat pipes transport heat by two-phase flow of a working fluid. Shown in Figure 1, a heat pipe is a vacuum tight device consisting of a working fluid and a wick structure. The heat input vaporizes the liquid working fluid inside the wick in the evaporator section. The vapor, carrying the latent heat of vaporization, flows towards the cooler condenser section. In the condenser, the vapor condenses and gives up its latent heat. The condensed liquid returns to the evaporator through the wick structure by capillary action. The phase change processes and two-phase flow circulation continue as long as the temperature gradients between the evaporator and condenser are maintained.
Heat pipes are also heat flux transformers. They can accept heat at very high heat fluxes (the backside of the CPV solar cell) and transfer the heat to a significantly lower heat flux heat sink (natural convection to the ambient air). Because the heat pipe operates nearly isothermally, the heat sink portion is also very effective.
Figure 1. Heat Pipe Cross Section.
A schematic of the heat pipe cooling system is shown in Figure 2. Sunlight enters a CPV module, where it is concentrated, then reflected unto the CPV cell. The waste heat is conducted from the heat acquisition block into the heat pipe, at a high heat flux. The heat pipe than transmits the energy to the radiator fins, where it is rejected by natural convection.
The CPV modules are arranged like stadium seating. Module II in Figure 2 is located behind Module 1, at a slightly higher elevation, so that the sun rays are not blocked by Module 1.
Figure 2. Heat Pipe cooling system fits between two CPV modules.
As discussed in Royne, Dey, and Mills [1], there are three basic CPV cell arrangements: 1. Single Cell, 2. Linear Concentrator, and 3. High Density Arrays. Heat pipe cooling is suitable for single cell arrays at high concentration ratios, e.g., 1,000 suns, and linear concentrators at lower concentration ratios, on the order of 30 suns.
Single Cells: Beach and White [2] used a copper heat pipe with soldered longitudinal copper fins to remove heat at roughly 700 suns, using water or acetone as the working fluid. The system was a thermosyphon pool boiler, and was only tested when oriented vertically. Heat removal was by natural convection. The ∆T between the cell and the ambient air was roughly 30°C. Farahat [3] conducted a study comparing heat pipe and forced convection water cooling for single cell systems, and concluded that the heat pipe cooling system was superior.
Linear Concentrator: Feldman, Kenney, and Edenburn [4] examined heat pipe cooling for a linear concentrator with about 24 suns incident on the cell. The heat pipe was a "kite-shaped" thermosyphon, with benzene as the working fluid. Heat was rejected from two aluminum plates with perpendicular extruded fins. The evaporator temperature exceeded the design temperature of 140°C for wind speeds of less than 1 m/s. Akbarzadeh and Wadowski [5] cooled a linear concentrator with a copper thermosyphon, with 20 suns incident on the cell. The working fluid was refrigerant R-11, due to the relatively low operating temperature of 40°C. Heat removal was by natural convection. The fin material, size, and orientation were not specified.
Heat Pipe Design
There two major decisions for the heat pipe design are: 1. Selection of the heat pipe envelope/wick materials, and the working fluid to give a compatible heat pipe, and 2. Wick design to reliably cool the CPV under any orientation and environmental conditions. The envelope, working fluid and wick structure must be compatible. Compatibility means that the working fluid does not attack or corrode the envelope or wick and that there is no chemical reaction between the working fluid and the envelope or wick structure that liberates non-condensable gas (NCG). For the temperature range of interest (roughly -20 to 100°C), the two potential heat pipe wick and wall materials are copper and aluminum. Copper has a higher thermal conductivity, but is more expensive and has a higher density than aluminum.
Compatible working fluids for copper and aluminum are shown in Table 1, based on surveys by Brennan and Kroliczek [7], Dunn and Reay [8], and Anderson [9].
Table 1. Fluids Compatible with Copper and Aluminum, based on heat pipe life tests.
The heat pipe cooling system must satisfy the following requirements:
Ambient -20 to 50°C
Heat Flux of 40 W/cm2
Freeze Tolerant
Reject Heat by Natural Convection at minimal ∆T
Figure 3. Heat pipe wicking limit, three wraps of 150 Mesh Screen, 0.25 inch Adverse Elevation. The copper/water heat pipe power is more than six times than the other fluids.
Heat pipe designs with different working fluids compatible with either copper or aluminum were examined. Typical results are shown in Figure 3. Water is the best working fluid. A water heat pipe with three wraps of 150 mesh screen can carry more than six times the power of alternate working fluids. For this reason, a copper/water heat pipe with a copper screen wick was selected.
Figure 4. Fin design that rejected the waste heat by natural convection while minimizing ∆T.
After designing the heat pipe, the next step was to design the fins. As shown in Figure 2, the fins in this case were constrained by the need to fit between the module to be cooled and the module behind it, while minimizing the the temperature drop between the CPV cell and the ambient air. A series of CFD analyses were run to determine the fin shape that minimized the temperature drop. The final shape is shown in Figure 4, while the fin properties are given in Table 2. As shown in Figure 5, there is good flow between the fins during natural convection.
Figure 5. CFD analysis of the velocity distribution on a cross sectional plane shows good flow during natural convection.
Figure 6. Heat pipe cooling system with the a copper saddle for the CPV cell, a copper/water heat pipe, and aluminum fins.
The final heat pipe heat sink is shown in Figure 6. The copper water heat pipe was fabricated, then attached to the copper saddle. The CPV cell to be cooled sits on the bottom of the copper saddle. Next, the aluminum fins were attached.
Experimental Apparatus
A copper heater block with cartridge heaters was used to simulate the waste heat from the CPV cell, as shown in Figure 7. The heater block had a square boss that fit into the location where the cell would be mounted.
Figure 7. Heat pipe test setup, with a copper heat pipe simulating the CPV cell waste water heat.
As shown in Figure 2, the heat pipe/fin assembly fits between the module that the heat pipe is mounted to, and the module to its rear. This provides a chimney through with the air must flow to remove the heat by natural convection. The CPV modules are mounted on a two axis assembly. The entire assembly turns from East to West during the day, while each module is oriented towards the sun. With this setup, the heat pipe is always horizontal.
Tests were conducted in two orientations, using the test setup shown in Figures 8 and 9. Insulation panels were used to simulate the module and adjacent module.. Figure 8 shows the test setup corresponding to high noon Test Setup 1).
Figure 8. Heat Pipe test setup #1. Orientation at high noon.
The heat pipe was also tested in the orientation corresponding to late morning and early afternoon, as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Heat pipe test setup #2. Orientation for morning and evening.
During the tests, the heat pipe was instrumented with thermocouples on the copper saddle, heat pipe, and fins. The simulated CPV cell temperature was measured with a plunger thermocouple as shown in Figure 7, while an additional thermocouple measured the ambient air temperature.
Typical results are shown in Figure 10 for a 30 W heat input. Since the simulated cell (and copper boss) had an area of 1 cm2, the heat flux was 30 W/cm2. The system approached equilibrium relatively slowly, which is typical or natural convection systems.
Figure 10. Time vs. temperature, test setup #1 (High Noon), 30 W.
Measurements were made for three different setups:
Setup 1 (High Noon)
Setup 2 (Morning or Evening)
Setup 3 (Open air, with no flow constraints on the natural convection.
The ∆T between the saddle and ambient air was measured for three different powers: 20, 30, and 40 Watts, which corresponds to 20, 30 and 40 W/cm2, respectively.
The results are summarized in Figure 11. The maximum ∆T for both high noon and early morning orientations was roughly 40°C for the 40 W/cm2 heat input. The orientation had only a slight effect on the ∆T.
The temperature of the cell without the heat pipe and fins was estimated using a CFD program, CFDesign. In contrast to the 40°C experimental temperature rise with the heat pipe heat sink, the calculated ∆T between the cell and ambient was 210°C, if only the saddle was avail able to reject the heat.
Confining the assembly between the two boxes increases the ∆T by roughly 12°C, when compared with the same system operating in the open air.
Figure 11. Power versus ∆T, different orientation.
This work successfully demonstrated the feasibility of a heat pipe cooling solution for concentrating photovoltaic cells. Heat pipes can be used to passively remove the heat, accepting a high heat flux at the CPV cell, and rejecting the heat to fins by natural convection, at a much lower heat flux.
Copper and aluminum heat pipes with various working fluids were examined, and a copper heat pipe was chosen, with water as the working fluid. A series of CFD analyses were run to determine the optimum fin size and spacing for rejecting heat by natural convection.
A prototype heat pipe heat sink was designed,
fabricated, and tested. With a input heat flux of 40 W/cm2
the heat pipe rejected the heat to the environment by natural convection, with a ∆T of only 40°C. This exceeded the design requirements of the application and the current standard cooling design. In contrast, a system with only a copper block would have a ∆T of 210°C.
The next step is to conduct tests with a series of CPV modules on sun.
This program was sponsored under a DOE Phase I SBIR program, Grant No. DE-FG02-07ER84847. Alec Bulawka of DOE was the technical monitor. The heat pipes and experimental test setup were fabricated by Rod McClellan of Advanced Cooling Technologies, Inc. We would like to thank Bruce Drolen, John Hall, Russ Jones, Qiong (Joan) Li, and Adam Plesniak for their many helpful suggestions.
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