text:
AP History 2 Chapter 27
by xr7phillip11, Nov. 2011
Subjects: 2 27 ap chapter history
The Los Angeles Race Riotes
A man by the name of Reginald Denny was pulled from his truck when he stopped at a traffic light. Denny was beaten so terribly by two black local rioters and...
Hitler's Actions Affected Jewish Children During The Holocaust Essay
How did Hitler's actions affected Jewish children during and after the Holocaust? On April 20th of 1889 in the city Braunau am inn, Austria, the dictator and...
The Pros And Cons Of Nuclear Chemistry
Roosevelt began to slowly form the program then, but it was not until 1941 that the nuclear project launched as a top secret project in Manhattan: "The Manha...
A Massacre In Memphis By Stephen V. Nash
Former slaves made up about half of Memphis's population in comparison to about 20 percent Irish. There was definite competition in the working class groups ...
Introduction And Significance Of The Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project began in the United States during World War II in efforts to produce a nuclear weapon that could combat Nazi Germany. The project began...
A Legal Case Of Wendie Dreves V. Hudson Group Retail
This act was signed by the President Kennedy as part of his New Frontier Program. This act would prevent employer discrimination between the male work forces...
Mass Incarceration Of The Civil Liberties Of America
"Japanese Internment." United States American History. On Line Highways Civil Liberties Denied The civil liberties of Americans can be changed forever when t...
The Way To Pearl Harbor Case Study
Such can be attributed to three factors: Japans alliance to Hitler's Germany and Mussolini's Italy through the Tripartite Pact; Japan's desire for economic c...
Atomic Bomb Lighting Essay
Albert Einstein is the one who wrote to President Roosevelt in 1939 about making a powerful bomb from uranium (Amrine, 1959). In July 1939 Einstein called Ed...
The Pros And Cons Of Atomic Weapons
Albert Einstein, Edward Teller, Leo Szilard and whatever is left of his colleagues composed a letter in August 1939 to the United States to caution them that...
Kellog-Briand Treaty
signed on August 27, 1928, by the United States, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, Weimar Germany and a number of other countries.
The pact renounced war (very intentionally renouncing not "aggressive war" but all war), prohibiting the use of war as "an instrument of national policy".[1] It made no provisions for sanctions. The pact was the result of a determined American effort to avoid involvement in the European alliance system. It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on September 4, 1928.[2]
In its original form, the Kellogg-Briand was a renunciation of war between only France and the United States. However, Frank B. Kellogg, the U.S. Secretary of State, wanted to retain American freedom of action; he thus responded with a proposal for a multilateral pact against war open for all nations to become signatories.[3]
The Kellogg–Briand Pact is named after its authors: Frank B. Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand.
Washington Conference
also called the Washington Arms Conference, was a military conference called by President Warren G. Harding and held in Washington from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922. Conducted outside the auspices of the League of Nations, it was attended by nine nations having interests in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. Soviet Russia was not invited to the conference. It was the first international conference held in the United States and the first disarmament conference in history, and as Kaufman, 1990 shows, it is studied by political scientists as a model for a successful disarmament movement.
Held at Memorial Continental Hall in downtown Washington,[1] it resulted in three major treaties: Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Treaty (more commonly known as the Washington Naval Treaty) and the Nine-Power Treaty and a number of smaller agreements. These treaties preserved peace during the 1920s but are also credited with enabling the rise of the Japanese Empire as a naval power leading up to World War II.
an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is most commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 Hitler attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, at the Bürgerbräukeller beer hall in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained support by promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and propaganda. He was appointed chancellor in 1933 and transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism.
Hitler's avowed aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe. His foreign and domestic policies had the goal of seizing Lebensraum (living space) for the Germanic people. He oversaw the rearmament of Germany and the invasion of Poland by the Wehrmacht in September 1939, which led to the outbreak of World War II in Europe.[2]
Under Hitler's direction, in 1941 German forces and their European allies occupied most of Europe and North Africa. These gains were gradually reversed after 1941, and in 1945 the Allied armies defeated the German army. Hitler's racially motivated policies resulted in the deaths of as many as 17 million people,[3] including an estimated six million Jews and between 500,000 and 1,500,000 Roma targeted in the Holocaust.[4]
In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress, Eva Braun. On 30 April 1945—less than two days later—the two committed suicide to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned.[5]
Nye Committee
a committee of the United States Senate which studied the causes of United States' involvement in World War I. It was a significant factor in heightening public and political support for neutrality in the early stages of World War II.
America First Committee
the foremost non-interventionist pressure group against the American entry into World War II. Peaking at 800,000 members, it was likely the largest anti-war organization in American history.[1][2] Started in 1940, it became defunct after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Recent organizations with similar names are not in any way connected to this historic group.
War Production Board
established as a government agency on January 16, 1942 by executive order of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
The purpose of the board was to regulate the production and allocation of materials and fuel during World War II in the United States. The WPB converted and expanded peacetime industries to meet war needs, allocated scarce materials vital to war production, established priorities in the distribution of materials and services, and prohibited nonessential production. It rationed such things as gasoline, heating oil, metals, rubber, paper[1] and plastics. It was dissolved shortly after the defeat of Japan in 1945, and was replaced by the Civilian Production Administration in late 1945.
The first chairman of the Board was Donald M. Nelson from 1942 to 1944 followed by Julius A. Krug from 1944 until the Board was dissolved.
Established by Executive Order 9024 on January 16, 1942, the WPB replaced the Supply Priorities and Allocation Board as well as the Office of Production Management. The national WPB constituted the chair, the secretaries of war, navy, and agriculture, the federal loan administrator, lieutenant general in charge of war department production, administrator of the Office of Price Administration, chair of the board of economic warfare, and special assistant to the president who supervised the defense aid program. The board created advisory, policy-making, and progress-reporting divisions.
The WPB managed twelve regional offices, and operated one hundred twenty field offices throughout the nation. They worked alongside state war production boards, which maintained records on state war production facilities as well as helped state businesses obtain war contracts and loans.
The national WPB's primary task was converting civilian industry to war production. The board assigned priorities and allocated scarce materials such as steel, aluminum, and rubber, prohibited nonessential industrial activities such as producing nylons and refrigerators, controlled wages and prices, and mobilized the people through patriotic propaganda such as "give your scrap metal and help Oklahoma boys save our way of life."[2] It initiated events such as scrap metal drives, which were carried out locally to great success. For example, a national scrap metal drive in October 1942 resulted in an average of almost eighty-two pounds of scrap per American.[3]
Fair Employment Practices Committee
Executive Order 8802 (also known as the Fair Employment Act) was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 25, 1941, to prohibit racial discrimination in the national defense industry. It was the first federal action, though not a law, to promote equal opportunity and prohibit employment discrimination in the United States.
The executive order was issued in response to pressure from civil rights activists Bayard Rustin, A. Philip Randolph, and A. J. Muste who had planned a march on Washington, D.C. to protest racial discrimination. The march was suspended after Executive Order 8802 was issued.
The order required all federal agencies and departments involved with defense production to ensure that vocational and training programs were administered without discrimination as to "race, creed, color, or national origin." All defense contracts were to include provisions that barred private contractors from discrimination as well.
The Committee on Fair Employment Practice was established by Executive Order 8802 within the Office of Production Management to investigate alleged violations and "to take appropriate steps to redress grievances which it finds to be valid." The Committee was also supposed to make recommendations to federal agencies and to the president on how Executive Order 8802 could be made the most effective.
Executive Order 8802 was followed by Executive Order 9981 in 1948 and years later, by Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and Executive Order 11246 in 1965.
a series of riots in 1943 during World War II that erupted in Los Angeles, California between white sailors and Marines stationed throughout the city and Latino youths, who were recognizable by the zoot suits they favored. While Mexican Americans and military servicemen were the main parties in the riots, African American and Filipino/Filipino American youth were also involved.[1] The Zoot Suit Riots were in part the effect of the infamous Sleepy Lagoon murder which involved the death of a young Latino man in a barrio near Los Angeles.
The incident triggered similar attacks against Latinos in Beaumont, Chicago, San Diego, Detroit, Evansville, Philadelphia, and New York.[2
the landing operations of the Allied invasion of Normandy, in Operation Overlord, during World War II. The landings commenced on Tuesday, 6 June 1944 (D-Day), beginning at 6:30 AM British Double Summer Time (GMT+2). In planning, D-Day was the term used for the day of actual landing, which was dependent on final approval.
The landings were conducted in two phases: an airborne assault landing of 24,000 British, American, Canadian and Free French airborne troops shortly after midnight, and an amphibious landing of Allied infantry and armoured divisions on the coast of France starting at 6:30 AM. There were also decoy operations under the codenames Operation Glimmer and Operation Taxable to distract the German forces from the real landing areas.[2]
Supreme Commander of the Allied expeditionary forces was General Dwight Eisenhower while overall command of ground forces (21st Army Group) was given to General Bernard Montgomery. The operation, planned by a team under Lieutenant-General Frederick Morgan, was the largest amphibious invasion in world history and was executed by land, sea, and air elements under direct British command with over 160,000[3] troops landing on 6 June 1944. 195,700[4] Allied naval and merchant navy personnel in over 5,000[3] ships were involved. The invasion required the transport of soldiers and material from the United Kingdom by troop-laden aircraft and ships, the assault landings, air support, naval interdiction of the English Channel and naval fire-support. The landings took place along a 50-mile (80 km) stretch of the Normandy coast divided into five sectors: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno and Sword.
a research and development program, led by the United States with participation from the United Kingdom and Canada, that produced the first atomic bomb during World War II. From 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the US Army Corps of Engineers. The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District; "Manhattan" gradually superseded the official codename, "Development of Substitute Materials", for the entire project. Along the way, the Manhattan Project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, Tube Alloys.
The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US$2 billion (roughly equivalent to $24.4 billion as of 2011[1]). Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and producing the fissionable materials, with less than 10% for development and production of the weapons. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites, some secret, across the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. Two types of atomic bomb were developed during the war. A relatively simple gun-type fission weapon was made using uranium-235, an isotope that makes up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. Since it is chemically identical to the main isotope, uranium-238, and has almost the same mass, it proved difficult to separate. Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment: electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. Reactors were constructed at Hanford, Washington, in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium. The plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium. The gun-type design proved impractical to use with plutonium so a more complex implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design and construction effort at the project's weapons research and design laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico. The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion-type bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexico's Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on 16 July 1945. Little Boy, a gun-type weapon, and the implosion-type Fat Man were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively.
The Manhattan Project operated under a blanket of tight security, but Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program. It was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear energy project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and rounded up German scientists. In the immediate postwar years the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads, developed new weapons, promoted the development of the network of national laboratories, supported medical research into radiology and laid the foundations for the nuclear navy. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947.
The idea of locating Project Y at Oak Ridge was considered, but in the end it was decided that it should be in a remote location. On Oppenheimer's recommendation, the search for a suitable site was narrowed to the vicinity of Albuquerque, New Mexico, where Oppenheimer owned a ranch. In October 1942, Major John H. Dudley of the Manhattan Project was sent to survey the area, and he recommended a site near Jemez Springs, New Mexico.[73] On 16 November, Oppenheimer, Groves, Dudley and others toured the site. Oppenheimer feared that the high cliffs surrounding the site would make his people feel claustrophobic, while the engineers were concerned with the possibility of flooding. The party then moved on to the vicinity of the Los Alamos Ranch School. Oppenheimer was impressed and expressed a strong preference for the site, citing its natural beauty and views of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, which, it was hoped, would inspire those who would work on the project.[74][75] The engineers were concerned about the poor access road, and whether the water supply would be adequate, but otherwise felt that it was ideal.[76]
Physicists at a Manhattan District-sponsored colloquium at Los Alamos in 1946. In the front row are (left to right) Norris Bradbury, John Manley, Enrico Fermi and J. M. B. Kellogg. Robert Oppenheimer is in the second row on the left; to the right in the photograph is Richard Feynman.
Patterson approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942, authorizing $440,000 for the purchase of the site of 54,000 acres (22,000 ha), all but 8,900 acres (3,600 ha) of which were already owned by the Federal Government.[77] Secretary of Agriculture Claude R. Wickard granted use of some 45,100 acres (18,300 ha) of United States Forest Service land to the War Department "for so long as the military necessity continues".[78] The need for land for a new road, and later for a right of way for a 25-mile (40 km) power line, eventually brought wartime land purchases to 45,737 acres (18,509.1 ha), but only $414,971 was spent.[77] Construction was contracted to the M. M. Sundt Company of Tucson, Arizona, with Willard C. Kruger and Associates of Santa Fe, New Mexico, as architect and engineer. Work commenced in December 1942. Groves initially allocated $300,000 for construction, three times Oppenheimer's estimate, with a planned completion date of 15 March 1943. It soon became clear that the scope of Project Y was greater than expected, and by the time Sundt finished in 30 November 1943, over $7 million had been spent.[79]
Because it was secret, Los Alamos was referred to as "Site Y" or "the Hill".[80] Birth certificates of babies born in Los Alamos during the war listed their place of birth as PO Box 1663 in Santa Fe.[81] Initially Los Alamos was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army. Oppenheimer went so far as to order himself a lieutenant colonel's uniform, but two key physicists, Robert Bacher and Isidor Rabi, balked at the idea. Conant, Groves and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department.[82]
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
During the final stages of World War II in 1945, the United States conducted two atomic bombings against the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, the first on August 6, 1945, and the second on August 9, 1945. These two events are the only use of nuclear weapons in war to date.[2]
For six months before the atomic bombings, the United States intensely fire-bombed 67 Japanese cities. Together with the United Kingdom and the Republic of China, the United States called for a surrender of Japan in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945. The Japanese government ignored this ultimatum. By executive order of President Harry S. Truman, the U.S. dropped the nuclear weapon "Little Boy" on the city of Hiroshima on Monday, August 6, 1945,[3][4] followed by the detonation of "Fat Man" over Nagasaki on August 9.
Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the acute effects killed 90,000–166,000 people in Hiroshima and 60,000–80,000 in Nagasaki,[1] with roughly half of the deaths in each city occurring on the first day. The Hiroshima prefectural health department estimates that, of the people who died on the day of the explosion, 60% died from flash or flame burns, 30% from falling debris and 10% from other causes. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness. In a U.S. estimate of the total immediate and short term cause of death, 15–20% died from radiation sickness, 20–30% from flash burns, and 50–60% from other injuries, compounded by illness.[5] In both cities, most of the dead were civilians.[6][7][8]
Six days after the detonation over Nagasaki, on August 15, Japan announced its surrender to the Allied Powers, signing the Instrument of Surrender on September 2, officially ending the Pacific War and therefore World War II, as Germany had already signed its Instrument of Surrender on May 7, ending the war in Europe. The bombings led, in part, to post-war Japan's adopting Three Non-Nuclear Principles, forbidding the nation from nuclear armament.[9] The role of the bombings in Japan's surrender and the U.S.'s ethical justification for them, as well as their strategic importance, are still debated.[10][11]
Chiang Kai Sheik
a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin.
Chiang was an influential member of the Nationalist Party, the Kuomintang (KMT), and was a close ally of Sun Yat-sen. He became the Commandant of the Kuomintang's Whampoa Military Academy, and took Sun's place as leader of the KMT when Sun died in 1925. In 1926, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's nominal leader.[3] He served as Chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, during which the Nationalist government's power severely weakened, but his prominence grew. Unlike Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek was socially conservative, promoting traditional Chinese culture in the New Life Movement and rejecting western democracy and the nationalist democratic socialism that Sun Yet-sen and some other members of the KMT embraced in favor of a nationalist authoritarian government.
Chiang's predecessor, Sun Yat-sen, was well-liked and respected by the Communists, but after Sun's death Chiang was not able to maintain good relations with the Communists. A major split between the Nationalists and and Communists occurred in 1927; and, under Chiang's leadership, the Nationalists fought a nation-wide civil war against the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After Japan invaded China in 1937, Chiang agreed to a temporary truce with the CCP. Despite some early cooperative military successes against Japan, by the time that the Japanese surrendered in 1945 neither the CCP nor the KMT trusted each other or were actively cooperating. After American-sponsored attempts to negotiate a coalition government failed in 1946, the Chinese Civil War resumed. The CCP defeated the Nationalists in 1949, forcing Chiang's government to retreat to Taiwan, where Chiang imposed martial law and persecuted people critical of his rule in a period known as the "White Terror". After evacuating to Taiwan, Chiang's government continued to declare its intention to retake mainland China. Chiang ruled the island securely as the self-appointed President of the Republic of China and Director-General of the Kuomintang until his death in 1975.
Hideki Tojo
a general of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA), the leader of the Taisei Yokusankai, and the 40th Prime Minister of Japan during most of World War II, from 17 October 1941 to 22 July 1944. As Prime Minister, he was directly responsible for the attack on Pearl Harbor, which led to the war between Japan and the United States. After the end of the war, Tōjō was arrested, sentenced to death for Japanese war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, and hanged on 23 December 1948.
a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969.[1]
A veteran of World War I, in the 1920s and 1930s de Gaulle came to the fore as a proponent of mobile armoured divisions, which he considered would become central in modern warfare. During World War II, he reached the temporary rank of Brigadier General, leading one of the few successful armoured counter-attacks during the 1940 Battle of France, and then briefly served in the French government as France was falling.
He escaped to Britain and gave a famous radio address, broadcast by the BBC on 18 June 1940, exhorting the French people to resist Nazi Germany[2] and organised the Free French Forces with exiled French officers in Britain.[3] As the war progressed de Gaulle gradually gained control of all French colonies except Indochina most of which had at first been controlled by the pro-German Vichy regime. Despite earning a reputation for being a difficult man to do business with, by the time of the Allied invasion of France in 1944 he was heading what amounted to a French government in exile, but although he insisted that France be treated as a great independent power by the other Allies, the Americans in particular remained deeply suspicious of his motives. De Gaulle became prime minister in the French Provisional Government, resigning in 1946 due to political conflicts.[4]
After the war he founded his own political party, the RPF. Although he retired from politics in the early 1950s after the RPF's failure to win power, he was voted back to power as prime minister by the French Assembly during the May 1958 crisis. De Gaulle led the writing of a new constitution founding the Fifth Republic,[5] and was elected President of France, an office which now held much greater power than in the Third and Fourth Republics.[6]
As President, Charles de Gaulle ended the political chaos that preceded his return to power. A new French currency was issued in January 1960 to control inflation and industrial growth was promoted. Although he initially supported French rule over Algeria, he controversially decided to grant independence to that country, ending an expensive and unpopular war but leaving France divided and having to face down opposition from the white settlers and French military who had originally supported his return to power.
Immensely patriotic, de Gaulle and his supporters held the view, known as Gaullism, that France should continue to see itself as a major power and should not rely on other nations - like the US - for its national security and prosperity. Often criticized for his Politics of Grandeur, de Gaulle oversaw the development of French atomic weapons and promoted a foreign policy independent of U.S. and British influence. He withdrew France from NATO military command—although remaining a member of the western alliance—and twice vetoed Britain's entry into the European Community. He travelled widely in Eastern Europe and other parts of the world and recognised Communist China. On a visit to Canada he gave encouragement to Quebec Separatism.
During his term, de Gaulle also faced controversy and political opposition from Communists and Socialists. Despite having been re-elected as President, this time by direct popular ballot, in 1965, in May 1968 he appeared likely to lose power amidst widespread protests by students and workers, but survived the crisis with an increased majority in the Assembly. However, de Gaulle resigned after losing a referendum in 1969. He is considered by many to be the most influential leader in modern French history.
the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While formally the office of the General Secretary was elective and was not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, after Vladimir Lenin's death in 1924, Stalin managed to consolidate more and more power in his hands, gradually putting down all opposition groups within the party. This included Leon Trotsky, the Red Army organizer, proponent of world revolution, and principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Instead, Stalin's idea of socialism in one country became the primary line of the Soviet politics.
In 1928, Stalin replaced the New Economic Policy of the 1920s with a highly centralised command economy and Five-Year Plans, launching a period of rapid industrialization and economic collectivization in the countryside. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian society into a great industrial power, and the basis was provided for its emergence as the world's second largest economy after World War II.[2] However, during this period of rapid economic and social changes, millions of people were sent to penal labor camps,[3] including many political convicts, and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[3] The initial upheaval in the changing agricultural sector disrupted food production in the early 1930s, contributing to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932–1933, one of the last major famines in Russia. In 1937–38, a campaign against former members of the communist opposition, potential rivals in the party, and other alleged enemies of the regime culminated in the Great Purge, a period of mass repression in which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including Red Army leaders convicted in coup d'état plots.[4]
In August 1939, after the failure to establish an Anglo-Franco-Soviet Alliance,[5] Stalin's USSR entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, dividing their spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. This pact allowed the Soviet Union to regain some of the former territories of the Russian Empire in Poland, Finland, the Baltics, Bessarabia and northern Bukovina during the early period of World War II. After Germany violated the pact by invading the Soviet Union in 1941 and thus opening the largest and bloodiest theatre of war in history, the Soviet Union joined the Allies. Despite heavy human and territorial losses in the initial period of war, the Soviet Union managed to stop the Axis advance in the battles of Moscow and Stalingrad. Eventually, the Red Army drove through Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May 1945. Having played the decisive role in the Allied victory,[6][7] the USSR emerged a recognized superpower after the war.[8]
Stalin headed the Soviet delegations at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences, which defined the map of post-war Europe. Communist-dominated leftist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states as the USSR entered a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the United States and NATO. In Asia, Stalin established good relations with Mao Zedong and Kim Il-sung, and the Stalin-era Soviet Union in various ways served as a model for the newly formed People's Republic of China and Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea).
In power until his death in 1953, Stalin led the USSR during the period of post-war reconstruction, marked by the dominance of Stalinist architecture (most famously represented by the Stalin skyscrapers). The successful development of the Soviet nuclear program enabled the country to become the world's second nuclear weapons power; the Soviet space program was started as spin-off of the nuclear project. In his last years, Stalin also launched the so-called Great Construction Projects of Communism and the Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature.
Following his death, Stalin and his regime have both been questioned on numerous occasions, the most significant of these being the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956, when Stalin's successor, Nikita Khrushchev, denounced his legacy and drove the process of de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union. Modern views of Stalin in the Russian Federation remain mixed, with some viewing him as a tyrant[9] while others consider him a capable leader.[10]
A Phillip Randolph
leader in the U.S.'s Negro civil-rights movement and the American labor movement. He organized and led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first predominantly Negro labor union. In the early civil-rights movement, Randolph led the March on Washington Movement, which convinced Franklin D. Roosevelt to desegregate production-plants for military supplies during World War II. In 1963, Randolph was the head of the March on Washington, which was organized by Bayard Rustin, at which Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his I Have A Dream speech. Randolph inspired the Freedom budget, sometimes called the "Randolph Freedom budget", which aimed to deal with the economic problems facing the Negro community, particularly workers and unemployed Negroes.
Henry Stimson
an American statesman, lawyer and Republican Party politician and spokesman on foreign policy. He twice served as Secretary of War 1911–1913 under Republican William Howard Taft and 1940–1945, under Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt. In the latter role he was a leading hawk calling for war against Germany. During World War II he took charge of raising and training 13 million soldiers and airmen, supervised the spending of a third of the nation's GDP on the Army and the Air Forces, helped formulate military strategy, and took personal control of building and using the atomic bomb. He served as Governor-General of the Philippines. As Secretary of State (1929–1933) under Republican President Herbert Hoover he articulated the Stimson Doctrine which announced American opposition to Japanese expansion in Asia.
an American politician from the U.S. state of Tennessee. He is best known as the longest-serving Secretary of State, holding the position for 11 years (1933–1944) in the administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during much of World War II. Hull received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945 for his role in establishing the United Nations, and was referred to by President Roosevelt as the "Father of the United Nations".
Veterans of Future Wars
an organization formed as a prank by Princeton University students in 1936.[1] The group was a satirical reaction to a bill granting the early payment of bonuses to World War I veterans as articulated in their manifesto:
"	Whereas it is inevitable that this country will be engaged in war within the next thirty years, and whereas it is by all accounts likely that every man of military age will have a part in this war, We, therefore, demand that the Government make known its intention to pay an adjusted service compensation, sometimes called a bonus, of $1,000 to every male citizen between the ages of 18 and 36, said bonus to be payable the first of June, 1965. Furthermore, we believe a study of history demonstrates that it is customary to pay all bonuses before they are due. Therefore we demand immediate cash payment, plus three per cent interest compounded annually and retroactively from the first of June, 1965, to the first of June, 1935. It is but common right that this bonus be paid now, for many will be killed or wounded in the next war, and hence they, the most deserving, will not otherwise get the full benefit of their country's gratitude.	"
The manifesto spread nationwide as wire services quickly picked up the group's press releases. Representative Claude Fuller of Arkansas unwittingly increased the group's visibility by denouncing them on the floor of the House. Soon local chapters began popping up at campuses throughout the nation. Enthusiastic new members from as far away as North Dakota paid dues to the main chapter in Princeton and adopted the organization's salute: arm held out towards Washington with "hand outstretched, palm up and expectant" – a mockery both of the World War I veterans, whom the founding Princetonians viewed as freeloaders, and of the fascist salute then gaining currency in Europe.
The message of the organization had a rare appeal to both conservatives and liberals. Conservatives saw them as kindred spirits in the effort to keep Roosevelt from spending the country into bankruptcy. Pacifist liberals on the other hand, saw the movement as an opportunity to satirize war itself.
Real veterans hated the movement. The Commander of the Veterans of Foreign Wars, James Van Zandt, called them "insolent puppies" who ought to be spanked. "They'll never be veterans of a future war," he sputtered, "for they are too yellow to go to war." The Princetonians replied that the Veterans of Future Wars was a genuinely patriotic organization, therefore if Van Zandt opposed them, he clearly must be a "Red".
By June 1936, the Veterans of Future Wars reached its peak membership of 50,000 paid members at 584 college campuses. By the next school year, the joke was stale, and national attention focused on the Presidential campaign. The group ceased operations in April 1937. It is remembered as one of the most large-scale pranks of all time.
Tragicomically, except for one student who was hurt in an automobile accident, every one of the Princetonians who founded the Veterans of Future Wars served in the armed forces of the United States in World War II.[2]
the German name used in English in the first half of the 20th century for the northern, southwest and western regions of Czechoslovakia inhabited mostly by ethnic Germans, specifically the border areas of Bohemia, Moravia, and those parts of Silesia being within Czechoslovakia.
The name is derived from the Sudeten mountains, though the Sudetenland extended beyond these mountains which run along the border to Silesia and contemporary Poland. The German inhabitants were called Sudeten Germans (German: Sudetendeutsche, Czech: Sudetští Němci, Polish: Niemcy Sudeccy). The German minority in Slovakia, the Carpathian Germans, is not included in this ethnic category.
Nazi – Soviet Pact
The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, named after the Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and the German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop, was an agreement officially titled the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union[1] and signed in Moscow in the late hours of 23 August 1939.[2] It was a non-aggression pact under which the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany each pledged to remain neutral in the event that either nation were attacked by a third party. It remained in effect until 22 June 1941, when Germany invaded the Soviet Union.
In addition to stipulations of non-aggression, the treaty included a secret protocol dividing Northern and Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence, anticipating potential "territorial and political rearrangements" of these countries. Thereafter, Germany and the Soviet Union invaded, on September 1 and 17 respectively, their respective sides of Poland, dividing the country between them. Part of eastern Finland was annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War. This was followed by Soviet annexations of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and the Hertza region.
Cash and Carry / Lend –Lease Acts
Cash and carry was a policy requested by U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at a special session of the United States Congress on September 21, 1939, as World War II was spreading throughout Europe. It replaced the Neutrality Acts of 1936. The revision allowed the sale of materiel to belligerents, as long as the recipients arranged for the transport using their own ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risk in transportation. The purpose was to hold neutrality between the United States and European countries while still giving aid to Britain, exploiting the fact that Germany had no funds and could not reliably ship across the British-controlled Atlantic. Various policies forbade selling implements of war or lending money to belligerent countries under any terms.[clarification needed] The U.S. economy was rebounding at this time, following the Great Depression, but there was still a need for industrial manufacturing jobs. The cash and carry program helped to solve this issue and in turn Great Britain benefited from the purchase of arms and other goods.
This program also prevented U.S. businesses interests backing the success or failure of any warring nation. Because of the conclusion of the Nye Committee, which asserted that United States involvement in World War I was driven by private interests from arms manufacturers, many Americans believed that investment in a belligerent would eventually lead to American participation in war.[citation needed]
U.S. shipping interests were forbidden from entering into conflict zones.
This act also made sure that the U.S. did not give away all its supplies and rationsLend-Lease (Public Law 77-11)[1] was the program under which the United States of America supplied the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, Free France, and other Allied nations with materiel between 1941 and 1945. It was signed into law on March 11, 1941, a year and a half after the outbreak of war in Europe in September 1939 but nine months before the U.S. entered the war in December 1941. Formally titled An Act to Further Promote the Defense of the United States, the Act effectively ended the United States' pretense of neutrality.
A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $611 billion today) worth of supplies were shipped: $31.4 billion to Britain, $11.3 billion to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion to France, and $1.6 billion to China. Reverse Lend-Lease comprised services such as rent on air bases that went to the U.S., and totaled $7.8 billion; of this, $6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth. The terms of the agreement provided that the materiel were to be used until time for their return or destruction. Supplies after the termination date were sold to Britain at a discount for £1.075 billion using long-term loans from the U.S. Canada operated a similar program that sent $4.7 billion in supplies to the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union.[2] The United States did not charge for aid supplied under this legislation.
This program was a decisive step away from non-interventionist policy, which had dominated United States foreign relations since the end of World War I, towards international involvement.
Mother's Crusade
an American confederation of anti-World War II, anti-Roosevelt, far right groups. Mothers' Movement consisted of: National Legion of Mothers of America formed by Father Charles Coughlin in 1939; National Blue Star Mothers; Crusading Mothers of America; We, the Mothers; and We, the Mothers, Mobilize for America.
Unlike other non-interventionist groups, this alliance of groups did not disperse after the United States entered World War II, and became even more vocal. They picketed the United States Capitol, harangued Senators, and went on a speaking tour around the country. These activities continued until the Great Sedition Trial of 1944.
Reuben James
a post-World War I four-funnel Clemson-class destroyer—was the first United States Navy ship sunk by hostile action in World War II and the first named for Boatswain's Mate Reuben James (c.1776–1838), who distinguished himself fighting in the Barbary Wars.
Reuben James was laid down on 2 April 1919 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden, New Jersey, launched on 4 October 1919, and commissioned on 24 September 1920 with Commander Gordon W. Hines at the helm.
Tripartite Pact
a pact signed in Berlin, Germany on September 27, 1940, which established the Axis Powers of World War II. The pact was signed by representatives of Nazi Germany (Adolf Hitler), Fascist Italy (foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano), and Imperial Japan (Japanese ambassador to Germany Saburo Kurusu).
an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and Japan. The "Rome-Berlin Axis" became a full military alliance in 1939 under the Pact of Steel, and the Tripartite Pact of 1940 fully integrated the military aims of Germany, Italy, and Japan. At their zenith in the midst of World War II, the Axis powers ruled empires that dominated large parts of Europe, Africa, East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean, but the war ended with their total defeat and dissolution. Like the Allies, membership of the Axis was fluid, and other nations entered and later left the Axis during the course of the war.[1]
USS Arizona (BB-39) sinking during the attack.
Main article: Attack on Pearl Harbor
Aircraft and midget submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy began an attack on the U.S. The Americans had, through earlier code breaking activity, determined that an attack was likely to occur. However, while the Americans failed to discover Japan's target location, it was believed that the Phillipines was the most likely target.[8] Under the command of Admiral Chuichi Nagumo,[9] the attack was devastating in loss of life and damage to the U.S. fleet. At 06:05 on December 7, the six Japanese carriers launched a first wave of 183 aircraft composed mainly of dive bombers, horizontal bombers and fighters.[10] The Japanese hit American ships and military installations at 07:51. The first wave attacked military airfields of Ford Island. At 08:30, a second wave of 170 Japanese aircraft, mostly torpedo bombers, attacked the fleet anchored in Pearl Harbor. The battleship Arizona was hit with an armor-piercing bomb which penetrated the forward ammunition compartment, blowing the ship apart and sinking it within seconds. Overall, nine ships of the U.S. fleet were sunk and 21 ships were severely damaged. Three of the 21 would be irreparable. The overall death toll reached 2,403, including 68 civilians, and 1,178 injured. Of the military personnel lost at Pearl Harbor, 1,177 were from the Arizona. The first shots fired were from the destroyer Ward on a midget submarine that surfaced outside of Pearl Harbor; Ward sank the midget sub at approximately 06:55, about an hour before the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japan would lose 29 out of the 350 aircraft they attacked with.
a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice (1940–45 and 1951–55). A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British prime minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an Honorary Citizen of the United States.
Churchill was born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer; his mother, Jenny Jerome, an American socialite. As a young army officer, he saw action in British India, the Sudan and the Second Boer War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and through books he wrote about his campaigns.
At the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of the Asquith Liberal government. During the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign, which he had sponsored, caused his departure from government. He then served briefly on the Western Front, commanding the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, and Secretary of State for Air. After the War, Churchill served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Conservative (Baldwin) government of 1924–29, controversially returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-War parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure on the UK economy. Also controversial were Churchill's opposition to increased home rule for India, and his resistance to the 1936 abdication of Edward VIII.
Out of office and politically "in the wilderness" during the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in warning about the danger from Hitler and in campaigning for rearmament. On the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister. His steadfast refusal to consider defeat, surrender or a compromise peace helped inspire British resistance, especially during the difficult early days of the War when Britain stood alone in its active opposition to Hitler. Churchill was particularly noted for his speeches and radio broadcasts, which helped inspire the British people. He led Britain as Prime Minister until victory had been secured over Nazi Germany.
After the Conservative Party lost the 1945 election, he became Leader of the Opposition. In 1951, he again became Prime Minister, before retiring in 1955. Upon his death, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral, which saw one of the largest assemblies of world statesmen ever.[1] Named the Greatest Briton of all-time in a 2002 poll, Churchill is widely regarded as being among the most influential persons in British history.
Battle of Stalingrad
a major battle of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in southwestern Russia. The battle took place between 23 August 1942 and 2 February 1943.[8][9][10][11] It is the largest battle on the Eastern Front and was marked by its brutality and disregard for military and civilian casualties. It is among the bloodiest battles in the history of warfare, with the higher estimates of combined casualties amounting to nearly two million. In its defeat, the crippling losses suffered by Germany's military proved to be insurmountable for the war. The battle was a turning point in the war,[12] after which the German forces attained no further strategic victories in the East.[13]:553
The German offensive to capture Stalingrad commenced in late summer 1942, supported by intensive Luftwaffe bombing which reduced much of the city to rubble. The German offensive eventually became bogged down in house-to-house fighting; and despite controlling over 90% of the city at times, the Wehrmacht was unable to dislodge the last Soviet defenders clinging tenaciously to the west bank of the Volga River.
In November 1942, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus; a two-pronged attack, targeted at the inferior Romanian and Italian forces which were protecting the German 6th Army flanks. The success of these attacks caused the weakly held flanks to collapse and the 6th Army to be cut off and surrounded inside Stalingrad. As the Russian winter set in, the 6th Army weakened rapidly from cold, starvation and ongoing Soviet attacks. Command ambiguity coupled with Adolf Hitler's resolute belief in the "power of the will" and the value of "standing fast" further compounded the German predicament. Eventually, the failure to break the encirclement by relieving German forces, coupled with the failure of re-supply by air, caused the final collapse. By early February 1943, German resistance in Stalingrad had ceased and the remaining elements of the surrounded 6th Army had either surrendered or had been destroyed.[14]:932
North African Campaign
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts (Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War) and in Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch) and Tunisia (Tunisia Campaign).
The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had interests in Africa dating from the period of colonialism and the Scramble for Africa. The Allied war effort was dominated by the British Commonwealth and exiles from German-occupied Europe. The U.S. entered the war in 1941 and began direct military assistance in North Africa on 11 May 1942.
Fighting in North Africa started with the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940. On 14 June, the British Army's 11th Hussars (assisted by elements of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment, 1st RTR) crossed the border into Libya and captured the Italian Fort Capuzzo. This was followed by an Italian offensive into Egypt and the capture of Sidi Barrani in September 1940 and then in December 1940 by a Commonwealth counteroffensive, Operation Compass. During Operation Compass, the Italian 10th Army was destroyed and the German Afrika Korps—commanded by Erwin Rommel—was dispatched to North Africa—during Operation Sonnenblume—to reinforce Italian forces in order to prevent a complete Axis defeat.
A see-saw series of battles for control of Libya and parts of Egypt followed, reaching a climax in the Second Battle of El Alamein when British Commonwealth forces under the command of Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery, delivered a decisive defeat to the Axis forces and pushed them back to Tunisia. After the late 1942 Allied Operation Torch landings in North-West Africa, and subsequent battles against Vichy France forces (who then changed sides), the Allies finally encircled Axis forces in northern Tunisia and forced their surrender.
The Axis, by fighting against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front, provided relief for the British and later American forces fighting in North Africa. Information gleaned via British Ultra code-breaking intelligence proved critical to Allied success in North Africa.
Charles Nimitz
a German merchant seaman, as was his father before him. He was the grandfather of, and role model for, Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz. In 1852, he built the Nimitz Hotel in Fredericksburg, Texas, United States. The hotel he built now houses the National Museum of the Pacific War. The Nimitz Hotel was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1989, Marker number 10089.[8] Nimitz was elected to the Twenty-second Texas Legislature in 1890, representing Gillespie, Comal and Blanco counties, which constituted District 89.
Office of Price Administration (OPA)
established within the Office for Emergency Management of the United States government by Executive Order 8875 on August 28, 1941. The functions of the OPA was originally to control money (price controls) and rents after the outbreak of World War II.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt revived the Advisory Commission to World War I Council on National Defense on May 29, 1940, to include Price Stabilization and Consumer Protection Divisions. Both divisions merged to become the Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply (OPACS) within the Office for Emergency Management by Executive Order 8734, April 11, 1941. Civil supply functions were transferred to the Office of Production Management.
It became an independent agency under the Emergency Price Control Act, January 30, 1942. The OPA had the power to place ceilings on all prices except agricultural commodities, and to ration scarce supplies of other items, including tires, automobiles, shoes, nylon, sugar, gasoline, fuel oil, coffee, meats and processed foods. At the peak, almost 90% of retail food prices were frozen. It could also authorize subsidies for production of some of those commodities.
Most functions of the OPA were transferred to the to newly established Office of Temporary Controls (OTC) by Executive Order 9809, December 12, 1946. The Financial Reporting Division was transferred to the Federal Trade Commission.
The OPA was abolished effective May 29, 1947, by the General Liquidation Order issued March 14, 1947, by the OPA Administrator. Some of its functions were taken up by successor agencies:
Sugar and sugar products distribution by the Sugar Rationing Administration in the Department of Agriculture pursuant to the Sugar Control Extension Act (61 Stat. 36), March 31, 1947
Price controls over rice by the Department of Agriculture by Executive Order 9841, on April 23, 1947, effective May 4, 1947
Food subsidies by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, effective May 4, 1947
Rent control by the Office of the Housing Expediter, effective May 4, 1947
Price violation litigation by the Department of Justice, effective June 1, 1947
All other OPA functions by the Division of Liquidation, Department of Commerce, effective June 1, 1947.
During the Korean War, similar functions were performed by the Office of Price Stabilization (OPS).
Famous employees include economist John Kenneth Galbraith, legal scholar William Prosser, and President Richard Nixon.
The OPA is featured, in fictionalized form as the Bureau of Price Regulation, in Rex Stout's Nero Wolfe mystery novel The Silent Speaker.
a United States presidential executive order signed and issued during World War II by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942 authorizing the Secretary of War to prescribe certain areas as military zones. Eventually, EO 9066 cleared the way for the relocation of Japanese Americans to internment camps.
a Japanese language term used in countries in North America, South America and Australia to specify the children born to Japanese people in the new country. The Nisei are considered the second generation; and the grandchildren of the Japanese-born immigrants are called Sansei. The Sansei are considered the third generation.
Atlantic Charter
a pivotal policy statement first issued in August 1941 that early in World War II defined the Allied goals for the post-war world. It was drafted by Britain and the United States, and later agreed to by all the Allies. The Charter stated the ideal goals of the war: no territorial aggrandizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people; restoration of self-government to those deprived of it; free access to raw materials; reduction of trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use of force, as well as disarmament of aggressor nations. In the "Declaration by United Nations" of 1 January 1942, the Allies of World War II pledged adherence to the charter's principles.
The Charter set goals rather than a blueprint for the postwar world. It inspired many of the international agreements that shaped the world. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the post-war independence of European colonies, and much more are derived from the Atlantic Charter.
Big Three Conference
The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945, was the wartime meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta, in the Crimea.
The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. Within a few years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense controversy. To some extent, it has remained controversial.
Yalta was the second of three wartime conferences among the Big Three (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin). It had been preceded by the Tehran Conference in 1943, and it was followed by the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, which was attended by Harry S. Truman in place of the late Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill, with Churchill replaced mid-point by the newly elected Prime Minister Clement Attlee.
a major German offensive (die Ardennenoffensive), launched toward the end of World War II through the densely forested Ardennes mountain region of Wallonia in Belgium, hence its French name (Bataille des Ardennes), and France and Luxembourg on the Western Front. The Wehrmacht's code name for the offensive was Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein ("Operation Watch on the Rhine"), after the German patriotic hymn Die Wacht am Rhein. This German offensive was officially named the Ardennes-Alsace campaign[3] by the U.S. Army,[16] but it is known to the English-speaking general public simply as the Battle of the Bulge, the "bulge" being the initial incursion the Germans put into the Allies' line of advance, as seen in maps presented in contemporary newspapers.
The German offensive was supported by several subordinate operations known as Unternehmen Bodenplatte, Greif, and Währung. Germany's goal for these operations was to split the British and American Allied line in half, capturing Antwerp and then proceed to encircle and destroy four Allied armies, forcing the Western Allies to negotiate a peace treaty in the Axis Powers' favour.[17] Once accomplished, Hitler could fully concentrate on the eastern theatre of war.
The offensive was planned with the utmost secrecy, minimizing radio traffic and moving troops and equipment under cover of darkness. Although Ultra suggested a possible attack and the Third U.S. Army's intelligence staff predicted a major German offensive, the Allies were still caught by surprise. This was achieved by a combination of Allied overconfidence, preoccupation with their own offensive plans, and poor aerial reconnaissance.
Near-complete surprise against a weakly defended section of the Allied line was achieved during heavy overcast weather, which grounded the Allies' overwhelmingly superior air forces. Fierce resistance, particularly around the key town of Bastogne, and terrain favouring the defenders threw the German timetable behind schedule. Allied reinforcements, including General George S. Patton's Third Army, and improving weather conditions, which permitted air attacks on German forces and supply lines, sealed the failure of the offensive.
In the wake of the defeat, many experienced German units were left severely depleted of men and equipment as survivors retreated to the defenses of the Siegfried Line. For the Americans, with about 840,000 men[1] committed and some 89,000 casualties,[10] including 19,000 killed,[7][10] the Battle of the Bulge was the largest and bloodiest battle that they fought in World War II
Manchuria
The Japanese invasion of Manchuria began on September 19, 1931, when Manchuria was invaded by the Kwantung Army of the Empire of Japan immediately following the Mukden Incident. The Japanese established a puppet state, called Manchukoku, and their occupation lasted until the end of World War II.With the repair of the Nen River Bridge as the pretext, the Japanese sent a repair party in early November under the protection of Japanese troops. Fighting erupted between the Japanese forces and troops loyal to the acting governor of Heilongjiang province Muslim General Ma Zhanshan, who chose to disobey the Kuomintang government's ban on further resistance to the Japanese invasion.
Despite his failure to hold the bridge, General Ma Zhanshan became a national hero in China for his resistance at Nenjiang Bridge, which was widely reported in the Chinese and international press. The publicity inspired more volunteers to enlist in the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies.
The repaired bridge made possible the further advance of Japanese forces and their armored trains. Additional troops from Japan, notably the 4th Mixed Brigade from the 8th Division, were sent in November.
On November 15, 1931, despite having lost more than 400 men and 300 left wounded since November 5, General Ma declined a Japanese ultimatum to surrender Tsitsihar. On November 17, in subzero weather, 3,500 Japanese troops, under the command of General Jirō Tamon, mounted an attack, forcing General Ma from Tsitsihar by November 19.
[edit]Operations in southern Manchuria
Main article: Chinchow Operation
In late November 1931, General Honjō dispatched 10,000 soldiers in 13 armored trains, escorted by a squadron of bombers, in an advance on Chinchow from Mukden. This force had advanced to within 30 kilometres (19 mi) of Chinchow, when it received an order to withdraw. The operation was cancelled by Japanese War Minister General Jirō Minami, due to the acceptance of modified form of a League of Nations proposal for a "neutral zone" to be established as a buffer zone between China proper and Manchuria pending a future China-Japanese peace conference by the civilian government of Prime Minister Wakatsuki Reijiro in Tokyo.
However, the two sides failed to reach a lasting agreement. The Wakatsuki government soon fell and was replaced by a new cabinet led by Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi. Further negotiations with the Kuomintang government failing, the Japanese government authorized the reinforcement of troops in Manchuria. In December, the rest of 20th Infantry Division, along with 38th Mixed Brigade from the 19th Infantry Division were sent into Manchuria from Korea while the 8th Mixed Brigade from the 10th Infantry Division was sent from Japan. The total strength of the Kwantung Army was thus increased to around 60,450 men.
With this stronger force the Japanese Army announced on December 21 the beginning of large scale anti-bandit operations in Manchuria to quell a growing resistance movement by the local Chinese population in Liaoning and Kirin provinces.
On December 28, a new government was formed in China after all members of the old Nanjing government resigned. This threw the military command into turmoil, and the Chinese army retreated to the south of the Great Wall into Hebei province, a humiliating move which lowered China's international image.[1] Japanese forces occupied Chinchow on January 3, 1932, after the Chinese defenders retreated without giving combat. The following day the Japanese occupied Shanhaiguan completing their military takeover of southern Manchuria.
[edit]Occupation of northern Manchuria
Main article: Defense of Harbin
With southern Manchuria secure, the Japanese turned north to complete the occupation of Manchuria. As negotiations with Generals Zanshan Ma and Chao Ting to defect to the pro-Japanese side had failed, in early January Colonel Kenji Doihara requested collaborationist General Qia Xi to advance his forces and take Harbin.
The last major Chinese regular force in northern Manchuria was led by General Ting Chao who organized the defense of Harbin successfully against General Xi until the arrival of the IJA 2nd Division under General Jirō Tamon. Japanese forces took Harbin on February 4, 1932.
By the end of February Ma had sought terms and joined the newly formed Manchukuo government as governor of Heilongjiang province and Minister of War.
On February 27, 1932, Ting offered to cease hostilities, ending official Chinese resistance in Manchuria, although combat by guerilla and irregular forces continued as Japan spent many years in their campaign to pacify Manchukuo.
[edit]External impact
Western media reported on the events with accounts of atrocities such as bombing civilians, or firing upon shell-shocked survivors.[2] It aroused considerable antipathy to Japan, which lasted until the end of World War II.[2]
When the Lytton Commission issued a report on the invasion, despite its statements that China had to a certain extent provoked Japan, and China's sovereignty over Manchuria was not absolute, Japan took it as an unacceptable rebuke and withdrew from the League of Nations, which also helped create international isolation.[3]
USS Missouri
a United States Navy Iowa-class battleship, and was the fourth ship of the U.S. Navy to be named in honor of the U.S. state of Missouri. Missouri was the last battleship built by the United States, and was the site of the surrender of the Empire of Japan which ended World War II.
Missouri was ordered in 1940 and commissioned in June 1944. In the Pacific Theater of World War II she fought in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa and shelled the Japanese home islands, and she fought in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. She was decommissioned in 1955 into the United States Navy reserve fleets (the "Mothball Fleet"), but reactivated and modernized in 1984 as part of the 600-ship Navy plan, and provided fire support during Operation Desert Storm in January/February 1991.
Missouri received a total of 11 battle stars for service in World War II, Korea, and the Persian Gulf, and was finally decommissioned on 31 March 1992, but remained on the Naval Vessel Register until her name was struck in January 1995. In 1998, she was donated to the USS Missouri Memorial Association and became a museum ship at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
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wordsetdiff: Compare two files as sets of N-tuples of words.
This utility is useful for finding out if some old, misplaced version of a file (say from your old laptop) has any new text in it that never got checked in, synced, or copied over to your newest version of the file. The basic unix diff tool is sometimes incredibly unsatisfactory for this purpose, for example when text has been moved around, or when there are widespread whitespace differences.


text:
Here are some of the things we've been reading about this week:
Public debate about the achievement gap could increase racial bias against Black students.
In the fall, public schools will likely face higher costs and less funding.
COVID-19 has triggered a health crisis and an economic crisis, and research on past disasters suggests it could trigger a mental health crisis.
Hundreds of thousands of students can't access online learning because they lack the necessary technology.
How We Talk About the Achievement Gap Could Worsen Public Racial Biases Against Black Students
Ed Week Inside School Research Blog: In a forthcoming study in the Educational Researcher, David Quinn, an assistant professor at the University of Southern California, examines how the public's view of Black students is impacted by how education media and policymakers frame education debates. Quinn found that participants who watched a video clip using what the author describes as a "deficit-based approach" (i.e., focusing heavily on the achievement gap and test-score gaps among students of different races) underestimated Black students' graduation rates by some 23 percentage points and showed a 30% increase in their average level of implicit bias against Black people than before watching the video.
Clear Masks for Caregivers Mean Young Children Can Keep Learning from Adults' Faces
The Conversation: As daycare centers and pre-kindergartens begin to reopen around the United States, the CDC recommends that teachers and care workers wear masks. Important as they are for helping minimize the spread of the coronavirus, masks come with a potential downside when worn around little kids. Decades of research has shown faces are an important tool for learning speech and language and picking up emotional cues. With faces covered, infants and young children will miss out on some of the visual cues they'd normally get from faces. If possible, care workers and educators spending long hours with infants and young children should consider clear masks or transparent face shields to reduce potential negative impacts on early learning.
With Schools Shuttered, Learning Lags and Students Left Behind, Reuters Survey Shows
Reuters: School shutdowns are taking a profound toll on the nation's system of education, according to a Reuters survey of nearly 60 school districts serving some 2.8 million students. Public education in the United States has shrunk to a shell of its former self, the review found. Findings include: a large majority of districts reported they are providing elementary and middle school students with half or less the usual face time with teachers, about three quarters of districts reported that they served a cumulative 4.5 million fewer meals a week, and about a third of districts aren't providing federally required services to their special needs students, such as physical and occupational therapy. See related article: Education Dive "Lower-Income Students Struggling with Remote Learning."
Study Finds Connections Between School Climate and Attendance–But Not Much
Education Dive: An analysis of New York City Department of Education attendance data and more than 800,000 6th-12th graders' responses on a school climate survey shows only minimal decreases in absenteeism when students feel more positive about their schools, according to a new study published in the American Educational Research Journal. The study looked at the relationship between absenteeism (total and chronic) and four measures of school climate — school safety, relational environment, personal connectedness, and academic engagement. The author noted that a combination of "home, school and neighborhood supports" might be necessary to achieve more significant improvements in attendance rates.
Educators Call for Schools to be 'Safe Havens' Against Racism
Education Dive: Education leaders and organizations joined others in condemning a Minneapolis police officer's killing of George Floyd while urging students and community members to refrain from contributing to the wave of violence that continued to spread over the weekend. Michael Casserly, the executive director of the Council of the Great City Schools, called the cellphone video of officer Derek Chauvin's knee on George Floyd's neck "a vignette in the ongoing story of injustice and racism that is our nation's history and our current reality." He added that at a time when educators are teaching remotely and districts are facing budget cuts, schools must also "amplify" efforts to address inequity. See related article: Ed Week Teaching Now Blog "Teachers Cannot Be Silent: How Educators Are Showing Up for Black Students Following Protests."
Public Schools Face a Fall With a Lot More Costs and a Lot Less Funding
The Washington Post: As school districts consider how and when to get students back to classrooms, they are facing a financial riddle with enormous implications: Every back-to-school plan involves new spending at a time when states and districts are bracing for significant cuts. The needs are enormous. Students who fell behind this spring will require extra help. Counselors will be needed to help children who have lost family or suffered trauma. Nurses will be called on to ensure students and staff are healthy. Authorities, meanwhile, are recommending a raft of new procedures, some of them costly, such as requiring masks for staff members, no-touch trash cans, and daily temperature checks, all designed to stem the spread of germs. See related articles: Chalkbeat "Nearly 500,000 Public Education Jobs Disappeared Across U.S. in April" and Education Week "7 Issues Facing K-12 Budgets as COVID-Shocked Legislatures Reconvene."
All States Now Approved for Emergency Education Funding
Education Dive: It was close, but all 50 states and the District of Columbia have applied and been approved for the Governor's Emergency Education Relief Fund. It's a relatively small block grant within the federal Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, but it gives state leaders wide discretion in how to spend the funds. The awards — which range from more than $355 million for California to about $4.4 million for Vermont — are unusual in that governors can use the money for "needs related to COVID-19" at either the K-12 or higher education levels. Details about how governors plan to divvy up the funds, however, have been slow to emerge. See related article: EdSource "Most California Districts Would Get More in Federal Aid Than They'd Lose in Budget Cuts."
The Next Pandemic: Mental Health
EdSurge: The first wave of the crisis affected physical health, the second wave is economic. Now comes the third wave—mental health—and our system is ill-prepared. Prior disasters have triggered rising mental health challenges and greater inequities, especially among young children. Evidence suggests that isolation can drive trauma and that disasters can lead to long-term emotional and behavioral difficulties. The current crisis has exacerbated the urgent need for massive investments in mental health. The National Association of School Psychology recommends a tiered approach, involving universal intervention for prevention and evaluation of needs (Tier 1), response for immediate crisis intervention (Tier 2), and targeted psychotherapy for those with greater needs (Tier 3).
Hundreds of Thousands of Students Still Can't Access Online Learning
The Hechinger Report: After schools switched from physical instruction to remote learning in the wake of the coronavirus pandemic, districts and state leaders assured families they would get devices for students and the technology resources needed to do schoolwork at home. But more than two months after the switch to distance learning, many students still don't have what they need, and these students could face significant learning loss when school reopens. According to a nationally representative survey of 600 public school teachers, only 24% reported that all of their students had access to a computer or tablet for school work as of early May. See related article: EdSource "California Needs $500 Million to Buy Enough Computers, Internet Connections for All Students."
Districts' Summer Plans Show Missed Opportunities
Education Dive: Districts' summer school plans are showing missed opportunities for addressing learning loss for students and fostering social connections, according to a new analysis by researchers who have closely monitored schools' transition to distance learning during school closures. In their recently released review, researchers from the Center on Reinventing Public Education at the University of Washington wrote that less than half of the 100 school districts, and four of the 18 charter management organizations in their database were offering summer learning programs for elementary and middle school students. Fifty-eight of the districts and five of the 18 CMOs plan to hold summer school for high school students. About a third, they wrote, haven't yet announced plans for summer school.
Author City ConnectsPosted on June 8, 2020 June 18, 2020 Categories Education, Government, Health & Wellness, News, Nonprofit/Community Agencies, The Weekly ConnectTags #EducationNews, #StudentSuccess
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: What is Eclipse's structure? I appreciate the flexible structure of Eclipse.
I really want to know what programming language is used to write such software, and what design concepts are used in it to make it so flexible.

A: Eclipse is written in Java. The GUI toolkit is called SWT (Standard Widget Toolkit) which is also written in Java, but with small portions in languages like C to allow the native binding.
The architecture is highly plugin-based. With the exception of a minimal core, everything is a plugin. The plugin can provide extension points that other plugins can implement. With this mechanism, the mesh of plugins allows the high flexibility of the overall system. Wikipedia provides a nice summary of the plugin architecture.
The source of Eclipse is (to a large extend) very clean and provides lots of nice use s for the central design patterns, like Vistitors, Adapters, and so on.

A: Java was used to create Eclipse.

A: One way to visualize programming/markup languages used to write a piece of free or open source software is using Ohloh. Ohloh's code analysis for Eclipse shows that many languages were used, but mostly Java, XML, and HTML.

A: It's open source - you can download it and examine to your heart's content.

A: Check out the eclipse committers page here
It's got all sorts of useful information, including answers to your specific questions

A: When you look at http://dev.eclipse.org/viewcvs/index.cgi/ you can actually read the source.  That should answer all your questions.

A: Check out Eclipse's plugin system for some interesting reading. A good start is its article on Wikipedia.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


While some basic unit testing will be reviewed, this is not a quick start for NUnit or unit testing in general, so proper test design and specifics on NUnit usage will not be addressed.
The quick start shows usage of the Enterprise features of Typemock Isolator. While all of this is possible in the community edition, the alternate mechanisms for accomplishing things won't be discussed.
At the very end are some take-away points and additional resources. Work through the quick start, do the exercises, and at the end check out the take-away points so you'll have something to move forward with.
Visual Studio 2008, Typemock Isolator, and TestDriven.NET get installed on your local developer machine. NUnit should be in an accessible location but doesn't necessarily have to be installed. Get the latest available versions.
Delete "Class1.cs" - we'll add more appropriately named classes later.
Add references to NUnit and Typemock Isolator.
In the .NET tab, select "Typemock Isolator for .NET 2.0" and click OK.
Reference NUnit. If you've installed NUnit, select the NUnit Framework assembly from the .NET tab; if you're accessing NUnit from a known location, go to the Browse tab and find "nunit.framework.dll" and add a reference to that.
This section discusses basic patterns you'll need to understand while working with unit testing and mocking.
Setup: Set up the test environment and the code that you're testing. This usually involves initializing some variables, instantiating your class, or setting up some configuration files that the code being tested needs.
Execute: Execute the code being tested.
Assert: Check to make sure that what you just executed had the desired behavior.
To examine this pattern, set up a simple class that can be tested and perform some unit tests on it.
Add a class called Calculator. Make it public.
Fill in the body for the Calculator.Add method.
Fill in the body for the Calculator.Divide method. If "b" is zero, throw a DivideByZeroException.
Now you have a simple class to test, let's add a test fixture for it.
Add a class called CalculatorFixture. Make it public.
Add an NUnit [TestFixture] attribute to CalculatorFixture. This is how you tell NUnit and TestDriven.NET that this class contains unit tests.
You now have a class to test and a fixture to contain your tests. Add a test for the Calculator.Add method.
Add an NUnit [Test] attribute to the AddTwoPositiveNumbers method. This is how you tell NUnit and TestDriven.NET that this is a test to run.
Follow the "Setup, Execute, Assert" pattern to create your test.
Setup: Create an instance of the Calculator class.
Execute: Call the Add method on the instance with two positive numbers of your choosing.
Assert: Verify that it returned the expected result.
Test adding of two negative numbers.
Test adding a number to zero.
Test dividing one positive number by another.
Test dividing by zero (don't catch the exception - use the NUnit [ExpectedException] attribute on your test method).
Notice how the pattern is basically the same? You do some initialization, run some code, and assert that the result is what you expected. You see a slight deviation from that pattern when testing for expected exceptions, but it's still basically doing an assertion, just expressed differently.
Record: Tell the mocking framework what you're about to do on the mock object.
Playback: As you're executing the test, the mocking framework "repeats" what you recorded.
Verify: Check to make sure that all the mocks you set up were called correctly.
This parallels the unit test "Setup, Execute, Assert" pattern. Part of your setup is to record your mocks; part of execution is playing back your mocks; part of assertion is verifying your mocks.
Notice in this method that we're calling the Add method (which we've already tested) and performing some additional custom logic that we need to test. This sort of thing is perfect for mocking. We don't want to re-test the Add method; we want to isolate the logic in the new method and just test that. Let's add a new fixture with tests that use Typemock Isolator to isolate the new logic.
Add a class called CalculatorMockingFixture. Make it public.
Add an NUnit [TestFixture] attribute to CalculatorMockingFixture.
Add a Typemock Isolator [VerifyMocks] attribute to CalculatorMockingFixture. This tells Typemock Isolator to automatically do the mock verification part of the test for you when the test is complete. It saves you from having to manually verify in every test.
The Calculator object we're going to test gets instantiated.
We tell the recorder the value we want Add to return - in this case, we want it to return 15. We don't care what gets passed in, the first time Add gets called, we want 15 to come back.
The using block closes, meaning we're done recording for now. Time for playback.
We call the AddThenMultiply method and get the result.
We assert that we got the correct result.
Now run the test again. Notice how it still passes? Why is that? That's mocking in action. If you follow the call stack, you know that the first thing the AddThenMultiply method does is call the Add method. Typemock Isolator sees that call to Add and doesn't actually let Add execute - instead, it returns the value we told it to return. In this case, we'll get 15 back.
What happens if you call Add a second time in your test? Try adding a call to calc.Add after the AddThenMultiply call.
Can you set it up so the recorder returns 15 for the first call to Add but 25 for the second call?
Once you've gotten your first mock down and get the patterns, the next question is, "How can I actually use this in my job? I'm not writing Calculator classes all day." The benefit of mocking is to isolate the code that you're testing - that includes isolating it from the behavior of the .NET framework and other third-party dependencies. In this section you'll walk through an example of isolating your code from .NET proper and look at some additional mocking verification that can be done to ensure your code is calling the framework correctly.
To experiment with isolation from .NET, we'll add a new class. This class will make use of the .NET configuration system to read a value from configuration and perform an action based on that.
Add a reference to the System.Configuration assembly.
Add a class called ConfigReader. Make it public.
Read the AppSettings key "configReader" and store the result.
Append the contents of the valueToAppend parameter to the end of the value from configuration.
What happens if the setting isn't found?
What happens if the setting is empty?
What happesn if the setting is found?
Now consider: It reads from the App.config file - how do you change that between tests? Is that even a good idea?
Again - mocking to the rescue.
Add a test fixture for testing this class. Call the fixture ConfigReaderFixture and include both the [TestFixture] attribute and [VerifyMocks] attribute.
Add a unit test to the fixture. Call it SettingFound - we'll test what happens when the setting is correctly read from configuration.
Create an instance of ConfigReader.
Tell the recorder to return the value "readFromAppSettings".
Call the AppendValueToSetting method and pass in "PassedInFromTest".
Assert that the value you get back is "readFromAppSettingsPassedInFromTest" - the result of concatenating the two strings.
Notice how you didn't actually have to put anything in App.config - you don't really want to re-test the functionality of the .NET framework, you just want to test that your code is correct.
Add a test where the app settings value is null to simulate what happens when it's not found.
Add a test where the app settings value is empty string to simulate when the key is there but has an empty configured value.
Now run your tests - they all still pass. Why?
Leave the wrong config key in your ConfigReader class - we'll catch that it's wrong inside the unit tests.
Typemock Isolator caught that the wrong parameter was passed - the one in the test ("configReader") was expected, but your production code used the wrong value ("theWrongKey"). Fix the ConfigReader class back to the correct settings key and your test will pass again.
Once you get past the simplest of cases, you start needing to mock specific instances of classes and sometimes you need to mock methods on instances that get created inside non-test code. Typemock Isolator can do both of these things.
This exercise will show you how to create an instance of an object where the constructor of the object is mocked and you control the entire life of that object.
// Add, Divide, and AddThenMultiply methods omitted for clarity.
that means the constructor itself will be mocked. In this case, think about what that means - the default value for an uninitialized Boolean is false, so the _allowAdd value, which normally gets initialized to true in the default constructor, will remain false and won't let the Add operation run.
failed: System.InvalidOperationException : Add operation is not allowed.
You can fix the test so it passes by adding an [ExpectedException] attribute to the test and expecting an InvalidOperationException.
Usually constructor logic is more complex than this - it might read from configuration, try to initialize a file in the filesystem, or do some other actions that you may want to control. In cases like these, you may need to mock the constructor for the object.
Add a test where you mock the constructor logic but also test the AddThenMultiply method. What does that look like? How does it differ from the original test you ran with AddThenMultiply?
This exercise will show you how to set up expectations on an object that gets created in code you don't control.
If you feed in 10 and 25 to the ReverseAdd method, you'll get "53" returned: 10 + 25 is 35, reverse 35 is 53.
Notice how the BackwardsCalculator constructor is creating a Calculator but you don't get a chance to insert a mock yourself. That's okay - you can still use mocks to mock out the call to Calculator.Add so you're isolating your code.
Add a test fixture for testing this class. Call the fixture BackwardsCalculatorFixture and include both the [TestFixture] attribute and [VerifyMocks] attribute.
Add a unit test to the fixture. Call it ReverseAddPositive - we'll test two positive inputs.
Create an instance of the Calculator class.
Call the Add operation and pass in two known values.
Check the arguments on the Add operation to make sure you're getting called with the expected parameters.
Return the known good result.
Create an instance of BackwardsCalculator.
Call the ReverseAdd method and pass in the parameters you decided on in the record block.
Assert that the value you get back the reversed sum of the two numbers.
By adding the constructor call to the mock recorder block, we're saying, "Mock the next instance of this object that gets created and set these expectations on that object." When we instantiate the BackwardsCalculator after the recorder block, the mocking framework goes into playback mode and mocks the creation of the Calculator in the BackwardsCalculator constructor.
If Add was doing more than just adding, this would be perfect for isolating our code. Add is a simple method, though. Look at the CallOriginal method on the recorder and see if you can get a test to pass where you're checking arguments but actually calling a live version of the Calculator.Add method.
The ReverseAdd method is using LINQ to reverse the string. Try mocking the LINQ Reverse or ToArray statements.
Look at the WhenArgumentsMatch method on the recorder. It lets you conditionally mock a statement based on the arguments that get passed into a method. Can you set up the mock so it only runs when the arguments match what is getting passed in?
Class factories - Instantiate a class based on a configured value. Isolate yourself from configuration when testing the factory or isolate yourself from the factory when testing code that uses the factory.
Third-party dependencies - Components from external vendors. Isolate yourself from the behavior of the dependency so you're not testing the component, you're testing your code.
.NET framework - Built-in framework classes. Isolate yourself from the internal workings of the framework and test just how you're using it.
Legacy API - Code you have to interact with on legacy systems. Isolate your interaction code from the legacy system so you're not testing the system.
If it's in a mock recorder block, it's not actually running - it's recording to be played back later, like a tape recorder.
Only mock what you need. You can get into some crazy situations by mocking too much, and you might end up in a spot where you're just testing your mocks and no actual code.
Just because you can mock it doesn't mean you should. For example, Typemock Isolator can mock fields, but you should really stop and look at what you're mocking before you get too deep. Knowing too much about the internal implementation of a class will make your tests very brittle if anything has to change.
You still need to design your application with good principles. Typemock Isolator enables you to test poorly designed code, but that's not a green light to stop proper software design.
The Cheat Sheets are particularly helpful - one-page references you can print off and use while you're working.
If you use Snippet Compiler, you can experiment with Typemock Isolator using a special template for Snippet Compiler.


People are Talking Arpaio | Impeachable Offenses?
News sources and blogs alike have been discussing Prof. Frank Bowman's analysis of President Trump's pardon of Arpaio, which can be found both here and on slate.com. Notably, the New York Times highlighted Professor Bowman and the work he has done on impeachableoffenses.net for its centrist perspective. Additionally, Professor Bowman's argument was referenced and summarized in this article published by the Independent. Many others cited the argument as well including Metro, the Journal of the Civil War Era, NJ Today, Outside the Beltway, and BillMoyers.com. We here on impeachableoffenses.net look forward to more lively commentary in the near future!