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Hemophilia: Stop the Bleed
Hemophilia has a long and storied history, known and documented throughout medical history and even called the "Royal Disease". Far from romantic, hemophilia is a disease that has horrific effects. Today we have a greater understanding of the disease, and although there is no cure, hemophiliacs can live near-normal lives with proper care.
The facts of hemophilia
Hemophilia refers to a group of rare, genetic blood disorders characterized by the sufferer's inability to control bleeding. Because the patient's body does not produce sufficient clotting factors to stop bleeding when a blood vessel is damaged, hemophiliacs who suffer even a minor injury can bleed for days, sometimes with the injury never healing completely. In addition, inteal bleeding in the knees, elbows, or other joints is common in people who have hemophilia, and can occur without obvious injury.
The disease falls into two categories. Hemophilia A, the absence of factor VIII, is the most common form, affecting 85% of the hemophilia population. Hemophilia B is caused by absence or low levels of factor IX. It is the less common form, affecting 15% of the hemophilia population. Generally people are bo with hemophilia, but in rare instances, hemophilia can be acquired. "Acquired" means that you develop it during your lifetime. This can happen if your body forms antibodies (proteins) that attack the clotting factors in your bloodstream, preventing them from working. In the United States, approximately 20,000 people are affected by the disorder, the overwhelming majority of who are male.
Before effective treatment became available in the 1960s, the average life expectancy for hemophiliacs was only 11 years. Today, depending on severity and access to appropriate treatment, patients can expect to live only 10 years less than the national average.
Hemophilia patients require full-spectrum care, with an emphasis on prevention of disability and immediate infusion of the deficient clotting factor when bleeding does occur. According to Medicaid, patient management priorities include accurate diagnosis, management of clotting factors, dose monitoring, management of chronic conditions (such as those associated with normal aging), and social support.
The mainstay of hemophilia treatment is clotting factor replacement therapy, both prophylactically (on an ongoing rather than as-needed basis) and on demand (to achieve patient hemostasis as quickly as possible if bleeding occurs). There are many different factor products on the market for treatment.
The costs of such agents can be staggering. Because treatments are typically considered an emergency, charges may be highly inflated without the use of a specialty pharmacy vendor. In addition, there are a limited number of treatment alternatives. And if these drugs are administered prophylactically to maintain normal factor levels, the cost is continuous. Such prophylaxis can result in average costs of more than $300,000 per year. Multiply that by a typical life span and the costs becomes astronomical.
Then, there is the issue of complications resulting from treatment, which can also drive up cost. Complications fall into three categories:
Production of inhibitors (i.e., antibodies to the factor being administered), resulting in the need for alternative treatment and poor control of bleeding
Infection (e.g., hepatitis)
Reaction to factor IX therapy, resulting in anaphylaxis or nephrotic syndrome
Managing cost in hemophilia treatment
Cost management for hemophilia is challenging because of the need for individualized treatment, the often emergency nature of care (resulting in high cost and billing inquiries as well as lack of normalized pricing), and the high cost of pharmaceuticals. Therefore, a strategic approach to cost containment for hemophilia treatment is critical.
Claims payers must do their due diligence. For example, they should:
Understand the patient's diagnosis (chronic or episodic use) and most effective treatment plan
Assess the billing practices of the provider
Make sure that patients are being managed by a hemophilia treatment center and are compliant
Consider carve-out contract terms for factor products in lieu of a percentage discount from billed charges
Recognize plan coverage and any exclusions
Collaborate with and develop ongoing communication with providers
Research alternate risk coverage for patients
Confirm what the underlying plan defines as covered and non-covered services
Audit cases for billing irregularities
When auditing, some issues to review are differences in vial size, coagulation product choices, product waste, and the site of care (e.g., whether hospitalization is required, multiple hospital admissions). Although there is an average acquisition price for products from pharmaceutical companies to the administrator, the markup that the providers delivering the agent charge has neither a standard nor a cap.
What is a payer to do?
Insurers may have a methodology in place to help them understand and review hemophilia claims, such as management programs or standards for reimbursement. However, without deep insight into the medical management and billing practices of the provider, there's no basis for comparison. Fortunately, PartnerRe's PULSE + Plus™ Program can help.
We assess cases to validate treatment plans, contracts, and billing appropriateness. We also provide advocacy services, working with the insurer to determine whether alternate payers exist, such as:
Social Security Disability Insurance
Subsidy programs (e.g., Section 340B of the Public Health Service Act)
Money from foundations
All these strategies can result in dramatic savings to both the insurer as well as the patient.
Find out more information about PULSE + Plus.


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"Looks the part": the kiss of (career) death?
Published November 30, 2016 in News, Uncategorized, Work
I read the news with two sets of eyes. First, the obvious search for what's up. The other, assessing what current events mean for women. This past week, I read a phrase that hurled me back decades in my own career–"Looks the part"– a set of words that may seem like a compliment…or be used as a reason to hold women back. But when the language is associated with decisions regarding the highest offices in our land, I just had to write.
http://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/the-ugly-truth-about-trump-s-fixation-with-looks-1.2886560
The ugly truth about Trump's fixation with looks
US president-elect's cabinet choices appear to be more about style than substance
Another week begins with the US president-elect hosting his ultimate episode of Celebrity Apprentice: D.C. – otherwise known as the selection of his cabinet.
Each day, a parade of contenders arrives on the set of his shiny Trump Tower where an attractive hostess greets them at the revolving door, before rising to the upper floors for the casting session.
Trump's choices to date suggest a preference for billionaires and military leaders aligned with his wallet and world view.
But now that secretary of state spot is up for grabs, the criterion is even more refined.
Asked why former governor Mitt Romney was up for secretary of state, a top aide quotes Trump as saying Romney "looks the part".
Looks the part?
True, Romney's chiseled jaw, perfect posture and tailored suits telegraph suave confidence but is that why Trump might choose him to represent the US around the globe?
Unlike Trump's unconventional resume, Romney governed Massachusetts, was a powerful businessman who led Bain Capital, and managed the successful Olympic Games in Salt Lake City in 2002.
Trigger-happy Twitter finger
On a personal note, he seems more even-tempered than his new commander-in-chief with the trigger-happy Twitter finger.
But hey, Mitt's got that handsome, ageing model thing going – so, he's a shoo-in.
In fact, he's made the callback list with a dinner appointment Tuesday night. Are table manners under review?
"Looks the part" (or worse, not looking the part) is language women know well, especially in the jobs market.
I recall, as a young public relations director, my boss introduced me at a board meeting: "Sure, she's a dynamo but she's the prettiest PR director in the city."
I was floored. I felt like a doll.
Fast forward 10 years, as I left my Fortune 500 advertising director job, my EVP (executive vice president) bid me farewell: "Don't worry, I'll remember you as more than just a pretty face."
Ouch, again.
Was that the sum of all that hard work?
Crushes careers
Looks cut both ways. Women deemed too attractive risk being taken as a distraction or as unserious.
Too old, too large or too "something" and we're just not the right "fit" to represent a brand or a boss (no matter how portly or oddly-coifed he or she might be.)
Statistics show that job candidates who are deemed unattractive, or obese, are less likely to be hired, male or female, though women fare worse.
Unfair?
Yes, but sadly more true than not. And it crushes blossoming careers, human potential and our very souls.
Back to the cabinet: the focus on appearance makes me rethink about the rationale behind the other contenders.
If Trump chooses Rudy Giuliani as secretary of state, is he leaning toward an ornery Rottweiler vibe?
Or if he picks yet another General, do the uniform, crewcut and gold stars shout we may be on the warpath?
Trump has had a bit of a looks fixation throughout his campaign.
He mocked Marco Rubio's height and tweeted that Chris Christie ought "to take it easy on the cheeseburgers".
Trump goes full throttle on females. He insulted opponent Carly Fiorina's face, compared Ted Cruz's wife unfavourably to his model spouse Melania and, among his many Hillary blows, said: "She doesn't look presidential".
Perhaps it's time for a look in the mirror?
When Trump's cast is vetted by the US Congress, the committee will assess experience, judgment, and records, not hairdos.
Time to get looks off the table and face what truly matters.
Mary Lou Quinlan is a New York-based author, actor and advocate for women. Her latest play Work – about women's careers – launches in 2017. Visit justaskawoman.com
Published August 8, 2016 in Work
Last week as I was about to step out onto a narrow one-way Manhattan street, a 20something guy whizzed by on a skateboard. He was so fast and so close that his backdraft tousled my hair. He was going the wrong way and if I'd taken the natural (legal) step, I would have hit the sidewalk and broken God knows what because HE made the decision that he was in control of my safety. I resented that even more than his wrong way, juvenile behavior.
Women don't expect that every step will come easy. But we are justifiably angry when someone takes the choice or chance away from us—in our lives, our families and our careers.
This week's ouster of yet another Madison Avenue chieftain points to the embedded pattern of top ad guys who are as confidently misguided as that guy on the skateboard. Saatchi Chairman Kevin Roberts joins the lineup of expelled leaders who've perpetuated the anachronistic old boys club in the ad business. The article quotes Jane Maas, an Ogilvy copywriter from the 60s and 70s and author of a great book called "Mad Women" https://www.amazon.com/Mad-Women-Madison-Avenue-Hardcover/dp/B00HTDXAF8/ref=sr_1_7?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1470676197&sr=1-7&keywords=Mad+Women+Jane+Maas
laying out the generations of misogyny in the industry. I would have thought that my mother's experiences as a secretary in the real Mad Men 50s and mine as one of a handful of female agency CEO in the 90s were history by now. But not.
When I was a VP at one agency, a client noticed my red suit. In front of his team, he asked, "Is your lingerie red too?" When I was interviewed for a Senior VP role at a large global agency, the COO asked, "How do I know you won't get pregnant?" I managed to make it to the top while holding on to my woman-ness, getting along with the guys through results, persistence and a good sense of humor. Some women chose to keep a low profile or become one of guys. And some just left the business, as I eventually did.
This article https://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/aug/07/mad-women-advertising-top-jobs?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other tells the tale well but also reveals the problem. Only three women were quoted. Absent were current female CEO's or creative directors. Why? Maybe the Guardian was on deadline. Or maybe the senior women would rather not risk seeming too much in the bag for "the cause" or break ranks with the status quo over somebody else's problem. Most likely, they were too busy to talk which may be reason number one.
What I found most unsettling was Roberts' chummy contention that women opted out of the top jobs because they wanted a life. That's actually true for some women and for many men. Fair enough. The travel, the hours, the punishing pressure would threaten anyone's sanity. But Roberts glibly presented this as a closed case, true for all women and therefore the gender success inequity was inevitable. I would instead call it a 'cold case' that has been brewing in the bellies of agencies for decades, ignored as long as the leadership can get away with it.
I believe there are thousands of women who would take the heat and discomfort of the top jobs on a dime in order to grow in their profession. It's not a spot for the faint of heart but if you love what you do and can manage to find a life, as in any top job, you ought to be able to make the choice to do it. But skateboarding through the gender divide… cutting off their chance to decide? That's not up to you, bro. It's just not.
Working girl. Still.
Is it just me or does this 1994 picture… look like a Melanie Griffiths wannabe in the "Working Girl" movie? Puffy, overhighlighted hair. Requisite black suit. All that's missing is the white socks and sneakers. I smile when I look at this, not because I see the unlined face and the hopeful eyes but because it makes me appreciate what so many women go through, working in their own way year after year. So much has changed; so much hasn't.
That's why I decided to partner with my wonderful director, acting coach and co-writer @MarthaWollner to create a new one-woman play called "Work." It's my chance to untangle four career decades (yikes!), unpack dozens of "Are you kidding me?" stories and answer today's "Can I pick your brain?" queries. We are previewing the show for small groups to get it stage ready but what excites me most is how much the story reflects what I see happening now. A woman running for president up against a man who seems to be the one with the PMS! The amazing Sheryl Sandberg of "Lean In"fame who's looking for ways to cope when life hands you Option B. And young women I meet who aren't afraid to demand a life AND a career. As it should be.
So I thought it might be time to write about this journey, just as "Work" will talk about it. As I say in the play, "When people say, 'Oh, it's just work, it's not personal', they're wrong." It IS personal to me. And maybe to you. Life. Work. Women. An eyes-wide-open look at our daily world of making a life, making a living, making a difference and hey, having a laugh. You in?
Published June 3, 2014 in Performance, Production, Work
Losing my parents was the heartbreak of my life. But I feel that they left me a gift, first in my mother's God Boxes of notes but also in the grit and hope they instilled in me as a girl. I had always dreamed of a career in theater but instead poured my years into a business career. But after losing Mom and Dad, I decided I wanted to share their story, not only in my book but onstage. I started from scratch, at the bottom, at a sad point in my life. But their belief in me gave me courage. And my partnership with the amazing actor/playwright/director Martha Wollner gave me the skills. After many U.S. performances raising nearly $250,000 for charities, now the show is stepping up to a world stage. From July 31 to August 25, I will be performing 'The God Box, A Daughter's Story' at the world-renowned Edinburgh Festival Fringe. It was an honor to be accepted by the famous Assembly Theater there. A new journey is beginning. But I'll pack my bags with Mom and Dad's love inside. Come along with me as I share the next few months of the dream of a lifetime.
Tags: Festival Fringe, Just Ask a Woman Productions, Mary Lou Quinlan, The God Box
Making a big leap after 40?
Published March 27, 2013 in Work
Got a career dream waiting in your pocket? Most of us do. In 1998, I took a big step to achieve mine and Just Ask a Woman was the result. And the dreams keep growing. Hope you enjoy this piece published today on LearnVest, the fantastic financial support site for young women. Read it HERE!
Tags: Advertising, Careers, For Women, Half Truth, marketing with women in mind, Mary Lou Quinlan, Psychology, The God Box, The New York Times Best seller, Whole Truths, women
Welcome to Mary Lou Quinlan & Co!
Published November 29, 2012 in Work
Nearly 13 years ago, I walked out of the corner office of a big ad agency and into the career—make that "careers"—of my dreams. I founded Just Ask a Woman with the goal of becoming the most compelling interpreter of women's voices in the marketplace. For all those years, I worked with a wonderful team of women to make it happen.
I never think small and maybe I got a bit carried away, but as I've often said, it's your dream, make it big. From the get go, I hoped to build expertise in six different disciplines: consulting and strategy, speaking, TV, online communications, books and magazine writing. I used to call them my six flowerpots. I figured if I watered them with attention, talent and time, eventually they all would grow. Consulting took off like a shot, thanks to the unique assets of Just Ask a Woman, but eventually three books sprouted, along with dozens of magazine articles, blogs, and hundreds of speeches around the country and the world. Just Ask a Woman bloomed but we never lost that start up edge.
Now I'm expanding in new creative ways with the upcoming launch of The God Box Project– my memoir of my mother, but also a one woman, one act play I've written and performed, a series of short films, a vibrant online community and soon, an app. Exploring the intimate relationship of mothers and daughters will likely be the most personal and revealing 'market research' I will ever do. So, with the God Box—and spring–it seemed the perfect time to present this new outgrowth of what we've done.
Introducing Mary Lou Quinlan & Co which brings together the best of content and consulting, reflecting over a decade of listening to women…and to my heart. Over the coming months, you'll learn about new services, new global partners, and new ventures. But one thing stays the same. It's all about understanding women and letting their voices be heard. Join us as we give voice to what women really feel, believe and want.
Si experimenta cualquier pérdida repentina de la visión en uno o ambos ojos, este potenciador es mucho más barato que el Original. Que ofrecerá comprar Levitra Original en nuestra tienda, limite 5 mg del medicamento. La concentración máxima se observa en 15 o 30, la seguridad y eficacia de Sildenafil para la disfunción eréctil se evaluaba en varios ensayos clínicos, no se recomienda ingerirlos con ningún otro tipo de bebida. Dos ejemplos más notables es el descubrimiento de los rayos X y los antibióticos, mano del desarrollo, mil experiencias personales que he vivido intensamente, para tales casos.
Rewriting the Rules of How We Work
Published June 21, 2012 in New Ideas, Work
Over the years, I have been part of many teams, stretching from my first years in a large, global corporation, through my decade in the competitive ad agency world, my years as an entrepreneur. Each experience came with its own approach to management and staffing. But my latest endeavor, The God Box Project, has been my first foray into creative a team the new-fashioned way with a wired and unwired network of global talent, handpicked for their expertise. The piece that I wrote in Forbes.com explains how it all began.
Tags: Forbes, Global team, Marketing, marketing with women in mind, Psychology, social media, Social Networking

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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A Rare Behind the Scenes Look at Disney World's Most Advanced Audio-Animatronic Character
Filed to:Disney
A lot of us are still scratching our heads over Disney's decision to spend millions of dollars building Pandora—The World of Avatar in its Animal Kingdom park, especially with Star Wars Galaxy's Edge opening so soon. But at least the themed area, which is celebrating its one year anniversary, led to the creation of one of Disney's most advanced (and seriously impressive) audio-animatronic characters: the Shaman of Songs.
Audio-animatronic isn't the most accurate way to describe the Shaman. The term was originally trademarked by Disney back in 1964 to describe a technology that used pre-recorded tones to trigger pneumatic movements in animated figures. Today most of the animatronics in Disney's parks rely on servos, electronics, and other modern technologies that allow for more fluid movement, and even real-time interactions with park guests.
Seeing the Shaman of Songs in action is almost enough to make me want to visit Animal Kingdom's Pandora—almost. But if Disney offered a behind-the-scenes tour, with a version of the character revealing all of the intricate motors and electronics underneath the blue skin and clothing that make it work, I'd be on a plane to Florida tomorrow.
This Empty Box Hides a Screaming Ghost Head That Will Make All Your Friends Hate You at Halloween
The Dinosaurs at Every Museum Should Do This
The Most Realistic Robo-Lincoln Yet Proves the Future Is Going to Be Weird as Hell
For $5,000, you can own a terrifying band of hillbilly robots
Senior Staff Reporter


Douchebags' The Backpack is highly versatile, perfect for everyday use. Stylish and practical, it's packed with top features, including separate top and laptop pockets, and mesh compartments inside. You can attach The CIA camera insert (purchased separately) to prevent the contents moving about, and this bag works as part of Douchebags' hook-up system for a handy solution when transporting multiple bags.
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We informed yesterday that Apple has immediately dispatched a team of auditors to inspect the facilities of its Pegatron assembler, following a report by the non-profit China Labor Watch organization. The report, issued Monday, detailed low wages leading to overtime hours that are way above the upper limit set by Apple's guidelines for its suppliers.
Previously we had heard on a plastic/fiberglass fusion of sorts for the chassis, and the handset has already leaked numerous times in various colors, while sources indicate that the 5C in its name stands precisely for "color".
Apple is copying samsung ----- It took 4 years for apple to catch up to the I9000 Samsung Galaxy S.
Samsung made affordable but good phones out of plastic. Apple is making CHEAP but Crappy phones out of plastic. So i agree with you, It will take them a long long long time to reach samsungs level.
The phone's not out yet. You happen to have some insider knowledge?
The millions of people who bought the Galaxy S series will agree. I got my I9000 back in the day for only $6 per month on a 24 month contract. Thats $6 for the phone + 20min Talk time + 100mb of data and 25sms. In my country, Nobody even considers Apple.
Has everyone already forgotten the plastic 3gs? They've already done plastic.
Oh I see.. the C stands for color of iPlastic, but the boxes looks much cooler than it. I think this iPlastic would not electrify people like aluminium does.
"Accidentally" I think Apple encourages product leaks to draw attention.
Apple apple apple......the hype will be over soon...max 2 years!
The fall lineup approaches, can't wait to see the finished products.


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Sticking to a conventional diet and exercise plan can be difficult. However, there are several proven tips that can help you "mindlessly" eat fewer calories.
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Natural fat loss tips for diet and exercise are of help for many people who don't know exactly where to start from in their attempt to lose weight.


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How you can apply – Job seekers can fill up online application form through official website of organization that is www.hyundai.com. After filling application form successfully job contenders should submit application form on or before last date and take a print out for future use.


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Q: How to make scrollable panel in visual studio I need to make timeline like this http://image.ohozaa.com/i/g07/tEmBWw.png
this panel generated by database.
User can edit tasking time by hold click on a pin and slide until mouse up.
What should i do?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Apterna is pre-clinical biotechnology developing chemically synthesized RNA aptamers that bind to target molecules with outstanding specificity and affinity.
We are developing internalizing RNA aptamers that enable targeted delivery of various payloads including RNA, toxins, enzymes, chemotherapy agents, photodynamic molecules, radionuclides, and nanocarriers.
The company was founded by Professors John Rossi and Nagy Habib in 2011.


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Forensic psychological future health review (FMHA) has grown right into a specialization trained via learn instructions. This sequence provides updated details at the most crucial and regularly carried out kinds of FMHA. the nineteen topical volumes deal with most sensible methods to perform for certain types of evaluate within the felony, civil, and juvenile/family components. each one quantity incorporates a thorough dialogue of the suitable felony and mental suggestions, through a step by step description of the evaluation method from getting ready for the evaluate to writing the file and attesting in court.
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This is often the tale of Annette Morales Rodriguez, a hard-working unmarried mom of 3. it's also the tale of Lara, a psychopathic killer who kidnapped one other woman's fetus, killing either mom and child. Unbeknownst to Annette, Lara is part of her: a dissociative id, or cut up character, shaped to assist Annette take care of the sexual abuse she persisted as a toddler.
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Kristy Muir
Professor Kristy Muir is the chief executive officer of the Centre for Social Impact, a collaboration between UNSW Australia, Swinburne University of Technology and The University of Western Australia.
Follow Kristy Muir
Articles by Kristy Muir
The overlooked rule of economic recovery: don't take charities for granted
By Kristy Muir and Suzie Riddell
Australian charities are important for all the social, care, cultural and environmental reasons you might think, but also and importantly for reasons less well understood:…
Opinion: leadership is not a title, it is what you do
By Kristy Muir
One thing we know about leadership is the danger of blaming an individual when individuals do not work in isolation. That said, witnessing our PM…
Omniscience is the enemy of social progress
Being 'all-knowing' about a simple, reactive solution can prevent us from lifting our gaze beyond the work we're doing or currently funding. It's a leadership…
Temper your sense of justice?
Now is the time to draw on what we know, to bring together the corporate, not-for-profit, academic and government sectors and to progress what we…
10 social impact lessons I learnt as a not-for-profit leader
CEO Kristy Muir reflects on the key lessons she's learnt as the Centre for Social Impact marks its 10th birthday.
Power, privilege and public good
Thursday November 1, 2018
What does it really take to be aware of power and to give it up?…
Marshmallows, leadership and moral courage
We need to think about a new type of leadership, and redistribution of power, says Kristy Muir, CEO of the Centre for Social Impact.
How shock-resistant is Australia in financial hardship?
In the past, an inability to manage financial situations has been partly viewed as a deficit in individuals. Government has to get better at intervening…


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Q: Hierarchical order in nested dictionary: design decision This might be a lame question but here it goes:
Say I have a (Python) dictionary:
{'k1': {'value': 10},
 'k2': {'value': 20}}

The above data structure is more "inefficient" compared to the one below:
{'value': {'k1': 10, 'k2': 20}}

I understand that the latter structure takes less storage, may be compressed better, and faster to transport over network.
My question is if there is a computer science or a programming principle which encourages designing data structures like the second one than the first?
Thanks


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Craig Beach
Craig Beach distance to Cincinnati
How far is Craig Beach from Cincinnati?
Shortest distance between Craig Beach and Cincinnati is 231.71 miles (372.9 km).
Flight distance from Craig Beach, OH to Cincinnati, OH is 231.71 miles. Estimated flight time is 00 hours 31 minutes.
It takes 00 hours 28 minutes to travel from Craig Beach to Cincinnati with an airplane (average speed of 550 miles).
The driving distance from Craig Beach, Ohio to Cincinnati, Ohio is: 261.41 miles (420.7 km) by car.
Driving from Craig Beach to Cincinnati will take approximately 04 hours 10 minutes.
#1 Craig Beach
City in Mahoning County, Ohio, United States of America
41°7'1"N 80°59'0"W
#2 Cincinnati
City in Ohio, United States; county seat of Hamilton County
Starting point in Craig Beach: Grandview Road (-80.983504,41.117077)
Ending point in Cincinnati: (-84.514416,39.127158)
Estimated Travel Time Between Craig Beach and Cincinnati
The distance between Craig Beach and Cincinnati is 421 km if you choose to drive by road. You can go 04 hours 40 minutes if you drive your car at an average speed of 90 kilometers / hour. For different choices, please review the avg. speed travel time table on the below.
There is no time difference between Craig Beach and Cincinnati. The current time is 15:17:02.
A car with a fuel efficiency of 8.3 l/100 km will need 34.92 liters (9.22 gallon) of gas to cover the route between Craig Beach and Cincinnati.
The estimated cost of gas to go from Craig Beach to Cincinnati is $30.5 (diesel $34.36).
The place names are translated into coordinates to approximate the distance between Craig Beach and Cincinnati (latitude and longitude). Cities, states, and countries each have their own regional center. The Haversine formula is used to measure the radius.
Driving distance from Columbus, OH to Craig Beach 155.47 miles (250 km)
Driving distance from Dayton, OH to Craig Beach 225.08 miles (362 km)
Driving distance from Akron, OH to Craig Beach 33.31 miles (54 km)
Driving distance from Cleveland, OH to Craig Beach 64.11 miles (103 km)
Driving distance from Lorain, OH to Craig Beach 81.18 miles (131 km)
Driving distance from Parma, OH to Craig Beach 59.05 miles (95 km)
Driving distance from Toledo, OH to Craig Beach 162.26 miles (261 km)
Driving distance from West Chester, OH to Craig Beach 86.55 miles (139 km)
Driving distance from Youngstown, OH to Craig Beach 22.12 miles (36 km)


text:
The Spiral of Escalating Water Conflict: The Theory of Hydro-Politics
Luís Filipe Sanches Fernandes
Cauteruccio, A.
Lanza, L. G.
Arianna Cauteruccio
Luca G. Lanza
Department of Civil, Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Genova, 16145 Genoa, Italy
Received: 23 September 2022 / Revised: 26 October 2022 / Accepted: 27 October 2022 / Published: 30 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nature-Based Solutions for Rainwater Management in the Urban Environment)
The supply of various non-potable water usages based on the harvesting and management of rainwater in urban areas allows to save high-quality water resources for strictly potable use and to limit the squandering of precious freshwater resources. A rainwater harvesting system included in a reconversion project of a former military area located in the town of Genova (Italy) is examined. Rainwater is collected and used for the landscape irrigation of public areas. Three rainwater collection scenarios are considered while varying the size of the storage tank, using daily rainfall data from a local long-term record as the reference rainfall climatology. A behavioural model is adopted to simulate the operation of the rainwater harvesting system and improved with a dedicated algorithm to account for the actual soil water availability for the vegetation and its temporal decay, based on the specific soil type and vegetation. For each scenario/tank size combination, reliability indices are calculated and compared, while the detention time and the annual usage volume per unit tank capacity are used as indicators of water quality deterioration in the tank and the economic benefit associated with the exploitation of the resource. The best solution in terms of rainwater collection scenario and tank size is identified.
rainwater harvesting; landscape irrigation; urban environment; behavioural model; soil water capacity; precipitation
Depending on the local climate, rainwater is a potential freshwater resource, often underrated and unexploited at the scale of urban areas [1]. In cities, rainwater is typically drained and routed away rapidly and efficiently from roads, roofs, and other variably permeable surfaces by means of traditional urban drainage networks. Contrary to other sources of water supply, however, rainwater is directly available on-site and does not require onerous water transport infrastructures; it is, therefore, easily accessible. Admittedly, the quality of rainwater in urban areas is affected by various pollutants and must be carefully assessed in relation to any intended usage (see, e.g., [2]). However, Mazurkiewicz et al. [3] tested the quality of rainwater harvested in underground retention tanks and found that the collected rainwater even complied with the requirements of the European Union for drinking water.
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) and management allow to relieve the anthropic pressure on high-quality water supply sources (uphill lakes, aquifers, and springs) due to the potable water demand. Except in arid climates, indeed, the squandering of potable water resources for usages that would not require the high quality and safety features of potable water supply is rather common. These include the irrigation of public/private green areas, road cleaning, toilet flushing, fire suppression systems, etc.
The present work addresses the use of rainwater for the landscape irrigation of public areas by focusing on the case study of an RWH system included in a reconversion project of a former military area located in the town of Genova (Italy), within the Mediterranean temperate climate, with dry and hot summer (Csa in the Köppen–Geiger classification; see [4]). The project foresees the development of a public park where various playgrounds, green areas, orchards, and picnic areas will replace sheds and open areas used to store armaments. The project provides for rainwater to be collected and used for irrigation in the park, where a few nature-based solutions (NBSs) contribute to the management of stormwater drainage and control. NBSs are indeed defined as "both natural and constructed systems, which utilise and reinforce, physical, chemical and microbiological treatment processes" [5].
Although the implementation of NBSs in the project improves the resilience of the town against the impact of heavy rainfall events, it also reduces the availability of rainwater for harvesting and irrigation. Nevertheless, the collection of rainwater after infiltration improves the quality of the collected water when compared with water collected from impervious surfaces such as roofs, asphalt roads, and concrete sidewalks, as is typical of the heavily urbanized neighbourhood in the city of Genova. The collection of rainwater is, therefore, limited in this study to areas located inside the park. Rainwater is not only collected from rooftops and other impervious surfaces but also from green or semi-permeable areas of the park, including porous pavements, which can be counted among the NBSs since they exploit the natural process of infiltration through permeable surfaces, even if there is no vegetation contributing to water management and control (they are not "green").
The high-intermittency and randomness features of rainfall events in space and time require smart management capabilities to avoid inefficiencies of RWH systems due to the scarce synchronization between availability and demand. In particular, the use of rainwater for irrigation is in phase opposition with the occurrence of rainfall events (irrigation is activated in dry periods, while during wet periods, irrigation is not needed). An efficient solution is the use of RWH systems equipped with a storage tank, suitably designed according to the expected variability of rainfall events and on the magnitude and temporal distribution of the demand.
In the RWH literature, many studies concentrate on domestic systems (see, e.g., [6,7]), where the optimization of the system is sought at the scale of the single building, for household consumption, while integrated systems at the urban scale and/or in complex urban renovation projects are limited. The potential for domestic potable water savings using rainwater in a house in Blumenau, southern Brazil, was demonstrated, e.g., by [8] by estimating the water end uses based on the frequency and time of use of the water appliances in the house. Typical multistore residential buildings were considered by [9] when investigating the applicability, reliability, and economic benefit of RWH systems to partially offset the daily water demand in Dhaka city (Bangladesh).
RWH systems for crop irrigation were addressed, e.g., by [10], who calculated the sustainability scores for various RWH designs and crops, together with the feasibility of combined RWH and well water systems. They found that the benefits of RWH systems irrigating soybeans supported with well water (0.4 well water and 0.6 RWH) provided significant cumulative energy savings and reductions in CO2 emissions, blue water use, ecotoxicity, eutrophication, and human health (in terms of anticancer activity). However, RWH-based irrigation is a special kind of water-saving irrigation using much less water than conventional water-saving irrigation (also called "low-rate irrigation"), and water supplied to crops is generally limited to 10–15% of the total crop water consumption over the whole growing season [11]. The work of [12] demonstrated the suitability of sustainable rainwater harvesting to support domestic or small-community agriculture or assist in fighting small forest fires.
When rainwater is used for landscape irrigation (e.g., in public green areas in cities), the demand is much lower than for crop irrigation. RWH systems for landscape irrigation were addressed, e.g., by [13] using roof water collection from three dome sports stadiums in the towns of Fukuoka and Nagoya, Japan, and by [14], who reported of a rainwater landscape irrigation project in Sydney, Australia. The citizens' attitude towards a strategy to irrigate urban parks using rainwater collected in retention ponds was investigated by [15] for the city of Calgary (Canada). They found that about 80% were in favour of irrigating with rainwater during water shortages and that the use of rainwater was largely preferred against other proposed options (including wastewater recycling, no irrigation, and especially potable water).
Climate factors and the local characteristics of urbanization obviously have an influence on the performance of an RWH system. Preeti and Rahman [16] investigated the expected water savings from RWH systems located in various Australian cities, addressing different tank sizes and water uses, showing that—although efficient in supplying water for toilet-flushing and laundry water demands—the reliability for irrigation use was highly variable across all the locations. One of the reasons for this result was that the demand for irrigation was deemed too high.
However, the quantification of the water demand for irrigation in urban areas is often addressed in a very general way, assuming constant values for the irrigation demand and separating at best the growing season from the dormant season, when no irrigation is used [17]. Preeti and Rahman [16] assumed a reference value of 10 mm/session but provided limited information about the frequency of such sessions and their possible dependence on the actual rainfall events.
Recently, Li et al. [18] introduced the modelling of landscape irrigation demand in RWH systems by employing the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) developed by [19] to quantify the contribution of vegetation on the sub-daily scale. Only roof runoff was assumed as the source for RWH. They investigated various combinations of rain cistern sizes, percentages of rooftop area collected, and irrigation strategies, where automatic irrigation was controlled by soil water depletion in pervious areas within the maximum depth of the root zone and stopped once the field capacity was reached. However, their study focused on evaluating the impact of rainwater harvesting and reuse strategies on runoff reductions (peak and depth) rather than on determining the efficiency of the RWH system in terms of water supply for irrigation.
Jones and Hunt [20] noted that the pattern of water usage may significantly affect the overall performance of an RWH system solely used for landscape irrigation, with high demand being expected during summer and low during the winter months. They suggested that water usage be correlated with typical seasonal rainfall patterns, to improve cistern performance with regards to the runoff volume captured.
While various studies are available for installations in cold and semi-arid climates [21,22], the application of RWH systems in the Mediterranean area is less common. In such climatic conditions, rainfall events are mostly concentrated in few intense occurrences, contributing a significant portion of the total annual rainfall. Mehrabadi et al. [23] found that in the Mediterranean climate, it was possible to supply at least 75% of the non-potable water demand in buildings with large roof areas for a maximum duration of 40% of the time, while in arid climate, a similar duration was only 23% of the time. Palla et al. [24] explored the variability of the performance of domestic RWH systems in various European climate zones, showing the role of the local rainfall climatology in determining the most suitable sizing of the system for similar demands.
To further investigate the performance of an RWH system for urban landscape irrigation in the Mediterranean climate, the implementation of an improved behavioural model is proposed in this work, where the daily irrigation demand is calculated based on soil water depletion following the actual precipitation derived from a quasi-bicentennial rainfall record. The model is applied to a reconversion project of a former military area, located in the town of Genova (Italy). The long-term performance of the system is calculated in a non-dimensional framework in terms of suitable temporal and volumetric reliability indices, detention time, and economic benefit, so that the transferability of the results into similar sites and configurations is made easier.
A behavioural model is implemented to simulate the operation of a rainwater harvesting (RWH) system, designed to supply urban landscape irrigation. Three rainwater collection scenarios are modelled by assuming that rainwater is collected from the drainage of ground surfaces or from roof runoff. The methodology adopted for the analysis is similar to the ones proposed in the literature by various authors [25,26] but is suitably adapted by introducing a dedicated algorithm to account for the dynamics of the soil water content in calculating the daily irrigation demand.
2.1. Rainfall Climatology
The potential for rainwater harvesting and use depends on the urban surfaces made available for rainwater collection, the associated runoff coefficient, the relationship between the frequency and intensity of rainfall events in the region, and the variability of the demand. In the Mediterranean region, the strong intermittency and randomness of precipitation events in space and time require smart management capabilities to avoid that the adopted technical solutions end up being inefficient due to the scarce synchronization between availability and demand.
The efficiency of an RWH system can be established by simulating the system performance over a sufficiently long period. To this aim, the historical rainfall series recorded at the meteorological station of Genova Università (Italy) is adopted. Daily rainfall data are used, as observed in the period of 1833–2008. Annual data from the same time series are graphically reported in the left-hand panel of Figure 1.
The site is characterized by a strong seasonality of precipitation events, with the maximum values of monthly precipitation occurring in the fall season, while a minimum is reached in summer. In the right-hand panel of Figure 1, the observed variability of monthly precipitation is reported in the form of boxes and whiskers. The amplitude of the boxes and the distance between whiskers and dots reflect the dispersion of the data, and the distance between the mean and median values (if any) is indicative of a non-symmetric distribution.
In the fall season, the statistical variability of the observed monthly data is also strong, with individual monthly values that may vary even dramatically from year to year, with cases when the total precipitation of one single month may reach even 30% of the annual precipitation amount.
The characteristics of the local climatology are synthesized by the statistical values usually adopted for the description of rainfall events, i.e., the mean and standard deviation values of the annual precipitation depth (1270 ± 309 mm), the event depth (29 ± 43 mm), the event duration (1.93 ± 1.40 days), and the dry spell duration between two consecutive events (6.45 ± 7.24 days). The event depth and the dry spell duration show large standard deviations, confirming that the site is characterized by a typical Mediterranean climate with high-intensity events interspersed with even significant dry periods.
2.2. The Behavioural Model
The behavioural model is based on a conceptual scheme implying the collection of rainwater from the drainage of ground surfaces and/or some building roofs. The model performs, at a daily scale, the balance of the incoming and outgoing volumes associated with the collected rainwater flows and the water supply. The daily water demand is calculated to only meet the landscape irrigation water needs. In Figure 2, a schematic of the RWH system is illustrated, and the variables used to describe the various components of the behavioural model are indicated, where t is the simulation interval, Pt (L) is the precipitation amount, Qt (L3) is the volumetric rainwater inflow to the storage tank, S (L3) is the storage capacity of the system (or tank volume), Vt (L3) is the actual rainwater volume stored in the system, Yt (L3) is the released volume, Ot (L3) is the overflow volume, and Dt (L3) is the water demand. The rainwater inflow to the storage tank Qt (L3) is evaluated based on the flow that is collected at each computational step t and conveyed to the storage tank using the rational formula:
Q t = P t · ϕ · A
where ϕ (–) is the runoff coefficient and A (L2) is the extension of a generic collection area.
The behavioural model is based on a daily mass balance equation:
V t = Q t + V t − 1 − Y t − O t
where Yt and Vt are defined as follows, according to the so-called Yield After Spillage (YAS) algorithm:
Y t = min { D t V t − 1
V t = min { V t − 1 + Q t − Y t S − Y t
The YAS algorithm provides a cautionary assessment of the system efficiency, independently on the temporal scale adopted for the model [27]. Mitchell [26] also recommended using the YAS algorithm based on its lower sensitivity to variations in the storage capacity and water demand. Although running the model on the daily scale does neglect the typical variability of the precipitation process on any finer temporal scale, [25] showed that this approach favours a reliable assessment of RWH systems in all cases when the storage fraction (S/Q)—calculated with the mean annual inflow—is larger than 0.01, as discussed below with respect to the investigated collection scenario/tank size combinations. For lower values of the storage fraction, finer-scale models (hourly, minutes) are more suitable, since in the case of small-size storage tanks, the temporal variability of the precipitation process may affect the accuracy of the results about the efficiency of the RWH system.
Given that previous studies demonstrated the scarce influence of the initial condition of the tank [28], an empty storage tank at the start of the simulation is adopted here. According to the final design of the reconversion project used as a case study, the tank is assumed to be covered, so that evaporation from the tank between rainfall events can be neglected.
2.3. Water Demand and Rainwater Collection Scenarios
The reconversion project, analysed as a case study, foresees the realization of green areas for picnic, orchards, dog areas, and other recreational uses. The topsoil of the planned installations is composed of fine sandy loam with a corresponding water holding capacity (WHC) equal to 158 millimetres per metre of soil depth. As indicated in the stratigraphic details reported in the final project for meadows and shrub areas, the root depth value is equal to 0.20 and 0.30 m, respectively, while for the areas where trees are planted, the root depth value is 1 m. Therefore, the corresponding water holding capacity is equal to 32, 48, and 158 mm, respectively.
From June to August, the daily water need (f) is equal to 5 mm for meadows and shrubs areas, while 0.8 mm is needed for areas where trees are planted. These values are halved in April, May, September, and October and assumed to be equal to zero from November to March. The water supplied through the irrigation system (It) is obtained, at each time step t, as a function of the actual soil water content according to the following scheduling of irrigation and watering criteria:
Irrigation is not activated if it rains to cover at least the daily water need or if, in dry days, the soil water content is at least 80% of the WHC;
Irrigation is always activated when the soil water content drops below the threshold of 80% of the WHC;
The WHC of soil is recovered only after sufficiently large precipitation events but not from irrigation, which is used to ensure that only the water need of vegetation is fulfilled.
The excess precipitation, when larger than the soil WHC, either percolates due to gravity to deep soil and is drained away or becomes surface runoff and is collected and stored in the tank.
For each type of vegetation that is supplied with irrigation (meadows, shrubs, trees), the actual soil water content W H C e f f , t (mm) is calculated, at any daily time step t and based on the daily water need f (mm), with the following algorithm:
P t > W H C − ( W H C e f f , t − 1 − f + I t − 1 )
W H C e f f , t = W H C
W H C e f f , t = W H C e f f , t − 1 + P t − f + I t − 1
where the dependency on daily precipitation is made explicit.
The water supplied through the irrigation system (It, expressed in mm) at each time step t is obtained according to the following rule:
W H C e f f , t ≤ 0.8 · W H C
I t = f
I t = 0
The total daily demand for irrigation, Dt (m3), is, therefore, given by:
D t = I t , m e a d o w 1000 · A m e a d o w + I t , s h r u b s 1000 · A s h r u b s + I t , t r e e s 1000 · A t r e e s
where Ameadows, Ashrubs, and Atrees are the surface areas of the irrigated portions covered with meadows, shrubs, and trees, respectively equal to 1369, 801, and 1400 m2. Per each area, the initial condition at the start of the simulation period is set as a soil water content equal to the WHC.
This approach is conceptually similar to the one proposed by [18] when dealing with landscape irrigation, although they only exploited the overflow from the RWH system for irrigation, since their objective was to limit the overall runoff from the site. In that case, however, irrigation was activated when soil water depletion in pervious area exceeded 50% of the total available water capacity in the root zone of grasses. In addition, they precautionary assumed that irrigation stops when the soil water content in pervious areas reaches the field capacity of the soil and/or precipitation occurs while irrigating. The differences in the two approaches reflect the different objectives of the adopted model, since in our case, the best RWH solution is sought in terms of its capacity to supply landscape irrigation, while [18] aimed at minimising the volume and peak of surface runoff in the connected watershed. However, we believe that our proposed irrigation criteria would be even more suitable in that case, since keeping the soil saturated at the field capacity would produce an earlier runoff at the next precipitation event than in our approach.
The performance of the RWH system is analysed by considering three different rainwater collection scenarios. The rainwater collection areas are defined as follows, where ϕeq is the equivalent runoff coefficient and Atot is the total extension of the collection area in each solution:
Scenario 1: Rainwater collected from the drainage of ground surfaces with Atot = 7925.6 m2 and ϕeq = 0.4;
Scenario 2: Rainwater collected from a sheet metal roof with Atot = 1800 m2 and ϕeq = 0.95;
Scenario 3: Rainwater collected from a brick roof with Atot = 4960 m2 and ϕeq = 0.85.
The material and extension of the ground surfaces contributing to the rainwater collected in the storage tank in Scenario 1 are as follows:
Sports field and skate area (synthetic membrane): 850 m2;
Staircases (impervious material): 125 m2;
Playground (anti-trauma paving): 220 m2;
Sand playground (sand): 30 m2;
Pedestrian and driveway area paving (resin gravel): 3280 m2;
Historical and existing paving (stone): 1347 m2;
Green areas (meadows): 2074 m2.
The annual demand fraction, D/Q, defined as the ratio between the annual water demand, D, and the annual inflow, Q, derives from the total water demand for irrigation, which depends on the distribution of daily precipitation during the year and the water collected from the various surfaces in each individual scenario. This non-dimensional parameter represents the overall attitude of the RWH system to meet the demand in any single year and should be less than unity to indicate that using rainwater for irrigation is feasible. The lower its numerical value, the larger the probability that the demand is met whenever needed throughout the year. In Figure 3, the inter-annual variability of the demand fraction is reported for the three collection scenarios in the form of box-and-whisker plots, where the box-and-whisker description is the same as in Figure 1.
It is evident that Scenario 3 has the best potential to maximize the system performance, since the mean value is low (0.238) and the inter-annual variability is quite limited (standard deviation equal to 0.074). As compared with the other two scenarios, both values are the lowest, with Scenario 2 showing the largest values of both the mean and standard deviation values, equal to 0.586 and 0.183, respectively. Scenario 1 has intermediate characteristics (0.316 ± 0.099) but closer to the values of Scenario 3, thus still maintaining a good potential to supply landscape irrigation in the area.
As proposed by [29], suitable indicators of the performance of the RWH system are used here, namely, two temporal reliability indices (fraction of time when storage is not empty, R, and when the demand is fully met, Re), and two volumetric reliability indices (efficiency, ET, and overflow ratio, OT).
The temporal reliability indices are non-dimensional variables, respectively defined as:
R = m N
R e = 1 − n N *
where m is the number of days when the tank is not empty, N is the total number of days, n is the number of days when the stored volume does not fully meet the demand, and N* is the number of days when Dt > 0.
The two non-dimensional volumetric reliability indices are:
E T = ∑ t = 1 N Y t ∑ t = 1 N D t
O T = ∑ t = 1 N O t ∑ t = 1 N Q t
where ET is defined as the ratio between the rainwater volume provided by the tank and the associated water demand over the simulation period, while OT is defined as the ratio between the overflow volume and the total rainwater volume collected over the simulation period.
Regarding the economic feasibility of an RWH project, the authors of [6], while investigating RWH to supply domestic, non-potable uses, provided a formulation for the cistern design volume, which incorporates the fixed and distributed costs of an RWH system considering the random nature of the depth and timing of rainfall. They assumed a linear relationship between commercial cistern prices and storage capacity for above-ground plastic cisterns, although recognizing that an economy-of-scale effect produces a nonlinear relationship for larger cistern volumes. The same seems to be reasonable, at least within certain limits, for underground tanks. Jones and Hunt [18] noted that, when using large storage volumes, there is a diminishing economic incentive for added tank capacity, because the increased cistern capacity is not fully utilized with every irrigation demand. They suggest that a general indication of the economic benefit of an RWH system is provided by the annual usage volume per unit of tank capacity (U), defined as:
U = Y T S
where YT is the annual released volume.
Finally, to check the quality of the collected water, the detention time (τ), expressed in days, is calculated by assuming a full mixing between the rainwater inflow to the storage tank (Qt) and the rainwater volume stored in the tank at the previous time step (Vt−1), based on the following algorithm:
if V t = 0 → τ t = 0
else if V t > 0 then:
if Q t = 0 → τ t = τ t − 1 + 1
if Q t > 0 → τ t = ( τ t − 1 + 1 ) · V t − 1 + 1 · Q t V t − 1 + Q t
The performance of the RWH system is analysed by varying the size of the storage volume, S. Tank sizes equal to 30, 60, 120, 240, and 480 m3 are considered to identify the most suitable system design.
The results are shown in the form of box-and-whisker plots of the non-parametric distribution of the annual values of each performance index and of the detention time and the specific usage volume as a function of the storage fraction (S/Q) in each scenario. The values of the storage fraction as a function of the tank volume in each scenario are listed in Table 1. Note that, except at S = 30 m3 in Scenarios 1 and 3, the storage fractions are larger than 0.01, confirming the correct choice of the daily temporal scale to run the simulations (see [25]).
3.1. Performance Indices
The adopted performance indices in the three investigated scenarios are compared in Figure 4. The box-and-whisker plots show the variability of the annual temporal reliability indices (R and Re, top panels) and of the annual volumetric reliability indices (ET and OT, bottom panels) as a function of the storage fraction (S/Q). The box-and-whisker description is the same as that in Figure 1, while the continuous lines represent the regression functions calculated from the mean values of the investigated indices.
The best fit formulation is logarithmic for all performance indices, generically expressed as a function of storage fraction S/Q as:
I ( S Q ) = y 0 + a · l n ( S Q )
where I is the generic reliability index, while y0 and a are two numerical coefficients obtained from the regression. The values of the obtained numerical coefficients and the Pearson coefficient (R2) are listed in Table 2.
In addition to the overall evaluation conducted by calculating the demand fraction (D/Q), thus independently of the size of the storage tank (or the storage fraction S/Q), the behavioural model allows the day-by-day fulfilment of the demand to be reproduced according to the actual precipitation events and the deriving dynamics of the soil water content.
Depending on the storage fraction, indeed, the frequency and magnitude of precipitation events determine the performance of the RWH system, providing a tool to support the selection of the most appropriate combination of collection area and storage size. It is expected that the inter-annual variability of the performance indices increases with the increase in the size of the storage tank, but the amplitude of such behaviour can only be estimated by considering the daily distribution of precipitation events. Indeed, a large storage capacity would allow the volume of large events to be preserved, even for a significant duration, but the actual occurrence of such large events is very variable from year to year.
The results confirm that the most efficient scenario is Scenario 3, the one collecting rainwater from the brick roof, although Scenario 1, where the drainage from ground surfaces is collected, exhibits very similar performance in agreement with the overall result obtained above about the demand fraction (D/Q). Scenario 2, with rainwater collected from the sheet metal roof, is less performant due to the reduced size of the collecting surface (and a demand fraction about or more than twice those in the other two scenarios).
The fraction of time when the demand is fully met (Re) and the efficiency (ET) range between 0.2 and 1, and obviously increase with the tank size. Both are larger than 60% when the storage fraction is larger than 0.03, 0.1, and 0.02 in Scenarios 1, 2 and 3, respectively. This means that a much larger tank size (twice the volume) is required in Scenario 2 to achieve the same system reliability of the other two solutions. The most suitable design of the RWH system would, therefore, require an intermediate tank size, in the order of 120 m3.
In all cases, the overflow ratio is quite high, reflecting the large portion of rainwater that is collected but not used for irrigation (due to the scarce synchronization between the availability and the demand). This indicates that further usages of the collected rainwater would be compatible with the demand for irrigation, e.g., the supply of toilet flushing in the public or nearby areas. This is also confirmed by the fraction of time when storage is not empty (R), which exhibits quite high values since it is calculated over the whole year, including periods when irrigation is not used (from November to March), and the stored water would be available for additional usages.
Since the tank cost is often directly related to its volume and monetary savings are directly related to the volume of water used, as suggested by [20], the annual usage volume per unit of tank capacity (U) is calculated. The ratio of YT/S decreases as the tank volume increases, since the added capacity is utilized less frequently (Figure 5, left-hand panel). The results show that by fixing the tank size, Scenario 3 and Scenario 1 exhibit higher mean values of U if compared with Scenario 2, which means that the adopted storage volume is much better exploited. The box-and-whisker description is the same as that in Figure 1, while the continuous lines represent the regression function calculated from the mean values of the investigated index. The best fit formulation is a power law, expressed as a function of the storage fraction S/Q as:
T ( S Q ) = α ( S Q ) β
where T = U, while α and β are two numerical coefficients obtained from the regression. The values of the obtained numerical coefficients and the Pearson coefficient (R2) are listed in Table 3.
3.2. Detention Time
The analysis of the detention time of water within the storage tank aims at ensuring that the quality of the collected water does not deteriorate over time and reach conditions that are deemed not suitable for the intended use. For instance, Ogbozige et al. [30] proved that tap water for potable use, collected in plastic, or galvanized or coated steel metal tanks, should not be stored for more than three weeks.
In the case of non-potable usages, such as the landscape irrigation of urban green areas, less demanding quality standards are required. He et al. [31] performed rainwater quality observations in a case study involving RWH for the landscape irrigation of public areas and reported that "the quality level of stormwater (…) generally meets the requirements for irrigation under dry periods and low flow conditions, when watering is likely to be performed." They also found that rain events "significantly contributed to elevated microbiological levels in rainwater" and suggested that the irrigation system be prevented from watering for a couple of days after each rain event, a condition that is indeed met by the irrigation schedule assumed in this work.
To avoid the formation of a suitable habitat for mosquitos in structural Best Management Practices (BMPs), it was suggested that the irrigation schedule allows the complete drawdown of the stored water volume within 72 h [32]. The same source suggested that irrigation should not begin within 12 h after the end of rainfall, so that direct storm runoff has ceased, and soils are not saturated.
Metzger et al. [33] investigated the quality of rainwater used in many BMPs realised throughout the United States and suggested that structures designed with sumps or basins that retain water permanently or longer than 72 h should be sealed completely to prevent the entry of adult mosquitoes but recognised that this is hardly feasible given the dimensions of insects and their ability to access indoor rooms. Summarising years of research and field observations, they reported that aquatic habitats that last only three to five days generally do not permit the complete development of mosquito larvae.
In this work, a conservatory three-days period is assumed as a reference value (τ*) to assess the quality performance of the RWH system based on the chosen collection scenario and tank size. The results of the detention time (τ) of the water in the tank are, therefore, reported below in terms of normalised values, τ/τ*, so that any deviation from the reference conditions can be easily highlighted. Again, as in the analysis of the performance indices, the presented box-and-whisker plots show the variability of the annual normalised detention time (τ/τ*) as a function of the storage fraction (S/Q) in each investigated scenario. The box-and-whiskers description is the same as in Figure 1, while the continuous lines represent the regression function calculated from the mean annual values.
The best fit formulation is a power law expressed as a function of storage fraction S/Q, with the same formulation of eq. 25 and T = τ/τ*. The values of the obtained numerical coefficients (α and β) and the Pearson coefficient (R2) are listed in Table 3.
It is evident from Figure 5 that the detention time is quite constant with the choice of the rainwater collection scenario, for any given tank size. The horizontal spacing of the various boxes in each group (with fixed tank size) is dictated by the differences in the collected rainwater volume (Q) among the investigated scenarios. However, the increase in the detention time with the tank size (storage volume) is significant, as expected.
The detention time slightly varies among the various scenarios and shows the highest mean values and spread in the case of Scenario 2. Note that the best choice of storage volume (S = 120 m3) identified above is here also confirmed in terms of the resulting water quality, since it implies normalized detention times only slightly larger than one in all scenarios and thus close to the reference value assumed in this work. It is important to highlight that the detention time provides an indication of the water quality deterioration over time after it is collected in the tank, while this parameter does not account for the initial water quality conditions. Scenario 1, where part the collected rainwater is subject to infiltration in the soil, allows improved water quality conditions to be obtained thanks to the purifying capability of the terrain and vegetation.
One last comment is needed about the quality of the collected water. As summarized by [34], Legionella pneumophila is a natural intracellular bacterial parasite of free-living freshwater protozoa and an accidental human pathogen that causes Legionnaires' disease. The most common form of transmission of Legionella is the inhalation of contaminated aerosols produced in conjunction with water sprays, jets, or mists [35]. Halpern [36] showed that the minimum water temperatures for the growth of Legionella are 25–30 °C. Although similar air temperatures can occur in Genova in summer, water stored in the underground tank would hardly reach such temperatures. However, with the objective to exclude any risk of inhalation, irrigation during nighttime, when the public area is closed, is recommended for this project.
The present work illustrates a suitable algorithm to account for soil water depletion conditional on daily precipitation events in urban green areas subject to landscape irrigation within an RWH system. A reconversion project of a former military area, located in the town of Genova (Italy), is used as a case study. Being in the Mediterranean region, the site is characterized by a strong seasonality of the rainfall events, with a high variability of the event depth and the duration of inter-event dry periods throughout the year. A long-term precipitation dataset (quasi bicentennial) is used to investigate the performance of the RWH system over time. The performance of the RWH system in three different rainwater collection scenarios is evaluated using a suitable behavioural model coupled with a dedicated algorithm to account for the soil water dynamics on the daily scale. Non-dimensional performance indices are used to illustrate and compare the various combinations of collection areas and tank sizes.
The soil water depletion algorithm proposed in this work to control the scheduling and amount of landscape irrigation allows one to include in the analysis the response of the irrigated areas to both the actual precipitation events and the watering cycles. The representativeness of the behavioural model and the associated performance indices are, therefore, improved. Using a water depletion algorithm also enhances the resulting exploitation of the collected rainwater resource by minimizing the watering volumes while still meeting the time-varying demand of the vegetation. This opens the field to further non-potable usages of the collected rainwater, since in all the investigated scenarios and for all tank sizes, the overflow ratio remains significant.
For the investigated case study, the best solution is found to be the adopting of a tank size of 120 m3, also considering the quality deterioration of the water in the storage tank and the economic benefit associated with the exploitation of the resource. Based on the assumed parameters, Scenario 1 and Scenario 3 exhibit similar performances. Scenario 1, which involves collecting rainwater from various ground surfaces in the park, requires a more complex drainage network below the various ground surfaces contributing rainwater to the storage tank if compared with the other two scenarios where a simple assembly of gutters and pipes can be employed. Pros include the quality of the collected rainwater thanks to the purifying potential of the terrain and vegetation in the collection areas. Scenario 2 involves collecting rainwater from the sheet metal roof, but with 40% of the effective surface area (ϕeq · Atot) with respect to Scenario 3. Using Scenario 2 would require doubling the size of the storage tank to achieve efficiency values similar to those in the other two scenarios.
A limitation of the adopted approach can be found in the time scale used for the behavioural model. The daily scale does not obviously reproduce any higher frequency in the variability of precipitation and soil water dynamics. However, when the objective of the RWH system is landscape irrigation alone, the daily scale appears quite reasonable. The literature advice to adopt the daily scale when the storage fraction (S/Q) is larger than 0.01 is met in all but one of the investigated scenario/tank size combinations. Furthermore, long-term series of measured precipitation on the sub-daily scale to feed the behavioural model can hardly be found.
A second limitation is related to the use of the local rainfall climatology in the framework of a specific case study, and some differences could be expected when applying the same methodology to a site located in a different climate. The Mediterranean climate, however, is characterized by a strong seasonality and the occurrence of even long dry periods between precipitation events, thus by quite demanding conditions for the use of RWH for landscape irrigation. Transferring the proposed model to a different climate (arid, semi-arid, or humid) may lead to different results, although it is evident that using the soil water depletion algorithm proposed in this work in any other climatological framework would also be beneficial for the assessment of the system performance.
Conceptualization, A.C. and L.G.L.; methodology, A.C. and L.G.L.; software, A.C.; formal analysis, A.C.; investigation, A.C.; resources, L.G.L.; writing—original draft preparation, A.C.; writing—review and editing, L.G.L.; visualization, A.C.; supervision, L.G.L.; funding acquisition, L.G.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
This research was funded by Municipality of Genova, contract within the UNALAB project SCC-02-2016-2017.
Data are available upon request from the corresponding author.
This work was developed in the framework of the Urban NAture LABs (UNALAB) project, funded under the "HORIZON 2020" programme, Smart and sustainable Cities-SCC-02-2016-2017, as a collaboration between University of Genova (DICCA) and Municipality of Genova (project partner).
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Figure 1. (a) Quasi-bicentennial daily rainfall record as observed at the meteorological station of Genova Università, with continuous and dashed lines indicating the mean plus/minus the standard deviation of the whole series, respectively; (b) seasonal variability of monthly precipitation. Boxes and whiskers encompass the central 50% and 80% of the dataset, respectively, while dots indicate the 5th and 95th percentiles of their non-parametric distribution. The mean and median values are depicted with thick and thin horizontal lines, respectively.
Figure 2. Schematics of the main elements of the simulated RWH system. Pt is the precipitation amount; Qt is the rainwater inflow to the storage tank; S is the storage capacity of the system; Vt is the rainwater volume stored in the tank; Yt is the released volume; Ot is the overflow volume; and Dt is the water demand.
Figure 3. Box-and-whisker plots of the variability of the annual demand fraction (D/Q) during the simulation period for the three investigated scenarios. The box-and-whisker description is the same as in Figure 1.
Figure 4. Box-and-whisker plots of the variability of the annual temporal reliability indices (R and Re in panels (a) and (b), respectively) and volumetric reliability indices (ET and OT in panels (c) and (d), respectively) as a function of the storage fraction (S/Q) in the three investigated scenarios. The box-and-whiskers description is the same as that in Figure 1. Continuous lines represent the logarithmic regression function calculated from the mean values of the investigated indices.
Figure 5. Box-and-whisker plots of the annual variability of the usage volume per unit of tank capacity (U = YT/S, panel (a)) and normalized detention time (τ/τ*, panel (b)) as a function of the storage fraction (S/Q) in the three investigated scenarios. The box-and-whisker description is the same as that in Figure 1. Continuous lines represent the power law regression function calculated from the annual mean values.
Table 1. Storage capacity of the system (S) and storage fraction (S/Q) in the three investigated scenarios.
S (m3)
S/Q (-)
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3
30 0.007 0.014 0.006
120 0.030 0.055 0.022
Table 2. Coefficients (y0 and a) and Pearson coefficient (R2) of the logarithmic regression function for the four reliability indices in each collection scenario.
y0 1.116 1.022 1.156 1.321 1.069 1.427 1.299 1.035 1.412 0.597 0.412 0.669
a 0.072 0.065 0.075 0.198 0.179 0.203 0.201 0.181 0.208 −0.063 −0.103 −0.049
R2 0.997 0.995 0.994 0.997 0.995 0.994 0.997 0.980 1.000 0.996 0.979 0.999
Table 3. Coefficients (α and β) and Pearson coefficient (R2) of the power law regression function for the usage volume per unit of tank capacity and the normalized detention time in each collection scenario.
YT/S
τ/τ*
α 0.706 0.829 0.629 40.60 22.07 51.34
β −0.589 −0.604 −0.590 0.94 0.91 0.94
R2 0.994 0.997 0.994 1.000 1.000 1.000
Cauteruccio, A.; Lanza, L.G. Rainwater Harvesting for Urban Landscape Irrigation Using a Soil Water Depletion Algorithm Conditional on Daily Precipitation. Water 2022, 14, 3468. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213468
Cauteruccio A, Lanza LG. Rainwater Harvesting for Urban Landscape Irrigation Using a Soil Water Depletion Algorithm Conditional on Daily Precipitation. Water. 2022; 14(21):3468. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213468
Cauteruccio, Arianna, and Luca G. Lanza. 2022. "Rainwater Harvesting for Urban Landscape Irrigation Using a Soil Water Depletion Algorithm Conditional on Daily Precipitation" Water 14, no. 21: 3468. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213468


text:
Saint Berthold of Mt. Carmel
Patron Saint of Carmelites
The Story of St. Berthold of Mt. Carmel
St. Berthold of Mt. Carmel (d. 1195), also known as Bartoldus of Calabria, was born in Limoges, France, the son of a Count. Considered by some historians to be the founder of the Carmelite Order. He was a brilliant student at the University of Paris where he excelled at his studies and was ordained a priest. Berthold's brother, Aymeric, became the Latin patriarch of Antioch. The two joined together to participate in a Crusade to the Holy Land. While in the Holy Land, Berthold traveled to Mount Carmel and built a monastery and church dedicated to the Prophet Elijah. He gathered together a number of hermits scattered throughout Palestine to live together in imitation of the life of the great prophet as recorded in the Old Testament. Berthold became the group's superior and stayed with the community at Mount Carmel for 45 years until his death in 1195. It was the life and work of St. Berthold that laid the foundation for the Carmelite Order, whose rule was approved by Pope Honorius III in 1226. St. Berthold's feast day is March 29.
https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=1775
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berthold_of_Calabria
Stella Maris Monastery
Stella Maris Rd 100, Haifa, Israel
The Stella Maris Monastery or the Monastery of Our Lady of Mount Carmel for monks is a monastery located on the slopes of Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel. Another Carmelite monastery of the same name is reserved for nuns and is located higher up on Mount Carmel.


Yesterday, the Federal Government released the Food and Grocery Code of Conduct, which is intended address unfair practices in the grocery sector, including by supermarkets towards suppliers. The ACCC will be responsible for enforcing the Code.
sets out a dispute resolution process.
The Code complements existing protections for suppliers under the Competition and Consumer Act 2010, including the unconscionable conduct provisions. It was developed in parallel with the ACCC's investigations into alleged conduct of grocery retailers, including proceedings against Coles in which the court found that Coles had engaged in unconscionable conduct towards some suppliers.
The ACCC has developed guidance material on the Code, which is available on the ACCC website. The website will contain a list of the retailers and wholesalers who choose to be bound by the Code.
For more information, read the ACCC media release.


text:
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Submit to The Spring Print Swap Exhibition in Melbourne
By Ellyn Kail on February 10, 2021
The Print Swap, Feature Shoot's international photo project, will head to Melbourne, Australia, in April as part of a special one-night exhibition at the beautiful LAURENT Gallery. This one-of-a-kind New York Warehouse-style conversion is a hub for artists in the heart of beachside St Kilda, with an ultra-contemporary feel and gorgeous lighting, making it the perfect space for our first show in Melbourne.
All photographers who take part in The Print Swap between now and the end of March 2021 will have their work featured in the exhibition. You can submit by hashtagging your images #theprintswap on Instagram or by uploading your images directly through The Print Swap website here. It's free to submit, and if your image is chosen, it costs just $40 to take part. All Print Swap photographers give a print and receive a print of their choice from our curated collection.
This exhibition opportunity is open to photographers of all genres, spanning every corner of the globe. To learn more about the global initiative and stay updated on new opportunities, be sure to check out The Print Swap website and follow along on Instagram at @theprintswap.
The Print Swap Is Returning to NYC for an Exhibition at Foley Gallery
Exhibition Opportunity: #ThePrintSwap in Berlin
Submit to The Print Swap Exhibition in Athens, Greece
Call for Submissions: The Print Swap + Our Exhibition in NYC