text:
Moral Luck
A case of moral luck occurs whenever luck makes a moral difference. The problem of moral luck arises from a clash between the apparently widely held intuition that cases of moral luck should not occur with the fact that it is arguably impossible to prevent such cases from arising.
The literature on moral luck began in earnest in the wake of papers by Thomas Nagel and Bernard Williams. The problem of moral luck had been discussed before Nagel's and Williams' articles, although not under the heading of "moral luck." Though Nagel's paper was written as a commentary on Williams', they have quite different emphases. Still, the same question lies at the heart of both papers and, indeed, at the heart of the literature on moral luck: can luck ever make a moral difference? This idea of a moral difference is a wide one. Various sorts of difference have been considered. The most obvious is, perhaps, a difference in what a person is morally responsible for, but it has also been suggested both that luck affects the moral justification of our actions and that it affects a person's moral status in general (that is, that it affects how morally good or bad a person is). We shall pay more attention to these varied differences in time, but the important point for now is that both Williams and Nagel argue that luck can make a moral difference.
So what is the problem if luck makes a moral difference? The problem is that the idea of luck making a moral difference is deeply counterintuitive. We know that luck enters into our lives in countless ways. It affects our success and our happiness. We might well think, however, that morality is the one arena in which luck has no power. Consider what we might call a person's "moral standing"—an expression we can use to stand for all the sorts of moral difference luck might be thought to make. Luck, we might think, cannot alter one's moral standing one bit. This seems a reasonable position, but it is a position both Nagel and Williams cast into doubt. We will first consider Williams' argument, primarily because it is the least successful. We shall see that Williams' argument seem to fail and that what is interesting in his argument is captured much better by Nagel.
Williams on Moral Luck
The Argument
Criticisms
Nagel on Moral Luck
Introduction to the Problem
Four Types of Luck
The Problem Summarized
Responses to the Problem
1. Williams on Moral Luck
a. The Argument
Williams' aim in "Moral Luck" and much of his other work is to discredit the Kantian view of morality and to suggest that it would be best to abandon the notion of morality altogether (replacing it with the wider notion he calls the "ethical"). (See Williams, 1985, for the distinction.) In doing so, Williams takes himself to be challenging not just Kantian thinking about morality, but also commonplace ideas about it. He claims the idea that morality is immune to luck is "basic to our ideas of morality" (1993a, p. 36).
Why should this be so? Because, Williams suggests, if moral value does depend on luck, it cannot be the sort of thing we think it is. We have already noted the extent to which luck permeates our lives. Some are born healthy; others with various sorts of handicaps. Some stumble into great wealth; others work hard, but always remain poor. To those on the losing end of these matters, this often seems unfair. Success of whatever kind we might seek is not equally available to all. Luck gives some head starts and holds others back. Nonetheless, we might think there is at least one sort of value which is equally available to all: moral value. Bill Gates may be richer than Jane Doe, but that does not mean he is a better person. Donovan Bailey may be faster than Jane Doe, but that does not make him her moral superior. Of course, both these men may be her moral superiors, but, if they are, luck is supposed to have nothing to do with it. Morality thus provides us with a sort of comfort. In Williams' words, it offers "solace to a sense of the world's unfairness" (1993a, p. 36). As Williams points out, however, this will be cold comfort if morality doesn't matter much. Thus, just as it is essential to the notion of moral value that it is immune to luck, so, he claims, it is essential that moral value is the supreme sort of value. Williams claims that moral value can give us the solace he describes only if it really does possess these two characteristics (being immune to luck and being the supreme sort of value). Luck may bring us all sorts of hardship, but when it comes to the single most important sort of value, we are immune to luck. It is against this picture of morality that Williams' argument must be understood. He presents us with a dilemma: either (a) moral value is (sometimes) a matter of luck or else (b) it is not the supreme sort of value. In either case, we have to give up something very important to the notion of moral value; hence, Williams thinks we should give up morality in favour of the ethical.
Williams begins the drive towards this dilemma by focusing on rational justification rather than moral justification. The cornerstone of his argument is the claim that rational justification is a matter of luck to some extent. He uses a thought experiment to make this point. Williams presents us with a story based loosely on the life of the painter Paul Gauguin. Williams' Gauguin feels some responsibility towards his family and is reasonably happy living with them, but nonetheless abandons them, leaving them in dire straits. He does so in an attempt to become a great painter. He goes to live on a South Sea Island, believing that living in a more primitive environment will allow him to develop his gifts as a painter more fully. How can we tell whether Gauguin's decision to do this is rationally justified? We should ask first of all, what exactly Williams means by "rational justification." He never says, but he seems interested in the question of whether Gauguin was epistemically justified in thinking that acting as he did would increase his chances of becoming a great painter. That is, the question is whether it was rational (given Gauguin's interests) for him to do as he did.
Williams rightly observes that it is effectively impossible to foresee whether Gauguin will succeed in his attempt to become a great painter. Even if, prior to making his decision, Gauguin had good reason to think he had considerable artistic talent, he could not be sure what would come of that talent, nor whether the decision to leave his family would help or hinder the development of that talent. In the end, says Williams, "the only thing that will justify his choice will be success itself" (1993a, p. 38). Similarly, Williams claims the only thing that could show Gauguin to be rationally unjustified is failure. Since success depends, to some extent anyway, on luck, Williams' claim entails that rational justification depends, at least in some cases, on luck.
Not every success, however, confers justification, nor does every failure signal lack of justification. It depends on what sort of luck, if any, was involved in the success or failure. Williams distinguishes between extrinsic and intrinsic luck, claiming that only the operation of intrinsic luck is compatible with the result of a decision determining the rational justification of that decision. Roughly, intrinsic luck is luck that arises from the elements of the project or action under consideration, while extrinsic luck is luck arising from "outside" the project. In the case of Gauguin, intrinsic luck is luck arising from Gauguin himself, since he is the only one involved in his project. If Gauguin fails because it turns out that living on a South Sea Island distracts him to such an extent that he becomes a worse painter, this will be a case of bad intrinsic luck and so he will be unjustified. On the other hand, if, at the start of his project, a freak accident causes him to sustain an injury which prevents him from ever painting again, he will be neither justified nor unjustified since his project is never really carried out. His project will have failed but, as regards justification, a verdict will not be returned due to the interference of extrinsic bad luck. What matters then with regard to rational justification is intrinsic luck. If Gauguin is lucky enough to possess sufficient talent and to find circumstances in which that talent can flourish, his project will succeed. He will be justified and this will, in part, be due to (intrinsic) luck.
(Although Williams never mentions it, presumably if Gauguin were to succeed due to good extrinsic luck, he would also be neither justified nor unjustified. If an eccentric art critic were to find a way to make Gauguin's mediocre work speak, it might be impossible to tell whether Gauguin was justified or not.)
What, if anything, does this have to do with morality? Williams hopes to inflict fatal damage on the notion of the moral by setting up a collision between rational and moral justification. Rational justification, Williams has suggested, is, at least partly, a matter of luck. Moral justification, as we have noted, is not supposed to be a matter of luck at all. This clearly leaves room for clashes between the two sorts of justification, cases in which an action is morally unjustified, but rationally justified (or vice versa). Indeed, the example of Gauguin is supposed to provide us with just such a case. Suppose that Gauguin's decision to leave his family is morally unjustified. Since luck has nothing to do with the moral value of this decision, we can say that Gauguin's decision is a morally bad one when he makes it and that it stays that way, regardless of how his project turns out. According to Williams, however, whether Gauguin's decision is rationally justified is not settled when he makes it. We have to wait and see how the project turns out. Suppose, as Williams clearly means us to, that his Gauguin, like the real one, becomes a great artist (and that this does not happen as the result of extrinsic luck). Once this is the case, Gauguin's decision is rationally justified though still morally unjustified.
This might be thought enough to generate a problem for the type of morality Williams opposes. As Judith Andre puts it:
Since rational justification is partly a matter of luck... our notion of rational justification is not synonymous with that of moral justification, and morality is not the unique source of value (1993, p. 123)
This doesn't, however, quite get Williams' point right. His claim was not that morality is the only source of value, but that it is the supreme source of value. On this picture, the mere fact that morality and rationality collide does not necessarily pose a problem. It would pose a problem for the Kantian, since, for Kant, to act morally is to act rationally. But remember that Williams takes as his enemy both Kantian and everyday thinking about morality. And it is not at all clear that our everyday thinking about morality requires us to endorse such a tight link between rationality and morality. So the possibility that rationality and morality may be distinct sources of value is no more troubling than the fact that morality and pleasure are distinct sources of value. There can be more than one source of value so long as moral value trumps these others sorts of value. Problems only arise when we come to consider "where we place our gratitude" that Gauguin left his family and became a painter (Williams, 1993b, p. 255). Suppose that we are genuinely grateful that Gauguin did what he did and, as a result, became a great artist. We might say this shows that, on occasion, we have reason to be glad that the morally correct thing did not happen. But to say something like this is to call into question part of the point of morality (or so Williams says). Remember Williams claims that morality "has an ultimate form of justice at its heart, and that that is its allure. ...it offers... solace to a sense of the world's unfairness" (1993a, p. 36). He adds that it can offer that solace only if moral value possesses "some special, indeed supreme, kind of dignity or importance" (1993a, p. 36).
Thus, the problem posed by the Gauguin case is not simply, as Andre suggests, that there might be other sources of value than morality floating around. The problem is that the example of Gauguin suggests morality is not the supreme source of value after all. We are supposedly stuck between two unpalatable options:
(1) If the picture is as Williams describes it, we are in a situation in which moral value and another value (rationality) clash and the other value is the winner. So much the worse for morality, it loses its position as the supreme sort of value to a sort of value which is affected by luck. In doing so, however, we are faced with an unpalatable option: morality's ability to provide us with "solace to a sense of the world's unfairness" is destroyed.
(It is, however, possible to concede that morality is not the supreme source of value, but not give up the claim that our lives are, in some important respect, free of luck. Susan Mendus argues that, while the case of Gauguin shows that morality is not the supreme source of value, the only values which compete with morality for supremacy are themselves free from luck. In Gauguin's case, she claims that the value which competes with morality for supremacy is that of art and that even if Gauguin fails, "he has reason to think it worthwhile to have tried" (1988, p. 339).)
(2) This can be avoided by claiming that morality and rationality do not collide in this case. That is, we could declare that morality is dependent on luck in the same way that rationality is. This sort of move will eliminate the threat that rationality poses to morality's supremacy, but this occurs at the expense of one of our deep commitments about morality, namely its invulnerability to luck. We are then faced with a different unpalatable option.
Either way, the notion of morality fails to escape intact. This, anyway, is what Williams would have us believe.
b. Criticisms
Despite all the attention that Williams' article has generated, his argument is actually fairly unimpressive. It is not clear, for instance, that moral value has to be the supreme sort of value. Why can't it just be an important sort of value (and, according to what value are the various sorts of value to be ranked anyway)? Moreover, what is there to stop us from saying that our gratitude (if we have any) that Gauguin did what he did is just misguided and so that this is not a case in which it is better that the rational thing rather than the moral thing happened? It may be that our gratitude is no indicator of whether or not it is better that Gauguin did as he did.
These large problems aside, there is an even more basic problem with Williams' argument. It rests on a claim about rational justification that can quite easily be made to look doubtful. At the heart of Williams' argument is the claim that a rational justification for a particular decision can only be given after the fact. This is what allows luck to enter into rational justification. If we do not accept this claim, Williams has given us no reason to think that either rational or moral justification is a matter of luck, and so we cease to have a reason to imagine a conflict between rationality and morality (on these grounds anyway). What's more, there is good reason to doubt the claim that rational justification must sometimes be retrospective. The usual intuition about justification is that if we want to know whether Gauguin's decision to leave his family and become a painter was a rational one, what we need to consider is the information Gauguin had available to him when he made that decision. What did he have reason to believe would be the fate of his family? What indication did he have that he had the potential to become a great painter? Did he have good reason to think his family would hinder his quest after greatness? Did he have reason to believe a move to the South Seas would help him achieve his goal? And so on. Our standard picture of justification tells us that, regardless of how things turned out, the answer to the question about Gauguin's justification is to be found in the answers to the above questions. Luck is thought to have nothing to do with his justification. Indeed, if Gauguin is found to have been somehow relying on luck—if, for example, he had never painted anything, but just somehow felt he had greatness in him—this would weigh substantially against the rationality of his decision. The same could be said of the moral status of his decision: what counts is the information he had at the time, not how things turned out.
(Luck clearly can enter into rational justification in ways other than the one Williams has in mind. It can be a matter of luck that you are smart enough to see that the evidence you possess justifies you in holding a certain belief, or it can be a matter of luck that you possess the evidence you do. Presumably luck can enter into moral justification in the same ways, but, with good reason, no one has ever suggested there is anything troubling about this.)
The "standard picture" of justification here is admittedly an internalist one (see Internalism and Externalism in Epistemology). Such a picture is somewhat unpopular amongst philosophers these days, although it is arguably still our intuitive picture. Regardless, those favouring adding external considerations to an account of justification are no more inclined to factor in how things turn out than internalists (see, for instance, Goldman, 1989). What matters to externalists is typically not how things do turn out, but how they are likely to turn out.
Williams does have an argument against this picture of justification, which appeals to the notion of agent regret. Agent regret is a species of regret a person can feel only towards his or her own actions. It involves a "taking on" of the responsibility for some action and the desire to make amends for it. Williams' example is of a lorry driver who "through no fault of his" runs over a small child (Williams, 1993a, p. 43). He rightly says that the driver will feel a sort of regret at the death of this child that no one else will feel. The driver, after all, caused the child's death. Furthermore, we expect agent regret to be felt even in cases in which we do not think the agent was at fault. If we are satisfied that the driver could have done nothing else to prevent the child's death, we will try to console him by telling him this. But, as Williams observes, we would think much less of the driver if he showed no regret at all, saying only "It's a terrible thing that has happened, but I did everything I could to avoid it." Williams suggests that a conception of rationality that does not involve retrospective justification has no room for agent regret and so is "an insane concept of rationality" (1993a, p. 44). His worry is that if rationality is all a matter of what is the case when we make our decisions and leaves no room for the luck that finds its way into consequences, then the lorry driver ought not to experience agent regret, but instead should simply remind himself that he did all he could.
This, however, just does not follow. The problem is that, in any plausible case of this sort, it will not be rational for the driver to believe that he could not have driven more safely. Driving just isn't like that. Indeed, what it is rational for the driver to do is to suspect there was something else he could have done which might have saved the life of the child. If he had just been a little more alert or driving a little closer to the centre of the road. If he had been driving a little more slowly. If he had seen the child playing near the street. If his brakes had been checked more recently and so on and so on. It will be rational for him to wonder whether he could have done more to avoid this tragedy and so rational for him feel a special sort of regret at the death of the child. (See Rosebury, 1995, pp. 514-515 for this point.) Agent regret exists because we can almost never be sure we did "everything we could." Thus, it provides us with no reason to believe there is a retrospective component to rational justification (and so no reason to conclude that luck plays the role in justification that Williams suggests).
None of this is to deny that the way things turn out may figure in the justifications people give for their past actions. It is just that, despite this, the way things turn out has nothing to do with whether or not those past actions really were justified. Sometimes the way things turn out may be all we have to go on, but this tells us nothing about the actual justification or lack thereof of our actions, not unless we confuse the state of an action being justified with the activity of justifying that action after the fact.
Why then have Williams' claims about moral luck been taken so seriously? Because despite the shakiness of the argument he in fact gives, he has pointed the way towards a much more interesting and troubling argument about moral luck. This argument, glimpses of which can be found in Williams' paper, is explicitly made in Thomas Nagel's response to Williams.
2. Nagel on Moral Luck
a. Introduction to the Problem
Nagel identifies the problem of moral luck as arising from a conflict between our practice and an intuition most of us share about morality. He states the intuition as follows:
Prior to reflection it is intuitively plausible that people cannot be morally assessed for what is not their fault, or for what is due to factors beyond their control. (Nagel, 1993, p. 58)
He then gives us a rough definition of the phenomenon of moral luck:
Where a significant aspect of what someone does depends on factors beyond his control, yet we continue to treat him in that respect as an object of moral judgment, it can be called moral luck. (Nagel, 1993, p. 59)
Clearly cases of moral luck fly in the face of the above stated intuition about morality. Yet, Nagel claims that, despite our having this intuition, we frequently do make moral judgments about people based on factors that are not within their control. We might, for instance, judge a drunk driver who kills a child (call him the "unfortunate driver") more harshly than one who does not (call him the "fortunate driver"), even if the only significant difference between the two cases is that a child happened to be playing on the road at the wrong point on the unfortunate driver's route home. This, for Nagel, is the problem of moral luck: the tension between the intuition that a person's moral standing cannot be affected by luck and the possibility that luck plays an important (perhaps even essential) role in determining a person's moral standing. Nagel suggests that the intuition is correct and lies at the heart of the notion of morality, but he also endorses the view that luck will inevitably influence a person's moral standing. This leads him to suspect there is a real paradox in the notion of morality.
We might wonder whether the problem Nagel presents is best thought of as a problem about luck or if it is really about control. That is, is Nagel's worry that luck seems to play a role in determining a person's moral standing or that things which are beyond that person's control seem to affect her moral standing? The answer is both. Nagel thinks that luck should be understood as operating where control is lacking, so for him the problem about control and the problem about luck are one and the same. The important point, however, is that Nagel seems to think that, quite aside from how luck is analyzed, there is a real problem if luck ever makes a moral difference.
This is important because there is reason to think the identification of luck with lack of control is mistaken. An event can be out of one's control or, for that matter, anyone else's, yet still not such that we would say one is lucky that it occurred. An event such as the rising of the sun this morning was entirely out of one's control, yet it is not at all clear that one is lucky the sun rose this morning, although it is surely a good thing that it did. Why? Perhaps because, regardless of whether one had any control over the occurrence of that event, the chance of that event occurring was very good indeed. (A successful account of luck must weave together these ideas about chance and control. Questions about the nature of luck have been dealt with remarkably little in the literature on moral luck. See Rescher, 1995, for the beginnings of an account of luck.) But even if an event's being lucky (or unlucky) for a given person is identical with that event being out of that person's control, we are left with a problem of moral luck. For this reason, it is in terms of luck rather than lack of control that we shall hereafter frame the problem.
The problem of moral luck lies in the thought that luck sometimes makes a moral difference. But, as we have noted, there is more than one way in which luck might make a moral difference. Two sorts of difference are discussed in the literature on moral luck, although these are not always clearly distinguished. These two sorts of difference are represented by two different thoughts: (a) the thought that the unfortunate driver is no worse a person than the fortunate driver, and (b) the thought that since we cannot plausibly hold the fortunate driver responsible for the death of a child (as no death occurred in his case), neither can we hold the unfortunate driver morally responsible for that death. The second thought has to do with the assigning of individual events to a person. The first involves a more direct assessment of a person. It involves an assessment of how much credit or discredit attaches directly to a person. We can use the term "moral worth" to capture both credit and discredit.
We have two sorts of question to consider:
Can luck make a difference in a person's moral worth?
Can luck make a difference in what a person is morally responsible for?
Which of these questions is Nagel's? It is difficult to tell. Nagel does briefly refer to the problem of moral luck as a "fundamental problem about moral responsibility," but most of the time his worries are about blame, a notion with overtones of both sorts of moral difference (Nagel, 1993, p. 58). Is he concerned that the driver will be blamed for the event of the child's death or that the unlucky driver himself will be rated morally worse than the lucky driver (that is, blamed more)? Nagel seems to entertain both possibilities, asking both whether the unfortunate driver is to blame for more and whether he is a worse person than the unfortunate driver. Indeed, it may be the case that Nagel thinks the two questions are inseparable, that we cannot make sense of the idea of holding a person morally to blame for some event without this, at the same time, being counted as a reason to lower that person's moral credit rating.
Nothing Nagel says clearly reveals his position on this point. For now, it is enough simply to bear both sorts of moral difference in mind. The important point is that, in either case, there is something troubling about the idea that luck might make a moral difference. Yet, it seems we allow luck into our moral judgments all the time. We do think less of the unfortunate driver. We do hold him responsible for the death of the child. On the face of it, this might not seem particularly troubling. We might admit that, on occasion, we judge people for things that happen as a result of luck, but simply claim that in any such case a mistake has been made. The mere fact that we do sometimes judge people for things that happen due to luck does not indicate that we should judge people for things that happen due to luck nor that we intend to. The problem Nagel points out, however, is that when we consider the sorts of things that influence us "Ultimately, nothing or almost nothing about what a person does seems to be under his control" (Nagel, 1993, p. 59) That is, everything we do seems at some level to involve luck. Nagel makes a helpful comparison to the problem of epistemological skepticism. Just as the problem of skepticism emerges from the clash of our intuition that knowledge should be certain and non-accidental with the fact that few, if any, of our true beliefs are entirely certain or free from accident, so:
The erosion of moral judgment emerges not as the absurd consequence of an over-simple theory, but as a natural consequence of the ordinary idea of moral assessment, when it is applied in view of a more complete and precise account of the facts. (Nagel, 1993, 59)
b. Four Types of Luck
What are these facts? Nagel identifies four ways in which luck plays into our moral assessments:
Resultant Luck: "luck in the way one's actions and projects turn out."
Circumstantial Luck: the luck involved in "the kind of problems and situations one faces"
Causal Luck: "luck in how one is determined by antecedent circumstances."
Constitutive Luck: the luck involved in one's having the "inclinations, capacities and temperament" that one does. (Nagel, 1993, 60)10
Nagel identifies, but does not give names to all four types of luck. He does write of "constitutive luck," an expression he probably gets from Williams. Williams, however, intends constitutive luck to have a wider scope than Nagel does. Williams appears to want constitutive luck to encompass what we have called "circumstantial" and "causal" luck (Williams, 1993a, p. 36). The names "circumstantial" and "causal" luck here are from Daniel Statman (1993, p. 11). The term "resultant luck" comes from Michael Zimmerman (1993, p. 219) Other names have been given to resultant, circumstantial, and causal luck. Resultant luck has been called "consequential luck" (Mendus, 1988, p. 334), circumstantial luck has been called "situational luck" (Walker, 1993, p. 235), and causal luck has been called "determining luck" (Mendus, 1988, p. 334).
Each of these four types of luck is worth considering so that we might be clear on the differences between the different types. We should bear in mind, however, that we may ultimately disagree about whether these constitute cases of moral luck—something we will say more about shortly.
i. Resultant Luck
Nagel gives us several examples of resultant luck. One we have already seen is the case of the fortunate and unfortunate drunk drivers. Nagel also makes much of decisions, particularly political ones, made under uncertainty. He gives the example of someone who must decide whether to instigate a revolution against a brutal regime. She knows that the revolution will be bloody and that, if it fails, those involved will be slaughtered and the regime will become even more brutal. She also knows that if no revolution occurs, the regime will become no less brutal than it currently is. If she succeeds she will be a hero, if she fails she will bear "some responsibility" for the terrible consequences of that failure (Nagel, 1993, pp. 61-62). Thus, how the revolution turns out, something which might be almost entirely a matter of resultant luck, seems to have a great deal to do with the moral credit or blame she will receive. Again, Nagel means to suggest that luck will affect not just what praise or blame she actually receives, but also what praise or blame she deserves, regardless of how she is actually treated.
ii. Circumstantial Luck
Just as luck may interfere in the course of our actions to produce results that have a profound influence on the way we are morally judged, so our luck in being in the right or wrong place at the right or wrong time can have a profound effect on the way we are morally assessed. Nagel's example is of a person who lives in Germany during the Second World War and "behaves badly" (Nagel, 1993, p. 65). We are surely inclined to blame such a person, to hold him or her responsible for what he or she did. But Nagel asks us to contrast this person with a German who moves to Argentina shortly before the War for business reasons. Suppose that the expatriate would have behaved just as badly as the German if he had remained in Germany. Are we willing to say the expatriate should be judged as harshly as the German? If not, circumstantial luck has made a moral difference.
We can make this sort of case more troubling if we vary the way in which the person has "behaved badly." If the bad behaviour is gleefully shooting hundreds of people as the guard of a concentration camp, then we may be inclined to think of the expatriate—who would have behaved the same way given the chance—as an undiscovered monster who rightly should be judged as harshly as the German. In such an extreme case, it is easy enough to claim that luck does not make a moral difference even if it makes a difference in whether we discover that the expatriate is so morally repellent. But, if the bad behaviour is something less drastic, say, in refusing to give refuge to a Jewish family being pursued by the Nazis, we can be much less confident that we would not have failed in the same way. Are we willing to say that those of us who would have failed had we been in such circumstances should be assessed in the same way as the German who actually failed? It is not at all clear that we are.
iii. Causal Luck
Nagel says very little about causal luck and the same is true of those who have written about moral luck after him. The worry about causal luck should be clear enough since it is precisely the sort of worry found in the debate on free will and determinism. It also seems to be a redundant sort of luck, included by Nagel only to indicate the connection between the problem of moral luck and the debate about free will and determinism. It is redundant because circumstantial and constitutive luck seem to cover the same territory. Constitutive luck covers what we are, while circumstantial luck covers what happens to us. Nothing else seems to remain that can play a role in determining what we do.
This relationship between the controversy about free will versus determinism and worries about causal luck might, as has sometimes been suggested, be applied to the whole problem of moral luck. In other words, is the entire problem of moral luck nothing but the problem of free will and determinism in different clothing? It certainly does cover some of the same territory. Like worries about the compatibility of free will and determinism, worries about moral luck get their start when we notice how much of what is supposed to be morally significant about us is simply thrust upon us whether we like it or not. But while they cover some of the same territory, the notions upon which the problems turn are quite different. In particular, neither of the notions frequently discussed in the free will debate (free will or determinism) is of central concern when we think about moral luck. Take the latter notion (determinism) first. Suppose that determinism is true (and we were aware of this), such that it would have been possible in, say, 1897 to correctly predict that Jane would win the lottery this weekend. We would be no less inclined to say that Jane was lucky to win the lottery. So luck can still exist whether or not the world is deterministic. Now consider the former notion (free will). Suppose that Jane wins the lottery, but everyone, including Jane, lacks the kind of control over their actions that freedom of the will requires. It would arguably still be appropraite to say that it was a matter of luck that Jane won the lottery. Like determinism, then, it seems that we needn't worry about whether people possess free will when discussing moral luck. Thus, it is reasonable to think of the problem of moral luck as related to, but distinct from, the problem of free will and determinism.
iv. Constitutive Luck
A natural reaction to worries about resultant and circumstantial luck is to suggest that what matters is not how a person's actions turn out or what circumstances they chance to encounter, but what is in that person's "heart" so to speak. As Nagel says, we "pare each act down to its morally essential core, an inner act of pure will assessed by motive and intention" (1993, p. 63). To do so, however, is to open oneself up to worries about constitutive moral luck. If we focus on a person's character, then what of the luck involved in determining what that person's character is? It may be that, in a given situation, Jane did not act with good intentions, but perhaps this was because Jane was unlucky enough to be born a bitter or spiteful person. Why then should her bad intentions figure in her blameworthiness? Nagel suggests they should not. He claims that we should not praise or condemn people for qualities that are not under the control of the will (and so not under their control). But as reasonable as this may sound, Nagel also claims we cannot refrain from making judgments about a person's moral status based upon just this sort of uncontrollable feature. If we did so refrain, it is not clear we would be able to make any judgments at all. In the end, people are assessed for what they are like, not for how they ended up that way.
c. The Problem Summarized
The notion of constitutive luck illustrates the difficulty of the problem of moral luck. Our temptation is to avoid the other sorts of luck by focusing on what the person really is. In this way, we try to discount worries about the luck that affects the way our actions turn out or the luck that places us in situations in which we make unfortunate decisions. We focus on the core of the person, on his or her character. But on reaching that core, we are disappointed to find that luck has been at work there too. The trouble is that there is nowhere further to retreat when we are at the level of moral character. If we retreat further, there is no person left to morally assess. Nagel concludes that "in a sense the problem has no solution" (1993, p. 68). The cost of not admitting the existence of moral luck is giving up the idea of agency. We seem driven to the conclusion that no one is blameworthy for anything. But the alternative is to preserve our notions of agency and responsibility by concluding that moral value is subject to luck.
So the problem of moral luck, as Nagel conceives of it, traps us between an intuition and a fact:
the intuition is that luck must not make moral differences (for example, that luck must not affect a person's moral worth, that luck must not affect what a person is morally responsible for).
the fact is that luck does seem to make moral differences (for example, we blame the unfortunate driver more than the fortunate driver).
(The problem could equally well be presented as a conflict between intuitions. The fact that luck does seem to make moral differences would not be so troubling if we did not have the intuition that it is sometimes right that luck does this. We will follow Nagel in conceiving of the conflict as one between intuition and fact. This seems the natural way to introduce it. We discover the problem when we notice how practices that, at first glance, seem right conflict with our intuition that luck should not make moral differences.)
3. Responses to the Problem
Responses to the problem have been of two broad sorts:
The intuition is mistaken: there is nothing wrong with luck making a moral difference.
The so-called "fact" is not a fact at all: luck never does make a moral difference.
The first sort of response has been the least popular. When it has been made, the approach has usually been to suggest that, if cases of moral luck are troubling, this is only because we have a mistaken view of morality. Brynmor Browne (1992), for instance, has argued that moral luck is only troubling because we mistakenly tend to think of moral assessment as bound up with punishment. He argues that, once we correct our thinking, cases of moral luck cease to be troubling. In an argument reminiscent of Williams, Margaret Urban Walker (1993) claims that cases of moral luck are only troubling if we adopt the mistaken view of agency she calls "pure agency." She argues that this view has repugnant implications and so should be rejected in favour a view of agency on which moral luck ceases to be troubling (namely "impure agency"). Judith Andre (1993) claims that we find cases of moral luck troubling because some of our thinking about morality is influenced by Kant. She adds, however, that the core of our thinking about morality is Aristotelian and that Aristotelians need not be troubled by cases of moral luck. The claims of all these authors are controversial.
(Martha Nussbaum's The Fragility of Goodness (1986) is an important work in which she considers Greek views towards luck and ethics. In particular, she presents Plato and Aristotle as disagreeing about whether a good life must be invulnerable to luck, arguing that for Plato it must, but for Aristotle it need not. Her views on these matters are controversial. She has been accused of reading too much Bernard Williams into Aristotle. See Farwell (1994), Irwin (1988) and Woodruff (1989) for helpful discussions of Nussbaum's book.)
The most popular response to the problem of moral luck has been of the second sort: to deny that cases of moral luck ever occur. This is usually done by suggesting that cases in which luck appears to make a moral difference are really cases in which luck makes an epistemic difference—that is, in which luck puts us in a better or worse position to assess a person's moral standing (without actually changing that standing). Consider the case of the fortunate and unfortunate drivers. On this line of argument, it is claimed that there is no moral difference between them, it is just that in the case of the unfortunate driver we have a clear indication of his deficient moral standing. The fortunate driver is lucky in the sense that his moral failings may escape detection, but not in actually having a moral standing any different from that of the unfortunate driver. Along these lines, we find passages like the following:
...the luck involved relates not to our moral condition but only to our image: it relates not to what we are but to how people (ourselves included) will regard us. (Rescher, 1993, 154-5)
A culprit may thus be lucky or unlucky in how clear his deserts are. (Richards, 1993, 169)
...if actual harm occurs, the agent and others considering his act will have a painful awareness of this harm. (Jensen, 1993, 136)
...the actual harm serves only to make vivid how wicked the behaviour was because of the danger it created. (Bennett, 1995, 59-60)
While appealing, the difficulty with this response to the problem of moral luck is that it tends to work better for some sorts of luck than others. While it is plausible that resultant or circumstantial luck might make only epistemic differences, perhaps revealing or concealing a person's character, it is not at all clear that constitutive luck can make only epistemic differences. If a person possesses a very dishonest character by luck, what feature of the person does luck reveal to us that (non-luckily) determines his moral status?
One response to this worry has been to deny that the notion of constitutive luck is coherent. (See, in particular, Rescher, 1995, pp. 155-158 and also Hurley, 1993, pp. 197-198.) This claim turns upon a substantive claim about the nature of luck, a topic that has been surprisingly absent from the literature on moral luck. So one might worry that it is only by investigating the nature of luck that we will be able to reach any sort of a final conclusion regarding the problem of moral luck. Furthermore, while it is not defended here, one might argue that such an investigation will lead to the view that cases of moral luck are both inescapable and troubling; the problem of moral luck is both real and deep.
The two main papers discussed in this article by Nagel and Williams, both entitled "Moral Luck," were originally published in The Aristotelian Society Supplementary, Volume 1, 1976. Revised versions of both papers were published as chapters of Williams (1981) and Nagel (1979). The revised versions of these papers are also included in an excellent anthology edited by Daniel Statman (1993). Althought these two papers by Nagel and Williams started the discussion of the problem of moral luck using the phrase "moral luck," the relevant problem has been discussed before. See, for instance, Joel Feinberg (1962).
Andre, J. (1993) "Nagel, Williams and Moral Luck." Moral Luck. Daniel Statman (Ed.). State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, pp. 123-129.
Bennett, J. (1995) The Act Itself. Oxford University Press, New York.
Browne, B. (1992) "A Solution To The Problem of Moral Luck." The Philosophical Quarterly. 42, pp. 345-356.
Farwell, P. (1994) "Aristotle, Success, and Moral Luck." Journal of Philosophical Research. 19, pp. 37-50.
Feinberg, J. (1962) "Problematic Responsibility in Law and Morals." The Philosophical Review. 71, pp. 340-351.
Goldman, A. (1989) "Précis and Update of Epistemology and Cognition." Knowledge and Skepticism. Marjorie Clay and Keith Lehrer (Eds.). Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, pp. 69-87.
Hurley, S. L. (1993) "Justice Without Constitutive Luck." Ethics: Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement. A. Phillips Griffiths (Ed.). 35, pp. 179-212.
Irwin, T. H. (1988) Review of The Fragility of Goodness. The Journal of Philosophy. 85, pp. 376-383.
Jensen, H. (1993) "Morality and Luck." Moral Luck. Daniel Statman (Ed.). State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, pp. 131-140.
Kant, I. (1949) "On a Supposed Right To Lie From Altruistic Motives." Critique of Practical Reason and Other Writings in Moral Philosophy. Lewis White Beck (Trans. & Ed.). University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 346-50.
Mendus, S. (1988) "The Serpent and the Dove." Philosophy. 63, pp. 331-343.
Nagel, T. (1979) Mortal Questions. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Nagel, T. (1993) "Moral Luck." Moral Luck. Daniel Statman (Ed.). State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, pp. 57-71.
Nussbaum, M. (1986) The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Rescher, N. (1993) "Moral Luck." Moral Luck. Daniel Statman (Ed.). State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, pp. 141-166.
Rescher, N. (1995) Luck: The Brilliant Randomness of Everyday Life. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. New York.
Richards, N. (1993) "Luck and Desert." Moral Luck. Daniel Statman (Ed.). State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, pp. 167-180.
Rosebury, B. (1995) "Moral Responsibility and 'Moral Luck'." The Philosophical Review. 104, pp. 499-524.
Statman, D. (Ed.) (1993) Moral Luck. State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, pp. 1-25.
Walker, M. U. (1993) "Moral Luck and the Virtues of Impure Agency." Moral Luck. Daniel Statman (Ed.). State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, pp. 235-250.
Williams, B. (1981) Moral Luck. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Williams, B. (1985) Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Williams, B. (1993a) "Moral Luck." Moral Luck. Daniel Statman (Ed.). State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, pp. 35-55.
Williams, B. (1993b) "Postscript" Moral Luck. Daniel Statman (Ed.). State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, pp. 251-258.
Woodruff, P. (1989) "Review of Martha Nussbaum, The Fragility of Goodness." Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 50, pp. 205-210.
Andrew Latus


text:
Back to ACRE overview
ACRE Ares Commercial Real Estate Corp Dividend
NYSE: ACRE
Ares Commercial Real Estate's most recent quarterly dividend of $0.33 per share was on Dec 30, 2021 (ex-date). The annualized payout of $1.32 per share represents a current dividend yield of 9.06%.
ACRE next dividend date: Not announced
Real Estate sector
ACRE has a dividend yield of 9.06% which is higher than the Real Estate sector and the industry average.
Ares Commercial Real Estate has a history of paying dividends since 2012. Our records of ACRE show that the company has issued eight dividends in the last twelve months. This includes four regular and four special dividends. The annualized DPS has not changed for the last year. But since the stock price has gone up by 22% from a year ago, the dividend yield has decreased by 18%.
Nov 3, 2021 Dec 30, 2021 Jan 19, 2022 $0.02 special
Nov 3, 2021 Dec 30, 2021 Jan 19, 2022 $0.33 normal
Jul 30, 2021 Sep 29, 2021 Oct 15, 2021 $0.33 normal
Jul 30, 2021 Sep 29, 2021 Oct 15, 2021 $0.02 special
May 4, 2021 Jun 29, 2021 Jul 15, 2021 $0.02 special
May 4, 2021 Jun 29, 2021 Jul 15, 2021 $0.33 normal
Feb 17, 2021 Mar 30, 2021 Apr 15, 2021 $0.02 special
Feb 17, 2021 Mar 30, 2021 Apr 15, 2021 $0.33 normal
Dec 15, 2020 Dec 29, 2020 Jan 15, 2021 $0.33 normal
Sep 16, 2020 Sep 29, 2020 Oct 15, 2020 $0.33 normal
Jun 19, 2020 Jun 29, 2020 Jul 15, 2020 $0.33 normal
Oct 30, 2018 Dec 27, 2018 Jan 15, 2019 $0.31 normal
Mar 1, 2018 Mar 28, 2018 Apr 17, 2018 $0.28 normal
Aug 3, 2017 Sep 28, 2017 Oct 16, 2017 $0.27 normal
ACRE has a payout ratio of 86.3% which is higher than the Real Estate sector and the industry average.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Value Of Music: Help Musicians UK's 'Music Minds Matter'
by Darren Kruse
Here, at The BRIT Trust & BPI, we want to highlight the importance of the Value of Music, not just to the Economy and through its positive social impact, but also to our personal well-being. It's only through looking at all the amazing benefits of...
Accenture Prize for Live Performance at the BRIT School
The MITs Committee and Accenture judged seven live performances by students and were impressed by the huge amount of talent of Year 13 Music strand. Catrina Burns-Temison won first place with her soulful naturally delivered vocal rendition of Confetti by Tori Kelly. Relf Kent was runner...
Nordoff Robbins Classical Music Quiz raise £4,000 for Music Therapy
The third running of the annual Nordoff Robbins Classical Quiz, held last night at The Phoenix, Cavendish Square in Central London, raised just over £4,000 for the music therapy charity. The event has now contributed close to £10,000 to Nordoff Robbins since it was first staged...
Value Of Music: Key4Life & the Power of the Suit
The Work of the BRIT Trust to promote the Value Of Music
£20 million distributed to charities that support education & wellbeing through music If you are not aware of the BPI's charitable arm, The BRIT Trust, then please do spare a few minutes to watch this video that explains its role in promoting the Value of Music. Founded...
Just One Week to go to the 3rd Nordoff Robbins Classical Music Quiz
BPI Classical Committee Industry fundraiser for music therapy charity takes place next Wednesday 22nd November There is still time to enter a team or donate raffle prize The third annual BPI Classical Committee Quiz in aid of music therapy charity Nordoff Robbins takes place next...
Value Of Music: Key4Life
Here, at The BRIT Trust & BPI, we want to highlight the importance of the Value of Music, not just to the Economy and through its positive social impact, but also to our personal well-being. It's only through looking at all the amazing benefits of...
BRIT Trust Chairman John Craig's guest blog on Record Of The Day
The MITS Award Dinner is a long-standing and highly successful event in the music industry calendar. Started in 1992, the award has two aims: to raise money for the nominated charities – The BRIT Trust, The BRIT School and Nordoff Robbins – and to honour...
The BRIT School – Ones To Watch (October 2018)
Alice Bailey Johnson (Musical Theatre '07) to play Marilyn Monroe in Insignificance at the Arcola Theatre until 11 November Connor Lovejoy (Technical Theatre Arts'13) spoke at the Starr Trust Awards and is now a Stage Manager Louis Maskell (Musical Theatre '07) is appearing in The Grinning Man...
The BRIT Trust announces that it has now given out over £20 million to worthy causes
Money has gone to organisations that promote education and wellbeing through music. The BRIT School in Croydon and Nordoff Robbins music therapy have been major beneficiaries, but many other charities have also benefitted. The BRIT Trust – the BRIT Awards' charity set up by UK labels...
This site uses cookies, more info
Okay, continue


This is a model of a DB four-axle express train passenger car painted and lettered for the Rheingold Express in 1962. The paint scheme and lettering are prototypical for Era III. The car has a different car number from that for 31310. The car has built-in interior details and interior lighting. The current pickup is done with ball bearing wheel sets. The doors can be opened. The car has metal wheel sets. Length over the buffers 80 cm / 31-1/2".
The class E 10 is the locomotive to go with this car and is available under item number 21751. Another car with a different car number to go with this car is available under item number 31310.


text:
package com.commonsware.android.bluetooth.rxecho;

import android.content.pm.PackageManager;
import android.os.Bundle;
import android.support.v4.app.ActivityCompat;
import android.support.v4.app.FragmentActivity;
import android.support.v4.content.ContextCompat;
import java.util.ArrayList;

abstract public class AbstractPermissionActivity extends FragmentActivity {
  abstract protected String[] getDesiredPermissions();
  abstract protected void onPermissionDenied();
  abstract protected void onReady();

  private static final int REQUEST_PERMISSION=61125;
  private static final String STATE_IN_PERMISSION="inPermission";
  private boolean isInPermission=false;

  @Override
  protected void onCreate(Bundle savedInstanceState) {
    super.onCreate(savedInstanceState);

    if (savedInstanceState!=null) {
      isInPermission=
        savedInstanceState.getBoolean(STATE_IN_PERMISSION, false);
    }

    if (hasAllPermissions(getDesiredPermissions())) {
      onReady();
    }
    else if (!isInPermission) {
      isInPermission=true;

      ActivityCompat.requestPermissions(this,
        netPermissions(getDesiredPermissions()), REQUEST_PERMISSION);
    }
  }

  @Override
  public void onRequestPermissionsResult(int requestCode,
                                         String[] permissions,
                                         int[] grantResults) {
    isInPermission=false;

    if (requestCode==REQUEST_PERMISSION) {
      if (hasAllPermissions(getDesiredPermissions())) {
        onReady();
      }
      else {
        onPermissionDenied();
      }
    }
  }

  @Override
  protected void onSaveInstanceState(Bundle outState) {
    super.onSaveInstanceState(outState);

    outState.putBoolean(STATE_IN_PERMISSION, isInPermission);
  }

  private boolean hasAllPermissions(String[] perms) {
    for (String perm : perms) {
      if (!hasPermission(perm)) {
        return(false);
      }
    }

    return(true);
  }

  private boolean hasPermission(String perm) {
    return(ContextCompat.checkSelfPermission(this, perm)==
      PackageManager.PERMISSION_GRANTED);
  }

  private String[] netPermissions(String[] wanted) {
    ArrayList<String> result=new ArrayList<String>();

    for (String perm : wanted) {
      if (!hasPermission(perm)) {
        result.add(perm);
      }
    }

    return(result.toArray(new String[result.size()]));
  }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Former Attorney General Alberto Gonzales Outlines Agency Relations Amid Email Probe Former Attorney General Alberto Gonzales discusses the relationship between the FBI and the attorney general's office after the FBI director said the FBI would again look into Clinton's email server.
subscribe to The NPR Politics Podcast podcast
Former Attorney General Alberto Gonzales Outlines Agency Relations Amid Email Probe
October 29, 20165:12 PM ET
Former Attorney General Alberto Gonzales discusses the relationship between the FBI and the attorney general's office after the FBI director said the FBI would again look into Clinton's email server.
We wanted additional perspective on this story from a legal perspective. So we reached former Attorney General Alberto Gonzales. He led the Justice Department during the administration of George W. Bush. He's also a former White House counsel and a former Texas Supreme Court judge. He's now dean of the law school at Belmont University School of Law in Nashville. Judge Gonzales, thanks so much for speaking with us once again.
ALBERTO GONZALES: It's always a pleasure to be on your show.
MARTIN: What was your reaction when you read the letter from FBI Director James Comey to Congress alerting Congress to the discovery of these new emails?
GONZALES: I must confess that I was a little surprised. Before I continue my answer, let me just say that anything that I say about what's going on at Justice is pure speculation. Obviously, you know, I'm just going based on my experience as the attorney general, but, yeah, surprised because typically you don't talk about investigations. Sometimes you may make an announcement about an investigation and then you turn out not to do anything about it, but nonetheless it adversely affects someone's life. And it kind of surprised me that that letter went out, and I suppose that the reason for it is because we're in the middle of a presidential campaign. But nonetheless, I think it would be contrary to typical protocol.
MARTIN: NPR and other news organizations are reporting that the Justice Department reminded the FBI about department guidelines against speaking publicly about an ongoing criminal case and about not taking steps that could be perceived as influencing the election. And so my question to you is, you know, was it appropriate for the director to disregard this guidance?
GONZALES: If it's just guidance, that's one thing. If it's a directive from the attorney general, that's quite another thing. And, you know, the FBI director has been out on his own, quite frankly, with respect to this investigation. We really haven't seen much of the attorney general or people from the Department of Justice. So it's very consistent with the way this investigation has been handled, and that is that the decisions have been made by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Quite frankly, it is one reason that I'm somewhat mystified about how this whole thing has progressed. You know, we do have certain protocols in place with respect to doing the investigation by the FBI. And then prosecutors at the Department of Justice are the ones who ultimately make the decision as to whether or not to move forward with prosecution of a crime.
We haven't seen that here. It may be that behind the scenes that's occurring. But certainly publicly, we haven't seen a situation where you have the FBI director talk about an investigation side by side with the attorney general who confirms, yes, I accept the recommendation of the FBI director. We haven't seen that happen here, and that to me raises questions in my mind as to why that is the case.
MARTIN: Well, to that end, though, there was this whole situation earlier this year - this was in June - when former President Bill Clinton boarded the plane that the attorney general - current Attorney General Loretta Lynch was on in Phoenix when they both happened to be there for a speaking engagement. And this was described by both parties as just a courtesy call. But given that there was an ongoing investigation, a lot of people thought that this was inappropriate. And after that, the attorney general said that she would recuse herself and hand the authority for this matter or decision making to the FBI. This was on the tarmac, you know, of - for people...
GONZALES: Yes.
MARTIN: ...Who remember this story. Was that handled appropriately in your view?
GONZALES: Well, I think that the actual meeting itself was very unfortunate because while it may have been totally innocent, the timing of it - a week before Mr. Comey made his pronouncement - to have that kind of conversation I think was very unfortunate and creates an appearance of perhaps a bias. And I think in that situation, I would not have been surprised to see the attorney general officially recuse her herself from the investigation. And if that were to have occurred, then the deputy attorney general would have been in charge of the investigation so that the FBI would conduct its investigation, present its evidence to the deputy attorney general and the deputy attorney general would make the decision as to whether or not to move forward with the prosecution.
MARTIN: So what I think I hear you saying is that a lot of things about this investigation have proven to be unusual.
GONZALES: Well, you're certainly right that based upon my understanding and recollection of protocol and certainly practice, what we're saying here in connection with this investigation is very unusual. And I think because some of the decisions made here, particularly by the FBI director that have been - that's been inconsistent with the practices - it's put him in a very, very difficult and awkward position. And he's received a lot of criticism and second guessing for that.
And so, yes, I think it is fair to say that we do have protocols in place, and it appears that, you know, many of those protocols have not been followed here. Now - and I understand we have, you know, a very unique situation, a very volatile election, two very high-profile candidates. You want to be very careful about what you do. But, you know, my sense is always - this is with respect to any decision maker - and that is you have procedures in place, when you follow those procedures, you're more likely to get the right outcome and you're less likely to be second guessed simply because you have the procedures and you take away the argument that there are politics involved if you follow the procedures. Again, this is true for any decision maker. And I think that's part of the reason why the FBI director finds himself under constant criticism for some of the decisions and actions that he's taken with respect to this investigation.
MARTIN: But can I just ask you point blank, though, if - would you have recommended that the FBI director not send this letter to Congress?
GONZALES: It's hard for me to answer that question, Michel, without really knowing what information they have. And the difficulty the director has though is that you've got an ongoing investigation. You generally do not talk about the facts or the evidence that you have in an ongoing investigation. One other thing I can say is that the FBI director's probably spent a great deal of pressure to go either way - you know, to have said something, to not have said something. And, you know, he made the decision this was the right way to go. You know, I'm not going to second guess him without knowing all the information related to the investigation.
MARTIN: Alberto Gonzales was attorney general in the administration of George W. Bush. He's currently serving as dean of the law school at Belmont University School of Law in Nashville. Judge Gonzales, thank you so much for speaking with us.
GONZALES: Thanks for having me.


This entry was posted in Body, Face, Soap Making and tagged African black soap by ninibodytreats. Bookmark the permalink.
Hello Nini and Funmi, Iv just recently found your blog and im excited. I have been reading a lot about soap and would love to make some.
Please could I meet you for some practical guidance or tutorial for my first baby steps into soap making.
I would love to contact you. But can't seem to find your mails or phone numbers.
Thank you for following the blog Alexis!


Rhythm N' Dance LLC exists solely to preserve African Diasporic culture through arts education for youth and aspiring performing artists. We provide quality cultural education opportunities in music and dance education. With a grounded foundation in inclusiveness, fairness, and social justice, we help our students and aspiring artists discover and develop unique skills and talents that will prepare them for opportunities throughout our global society.
Our workshops in traditional dancing and drumming technique are enjoyable for all ages!
Lecturing on topics related to dance education, African culture, ethnography and pedagogy.
Providing cultural immersion trips to countries around the world.
Rhythm N Dance in collaboration with The Gloria Eve School of the Arts are coming together to take a group of young performing artists and educators to explore and perform in the country of Uganda!


text:
Packers ready for more Hester
The Packers ready themselves for another dose of Devin Hester.
Packers ready for more Hester The Packers ready themselves for another dose of Devin Hester. Check out this story on packersnews.com: https://pck.rs/1A2nFA1
Weston Hodkiewicz, USA TODAY NETWORK-Wisconsin Published 8:12 p.m. CT Dec. 5, 2014 | Updated 8:19 p.m. CT Dec. 5, 2014
Atlanta Falcons' Devin Hester looks for room to run against the Cleveland Browns on Nov. 23 Atlanta.(Photo: Marc Serota/AP)
Shawn Slocum thought he might finally get a reprieve from the Devin Hester experience once the volatile return man exited Chicago through free agency in March.
And then he showed up with the Atlanta Falcons, the Green Bay Packers' Week 14 opponent.
So the Packers' special-teams coach is back to square one, once again scheming for his 17th encounter with perhaps the best to ever do it.
"When the schedule came out, I said, 'Oh, man, we've got to play him again,'" said Slocum, who's been on the Packers' coaching staff since Hester's rookie season in 2006.
"Devin is dynamic, you can look at his production. He's had big plays, they're leading the league in punt return. I think that says it all."
At age 32, Hester's 23.6-yard average on 31 kickoffs won't scare you, but he remains troublesome as ever on punt returners where his 15.4-yard per return average leads the NFL.
He broke Deion Sanders' NFL record for combined return for a touchdown with his 20th score off a 62-yard punt return against Tampa Bay in September. In last week's win over Arizona, he returned a punt 68 yards to set a new season-high for himself.
Where the Bears used Hester strictly on special teams last season, he's been a part of the Falcons' offensive plans this season. A converted-defensive back, Hester has caught 27 passes for 362 yards and one touchdown, playing on a little more than a third of Atlanta's offensive snaps.
The Packers have won and lost battles with Hester in the past, mostly on punt returns. He's returned 35 punts for 501 yards (14.3 yards per return) and two touchdowns – an 84-yard return in his first meeting with the Packers on Sept. 10, 2006 and a 62-yarder on Sept. 27, 2010. The Bears won both games.
The Packers contained Hester to two punt returns all of last season, but his last return in a Bears' uniform went for 49 yards in the regular-season finale. He's been quieter as a kickoff returner where he has 31 returns for 714 yards and no touchdowns for a modest 23.0 average.
They got out of having to face Hester once in 2009. Otherwise, it's been a part of the yearly routine.
"I was looking forward to not having to play him when he left Chicago, and he were go," Slocum said.
-whodkiew@pressgazettemedia.com and follow him on Twitter @WesHod.
Hester versus the Packers
Sept. 10, 2006 (Chicago 26, Green Bay 0): Five punts for 104 yards, including an 84-yard touchdown in the fourth quarter.
Dec. 31, 2006 (Green Bay 26, Chicago 7): Two punts for 1 yard. Four kickoffs for 79 yards.
Oct. 7, 2007 (Chicago 27, Green Bay 20): Four punts for 40 yards.
Dec. 23, 2007 (Chicago 35, Green Bay 7): One kickoff for minus-1 yard.
Nov. 16, 2008 (Green Bay 37, Chicago 3): One punt for 7 yards. Five kickoffs for 114 yards.
Dec. 22, 2008 (Chicago 20, Green Bay 17): Three punts, 40 yards.
Sept. 13, 2009 (Green Bay 21, Chicago 15): Two punts for 15 yards. One kickoff for 26 yards.
Dec. 13, 2009 (Green Bay 21, Chicago 14): Not active
Sept. 27, 2010 (Chicago 20, Green Bay 17): Three punts for 93 yards, including 62-yard touchdown.
Jan. 2, 2011 (Green Bay 10, Chicago 3): Two punts for 35 yards.
Jan. 23, 2011 (Green Bay 21, Chicago 14): Three punts for 16 yards. One kickoff for 24 yards.
Sept. 25, 2011 (Green Bay 27, Chicago 17): One punt for 21 yards. One kickoff for 24 yards.
Dec. 25, 2011 (Green Bay 35, Chicago 21): Two punts for 7 yards. Five kickoffs for 117 yards.
Sept. 13, 2012 (Green Bay 23, Chicago 10): Two punts for 8 yards. Two kickoffs for 57 yards.
Dec. 16, 2012 (Green Bay 21, Chicago 13): Three punts for 42 yards. Two kickoffs for 63 yards.
Nov. 4, 2013 (Chicago 27, Green Bay 20): One punt for 23 yards. Four kickoffs for 90 yards.
Dec. 29, 2013 (Green Bay 33, Chicago 28): One punt for 49 yards. Five kickoffs for 121 yards.


text:
'Logan' review: Hugh Jackman delivers the definitive Wolverine movie
Posted March 6, 2017 by Louis Rabinowitz Filed under
The X-Men franchise is a strange, haphazard juggernaut with a continuity that's impossible to explain, but there's always been a few constants amidst the chaos.
Chief among them is Hugh Jackman's Wolverine, who's clocked an appearance of some kind in every single X-Men movie since the series began in 2000. No other actor has played a comics character for anywhere close to as long as Jackman's 17 years. Suffice to say, there were plenty of expectations riding on his swansong, Logan.
It delivers. After the confounding mess of X-Men: Origins was followed up by The Wolverine, which delivered a strong character arc and keen eye for influences only to capitulate into formula at the last gasp, Logan completes that upward swing in quality.
There are some unavoidable flaws here, but Jackman has completed his stint by finally delivering the definitive Wolverine movie.
WARNING: SPOILERS FROM HERE ON…
It's deeply surprising to see just how intimate and minimalist Logan is in tone. It's a movie primarily set in barren, scorched deserts and plains on the fringes of a quietly crumbling society represented in a border area cracked by unarticulated tensions or in a shiny environment of blaring advertising and utter self-absorption, rather than the glossy cityscapes of most comic book movies.
It's no wonder that the most conventionally futuristic imagery in the movie are the flashing billboards. The only things at threat are the survival of a handful of mutant children who are escaping from their oppressors, and it's all the better for it.
At its heart, Logan is a story of decay and renewal. Especially in the first act, it doesn't shy away from the uncomfortable details of the former, painstakingly illustrating the crumbling of body and soul in once mighty heroes.
This decay is felt most acutely in Professor X, a character defined by his status as the authoritative figure with all the answers, reduced here to a medicated shadow of his former self whose impressive powers have become an uncontrollable ticking time bomb that imperils the lives he was once able to save.
Patrick Stewart is outstanding, even as his screen-time is cut gut-wrenchingly short by his brutal murder midway through, keeping a glimmer of the commanding old Charles Xavier beneath a tragic frailty and wistfulness for a peaceful and fulfilling life in his school hat was snatched away as a cause of his own unchecked power (if the innumerable hints of an accident in Westchester are any indication).
Stewart has indicated that this will be his final appearance too, and that feels right. It's difficult to imagine him capturing the difficult nuance and raw emotionality he embodies here, especially in his scenes with Jackman that represent an unconventionally parental dynamic with 17 years of genuine history behind it, in another appearance.
Yet it's Logan's own ageing that provides the spine of the first half's emotional struggle. From the moment Logan goes down hard in a scrap with some generic goons who would be cannon fodder in every other movie Wolverine has appeared in, it's clear that mortality has caught up with a man who's going on 200 years old in the X-Men timeline.
Absolutely essential to this diminished hero really working is Hugh Jackman, who seems hell-bent on proving that this franchise will sorely miss his pitch perfect interpretation of the character. Like Stewart, Jackman saves his finest performance for last, playing Logan's gradual shift from bitter apathy to pained grief and finally to weary resignation at his fate.
While some of this lies in the simple fact that Jackman is finally given material worthy of his performance, he bears a significant responsibility for taking what could have been frustratingly clichéd brooding and imbuing it with realism and emotional detail.
One of Logan's chief strengths is to contrast this husk of a man with numerous manifestations of those impulses ticking away under the rotting exterior.
There's Wolverine the hero who appears in the meta-fictional X-Men comic books here, clad in the yellow Lycra that the character has famously resisted in this franchise, representing the classical, selfless heroism that draws X-23 towards him even as Logan pushes away with his self-defeating proclamations that this interpretation of his character is a fantasy.
It is a fantasy, but not one without importance, as the legend of Wolverine ends up spurring the renewal of heroism that provides a flicker of hope even as the generation of heroes we're familiar with dies off.
If the Wolverine of the comic books is who Logan could have been, then there's also, in one of Logan's concessions to the comic book formula, a literal reflection of his darkness in the feral clone X-24 – who Logan could become.
This is one of the few ideas in Logan that feels like it's been done before, but it's hard to deny the movie's commitment in portraying the horrific consequences of Logan's rage left entirely unchecked and drained of all moral and emotional guidance. It is probably worth noting at this juncture that Logan is, indeed, incredibly violent.
Logan probably reaches its apex of gore in X-24's scenes, which contain two times the stabbings as any other set-piece, but Logan's proclivity for blood and guts touches every action scene.
There's dismemberments, beheadings, lobotomies, impalements, eviscerations and good old fashioned headshots (and not the kind that leaves a neat hole in the head, either), and throughout, pints upon pints of the red stuff are practically spilling out of the screen.
Sometimes, Logan becomes briefly infatuated with its own violence, but for the most part, it plays a tangible purpose in presenting the feral rage that haunts Wolverine and defines X-23, and in presenting the soulless, undiscriminating brutality of Transigen, the antagonistic organisation who have taken the natural heroism that comes from people developing and using powers for good, and bottled it up in a lab to use on children.
For the most part, Logan is acutely aware of how sickening its violence is, pushing its 15 rating to its limits to convey the real and burning pain that's left after these polished and exhilarating fight scenes.
The final piece of the puzzle is X-23, who represents the 'renewal' side of the equation here. As part of a growing 'silent child' trope, newcomer Dafne Keen has an extremely difficult task in taking a taciturn blank slate of a character and making her feel real, but she's exceptional throughout.
Even as her own body count racks up into the dozens, there's never a doubt that she's just a kid who's barely seen the world, with Keen capturing a natural curiosity and innocence at listening to music for the first time or playing on a rocking horse at a gas station that's tragically cut off by a world that has forced her to grow her up too fast.
Likewise, her abrasive and disconnected dynamic with Jackman is utterly believable throughout, especially as her turn to speech allows her to articulate the alternation between fury and cold disappointment in her father figure that ticks away below the surface in the first two acts.
If there's a niggle in X-23's arc, it's that her final shift to embracing her status as Logan's daughter as she cradles his dying body is a bit of a leap from what came before, but Keen is so good that even this stretch of logical characterisation feels credible.
Logan isn't paced perfectly. It spends a lot of time establishing particular ideas, such as Professor X's seizures or mutant Caliban's role as caretaker of both Logan and Charles, that have their pay-off well before the ending, while leaving some elements that are key to the third act, such as X-23's growing affection for Logan or the concept of a group of young, engineered mutants, a little undercooked.
This is a remarkably fine-tuned movie for a genre that's so often clouded by studio involvement and endless re-editing, but Logan's slight imbalances mean that not everything clicks quite as effectively as it could have done.
Nonetheless, it's difficult to imagine a more satisfying conclusion for Jackman's Wolverine. Almost every comic book movie, even the best in the genre, has a moment at some point where there's a subtle shift from the director's own individual idiosyncrasies to something more homogenous and marketable, but that moment never comes in Logan.
Rather, it ends as it had to, with Logan dying a heroic death in a nondescript woodland near the Canadian border through the simple, selfless action of caring about others and putting his life before theirs.
He's brutally impaled on a tree stump, and his grave is left alone for maybe a few hikers to wonder about in a journey through the woods at some point in the future. It isn't glamorous or ostentatious, and it never had to be, reflecting a character who was, at heart, just someone who got dragged into the action and chose to make something good of it.
Logan is, some pacing and characterisation flaws aside, a fitting send-off for Jackman and comfortably one of the strongest entries thus far in the comic book genre. While its Western sensibilities and ultra-violence might not translate easily to other properties, future superhero films would do well to follow its careful focus on character and specificity of setting.
After all, Wolverine left quite a legacy, and it'd be a shame if someone didn't follow it.
Released in UK cinemas on Wednesday 1 March 2017.
Follow Louis Rabinowitz on Twitter here.
What did you think of Logan? Let us know below…
Tags: film, Hugh Jackman, Logan, Patrick Stewart, X-Men


text:
Q: Card game "WAR" in PHP I got a homework in school , it´s not required , but I want to do.
I have to create a game in php through array , but I dont know how to use.
So i made begining, and I have problem with this, as you know , in the card game "War" , is don´t repeate same card, so I dont know how to use array_push or maybe array_pop?
And then , how can I pair code with svg-img cards?
$arr = array('one', 'two', 'three', 'four', 'five' , "six" , "seven");
shuffle($arr);
$number = count($arr);

for ($x=6; $x < $number; $x++) {
echo $arr[$x];
}

A: From your comment,

In material real, it´s game, when you play with somebody, and you have one half pack from all card, and another person have second pack. Then card is interpreted , and one who has greater value card, wins. So, in PHP, can´t repeate same card, that has been already used. So I need to the number , that has been used, dont repeate.

Hypothetically(just to give you an example), lets assume we have 6 cards of denomination 1 to 6. The game solution would be like this:
(Go through the comments below)
// Hypothetically, lets assume we have 6 cards of denomination 1 to 6
$cards = array(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6);

// Shuffle the cards
shuffle($cards);

// Count total number of cards
$number = count($cards);

// Give half of the cards to player 1 and half of the cards to Player 2
list($player1_cards, $player2_cards) = array_chunk($cards, $number / 2);

// Both the players started playing the game:
// Let say this game will be played based on randomness
for($i = 0; $i < $number / 2; ++$i){  // Number of rounds
    // Both the players draw a random card
    $player1_card_key = array_rand($player1_cards);
    $player2_card_key = array_rand($player2_cards);

    // Compare their denominations and check who won this round
    $output = $player1_cards[$player1_card_key] > $player2_cards[$player2_card_key] ? 'Player 1' : 'Player 2';
    echo $output . ' won this round. <br />';

    // Make sure that players don't use the same card again
    unset($player1_cards[$player1_card_key], $player2_cards[$player2_card_key]);
}

Here are the necessary references:

*

*http://php.net/manual/en/function.shuffle.php

*http://php.net/manual/en/function.list.php

*http://php.net/manual/en/function.array-chunk.php

*http://php.net/manual/en/function.array-rand.php

*http://php.net/manual/en/function.unset.php

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
package org.jhove2.module.format.sgml;

/**
 * Interface for options setting for OpenSp commands.
 * See OpenSp documentation for more informatin about these commands and their options.
 * @author smorrissey
 *
 */
public interface OpenSpOptions {

	/** OpenSp "use catalog" option; followed by path to catalog file for resolving public and system identifiers*/
	public static final String CATALOGOPT = "-c";
	/** OpenSp option to indicate path to error messages file (would otherwise default to standard err) */
	public static final String ERRFILEOPT = "-f";
	/** default max error value employed by OpenSp */
	public static final int DEFAULTMAXERRORS = 200;

	/**
	 * Constructs command options string from configuration settings
	 * @return command options string
	 */
	public String getOptionString();
	/**
	 * Return full path to SGML catalog file
	 * @return full path to SGML catalog file
	 */
	public String getCatalogPath();
	/**
	 * Set full path to SGML catalog file
	 * @param catalogPath full path to SGML catalog file
	 */
	public void setCatalogPath(String catalogPath);
}


text:
NC man gets 45 years in SC girlfriend's death
A North Carolina man has been sentenced to 45 years in prison for killing his ex-girlfriend in South Carolina more than three years ago.
GAFFNEY, S.C. � A North Carolina man has been sentenced to 45 years in prison for killing his ex-girlfriend in South Carolina more than three years ago.
Forty-three-year-old Joey Clark of Mooresboro, N.C., was convicted Thursday in the death of 26-year-old Winter Wingard in Cherokee County.
Investigators say Wingard was beaten, strangled and stabbed in the early morning hours of Dec. 2, 2010.
A jury deliberated about two hours before returning the guilty verdict.
Prosecutors say Clark and Wingard had lived together with her mother until October 2010, when Wingard ended the relationship. Prosecutors said when Clark was killed she was in a relationship with a Georgia woman and Clark furious about the situation.


NO PURCHASE NECESSARY. Making a purchase will not improve one's chances of winning. Sweepstakes is limited to members of the general public who are customers of a Flooring Canada or Flooring Canada store or potential customers.
TO ENTER the sweepstakes, you must submit an approved review found on the /reviews web page of an affiliated local store website. For US residents, by providing your email address as entry into this sweepstakes, you are agreeing to receive emails from your local Flooring Canada store with information about flooring and promotions the may have. At any time, you can unsubscribe from any of these emails by clicking on the unsubscribe link at the bottom of each email. For Canadian residents, we will not send you emails that are not related to your review submission unless you express consent on the entry form.
SWEEPSTAKES PRIZES & ODDS OF WINNING: Four (4) Grand Prize winners (one per quarter) will be given a US$500 cash award payable by check to each grand prize winner. All dollar amounts are in US dollars. Odds of winning are dependent upon the number of eligible entries received. Sweepstakes entry forms are available online on the /reviews web page of any affiliated local store website. Grand Prize winner may not substitute cash in lieu of taking the prize. The sweepstakes runs from April 1, 2019 to March 31, 2020 and all entries must be received during this time period. Limit one (1) entry per person/authorized e-mail account holder. The use of automated devices to enter this Sweepstakes is prohibited. Sponsor is not responsible for entries that are lost, damaged, misdirected, altered, illegible or late in arriving. Sponsor is not responsible for computer system, phone line, hardware, software, or program malfunctions, or other errors, failures, or delays in computer transmissions or network connections, whether human or technical in nature. Sponsor reserves the right, at its sole discretion, to cancel or suspend this sweepstakes should causes beyond the control of the Sponsor corrupt the administration, security, or proper play of game. In the event of a dispute regarding the identity of the person submitting an electronic entry, the entry will be deemed to be submitted by the person in whose name the e-mail account is registered. Any attempt by an entrant to deliberately damage any Web site or undermine the legitimate operations of the sweepstakes is a violation of the criminal and civil laws, and should such an attempt be made, the Sponsor reserves the right to seek damages from any such entrant to the fullest extent permitted by law. One grand prize winner will be chosen per calendar quarter, for a total of 4 winners per year. One (1) winner will be chosen in July, October, January and April at the offices of CCA Global Partners, Inc. 670 North Commercial Street, Manchester NH 03101. Winner(s) will be notified at the end of each quarter via email notification. Any prize winner who does not respond within 24 hours shall forfeit the prize and a drawing for an alternate winner will take place. For Canadian residents only: to claim a prize, Canadian residents must first correctly answer, without assistance of any kind, a mathematical skill-testing question at a mutually agreed upon time. The question must be answered correctly within a pre-determined amount of time. In the event that it is not answered correctly, the selected person will be disqualified and an alternate will be selected. Prize winners will be required to execute an Affidavit of Eligibility and a Liability & Publicity Release, which must be completed and returned within 7 days of notification (if not returned, the prize will be forfeited and awarded to an alternate). Prizes not transferable, assignable or redeemable for cash. All applicable federal, state, and local taxes (excluding sales tax) are the responsibility of the winners. Winners who are U.S. residents must provide tax id information and other information sufficient for Sponsor to issue a 1099 form, if applicable. Acceptance of prize constitutes permission to use winner's name, likeness, and photo for publicity purposes without additional compensation. Employees or family members of employees of CCA Global Partners, Inc and its affiliates are not eligible to enter. Must be 18 years of age to enter. Void where prohibited. All Federal, State, provincial and local laws apply. By entering the sweepstakes, participant agrees to be bound by these official rules. By accepting prize, winner(s) agree that Sponsor, its' employees, directors and officers will be released and held harmless from any losses, costs or injuries of any kind or related in any way to the use, misuse of the prize awarded. Sponsor reserves the right to substitute alternate prize of equal or greater value in the event of prize unavailability. Sponsor shall have no liability and shall be released and held harmless by winner(s) for any damage, loss, or liability to person or property, due in whole or part, directly or indirectly, by reason of acceptance, possession, use, misuse of prize or participation in the sweepstakes. Any and all disputes, claims and causes of action arising out of or connected with this sweepstakes or any prize awarded shall be resolved individually, without resort to any form of class action, and exclusively by arbitration. Any and all claims, judgments, and awards shall be limited to actual out-of-pocket costs incurred, including costs associated with entering the sweepstakes, but in no event attorney's fees. WINNER'S LIST REQUEST: A complete list of winners will be available at the end of the sweepstakes. For a copy of winners' list, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to "$500 Customer Appreciation Quarterly Sweepstakes Winners c/o Flooring Canada, Marketing Dept. 670 North Commercial Street, Manchester NH 03101. Sponsor: FA Management Enterprises, Inc.


Lago Maggiore and other pretty things….
It's hard to describe perfection, but that's what I would call the day spent last week by Lago Maggiore. Blue skies on a clear day, watching boats sail by whilst sipping on a glass of wine… it's those moments when you wish time would stop, just for a little bit.
We picked somewhere to visit on a day trip, with our fingers firmly crossed for nice weather. From Milan it's the ideal place to go – a short train journey and suddenly you find yourself surrounded by an infinite vista of the lake, on a backdrop of the Alps. The landscape is dotted with little Italian towns, showing just how much there is to see. It's a breathtaking.
Following Isola Pescatori, we hopped over to Isola Bella – which literally means beautiful island. And it has to be said that it definitely lives up to the name. Set on the top of the island is a stunning botanical garden filled with flowers in every colour, shape and size, as well as ancient statues and of course a few rare white peacocks. It was totally ethereal… you never wanted to leave. But alas, after a short tour of the island and the gardens, and of course a cheeky gelato, we headed back to the mainland.
To top off the day, putting the icing on the cake, we stopped at the rooftop bar of Hotel La Palma. This completed the trip and took it to 'level perfect'. It definitely goes on my top 10 list of sensational views. If you get chance to visit Lago Maggiore, make this a must-do on your list.
Enjoy the pics from the day! Oh and can someone please tell me how Italy is this beautiful?!


text:
PhotoObjects.net/PhotoObjects.net/Getty Images
College Vaccination Requirements
Gale Thompson - Updated September 26, 2017
Immunizations, however unpleasant, are necessary to fight off diseases such as measles, rubella and meningitis. In the United States, immunizations start in childhood and continue through college, where population and communal living make vaccinations necessary. Full-time students will need a proof of immunizations before admission. If students want exemption from immunization mandates for medical or religious reasons, a waiver must be obtained. Each state has different vaccination requirements, but colleges generally establish their own immunization rules.
Childhood Vaccinations
A student has probably already completed the diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (DTP) vaccine in his or her childhood. However, a booster is recommended for young adults before college, so the TDAP -- tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis -- vaccine is now being offered to prospective students. Adults must also get a tetanus shot every 10 years, so the health services will check and make sure the student is up to date. The MMR -- measles, mumps and rubella -- vaccine must be up to date as well, so if the student did not receive immunity as a child, he or she must often get another shot before registration. The polio vaccine is also generally given to children before entering primary school.
The bacterial meningitis, or meningococcal, vaccine is one of the most important immunizations a college student will receive. Meningitis comes in viral form as well as the bacterial form, which is the most dangerous and can be fatal. Although the vaccine only covers certain strains of bacterial meningitis, this shot will be crucial for any college student living on campus in close quarters. The experts at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention state that college freshmen who live on campus in the dorms suffer more often from meningitis than those who live off campus. Some schools require this vaccine, but almost all schools highly recommend it.
Military Medical Waiver Procedures
Do You Have to Take a Physical Before Entering a College Program?
How to Enlist in the Army With Hypertension
The Invention of Antiseptics
Many colleges require that students receive three-dose vaccination from hepatitis B, an infection that may be transmitted through blood and other bodily fluids. Those who suffer from hepatitis B may have significant liver damage. The New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services recommends that students planning on entering a medical care or health care field should be immunized.
Certain strains of the human papillomavirus cause cancer or genital warts. The three-dose HPV vaccine will protect students from the types of HPV that cause most of the health problems. Although the vaccine is not required, many universities highly recommend this vaccine, as the CDC states that any female between the ages of 13 and 26 should get the HPV vaccine if they haven't received the full three doses when they were younger.
The influenza vaccine, although not required by colleges and universities, is highly recommended due to the population size and close living quarters. The shot protects students against the seasonal flu, which can be quite harmful and may make students ill enough to miss school for more than a week. States also often mandate that those planning on entering long-term care or childcare facilities receive the influenza shot. The New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services states that the best time to get the flu shot is during October and November, although flu shots are still given through the end of flu season, which usually lasts until April.
CDC: Community Settings as a Risk Factor
New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services: College Students
National Network for Immunization Information: Exemptions from Immunization Laws
Gale Marie Thompson's work has been published in "Denver Quarterly," "Los Angeles Review" and "Best New Poets 2012." Thompson holds a BA in English and creative writing from the College of Charleston, a MFA from the University of Massachusetts Amherst, and is working on a PhD at the University of Georgia.